Wikipedia iawiki https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagina_principal MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.13 first-letter Multimedia Special Discussion Usator Discussion Usator Wikipedia Discussion Wikipedia File Discussion File MediaWiki Discussion MediaWiki Patrono Discussion Patrono Adjuta Discussion Adjuta Categoria Discussion Categoria Portal Discussion Portal Appendice Discussion Appendice TimedText TimedText talk Modulo Discussion Modulo Evento Discussion Evento 0 635 698187 697149 2026-08-03T21:53:15Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698187 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/instantia de entitate territorial}} '''China''' o '''Sina''' (in [[Lingua chinese mandarin|chinese]]: 中国; [[pinyin]]: ''Zhōngguó'', 'Pais de Medio'), officialmente le '''Republica Popular Chinese''', es un pais in Asia Oriental. Illo esseva le pais con le population le plus grande del mundo usque 2023, con plus que 1.4 milliardos de personas, hodie un pauco post [[India]]. China se extende super le equivalentes de cinque fusos horari e ha frontieras con quatorce paises terrestre, le plus grande de qualcunque pais in le mundo, ligate con Russia. Con un area approximativemente de 9.6 milliones de kilometros quadrate (3'700'000 milles quadrate), illo es le tertie plus grande pais del mundo per le area total terrestre. Le pais consiste in 22 provincias, cinque regiones autonome, quatro municipalitates, e duo regiones administrative special (Hong Kong e Macau). Le capital national es [[Beijing]], e le citate le plus popule e le plus grande centro financiari es [[Shanghai]]. Le Chineses moderne tracie lor origines a un berceau de civilisation in le bassino fertile del [[Fluvio Giall]] in le Plain del China del Nord. Le dynastia Xia semi-legendari in le seculo 21 a.C. e le dynastias Shang e Zhou ben attestate, developpava un systema politic bureaucratique pro servir monarchias hereditari, o dynastias. Le scriptura chinese, le litteratura classic chinese, e le cento scolas de pensamento emergera durante iste periodo e influentia China e su vicinos pro seculos avenir. In le tertie seculo a.C., Qin Shi Huang fundava le prime imperio chinese, le dynasty Qin, que durava brevemente. Le Qin succedeva per le plus stabil dynasty Han (206 a.C.–220 d.C.), que stabiliva un modello pro quasi duo millennios in le qual le imperio chinese era un del prime potencias economic del mundo. Le imperio expandeva, fracturava e reunificava, esseva conquistate e restabilite, absorbiva religiones e ideas estranie, e faceva avances scientific mundialmente significative, tal como le Quatro Grande Inventiones: pulver de canon, papiro, le compasso e le impression. Post seculos de disunite post le cadita del Han, le dynastias Sui (581–618) e Tang (618–907) reunificava le imperio. Le Tang multiethnic benveniva le commercio e le cultura estranie que veniva super le Strata de Seta e adaptava le Buddhism al necessitates chinese. Le dynastia Song prime-modern deveniva crescentemente urban e commercial. Le scolares-civiles official o le literati usava le systema de examination e le doctrinas de Neo-Confucianismo pro replaciar le aristocrates militar de dynastias previe. Le invasion mongol stabiliva le dynastia Yuan in 1279, ma le dynastia Ming (1368–1644) restabiliva le controlo del Chineses de ethnia Han. Le dynastia Qing dirigite per Manchu casimente duplicate le territorio del imperio e stabiliva un stato multiethnic que esseva le basi del nation chinese moderne, ma sufferiva graves perditas pro le imperialismos estranie in le seculo 19. Le monarchia chinese collapsava in 1912 con le Revolution de Xinhai, quando le Republica de China (ROC) substitueva le dinastia Qing. In su prime annos como republica, le pais experimentava un periodo de instabilitate cognoscite como le Era de Guerrieros antes de unificar se majormente in 1928 sub un governamento Nationalista. Un guerra civil inter le Nationalistas del Kuomintang (KMT) e le Partito Comunista Chinese (CCP) comenciava in 1927. Japan invadeva China in 1937, initiando le Secunde Guerra Sino-Japanese e temporalmente interrupte le guerra civil. Le reddition e expulsion de fortias japanese de China in 1945 creava un vacuum de poter in le pais, que conduciava a un nove periodo de lucta inter le CCP e le Kuomintang. Le guerra civil finiva in 1949 con le division de territorio chinese; le CCP stabiliva le Republica Popular de China in le continente durante que le governamento ROC de Kuomintang se retraiava al insula de Taiwan. Ambos clama esser le sol legitim governamento de China, ben que le Nationes Unite ha recognoscite le PRC como le sol representation desde 1971. De 1959 a 1961, le PRC implementava un campania economic e social cognoscite como le "Grande Salta Adelante" que resultava in un forte declino economic e inter 15 a 55 milliones de mortes estimative, majormente a causa de fame artificial. De 1966 a 1976, le periodo turbulent de chaos politic e social cognoscite como le Revolution Cultural conduceva a un plus grande declino economic e educational, con milliones de personas purgate o subjecte a persecution o "politicidio" in base a categorias politic. Desde alora, le governamento chinese ha abrogate un certe del politicas maoiste anterior, conducente a un serie de reformas politic e economic desde 1978 que ha multo augmentate le standarde de vita chinese e le expectativas de vita. Actualmente, China es governate como una republica socialista unitari marxista-leninista d'un partito per le CCP. China es un membro permanente del Consilio de Securitate del Nationes Unite e un membro fondator de plure multilaterale e regional organizationes de cooperation como le Banca Asiatic pro Investimento in Infrastruktura, le Fundo del Via de Seta, le Banca de Novo Developpamento, le Organisation pro le Cooperation de Shanghai e le RCEP. Anque illo es membro del BRICS, le G8+5, le G20, le APEC e le Summation de Asia Oriental. Illo se classifica inter le paises con le basso mesuration de democracia, libertates civil, transparencia del governamento, libertate de pressa, libertate de religion e le derectos human de minoritates ethnic. Le autoritates chinese ha essite criticate per activistas de derectos human e organisationes non-governamental pro abusos de derectos human, includente repreession politic, censura massiv, surveillance massiv de lor cives e suppression violente de protestas e dissentimento. Con circa un quinto del economia mundial, China es le plus grande economia del mundo per le PIB al paritate de poter de compra, le secunde plus grande per le PIB nominal e le secunde plus ricchissime pais. Illo es un del economias major in crescentia rapide e es le plus grande fabricator e exportator del mundo, anque le secunde plus grande importator. China es un stato recognise con armas nuclear con le plus grande armata permanent con personal militar e le secunde plus grande budget de defensa. China es considerate como un potential superpotentia a causa de su alto nivello de innovation, potential economic, crescentia fortia militar e influentia in affaires international. == Historia == {{AP|Historia de China}} Le historia de China, como chronologia de un del civilisationes plus antique del mundo con continuitate usque le actualitate, ha su origines in le bassino del Fluvio Jalne, ubi surgeva le prime dynastias Xia e Shang. Le existentia de documentos scripte con plus de 3500 annos ha permittite le developpamento in China de un tradition historiographic multe precise, que offere un narration continue desde le prime dynastias usque le etate contemporanee. Le cultura chinese, secundo le mytho, comenciava con le tres imperatores originari: Fuxi, Shennong e Huang. Totevia, il non existe registros historic pro demonstrar le existentia real de iste personalitates qui haberea vivite ante 600 annos. === Prehistoria === Le territorio que actualmente occupa le Republica Popular de China ha essite populate desde il ha milles de annos. === Era Antique === ==== Le Tres Augustos e le Cinque Imperatores ==== Illos es le governatores mythologic de China anterior al prime dynastias historic. Le Tres Augustos esseva Fuxi, Nüwa e Shennong e le Cinque Imperatores, Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Diku, Tangyao e Yushun. === Era Imperial === ==== Dynastia Qin ==== Le rege del Qin fundava un nove dynastia e prendeva le nomine de 皇帝 (huángdì), con connotationes religiose, pote esser traducite in Interlingua como "imperator". Desde iste momento historic, tote le reges chinese utilisava iste titulo, abandonante le denomination de "reges" (王 wáng). Le nove imperator se faceva nominar 始皇帝 Shǐ Huángdì o "nove imperator", vidente se como le prime de un longe dynastia de imperatores. Illo esseva le prime dynastia de un China reunificate e multo plus grande que le governate per le Zhou. Con ille surgeva un stato chinese centralisate, forte e unificate. == Geographia == [[File:China CIA map.png|400px|right]] {{Main|Geographia de China}} [[File:East Asia topographic map.png|thumb|[[Mappa topographic de China]]]] Le paisage de China es vaste e diverse, variabile ab le desertos del [[Deserto del Gobi|Gobi]] e del [[Deserto de Taklamakan]] in le aride nord usque al forestas [[subtropical]] in le meridional regiones plus humecte. Le catena montaniose del [[Himalayas|Himalayas]], [[Karakoram]], [[Montes del Pamir|Pamir]] e [[Montes del Tian Shan|Tian Shan]] separa China del major parte de [[Asia del Sud]] e [[Asia Central]]. Le fluvios [[Fluvio Yangtze|Yangtze]] e [[Fluvio Flave]] (Yellow River), le tertie e sexte plus longe del mundo respectivemente, flue ab le [[Plateau Tibetan|plateau tibetan]] usque al costa oriental densmente populate. Le costa chinese a lo longe del [[Oceano Pacific|Oceano Pacific]] attinge {{cvt|14500|km}} e es limitate per le mares [[Mar de Bohai|Bohai]], [[Mar Flave]], [[Mar de China Oriental]] e [[Mar de China Meridional]]. China se connecte, via su frontiera con Kazakhstan, al [[Steppe Eurasiatic|steppe eurasiatic]]. Le territorio de China se trova inter le [[latitudes]] [[Parallelle 18 N|18°]] e [[Parallelle 54 N|54° N]], e inter le [[longitudes]] [[Meridiano 73 E|73°]] e [[Meridiano 135 E|135° E]]. Le [[Centro geographic|centro geographic]] del pais es marcate per le Monumento del Centro del Pais a {{coord|35|50|40.9|N|103|27|7.5|E|region:CN-62_type:landmark|name=Centro geographic de China}}. Le paisage de China varia grandemente trans su vasto territorio. In le est, juxta le costas del Mar Flave e del Mar de China Oriental, se trova vaste planities [[planitie alluvial|alluvial]] densmente populate; in le margines del plateau del Mongolia Interior in le nord predominan vaste [[prato|pratos]]. Le sud del pais es dominate per colles e basse montanias, durante que le centro del est contine le [[delta fluvial|deltas fluvial]] del Fluvio Flave e del Yangtze. Alteres importante fluvios include le [[Fluvio Xi|Xi]], le [[Mekong]], le [[Fluvio Brahmaputra|Brahmaputra]] e le [[Fluvio Amur|Amur]]. In le west se trova grande catena montaniose, in particular le Himalayas. Vaste [[plateau]]s appare inter le regiones plus aride del nord, tal como le Taklamakan e le Deserto del Gobi. Le puncto plus alte del mundo, le [[Monte Everest]] (8,848 m), se trova super le frontiera sino-nepalese.<ref>National Geographic Society (2017-10-24). "Mount Everest". National Geographic Society. Consultate le 2020-05-05.</ref> Le puncto plus basse del pais, e le tertie plus basse del mundo, es le fundo del lacqui exsiccate [[Lago Ayding]] (−154 m) in le [[Depression de Turpan]].<ref>Zhang, Hongming (2009). Topography of the Turpan Depression. Beijing: China Geological Press.</ref> [[File:Huangshan pic 4.jpg|thumb|[[Huangshan]] in [[Anhui]]]] Ben que China se extende super lo que geographicamente equivarerea a cinque fusos horari (UTC+5 a UTC+9), illo usa un sol [[hora in China|fuso horari national]], le Hora Standard Chinese (UTC+8).<ref name=whyist>Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (2014-11-19). "Why China Sticks With a Single Time Zone". The New York Times. Consultate le 2018-09-18.</ref> Iste politica uniforme ha essite adoptate in 1949.<ref name=whyist/> === Clima === {{Main|Clima de China}} {{Further|Grande Muro Verde (China)}} Le clima de China es principalmente dominate per un [[station secc]] e per [[monsones]] humecte, que produce grande variationes de temperatura inter inverno e estive. In inverno, ventos nordic de alte latitudes es frigide e secc; in estive, ventos meridional ab regiones costal a basse latitudes es calde e humecte.<ref>Chen, L. (1999). Climate of China. Beijing: China Meteorological Press.</ref> [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map CHN present.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Mappa del clima Köppen–Geiger pro China continental<ref>Beck, H.E.; Zimmermann, N.E.; et al. (2018). "Present and future Köppen–Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data.</ref>]] Un problema ambiental major in China es le continua [[desertification|expansion de su desertos]], specialmente le Deserto del Gobi.<ref>Williams, Mark (2011). Deserts of China. Cambridge University Press.</ref> Ben que barieras de arbores plantate desde le annos 1970 ha reducite le frequentia de [[tempesta de arena|tempestas de arena]], siccitates prolongate e praticas agricole inadecuate ha resultate in [[pulvere asiatic|tempestas de pulvere]] que colpa le nord del pais cata primavera. Le qualitate del aqua, le [[erosion]], e le controlo del [[Pollution in China|pollution]] es devenite questiones importante in le relationes international del pais. Le fondita de glaciarios in le Himalayas poterea causar [[penuria de aqua]] pro centenas de milliones de personas.<ref name="msnbc">Connor, Steve (2007). "Melting Himalayan glaciers threaten water supply". The Independent.</ref> Secundo studiosos, pro limitar le [[cambiamento climatic in China|cambiamento climatic]] a {{cvt|1.5|C-change}}, le generation de electricitate ex [[carbon in China|carbon]] sin [[captura e immagazinage de carbon]] debe esser eliminate ante 2045.<ref>Climate Analytics (2020). "Coal phase-out pathways for China".</ref> Statisticas official super le production agricole es considerate inaffidabile a causa de exaggerationes a nivellos subordinate.<ref>Reuters (2015). "China’s agricultural reporting under scrutiny".</ref> Tamen, multo del territorio ha un clima extrememente favorabile al agricultura, e China es le major productor mundial de ris, tritico, tomates, melones, uvas, spinacia e multe altere culturas.<ref>FAO (2022). FAOSTAT Data.</ref> In 2021, 12% del pratorias e pasturas mundial e 8% del terras agricole esseva situate in China.<ref name=":14">World Bank (2022). "Land Use Indicators".</ref> === Biodiversitate === {{Main|Fauna e flora de China}} [[File:Giant Panda Eating.jpg|thumb|Un [[panda gigante]] in le [[Base de Recerca de Reproduction del Panda Gigante de Chengdu]] in [[Sichuan]]]] China es uno del 17 paises [[paises megadiverse|megadiverse]],<ref>Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China (2020). “China’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan”.</ref> situate in duo del major regiones [[regno biogeographic|biogeographic]] del mundo: le [[Regno Paleartic|paleartic]] e le [[Regno Indomalay|indomalay]]. Con plus de 34,687 species de animales e plantas vascular, China es le tertie pais con le plus alte biodiversitate, post [[Brasil]] e [[Colombia]].<ref>UNEP-WCMC (2021). Biodiversity Country Profiles: China.</ref> Le pais es un signatario del [[Convention super le Diversitate Biologic]] e ha elaborate numerose strategias national pro promouer le conservation del ecosistemas.<ref>CBD Secretariat (2019). Sixth National Report: China.</ref> China ha al minus 551 species de mammiferos, 1,221 species de aves, 424 species de reptiles, e 333 species de amphibios.<ref>Zhang, Xiaoling et al. (2020). “Updated checklist of vertebrates of China”. Biodiversity Science.</ref> Le fauna selvatic del pais es sub forte pression a causa del population human e del rapide industrialisation. Al minus 840 species animal es considerate [[specie menaciate|menaciate]] per perditas de habitat, pollution e braconnage.<ref>IUCN Red List (2023). “China – Summary Statistics”.</ref> Le animales selvatic menaciate es protegite per lege; in 2019, le pais possedeva plus de 2,750 reservas natural.<ref>National Forestry and Grassland Administration (2020). Annual Report on China’s Nature Reserves.</ref> China possede plus de 32,000 species de plantas vascular, includente un grande varietate de flora subtropical e tropical.<ref>Flora of China Editorial Committee (2013). Flora of China.</ref> Forestas coniferose frigid predomina in le nord, con species animal como le alce e le urso nigre asiatic. Le sub-strato del forestas humide de coniferas pote includer vaste areas de bambu. Forestas subtropical domina le centro e sud del pais, durante que forestas tropical in [[Yunnan]] e [[Hainan]] contine circa un quarto del total de species vegetal e animal del pais.<ref name="rough guide">Rough Guide (2020). China: The Rough Guide.</ref> China ha plus de 10,000 species de fungos registrate, e studios continua revelante nove taxa cata anno.<ref>Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mycology Institute (2021). “Catalogue of Fungi of China”.</ref> === Ambiente === {{Main|Ambiente de China|Problemas environmental in China}} [[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb|Le [[Dam del Tres Gorgias]] es le plus grande dam hydroelectric del mundo.]] Al initio del annos 2000, China experimentava un severa [[deterioration ambiental]] como resultato del rapide industrialisation e urbanisation.<ref>Smil, Vaclav (2004). China's Environmental Crisis. M.E. Sharpe.</ref> Malgrado le existentia de regulamentos ambiental strict, lor application restava frequentemente insufficiente. China ha le secunde plus alte numero de mortes annual a causa del pollution de aere, solmente post India.<ref>Health Effects Institute (2020). State of Global Air 2020.</ref> Ben que illo es le plus grande emissor global de CO₂ in valores absolut, su emissiones per capita remane plus basse que in multe paises industrialisate.<ref name="UCS-2020">Union of Concerned Scientists (2020). “Each Country’s Share of CO₂ Emissions”.</ref> Le qualitate del aqua ha monstrate miglioramentos significative in le ultime annos: in 2024, 90.4% del aqua superficial de China esseva classificate como potabile o quasi potabile secundo standardes national.<ref>Ministry of Ecology and Environment (2024). China Environmental Bulletin 2023.</ref> Durante le annos 2010s, China ha reducite marcatemente le pollution de aere, specialmente in grande citates como Beijing e Shanghai, gratias a campanias extensiv contra combustion de carbon e restrictiones super emissiones industrial.<ref>Greenpeace East Asia (2019). “China’s Air Quality Improvement: Review of the 2013–2017 Clean Air Action Plan”.</ref> In 2020, le governamento annunciava objectivos pro attinger le pico de emissiones ante 2030 e neutralitate de carbon in 2060, un annuncio considerate clave pro limitar le calentamento global per 0.2–0.3 °C.<ref name="CAT-2020">Climate Action Tracker (2020). “China Country Assessment”.</ref> Le cobertura forestal del pais ha crescite consistentemente decennio post decennio: ab circa 10% in 1949 a 25% in 2024, principalmente gratias a massives programmas de reforestamento supportate per le governamento.<ref>State Forestry and Grassland Administration (2024). Forest Resources Report of China 2023.</ref> China es le plus grande investitor del mundo in energia renovabile, habente investite 546 milliardos de dollars in 2022 in energia solar, eolic, hydroelectric e immagazinage energetic.<ref name="Schonhardt-2023">Schonhardt, Sara (2023). “China leads world in renewable energy investment”. International Energy Agency.</ref> Le pais es etiam un conductor global in innovation renewable, includente photovoltaicos a alte efficientia e turbines eolic de generation ultra-grande.<ref>IEA (2023). Renewables 2023 Global Status Report.</ref> In 2024, 38% del electricitate generate in China proveniva de fontes que le governamento classifica como “nette” — includente solar, eolic, hydroelectric, nuclear, e biomassa.<ref>National Energy Administration (2024). China Energy Statistical Yearbook 2023.</ref> Malgrado su foco super le energia renovabile e meliorias environmental, China continua a confrontar problemas significative ligate al pollution de su fluvios, erosion del solo, biodiversitate menaciate, e le effectos futur del cambiamento climatic super regiones vulnerabile. === Geographia politic === {{AP|Frontieras de China|Costa de China|Modificationes territorial del Republica Popular de China}} [[File:China administrative.png|thumb|Mappa que depinge disputas territorial inter le RPC e statos vicin.]] China es le [[Lista de paises e dependentias per area|secunde plus grande]] pais per area terrestre post [[Russia]], e le tertie o quarte plus grande per area total.{{efn|Secundo le ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', le area total del Statos Unite, de {{convert|9522055|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, es legiermente plus parve que illo de China. Intertanto, le ''CIA World Factbook'' constata que le area total de China esseva plus grande que illo del Statos Unite usque le aquas costal del [[Grande Lacos]] esseva addite al area total del Statos Unite in 1996. De 1989 a 1996, le area total del Statos Unite esseva listate como {{convert|9372610|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} (area terrestre plus aqua interior solmente). Le area total listate cambiava a {{convert|9629091|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 1997 (con le areas del Grande Lacos e le aquas costal addite), a {{convert|9631418|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2004, a {{convert|9631420|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2006, e a {{convert|9826630|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2007 (aquas territorial addite).}} Le area total de China es generalmente indicate como approximativemente {{convert|9600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=Jin Shuang|last2=Liu|first2=Quan Riu|title=The Present Situation and Prospects of Plant Taxonomy in China|url=https://archive.org/details/taxon_1998-02_47_1/page/67|journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]|volume=47|number=1|date=February 1998|pages=67–74|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|doi=10.2307/1224020|jstor=1224020|bibcode=1998Taxon..47...67M }}</ref> Le cifras specific de area varia de {{convert|9572900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}<ref name="United States"/> a {{convert|9596961|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.<ref name="UN Stat" /><ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=China|access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref> China ha le [[Lista de paises e territorios per numero de frontieras terrestre|plus longe frontiera terrestre combinate del mundo]], mesurante {{convert|22117|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}}. Su [[Costa de China|linea de costa]] coperi approximativemente {{convert|14500|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, ab le imbuccatura del [[Fluvio Yalu]] usque al [[Golfo de Tonkin]].<ref name="CIA"/> China [[Frontieras de China|fina con 14 nationes]] per terra, e ha plure vicinos maritime.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wei|first=Yuwa|title=China and ITS Neighbors |volume=22|number=1|date=2014|pages=105–136|publisher=[[Willamette University College of Law]]|journal=Willamette Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution|jstor=26210500}}</ref> China resolveva le demarcation de su frontieras terrestre con 12 de 14 paises vicin, post haber facite compromissos substantial in le major parte de illos.<ref>{{cite web |title=Groundless to view China as expansionist, says Beijing after PM Modi's Ladakh visit |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/groundless-to-view-china-as-expansionist-says-beijing-after-pm-modi-s-ladakh-visit-1696727-2020-07-03 |access-date=13 August 2020 |website=[[India Today]] |date=3 July 2020 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810133156/https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/groundless-to-view-china-as-expansionist-says-beijing-after-pm-modi-s-ladakh-visit-1696727-2020-07-03 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fravel |first=M. Taylor |author-link=Taylor Fravel |date=1 October 2005 |title=Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-security_fall-2005_30_2/page/46 |journal=[[International Security (journal)|International Security]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=46–83 |doi=10.1162/016228805775124534 |s2cid=56347789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fravel |first=M. Taylor |title=Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-6911-3609-7 |author-link=Taylor Fravel}}</ref> China ha actualmente frontieras disputate con [[Disputa de frontiera sino-indian|India]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 December 2022 |title=India-China dispute: The border row explained in 400 words |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53062484 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420180958/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53062484 |archive-date=20 April 2022 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=}}</ref> e [[Frontiera Bhutan-China|Bhutan]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 April 2023 |title=Bhutan wants a border deal with China: Will India accept? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65396384 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515174751/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65396384 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=}}</ref> Illo es implicate in disputas maritime con plure paises super territorios in le mares de China [[Disputas del ZEE del Mar de China Oriental|Oriental]] e [[Disputas territorial in le Mar de China Meridional|Meridional]], tal como le [[Disputa del Insulas Senkaku|Insulas Senkaku/Diaoyu]], e le totalitate del [[Insulas del Mar de China Meridional]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 May 2012 |title=China denies preparing war over South China Sea shoal |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18045383 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207111212/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18045383 |archive-date=7 February 2020 |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=27 November 2013 |title=How uninhabited islands soured China-Japan ties |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710120934/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139 |archive-date=10 July 2018 |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=}}</ref> == Economia == Post le final del Guerra Civil Chinese, le Governamento del nove Republica Popular, sub le direction del Partito Communista de China, comencia applicar un serie de reformas economic de character socialista, como le nationalisation del interprisas private e le collectivisation agrari. == Galleria == <gallery> File:Casinos, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 01.jpg|Casinos in Macau File:China1982-050.jpg|Un mercato File:Beijing national stadium.jpg|Le Stadio National in Beijing File:Renhua, Shaoguan, Guangdong, China - panoramio (344).jpg|Guangdong File:Centro de Ciencia, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 09.jpg|Centro de Scientia, Macau File:Harbin at Night.jpg|Harbin nocturne File:Zhongguo.gif|Zhonguo </gallery> == Vide etiam == * [[Taiwan]] * [[Hong Kong]] * [[Macao]] * [[Asia]] * [[Paises del mundo]] {{refer}} {{Paises de Asia}} {{elem|paises del mundo}} [[Categoria:China| ]] 1iaq31aimlycwk1oh9bwc9rut0ugnmj 0 644 698259 674886 2026-08-03T23:47:42Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698259 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = ''Chordato'' | fossil_range = [[Cambrian]] – [[Holocene|presente]], {{fossil range|500|0|earliest=555|ref=<ref name=MT>{{Cite journal|language=en |author=Karma Nanglu, Rudy Lerosey-Aubril, James C. Weaver, Javier Ortega-Hernández |date=2023-06-06 |title=A mid-Cambrian tunicate and the deep origin of the ascidiacean body plan |journal=Nature communications |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-39012-4|doi-access=free }}</ref>}} (forsan [[Ediacaran]], 557 Ma<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fedonkin|first1=M. A.|last2=Vickers-Rich|first2=P.|last3=Swalla|first3=B. J.|last4=Trusler|first4=P.|last5=Hall|first5=M.|title=A new metazoan from the Vendian of the White Sea, Russia, with possible affinities to the ascidians|journal=Paleontological Journal|volume=46|pages=1–11|year=2012|doi=10.1134/S0031030112010042|s2cid=128415270}}</ref>) | image = Chordata.png | image_caption = Exemple de chordates: ''[[Branchiostoma lanceolatum]]'' ([[Cephalochordata]]), ''[[Polycarpa aurata]]'' ([[Tunicata]]), [[Squalo]] e [[Tigre]] ([[Vertebrato|Vertebrata]]). | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | subregnum = [[Bilateria]] | infraregnum = [[Deuterostomia]] | taxon = Chordata | taxon_rank = [[Phylo (rango taxonomic)|Phylo]] | authority = [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], 1874<ref>Haeckel, E. (1874). ''Anthropogenie oder Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen''. Leipzig: Engelmann.</ref><ref name="Nielsen2012">{{cite journal | author=Nielsen, C. | date=July 2012 | title=The authorship of higher chordate taxa | journal=Zoologica Scripta | volume=41 | issue=4 | pages=435–436 | doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2012.00536.x | s2cid=83266247 }}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = [[Classe (rango taxonomic)|Classes]] e generes fossile | subdivision_ref = | subdivision = * [[Cephalochordata]] * †[[Pikaia|Pikaiidae]] * †[[Metaspriggina|Metaspriggiidae]] * [[Olfactores]] ** [[Tunicata]] ** [[Vertebrato|Vertebrata]] ** †''[[Zhongxiniscus]]'' ** †''[[Yunnanozoon]]'' }} Le '''chordatos''' es [[animal]]es characterisate per le presentia de un chorda neural tubular dorsal, o [[notochorda]], sia durante tote le disveloppamento, sia in alicunes del phases de lor vita. Illos forma un [[phylo (rango taxonomic)|phylo]] (nomine scientific ''Chordata''). Il ha tres subphylos: [[Cephalochordata]], [[Tunicata]] e [[Vertebrato|Vertebrata]]. == Definition == {{Annotated image | caption=Anatomia del [[cephalochordate]] ''[[Amphioxus]]'' | image=BranchiostomaLanceolatum PioM.svg | width=400 | image-width=400 | height=340 | image-top=0 | image-left=0 | float=center | annotations= {{Annotation|5|145|1 {{=}} protuberantia cerebral}} {{Annotation|5|165|2 {{=}} '''[[notochorda]]''' }} {{Annotation|5|185|3 {{=}} '''[[neurocorda dorsal]]''' }} {{Annotation|5|205|4 {{=}} '''coda post-anal''' }} {{Annotation|5|225|5 {{=}} [[ano]] }} {{Annotation|5|245|6 {{=}} [[apparato digestive {{!}} tracto digestive]] }} {{Annotation|5|265|7 {{=}} [[systema circulatori]] }} {{Annotation|5|285|8 {{=}} [[atrioporo]] }} {{Annotation|5|305|9 {{=}} spatio supra[[pharynge]]e }} {{Annotation|5|325|10 {{=}} '''[[fissuras pharyngee]]''' }} {{Annotation|200|145|11 {{=}} [[pharynge]] }} {{Annotation|200|165|12 {{=}} [[Vestibulo del bucca{{!}}vestibulo]] }} {{Annotation|200|185|13 {{=}} [[cirros]] oral }} {{Annotation|200|205|14 {{=}} apertura buccal }} {{Annotation|200|225|15 {{=}} [[gonades]] ([[ovario]] / [[testiculo]]) }} {{Annotation|200|245|16 {{=}} sensor de lumine}} {{Annotation|200|265|17 {{=}} [[nervos]] }} {{Annotation|200|285|18 {{=}} [[plica metapleural]] }} {{Annotation|200|305|19 {{=}} [[ceco hepatic]] (proto[[hepate]]) }} }} Le chordatos forma un ''phylo'' — un gruppo de animales con un commun plan del corpore<ref>{{cite book | last = Valentine | first = J.W. | year = 2004 | title = On the Origin of Phyla | publisher = University Of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | isbn = 0226845486 | page=7 }}"Oragnismos ha essite classificate in systemos hierachicos in le seculos [[seculo 17 |17]] e [[seculo 18|18]]. Oraganismos ha essite grupate basate in le similaritates morphologica pro formar un hierachia" </ref> — organismos que ha tote le sequente:<ref name="RychelSmithShimamotoSwalla2006">{{cite journal | author=Rychel, A.L., Smith, S.E., Shimamoto, H.T., and Swalla, B.J. | year=2006 | title=Evolution and Development of the Chordates: Collagen and Pharyngeal Cartilage | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2006-03_23_3/page/541 | journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | issue=3 | pages=541–549 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msj055 | volume=23 }}</ref> * un [[notochordo]], un typo de [[cartilagine]] que se extende in le interior del corpore. * un [[tubo neural]] [[dorsal]]. In le pisces e altere [[vertebrato]]s isto se disveloppa in le [[columna vertebral]], le trunco principal de communicationes del [[systemo nervose|systema nervose]]. * [[fissuras pharyngee]] pro filtrar alimentos. * un coda muscular. * un [[endostylo]]. Isto es un cannellatura in le pariete [[ventral]] del pharynge que adjuta a transportar alimentos al [[esophago]].<ref name="Ruppert2005">{{cite journal | author=Ruppert, E. | journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume=83 | pages=8–23 | year=2005 | doi = 10.1139/Z04-158 | title=Key characters uniting hemichordates and chordates: homologies or homoplasies? | url=http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/RPAS/RPViewDoc?_handler_=HandleInitialGet&articleFile=z04-158.pdf&journal=cjz&volume=83 | accessdate=2008-09-22 }}</ref> Illo immagazina [[iodine|iodo]], e es le precursor del glandula [[thyroid|thyroide]] de vertebratos.<ref name="RychelSmithShimamotoSwalla2006" /> == Classification == === Supertaxones=== * [[Deuterostomia]] === Subtaxones === Le sequente schema es del libro ''[[Vertebrate Palaeontology (Benton)|Vertebrate Palaeontology]]''.<ref>Benton, M.J. (2004). ''Vertebrate Palaeontology'', Third Edition. Blackwell Publishing, 472 pp. [http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/benton/vertclass.html The classification scheme is available online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019121413/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/benton/vertclass.html |date=2008-10-19 }}</ref> * '''Phylo Chordata''' ** Subphylo '''[[Tunicata]]''' (Urochordata) — (tunicates, 3000 species) ** Subphylo '''[[Cephalochordata]]''' (Acraniata) — (lancelets, 30 species) ** Subphylo '''[[Vertebrato|Vertebrata]]''' (vertebratos — animales con ossos; 57674 species) *** Classe ''''[[Agnatha]]'''' ([[paraphyletic]] gruppo del vertebratos sin mandibula; 100+ species) **** Subclasse [[Myxini|Myxinoidea]] (pisce; 65 species) **** Subclasse [[Petromyzontida]] (Lampredas) **** Subclasse [[Conodonta]] **** Subclasse '''[[Pteraspidomorphi]]''' (Pisce sin mandibula del paleozoica) ***** Ordine [[Anaspida]] ***** Ordine [[Thelodonti]] (Pisce sin mandibula del paleozoica) *** Infraphylo '''[[Gnathostomata]]''' (Vertebratos con [[mandibula]]) **** Classe '''[[Placodermi]]''' (Formas paleozoic con armatura) **** Classe '''[[Chondrichthyes]]''' (Pisces cartilaginose; 900+ species) **** Classe '''[[Acanthodii]]''' (Paleozoic "spiny sharks") **** Classe '''[[Osteichthyes]]''' (Pisces con ossos; 30.000+ species) ***** Subclasse '''[[Actinopterygii]]''' (Pisces ray-finned; 30.000 species) ***** Subclasse '''[[Sarcopterygii]]''' (Pisces lobe-finned) **** Superclasse '''[[Tetrapoda]]''' (Vertebratos con quatro pedes; 18.000+ species) ***** Classe '''[[Amphibia]]''' (Amphibios; 6.000 species) ***** Serie '''[[Amniota]]''' (con amniotic ovo) ****** Classe '''[[Reptilia]]''' — (reptiles; 8.225+ species) ******* Subclasse '''[[Anapsida]]''' (extincte "protoreptiles" e possibile [[turtle|tortuca]]s) ******* Subclasse '''[[Synapsida]]''' ("reptiles" como mammal; 4.500+ species, progenitores del [[mammal]]es) ******* Subclasse '''[[Diapsida]]''' (majoritate de reptiles, progenitores del [[aves]]) ****** Classe '''[[Aves]]''' (aves; 8.800–10.000 species) ****** Classe '''[[Mammalia]]''' (mammiferos; 5.800 species) == Phylogenia == === Cladogramma externe === {{clade |label1=[[Deuterostomia]] |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1=[[Ambulacraria]] |1={{clade |1=[[Hemichordata]] <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Ptychodera flava in New Caledonia, Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911) rotated.png|45px]]</span> |2=[[Echinodermata]] [[File:Starfish (PSF).png|30px]] }} |label2='''Chordata''' |2={{clade |1=[[Cephalochordata]] [[File:Branchiostoma cultellus.jpg|75px]] |label2=[[Olfactores]] |2={{clade |1=[[Tunicata]] <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:PSM V44 D080 Salpa.jpg|35px]]</span> |2=[[Vertebrato|vertebrata]] [[File:Eptatretus cirrhatus (New Zealand hagfish).gif|80px]] }} }} }} }} }} === Cladogramma interne === {{clade |style=font-size:85%;line-height:95%; |label1='''Chordata''' |1={{clade |label1=[[Cephalochordate|Cephalochordata]] |1={{clade |1=[[Amphioxiformes]] (lancelets) [[File:Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Amphioxus lanceolatus).png|70px]] }} |label2=[[Olfactores]] |2={{clade |1=†''[[Haikouella]]'' |label2=[[Tunicate|Tunicata]] |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Appendicularia]]&nbsp;(previe&nbsp;[[Larvacea]]) |2=&nbsp;[[Stolidobranchia]]&nbsp; |3=&nbsp;[[Thaliacea]]&nbsp; |4=&nbsp;[[Enterogona]] }} |label3=[[Vertebrato|Vertebrata]] |3={{clade |1={{clade |sublabel1=([[Agnatha]]ns) |label1=[[Cyclostomata]] |1={{clade |1=[[Myxini]] [[File:Myxine glutinosa Gervais.jpg|50 px]] |2=[[Hyperoartia]]/Petromyzontida ([[lampreda]]s) [[File:Flussneunauge.jpg|50 px]] }} }} |2={{clade <!--unsourced and position questionable; not necessary for chordate article which should show main groups |1=†''[[Myllokunmingia|Myllokunmingia fengjiaoa]]'' |2=†''[[Zhongjianichthys|Zhongjianichthys rostratus]]''--> |1=†[[Conodonta]] <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:ConodontZICA.png|70px]]</span> |2=†[[Pteraspidomorphi]] (includes †[[Arandaspida]], †[[Astraspida]] and †[[Heterostraci]]) [[File:Astraspis desiderata.png|30px]] |3=†[[Cephalaspidomorphi]] (includes †[[Galeaspida]], †[[Osteostraci]] and †[[Pituriaspida]]) <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Tremataspis NT small.jpg|50px]]</span> |state5=double |4={{clade |label1=[[Gnathostomata]] |1={{clade |state1=double |1=†"[[Placodermi]]" ([[paraphyletic]]; includes †[[Antiarchi]], †[[Petalichthyida]], †[[Ptyctodontida]] and †[[Arthrodira]]) <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:D Terrelli.png|45px]]</span> |label2=Crown |sublabel2=Gnathostomata |2={{clade |1={{clade |state1=double |1=†"[[Acanthodii]]" ([[paraphyletic]]) [[File:Acanthodes BW.jpg|60 px]] |2=[[Chondrichthyes]] ([[squalo]]s, [[raia]]s) <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:White shark (Duane Raver).png|50 px]]</span> }} |label2=[[Euteleostomi]] |2={{clade |1=[[Actinopterygii]] [[File:Common carp (white background).jpg|45 px]] |2={{clade |label1=[[Sarcopterygii]] |1={{clade |1=[[Actinistia]] ([[Latimeria|celacanthos]]) [[File:Coelacanth flipped.png|45 px]] |2={{clade |1=[[Dipnoi]] <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Chinle fish Arganodus cropped cropped.png|50 px]]</span> |2={{clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Tetrapod]]a&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Lissamphibia|Amphibia]] [[File:Salamandra salamandra (white background).jpg|50 px]] |label2=&nbsp;[[Amniota]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Synapsida]]&nbsp; |1=&nbsp;[[Mammalia]] [[File:Phylogenetic tree of marsupials derived from retroposon data (Paucituberculata).png|40 px]] |label2=&nbsp;[[Sauropsida]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |label1= |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Lepidosauromorpha]] ([[Lacertidae|lacertas]], [[Serpentes]]) [[File:British reptiles, amphibians, and fresh-water fishes (1920) (Lacerta agilis).jpg|60 px]] }} |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Archosauromorpha]] ([[Crurotarsi|crocodilos]], [[aves]]) <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Deinosuchus riograndensis.png|60px]]</span> }} |3={{clade |1=&nbsp; [[Testudinata]] ([[tortuca]]s) }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} '''Notas:''' * Linias presenta relatia evolutionario probabile, includite taxones extincte, que es presentate con [[Dagger (typography)|dagger]], †. Alicun es non-vertebratos. Chordata es un phylo. == Referentias == <references /> == Ligamines externe == * [http://www.globaltwitcher.com/taxa_class.asp?phylaid=1 Chordate on GlobalTwitcher.com] * [http://tolweb.org/Chordata/2499 Chordate node at Tree Of Life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224172716/http://tolweb.org/Chordata/2499 |date=2007-02-24 }} * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=7711 Chordate node at NCBI Taxonomy] [[Categoria:Chordata| ]] fsu5916k0y0z0m7kdbq8yuw15o6dio4 0 1310 698226 691759 2026-08-03T23:03:46Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698226 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sinreferentias}} {{infobox}} {{Scientia}} Le '''geologia'''{{linfoX}} [-gía] es le [[scientia]] que studia le composition e le formation exterior o interior del [[terra|globo terrestre]], del materias que lo compone e de su formation, del cambios o alterationes que iste ha experimentate desde su origine, e del collocation de illos in su stato actual. Le geologia describe le structura del Terra super e sub su superficie, e le processos que ha formate iste structura. Geologos studia le composition mineralogic del roccas pro comprender lor historia de formation. Le geologia determina le etates relative del roccas trovate in un certe loco; le [[geochimia]] (un branca del geologia) determina lor etates absolute. Per le combination de varie instrumentos petrologic, crystallographic e paleontologic, geologos pote documentar le historia geologic del Terra in su totalitate. Un aspecto es demonstrar le etate del Terra. Le geologia forni evidentia pro le [[tectonica de placas]], le historia [[evolution]]ari del vita, e le [[climate]]s passate del [[Terra]]. Geologos generalmente studia le proprietates e processos del Terra e altere planetas terrestre. Illes usa un grande varietate de methodos pro comprender le structura e le evolution del Terra, includente le labor in campo, le description de [[rocc]]as, technicas [[Geophysica|geophysic]], analyse [[Chimia|chimic]], experimentos [[Physica|physic]], e modellisation numeric. In terminos practic, le geologia es importante pro le exploration e exploitation de [[mineral]]es e [[hydrocarburo]]s, le evaluation del fontes de aqua, le comprehension del riscos natural, le remediation de problemas ambiental, e le comprehension del cambiamento [[Climate|climatic]] passate. Le geologia es un disciplina academic importante, central al [[ingenieria geologic]], e ha un rolo essential in le [[ingenieria geotechnic]]. == Historia == [[File:Turine Papyrus, ca. 1320 v.C..jpg|thumb|Le [[papyro de Turin]] monstra un schema del position de un districto minerari egyptie, circa le anno 1160 aEC, con le legenda: «Le montes ubi se lava le auro. Illos ha iste color rubie». Le papyro es considerate le plus vetere mappa geologic conservate in le mundo.]] [[File:Geological map Britain William Smith 1815.jpg|thumb|Carta geologic de [[Grande Britannia]] de [[William Smith (geologo)|William Smith]], publicate in 1815.]] [[File:Lyell Principles frontispiece.jpg|thumb|Frontispicio de ''Principios del geologia'' de [[Charles Lyell]], 1830.]] [[File:Pangea animation 03.gif|thumb|Animation que illustra le theoria del deriva continental de [[Alfred Wegener]].]] Le studio del materia physic del Terra ha su origine, al plus tarde, in [[Grecia antiqu]]e, quando [[Theophrasto]] (372–287 aEC) scribeva le obra ''Peri Lithon'' (Super le Petras). Durante le periodo roman, [[Plinio le Vetule]] describeva in detalio multe minerales e metallos in uso practic – mesmo notante correctemente le origine del [[ambra]]. In le seculo 4 aEC, [[Aristotele]] faceva observationes critic del rhythmo lente de [[cambio geologic]]. Ille observava le composition del terra e formulava un theoria secundo le qual le Terra cambia lentemente, e que iste cambios non pote esser observate durante le vita de un sol persona. Aristotele elaborava un del prime conceptos fundate super evidentia concernente le rhythmo del cambios physic del Terra. [[Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni]] (973–1048 EC) esseva un del prime geologos [[persia]]n. Su obras contine le textos le plus antique sur le geologia de [[India]], in le quales ille formulava le hypothese que le subcontinente indian un vice habeva essite un [[mar]]. Basante se sur litteratura scientific grec e indian non destruite per le [[conquestas musulman]], le erudito persa [[Ibn Sina]] ([[Avicenna]], 981–1037) proponeva explicationes detaliate del formation del montanias, del origine del [[seismo]]]s e de altere themas central del geologia moderne, forniente un base essential pro le evolutiones subsequente de iste scientia. In [[China]], le [[polymatha]] [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095) formulava un hypothese sur le processo de formation del terra: basate sur su observation de [[conch]]as [[fossile]] in un [[strato geologic]] de un [[montania]] centenas de kilometros distante del oceano, ille concludeva que le terra se formava per le [[erosion]] del montanias e le deposition de [[limo]]. [[Georgio Agricola]] (1494–1555) publicava su obra revolutionari ''De Natura Fossilium'' in 1546 e es considerate le fundator del geologia como disciplina scientific. A Nicolas Steno (1638–1686) es attribuite le [[lege de superposition]], le principio de horizontalitate original, e le principio de continuitate lateral: tres principios definiente del stratigraphia. Le parola "geologia" esseva usate pro le prime vice per [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]] in 1603, postea per [[Jean-André Deluc]] in 1778, e introducite como termino fixate per [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]] in 1779. Le parola proveni del greco γῆ (gê, "terra") e λόγος (logos, "discurso"). Ma secundo un altere fonte, le parola "geologia" veni de un norvegian, Mikkel Pedersøn Escholt (1600–1669), un sacerdote e erudito, qui lo usava in su libro Geologia Norvegica (1657). [[William Smith (geologo)|William Smith]] (1769–1839) designava alcunes del prime cartas geologic e initiava le processo de ordinar le stratos de roccas per examinar le fossiles in illos. In 1763, [[Mikhail Lomonosov publicava]] su tractato Del Stratos del Terra. Su obra esseva le prime narration del geologia moderne, basate super le unitate de processos in le tempore e le explication del passato del Terra ab le presentia. [[James Hutton]] (1726–1797) es sovente considerate como le prime geologo moderne. In 1785 ille presentava su articulo ''Theoria del Terra'' al [[Societate Regal de Edinburgh]]. In su articulo, ille explicava su theoria que le Terra debe esser multo plus vetule que on credeva, pro permitter tempore sufficiente pro le erosion del montanias e le formation de nove roccas ex sedimentos al fundo del mar, le quales postea esseva elevate como terra sic. Hutton publicava un version in duo volumines de su ideas in 1795. Le adherentes de Hutton esseva appellate plutonistas, perque illes credeva que certe roccas se formava per [[vulcanismo]] – le deposition de [[lava]] ex [[vulcano]]s – in opposition al neptunistas, conducite per [[Abraham Werner]], qui credeva que tote le roccas se sedimentava ab un grande oceano que diminueva gradualmente. Le prime carta geologic del Statos Unite esseva producite in 1809 per [[William Maclure]]. In 1807, Maclure comenciava le labor autoimponite de facer un studio geologic del [[Statos Unite]]. Ille laborava e cartographava quasi tote le statos, e transversava le montanias [[Allegheny]] plus que 50 vices. Le resultatos de su labor esseva submittite al Societate Philosophic American in un memoria intitulate ''Observationes super le Geologia del Statos Unite, explicante un Carta Geologic'', e publicate in le Transactiones del societate, insimul con le prime carta geologic del pais. Illo esseva publicate sex annos ante le carta geologic de Anglaterra de [[William Smith]], ben que illo esseva construite con un classification differente de roccas. Sir [[Charles Lyell]] (1797–1875) publicava su famose libro ''Principios del Geologia'' in 1830. Iste libro, que influentiava le pensamento de [[Charles Darwin]], promoveva con successo le doctrina del [[uniformismo]]. Iste theoria affirma que processos geologic lente occurreva durante tote le historia del Terra e ancora occurre hodie. In contrasto, le [[catastrophismo]] es le theoria que le characteristicas del Terra se formava in eventos singular e cataclysmic, remanente inalterate postea. Ben que Hutton credeva in le uniformismo, le idea non esseva generalmente acceptate al epocha. Multo del geologia del seculo 19 girava circa le question del etate exacte del Terra. Le estimationes variava ab alcun centenas de milles usque a milliardos de annos. Al initio del seculo 20, le [[datation radiometric]] permitteva estimar le [[etate del Terra]] a duo milliardos de annos. Le conscientia de iste vastissime periodo de tempore aperiva le porta a nove theorias super le processos que formava le planeta. Alcunes del progressos le plus significative in le geologia del seculo 20 esseva le disveloppamento del theoria del [[tectonica de placas]] in le annos 1960 e le affinamento del estimationes del etate del planeta. Le theoria del tectonica de placas emergeva de duo observationes geologic separate: le extension del fundo marin e le [[deriva continental]]. Iste theoria revolutionava le scientias del Terra. Hodie es cognoscite que le Terra ha circa 4,5 milliardos de annos. == Material geologic == La major parte del datos geologic proveni del investigation del materiales solide del Terra. Le [[meteorite]]s e altere materiales natural extraterrestre es etiam studiate con methodos geologic. === Mineral === {{AP|Mineral}} Le minerales es elementos e compositos natural con un composition chimic homogenee definite e un structura atomic ordinate. Cata mineral ha proprietates physic differente, e il ha multe tests pro determinar cata un de illos. Le specimens pote esser submittite al sequente tests:<ref>{{cite web|title=Mineral Identification Tests|url=http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/MinRockID/MinTests.html|website=Geoman's Mineral ID Tests|access-date=17 April 2017|archive-date=9 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509215641/http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/MinRockID/MinTests.html|url-status=live}}</ref> * Lustre: Qualitate del lumine reflectite in le superficie de un mineral. Exemplos: metallic, nacrate, cerose, opac. * Color: Le minerales es gruppate secundo lor color. Le major parte es diagnostic, ma le impuritates pote cambiar le color de un mineral. * Excoriation: On face grattar le specimen in un platto de porcelain. Le color del excoriation pote adjutar a nominar le mineral. * Duressa: Le resistentia de un mineral al excoriation. * Patrono de fractura: Un mineral pote monstrar fractura o scission, le prime essente un ruptura de superficies inequal e le secunde un ruptura secundo planos parallel longe separate. * Peso specific: Le peso de un volumine specific de un mineral. * Effervescentia: Consiste in facer jectar acido chlorhydric super le mineral pro verificar le effervescentia. * Magnetismo: Consiste in usar un magnete pro verificar le magnetismo. * Gusto: Minerales pote haber un gusto distincte, como le [[halite]] (que ha le gusto de [[sal de tabula]]). === Petra === [[File:Rockcycle edit.jpg|thumb|Le cyclo del petras demonstra le relation inter petras ignee, sedimentari e metamorphic.]] Un [[petra]] es un massa solide de origine natural o un agglomerato de minerales o mineraloide. Le major parte del investigation in geologia es associate al studio del petras, perque illos forni le registro primari del major parte del historia geologic del Terra. Il ha tres typos principal de petra: [[Petra ignee|ignee]], [[Petra sedimentari|sedimentari]] e [[Petra metamorphic|metamorphic]]. Le cyclo del petras illustra le relationes inter illos (vide le diagramma).<ref>{{cite book | last=Upadhyay | first=R. K. | year=2025 | chapter=Rocks and Their Formation | title=Geology and Mineral Resources | series=Springer Geology | pages=351–421 | publisher=Springer | location=Singapore | doi=10.1007/978-981-96-0598-9_6 | isbn=978-981-96-0597-2 }}</ref> Quando un petra se solidifica o crystallisa ex un massa fundite (magma o lava), illo es un petra ignee. Iste petra pote esser meteorisate e erodite, e postea re-depositate e lithificate in un petra sedimentari. Postea, illo pote devenir un petra metamorphic per calor e pression que cambia su contento de minerales, resultante in un structura characteristic. Le tres typos pote refunder, e quando isto occurre, un nove magma se forma, ex le qual pote re-solidificar se un petra ignee. Le materia organic, como [[carbon]], [[bitumine]], [[petroleo]] e [[gas natural]], es principalmente ligate al petras sedimentari ric in materia organic. [[File:Or Venezuela.jpg|197px|right|thumb|[[Auro]] native de Venezuela.]] Pro studiar le tres typos de petras, le geologos evaluta le minerales que los compone e lor altere proprietates physic, como le textura e le texito. === Materiales non lithificate === Le geologos etiam studia le materiales non lithificate (appellate depositos superficial) que se trova super le petra-matre. Iste studio es generalmente cognoscite como [[geologia quaternari]], perque illo es le periodo quaternari del historia geologic, que es le periodo le plus recente del tempore geologic. ==== Magma ==== Le magma es le fonte original non lithificate de tote le petras ignee. Le fluxo active de petra fundite es studiate in detalio in le [[vulcanologia]], e le [[petrologia]] ignee ha como objectivo determinar le historia del petras ignee desde lor fonte original fundite usque a lor crystallisation final. == Tempores geologic == === Scala del tempores geologic === [[File:Earth Clock Eons fr 01.png|thumb|Le tempores geologic summarisate sur un horologio de 24 horas.|alt=]] Le scala del tempores geologic es un systema de classification temporal usate principalmente in geologia, ma tamben in altere scientias, pro situar eventos in le historia del Terra desde su formation (4,54 milliardos de annos) usque le periodo actual. Iste scala es subdividite in quatro eones (Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic e Phanerozoic), le quales a lor torno es subdividite in eras, con durationes medie de plure centos de milliones de annos. Le limites inter illos corresponde a grande cambios in le [[biosphera]], e/o in le [[lithosphera]] e le [[atmosphera]]. Intra le eras se trova ulterior subdivisiones (periodos, epochas e etates), correspondente a modellos global de sedimentation in le oceanos, definite per stratotypos. Le subdivision del scala es plus detaliate pro le eon le plus recente, le Phanerozoic, que representa le ultime 542 milliones de annos. Le periodo anterior, que corresponde al tres altere eones, es appellate le Precambrian. Eventos major in le historia del Terra usate como limites in le scala geologic: * 4,57 milliardos de annos: formation del systema solar * 4,54 milliardos de annos: formation del Terra * 3,8 milliardos de annos: apparition del vita, limite Hadean–Archean * 542 milliones de annos: explosion cambrian, initio del Phanerozoic * 251 milliones de annos: extinction Permian-Triassic, limite Paleozoic–Mesozoic * 66 milliones de annos: extinction Cretacee–Tertiari, limite Mesozoic–Cenozoic [[File:Anticlinal à Durbuy, Belgique.jpg|thumb|Le anticlinal de Durbuy, o rocca de Homalius, ha 300 milliones de annos.]] === Datation del eventos geologic === ==== Datation relative ==== Le datation relative servi pro hierarchisar a priori le etates de stratos vicin un al altere. Illo permitte establir rapidemente un chronologia del terreno studiate. Illo se summarisa in alcun principios: * Le stratos sedimentari superior es posterior a illos inferior. In altere parolas, le strato que recoperi un altere es plus recente que illo recoperite. * Omne evento geologic que interseca un altere es posterior a illo. * Un strato ha le mesme etate in tote su extension. * Duo terrenos que contine le mesme fossiles stratigraphic es del mesme etate. ==== Datation absolute ==== Le datation absolute permitte determinar plus o minus precisemente le etate de un petra. Illo es multo utile in le campo del [[chronostratigraphia]] e in le elaboration del scala del tempores geologic, ma etiam in le studio del historia e evolution del petras. Un del methodos plus commun usa le [[geologia isotopic]]. Un minime fraction del atomos in le petras existe in forma isotopic instabile. Iste [[isotopo]]s es destinate a transformar se, per emission radioactive, in un altere elemento, que pote etiam esser instabile o radioactive. Iste emissiones radioactive occurre a un frequentia aleatori que es statisticamente determinabile. Le idea es de mesurar le proportion del prime elemento (le elemento patre), e postea del secunde (le elemento filio). Con le tempore, le proportion del elemento patre diminue e illo del filio cresce. Dunque, un petra ubi le elemento patre es abundante es recente; un petra ubi le elemento filio domina es vetere. Per calculos e comparation con modellos establite in laboratorios, on pote estimar le etate del petra con un precision de circa un million de annos. Le copulas classic de elementos patre/filio studiate es: [[rubidium]]/[[strontium]] (le rubidium se trova in tracia in [[muscovite]], [[biotite]], [[feldspat]]...) e [[potassium]]/[[argon]], o plus specificamente [[uranium]]/[[plumbo]] e uranium/[[thorium]]. == Structura global del Terra == === Tectonica de placas === {{AP|Tectonica de placas}} [[File:Active Margin.svg|thumb|left|Le convergentia oceano-continental que produce subduction e arco vulcanic illustra un effecto del tectonica de placas.]] [[File:Plates_tect2_en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Le principal placas tectonic del Terra.<ref>{{Cite web | first=Jan Pieter | last=van Dijk | access-date=2025-10-05 | url=https://ocre-geoscience.com/ocre-geomap/ | title=OCRE GeoMap | website=OCRE Geoscience Services }}</ref>]] In le decennio de 1960 on discoperiva que le [[lithosphera]] del Terra, que include le [[crusta]] e le parte superior rigide del mantello superior, es separate in placas tectonic que se move super le mantello superior solide, plastic e deformabile, nominate [[asthenosphera]]. Iste theoria es supportate per varie typos de observationes, como le expansion del fundo marin<ref>{{cite book | last=Hess | first=H. H. | date=November 1, 1962 | url=http://repositories.cdlib.org/sio/lib/23 | access-date=2009-10-16 | chapter=History Of Ocean Basins | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016025000/http://repositories.cdlib.org/sio/lib/23 | archive-date=2009-10-16 | pages=599–620 | title=Petrologic studies: a volume in honor of A. F. Buddington | editor1-first=A. E. J. | editor1-last=Engel | editor2-first=Harold L. | editor2-last=James | editor3-first=B. F. | editor3-last=Leonard | publisher=[[Geological Society of America]] }}</ref><ref name="TDE discovery">{{Cite book |last1=Kious |first1=Jacquelyne | last2=Tilling | first2=Robert I. |others=Kiger, Martha, Russel, Jane |title=This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics |publisher=United States Geological Survey |location=Reston |year=1996 |edition=Online |chapter=Developing the Theory |isbn=978-0-16-048220-5 |chapter-url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html |access-date=13 March 2009 |archive-date=10 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810162308/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html |url-status=live }}</ref> e le distribution global del territorio montaniose e del seismicitate.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Plate Tectonics | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_1972-05_226_5/page/56 | first=John F. | last=Dewey | author-link=John Frederick Dewey | journal=Scientific American | volume=226 | issue=5 | date=May 1972 | pages=56–72 | doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0572-56 | jstor=24927338 | bibcode=1972SciAm.226e..56D }}</ref> Il existe un connexion intime inter le movimento del placas al superficie e le convection del mantello (illo es, le transferimento de calor causate per le movimento lente del petra ductile del mantello). Assi, le placas oceanic e le currentes de convection del mantello adjacente se move sempre in le mesme direction, perque le lithosphera oceanic es in realitate le strato limite thermal superior rigide del mantello convective. Iste connexion inter le placas rigide que se move al superficie del Terra e le mantello convective es nominate [[tectonica de placas]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets | display-authors=1 | first1=Gerald | last1=Schubert | first2=Donald Lawson | last2=Turcotte | first3=Peter | last3=Olson | editor1-first=Donald Lawson | editor1-last=Turcotte | editor2-first=Peter | editor2-last=Olson | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-521-79836-5 | page=16 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lwnV2xCMmoC&pg=PA16 }}</ref> [[File:Farallon Plate.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|In iste schema basate super tomographia seismic, le placas subducente es in blau e le margines continental e alcun limites de placas es in rubie. Le macula blau in le section transversal es le Placa de Farallon, que se trova sub America del Nord. Le restos de iste placa in le superficie terrestre es le Placa de Juan de Fuca e le Placa Explorator, ambe in le nord-west de Statos Unite e le sud-west de Canada, e le Placa de Cocos in le costa west de Mexico.]] Le disveloppamento del tectonica de placas ha fornite un base physic pro multe observationes del Terra solide. Le longe regiones linear de characteristicas geologic es explicate como limites de placas.<ref name="TDE plates">{{Cite book |last1=Kious |first1=Jacquelyne | last2=Tilling | first2=Robert I. |others=Kiger, Martha, Russel, Jane |title=This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics |publisher=United States Geological Survey |location=Reston, VA |date=1996 |edition=Online |chapter=Understanding Plate Motions |isbn=978-0-16-048220-5 |chapter-url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html |access-date=13 March 2009 |archive-date=10 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810162308/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Per exemplo: * Crestas medio-oceanic, regiones elevate in le fundo marin ubi existe respiraculos hydrothermal e vulcanos, es considerate como bordos divergente, ubi duo placas se separa. * Arcos vulcanic e le [[seismo]]s es considerate limites convergente, ubi un platta subduce, o se move, sub un altere. * Le bordos transformante, como le systema de [[fallia]] de San Andreas, produceva forte seismos extensive. Le tectonica de placas ha etiam fornite un mechanismo pro le theoria de [[Alfred Wegener]] super le [[deriva continental]],<ref>{{Cite book | last=Wegener | first=A. | url=https://archive.org/details/originsofcontine0000unse | title=Origin of continents and oceans | publisher=Courier Corporation | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-486-61708-4 | url-access=registration}}</ref> in le qual le continentes se move super le superficie del Terra durante le tempore geologic. Illo ha fornite un fortia motivante pro le deformation del crusta, e un nove scenario pro le observationes del geologia structural. Le potentia del theoria del tectonica de placas reside in su capacitate de combinar tote iste observationes in un sol theoria super como le lithosphera se move super le mantello convective.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Plate Tectonics | first=Stephan S. | last=Brusatte | editor-first=H. James | editor-last=Birx | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology, & Culture | publisher=SAGE Publications | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-5063-1993-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9551CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1740 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | chapter=Plate Tectonics: Oceans, Continents, Plates, and How They Interact | first=Elisabeth | last=Ervin-Blankenheim | pages=114–136 | date=August 2021 | title=Song of the Earth: Understanding Geology and Why It Matters | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-750249-5 | doi=10.1093/oso/9780197502464.003.0007 }}</ref> === Structura del Terra === [[File:Jordens inre-numbers.svg|thumb|left|Le structura stratificate del Terra. (1) nucleo interne; (2) nucleo externe; (3) mantello inferior; (4) mantello superior; (5) lithosphera; (6) crusta (parte del lithosphera).]] [[File:Earthquake wave paths.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Structura a stratos del Terra. Le trajectorias typic de undas de seismos, como iste, permitteva al prime seismologos comprender le structura stratificate del Terra.]] Le progresso in seismologia, modellisation numeric, mineralogia e crystallographia a alte temperaturas e pressiones permitte comprender le composition e structura interne del Terra.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Choudhury | first1=N. | last2=Chaplot | first2=S. L. | chapter=Inelastic neutron scattering and lattice dynamics: perspectives and challenges in mineral physics | title=Neutron Applications in Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences | pages=145–188 | series=Neutron Scattering Applications and Techniques | display-editors=1 | editor1-first=Liyuan | editor1-last=Liang | editor2-first=Romano | editor2-last=Rinaldi | editor3-first=Helmut | editor3-last=Schober | publisher=Springer Science & Business Media | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-387-09416-8 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxPiagyAhBYC&pg=PA146 }}</ref> Le seismologos pote usar le tempore de arrivata del undas seismic pro crear imagines del interior del Terra. Le prime progresso in iste campo monstra le existentia de un nucleo externe liquide (ubi le [[Unda S|undas seismic]] non pote propagar se) e un nucleo interne solide e dense. Isto duceva al disveloppamento de un modello stratificate del Terra, con un crusta e un lithosphera in le parte superior, le mantello subjacente (separate internemente per discontinuitates seismic a 410 e 660 kilometros), e le nucleo externe e interne in le partes plus profunde.<ref name=Fichtner_2010/><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Goes | first1=Saskia | title=Compositional heterogeneity in the mantle transition zone | journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment | year=2022 | volume=3 | issue=8 | pages=533–550 | doi=10.1038/s43017-022-00312-w | bibcode=2022NRvEE...3..533G | hdl=1721.1/148207 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Plus recentemente, le seismologos ha potite crear imagines detaliate del velocitates del undas in le interior del Terra, de maniera similar a como un medico crea imagines medical per [[tomographia]]. Iste imagines permitteva un vista plus detaliate del interior del Terra e reimplaciava le modello simplificate a stratos per un modello plus dynamic.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Seismic wavefield imaging of Earth's interior across scales | first=Jeroen | last=Tromp | journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment Volume | volume=1 | pages=40–53 | year=2020 | doi=10.1038/s43017-019-0003-8 }}</ref><ref name=Fichtner_2010>{{cite book | chapter=Preliminaries | title=Full Seismic Waveform Modelling and Inversion | series=Advances in Geophysical and Environmental Mechanics and Mathematics | first=Andreas | last=Fichtner | publisher=Springer Science & Business Media | year=2010 | isbn=978-3-642-15807-0 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wuXvkbQKgkwC&pg=PA1 }}</ref> Le mineralogos ha potite usar le datos de pression e temperatura de studios seismic e de modellisation, plus le sapientia del composition elemental del Terra, pro reproducer iste conditiones in ambientes experimental e mesurar le cambios in structura crystallin.<ref>{{cite journal | title=101 geodynamic modelling: how to design, interpret, and communicate numerical studies of the solid Earth | display-authors=1 | first1=Iris | last1=van Zelst | first2=Fabio | last2=Crameri | first3=Adina E. | last3=Pusok | first4=Anne | last4=Glerum | first5=Juliane | last5=Dannberg | first6=Cedric | last6=Thieulot | journal=Solid Earth | volume=13 | issue=3 | pages=583–637 | year=2022 | publisher=European Geosciences Union | doi=10.5194/se-13-583-2022 | bibcode=2022SolE...13..583V | doi-access=free }}</ref> Iste studios explica le cambios chimic associate con le principal discontinuitates seismic del mantello<ref>{{cite journal | title=Compositional heterogeneity in the mantle transition zone | display-authors=1 | first1=Saskia | last1=Goes | first2=Chunquan | last2=Yu | first3=Maxim D. | last3=Ballmer | first4=Jun | last4=Yan | first5=Robert D. | last5=van der Hilst | journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment | volume=3 | pages=533–550 | year=2022 | issue=8 | doi=10.1038/s43017-022-00312-w | bibcode=2022NRvEE...3..533G }}</ref> e monstra le structuras crystallin expectate in le nucleo interne del Terra.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Elastic properties of body-centered cubic iron in Earth's inner core | display-authors=1 | first1=Anatoly B. | last1=Belonoshko | first2=Sergei I. | last2=Simak | first3=Weine | last3=Olovsson | first4=Olga Yu. | last4=Vekilova | journal=Physical Review B | volume=105 | article-number=L180102 | date=May 23, 2022 | issue=18 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.105.L180102 | bibcode=2022PhRvB.105r0102B }}</ref> == Disciplinas de geologia e disciplinas associate == Como scientia de campo e de laboratorio, le geologia se divide in plure disciplinas, alcunes plus descriptive, alteres plus phenomenologic. Ab le plus ancian disciplinas disveloppate durante le seculos 17 e 18 ([[petrologia]], [[stratigraphia]], [[paleontologia]]) usque al plus recente ([[geologia planetari]], scientia del systema Terra), iste disciplinas — specialmente illos focalisate super le functionamento del planeta Terra — representa sin dubita un maniera de melio comprender le mundo contemporanee e su questiones social, ambiental e geopolitic: como le occurrentia de seismos, vulcanismo, [[cyclon]]es e riscos associate, le accesso al aqua, le [[cambiamento climatic]], le necessitate de ressources natural, materiales de construction, [[pollution]], etc. Illos es etiam un medio pro guidar le citatanos in le preparation de un societate educate e responsabile.<ref>{{ouvrage|auteur=Anne-Sophie Krémeur, Aude Vincent, Nicolas Coltice|titre=Géologie: Les fondamentaux|éditeur=Dunod|date=2019|passage=1}}.</ref> === Studio del petras e de lor historia === ==== Petrographia e petrologia ==== Le [[petrographia]] es le studio descriptive del [[petra]]s. Secundo le typo de petra studiate, on parla de petrographia magmatic, sedimentari o metamorphic. Un studio petrographic consiste in describer le characteristicas de un petra (textura, composition mineralogic, porositate, etc.) per observationes directe, tanto macroscopic como microscopic, e per datos obtenite via analyses de specimenes per varie methodos (diffraction de [[radio X|radios X]], [[microsonda]], etc.). Si le petrographia ha solmente le objectivo de describer le petras, le petrologia es le disciplina que cerca determinar le mechanismos de formation e evolution de un petra. Un studio petrologic es experimental e cerca modellar le conditiones in le quales un petra se forma e evolve durante su historia, basante se super datos de diverse analyses (petrographic, chimic, etc.). On distingue inter petrologia exogene, que tracta le processos de formation del petras sedimentari al superficie del Terra,<ref>{{Lien web|langue=fr |auteur=Jean Cauzid |url=http://www.geologie.uhp-nancy.fr/Php/disciplines_petro_exo.php |titre=Pétrologie exogène |date=28 juillet 2009 |site=geologie.uhp-nancy.fr |éditeur=Université de Lorraine |consulté le=19 juin 2014}}.</ref> e petrologia endogene, que se concentra super le processos de formation del petras magmatic e le processos metamorphic intra le lithosphera.<ref>{{Lien web|langue=fr |auteur=Jean Cauzid |url=http://www.geologie.uhp-nancy.fr/Php/disciplines_petro_endo.php |titre=Pétrologie endogène |date=28 juillet 2009 |site=geologie.uhp-nancy.fr |éditeur=Université de Lorraine |consulté le=19 juin 2014}}.</ref> ==== Mineralogia ==== [[File:Ritagli di Lecca, Fondachelli Fantina.JPG|197px|right|thumb|Le differente colores in le imagine monstra le varie petras que compone le montania Ritagli di Lecca, vidite ab Fondachelli Fantina, [[Sicilia]].]] Le le mineralogia, un branca associate simultaneemente al chimia e al geologia, es le studio e le characterisation del minerales, substantias solide e homogenee, generalmente inorganic, del quales se compone le petras. Pro le multe characteristicas e proprietates chimic e physic del minerales, e tamben pro lor grande diversitate, le mineralogia se basa super multe subdisciplinas, como le crystallographia (structura), le physica (proprietates optic, radioactivitate…), o le chimia (formula chimic…). Como le minerales ha un rolo essential in geologia, le mineralogia es un disciplina quasi indispensabile in omne studio geologic. Illa permitte determinar multe parametros (duressa, clivage, fractura, composition chimic…) del varie phases mineral e de lor interactiones. ==== Stratigraphia ==== [[File:Ora Formation.JPG|197px|right|thumb|Le stratos geologic normalmente se superpone del plus vetule (in basso) al plus recente (in alto).]] Le [[stratigraphia]], a vices appellate geologia historic, es un branca multidisciplinari que studia le disposition del varie stratos geologic pro obtener informationes temporal. Illo se basa sur plure typos de studios differente, como le [[lithostratigraphia]] (studio del lithologia), [[biostratigraphia]] (studio del fossiles e biofacies) o [[magnetostratigraphia]] (studios magnetic). Le correlation del informationes obtenite ab iste disciplinas permitte datar le stratos geologic in maniera relative le unes al alteres, e positionar los con precision super le scala del tempore geologic. Iste studios se basa sur un serie de principios que explica le logica del arrangiamento del stratos geologic: le principio de superposition, le principio de continuitate, le principio de identitate paleontologic, le principio del uniformismo, etc.<ref>{{Harvsp|Foucault & Raoult|2010|p=339|id=Foucault2010}}.</ref> Le stratigraphia ha multe applicationes, tanto in scientia como in industria. Le elaboration del scala del tempores geologic es realisate per le informationes stratigraphic colligite globalmente; isto es appellate [[chronostratigraphia]]. Le uso de methodos seismic permitte etiam studiar le sequentias de deposition al margine del bassinos sedimentari, ubi le succession del sequentias es controlate per le variationes del nivello del mar e del activitate tectonic — in iste caso, on parla de stratigraphia sequential. Le studio de iste arrangiamentos de stratos es etiam utile in le recerca de [[hydrocarburo]]s.<ref>{{Lien web|langue=fr |url=http://www.insu.cnrs.fr/terre-solide/stratigraphie-sequentielle-histoire-principes-et-applications |titre=Stratigraphie séquentielle, Histoire, principes et applications |date=1{{er}} novembre 2009 |site=insu.cnrs.fr |consulté le=19 juin 2014}}.</ref> ==== Paleontologia ==== [[File:Elrathia-kingii-dorsal.jpg|thumb|right|Trilobita, un taxon characteristic del Paleozoic.]] Le [[paleontologia]] es un disciplina inter geologia e biologia. Paleontologos studia organismos extincte per le analyse de [[fossile]]s pro deducer conclusiones phylogenetic e comprender lor evolution trans le tempores geologic. Le studio de fossiles microscopic se appella [[micropaleontologia]]. Le paleontologia se connecte al geologia per le uso de fossiles characteristic, appellate fossiles stratigraphic, que permitte datar con precision un strato geologic. Le typos de species presente in iste stratos permitte etiam reconstituer le paleo-ambiente correspondente al epocha del deposition del strato studiate. Per le studio del evolution del species fossile, le recercatores pote etiam obtener informationes sur le variationes del ambientes e del climate durante le tempores geologic<ref name="pal">{{Lien web|langue=fr |url=http://www.isem.univ-montp2.fr/recherche/equipes/paleontologie/presentation/ |titre=Paléontologie - Présentation |date=2011 |site=isem.univ-montp2.fr |éditeur=Institut des sciences de l'évolution de Montpellier |consulté le=20 juin 2014}}.</ref><ref>{{Lien web|langue=fr |url=http://www.futura-sciences.com/magazines/terre/infos/dico/d/paleontologie-paleontologie-11866/ |titre=Paléontologie |site=[[Futura (portail web)|Futura]] |consulté le=20 juin 2014}}.</ref>. === Studios del dynamica terrestre === ==== Geodynamica ==== Le [[geodynamica]] non es un disciplina scientific, ma un approximation, con le scopo de characterisar le fortias e le phenomenos implicate in le evolution general del systema Terra e su interactiones mutual<ref>{{Harvsp|Foucault & Raoult|2010|p=154|id=Foucault2010}}.</ref>. ==== Tectonica ==== Le [[tectonica]] es le branca del geologia que tracta del deformationes in le crusta terrestre. Illa se concentra principalmente super le relation inter le structuras geologic e le movimentos e fortias que causa lor formation. Le tectonica se applica al deformationes a tote le scalas de spatio e tempore intra le globo terrestre. Secundo le scala del objecto studiate, on parla de [[microtectonica]] pro le structuras microscopic, o de [[tectonica global]] pro le structuras de plure milles de kilometros<ref name="tectonique">{{Ouvrage|langue=fr|auteur1=Jacques Mercier|auteur2=Pierre Vergély|auteur3=Yves Missenard|titre=Tectonique|éditeur=Dunod|collection=Sciences de la Terre|année=2011|mois=septembre|jour=21|numéro d'édition=3|année première édition=1992|réimpression=1999|pages totales=232|passage=1 & 2|isbn=978-2-10-057142-0|lire en ligne=https://books.google.fr/books?id=gCDfmsywF3cC&printsec=frontcover|numéro chapitre=1|titre chapitre=Présentation}}.</ref>. Iste disciplina usa multe conceptos del [[physica de materiales]] e del mechanica de medios continue, lo que permitte studiar le natura del constrictiones super un petra o un gruppo de petras, e le responsa de iste petras al constrictiones que illos suffre. Iste studios permitte localisar in spatio e tempore le constrictiones e le deformationes que illos induce. Per extension, illos permitte obtener informationes sur le conditiones de formation del petras, que es frequentemente determinate per le contexto tectonic. === Studios del structuras geologic === ==== Geomorphologia ==== Le [[geomorphologia]] es le studio del formas del superficie terrestre e le processos natural que los forma e modifica. Illo analysa le relation inter structuras geologic, le [[climate]], le [[erosion]], le [[sedimentation]] e le activitate human pro comprender le evolution del [[paisage]]. ==== Geologia structural ==== A vices usate como synonymo de “tectonica” in le litteratura francese{{Require referentia|data=2025-12-24}}, le geologia structural se distingue de su cosina per un approximation plus geometric del deformationes. Ben que le objectos de studio del tectonica es commun con illos del geologia structural, iste ultime remane in un description purmente geometric del structuras geologic. Le studios structural, realisate a partir de datos obtenite in le campo, permitte determinar le geometria del differente typos de deformationes (pendente de un fractura, immersion de un axe de plicatura…). Iste resultatos permitte determinar le direction del principal constrictiones, e forni informationes utile in le quadro de un studio tectonic. ==== Vulcanologia ==== Le [[vulcanologia]] es le disciplina geologic que studia le [[vulcano]]s, le eruptiones vulcanic, e le processos associate al formation e al activitate del vulcanos. Illo examina le composition del [[magma]], le dynamica del eruptiones, le formation del paisage vulcanic, e le riscos natural associate. Le objectivo es comprender le mechanismos interne del Terra, assi como prevenir e mitigar le effectos del activitate vulcanic sur le populationes e le ambiente. ==== Glaciologia ==== Le [[glaciologia]] es le studio del [[glaciero]]s, del [[Calotte glaciari|calottes glaciari]], e del processos ligate al [[glacie]] e al formation de [[nive]]. Illo tracta del dynamica de massas glacial, lor interaction con le [[climate]], lor contribution al nivello del [[mar]], e lor rolo in le formation del [[paisage]]. Le glaciologia ha un rolo clave in le comprehension del [[Cambio de climate|cambios climatic]] actual. === Disciplinas associate === ==== Geophysica ==== Le [[geophysica]] es le disciplina que applica principios [[Physica|physic]] al studio del Terra. Illa explora le proprietates physic del interior terrestre, le campos [[Gravitate|gravitational]] e magnetic, le propagation del [[Unda seismic|undas seismic]], e altere phenomenos natural. Le [[geodesia]], un subdisciplina, tracta del mesura precise del forma e dimensiones del planeta, assi como de su campo de gravitate. ==== Geochimia ==== Le [[geochimia]] examina le composition chimic del Terra e le processos chimic que regula su structura e evolution. Illo studia le distribution e le interaction del elementos chimic in [[petra]]s, [[aqua]]s, [[atmosphera]] e [[organismo]]s, e ha applicationes in le exploration de ressources natural, pollution, e comprehension del historia geologic. ==== Speleologia ==== Le [[speleologia]] es le studio scientific del [[caverna]]s e systemas [[karst]]ic. Illo implica le exploration, mesura e analyse del formationes subterranee, lor evolution, [[hydrologia]] e ecosystemas. Es un campo interdisciplinari que involve le geologia, [[biologia]], [[geochimia]] e [[physica]]. ==== Climatologia ==== Le [[climatologia]] es le studio del [[climate]] e de su variabilitate a longe termino, includente le effectos human e natural. Le [[oceanographia]] studia le [[oceano]]s e [[mar]]es del [[Terra]], lor composition, circulation, e interactiones con le climate e le [[biosphera]]. Ambe disciplinas es essential in le comprehension del systema Terra. ==== Geologia planetari ==== Le [[geologia planetari]] es le application del principios geologic al studio de planetas, lunas e altere [[Corpore celeste|corpores celeste]]. Illo cerca comprender lor historia geologic, lor structura, e lor processos superficial in comparation con illos del Terra. == Vide etiam == * [[Crystallographia]] * [[Speleologia]] * [[Gemmologia]] * [[Geographia]] * [[Geologia historic]] * [[Geomorphologia]] * [[Mineralogia]] * [[Sedimentologia]] * [[Tectonica de placas]] * [[Era geologic]] {{Referentias}} {{Traduction|en|Geology|1297880865}} {{Traduction|fr|Géologie|220039558}} {{Traduction|es|Geología|167797865}} [[Categoria:Geologia| ]] i6lvc1j19bjwbie5wptavy4nasxmbhs 0 1335 698254 697327 2026-08-03T23:43:45Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/instantia de entitate territorial}} '''Germania'''{{linfoX}},{{efn|''Deutschland'', {{IPA|de|ˈdɔʏtʃlant|lang|De-Deutschland.ogg}}}} officialmente le '''Republica Federal de Germania''',{{efn|''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'', {{IPA|de|ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant|lang|De-Bundesrepublik Deutschland.ogg}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Duden, Aussprachewörterbuch|publisher=Dudenverlag|year=2005|isbn=978-3-411-04066-7|editor-last=Mangold|editor-first=Max|edition=6th|pages=271, 53f|language=de}}</ref>}} es un pais in [[Europa occidental|occidental]] e [[Europa central|central]]. Illo se trova inter le [[Mar Baltic]] e le [[Mar del Nord]] al nord con le [[Alpes]] al sud. Su dece-sex [[Statos de Germania|statos constituente]] ha [[Demographia de Germania|un population total]] de plus de 82 milliones, lo que face de illo le [[Stato membro del Union Europee|stato membro le plus populate del Union Europee]]. Germania confina con [[Danmark]] al nord; [[Polonia]] e le [[Republica Chec]] al est; [[Austria]] e [[Suissa]] al sud; e [[Francia]], [[Luxemburg]], [[Belgica]], e le [[Nederlandia]] al west. Le [[Capital de Germania|capital del nation]] e [[Lista de citates in Germania per population|citate le plus populate]] es [[Berlin]] e su principal centro financiari es [[Frankfurt]]; le area urban le plus grande es le [[Ruhr]]. == Geographia == Germania borda al nord con le [[Mar del Nord]], [[Danmark]] e le [[Mar Baltic]]; al est con [[Polonia]] e le [[Republica Chec]]; al sud con [[Austria]] e [[Switza]], e al west con [[Francia]], [[Luxemburg]], [[Belgica]] e le [[Paises Basse]]. == Historia == Durante le major parte de su historia, Germania esseva un termino geographic utilisate pro designar un area occupate per varie statos. Illo se convertiva in un stato unificate durante 74 annos ([[1871]]-[[1945]]), ma esseva dividite al fin del [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]] in le ''Republica Federal de Germania'' (RFG, cognoscite como Germania Occidental) e le ''[[Republica Democratic German]]'' (RDG, cognoscite como Germania Oriental). Le [[3 de octobre]] de [[1990]], le RDG deveniva parte del RFG, per lo que Germania deveniva un nation unificate. [[Berlin]] es le capital e le citate plus importante del moderne Germania. === Prehistoria === {{AP|Cultura del ceramica linear|Cultura de Unetice|Cultura del campos de urnas|Celtas}} Humanos antique esseva presente in Germania al minus 600.000 annos retro.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=G. A |last2=Krbetschek |first2=M |last3=Degering |first3=D |last4=Bahain |first4=J.-J |last5=Shao |first5=Q |last6=Falgueres |first6=C |last7=Voinchet |first7=P |last8=Dolo |first8=J.-M |last9=Garcia |first9=T |last10=Rightmire |first10=G. P |date=27 August 2010 |title=Radiometric dating of the type-site for Homo heidelbergensis at Mauer, Germany |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2010-11-16_107_46/page/19726 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=107 |issue=46 |pages=19726–19730 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1012722107 |pmc=2993404 |pmid=21041630 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Le prime fossile human non-moderne (le [[Homo neanderthalensis|Neanderthal]]) esseva discoperite in le [[Neandertal (valle)|Valle de Neander]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html|publisher=Natural History Museum|title=Who were the Neanderthals?|last=Hendry|first=Lisa|date=5 May 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330003649/https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html|archivedate=30 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Evidentia de humanos moderne con dates simile ha essite trovate in le [[Caves e arte del etate de glacie in le Jura suabe|Jura suabe]], includente [[Flauta paleolitic|flautas]] de 42.000 annos de etate que es le instrumentos musical le plus antique jam trovate,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18196349 |title=Earliest music instruments found |date=25 May 2012 |work=BBC News |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903041534/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18196349 |archivedate=3 September 2017 }}</ref> le [[Homine-leon]] de 40.000 annos,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theartnewspaper.com/articles/Ice-Age-iLion-Mani-is-worlds-earliest-figurative-sculpture/28595 |title=Ice Age Lion Man is world's earliest figurative sculpture |date=31 January 2013 |website=[[The Art Newspaper]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215162121/http://www.theartnewspaper.com/articles/Ice-Age-iLion-Mani-is-worlds-earliest-figurative-sculpture/28595 |archivedate=15 February 2015 }}</ref> e le [[Venus de Hohle Fels]] de 41.000 annos.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Nature|volume=459|title=A female figurine from the basal Aurignacian of Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern Germany|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-05-14_459_7244/page/248|last=Conard|first=Nicholas|year=2009|issue=7244|pages=248–252|doi=10.1038/nature07995|pmid=19444215}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uni-tuebingen.de/en/news/press-releases/newsfullview-pressemitteilungen/article/es-muss-eigentlich-eine-frau-sein.html | title="It must be a woman" – The female depictions from Hohle Fels date to 40,000 years ago... | publisher=Universität Tübingen | date=22 July 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011145105/https://www.uni-tuebingen.de/en/news/press-releases/newsfullview-pressemitteilungen/article/es-muss-eigentlich-eine-frau-sein.html | archivedate=11 October 2016 | url-status=dead | df=mdy-all }}</ref> === Tribos germanic, frontiera roman e le Imperio Franc === {{AP|Cultura de Jastorf|Populos germanic|Periodo de migrationes|Regno franc}} [[File:Trier 012.JPG|thumb|[[Aula Palatina|Basilica de Constantino]] in [[Trier]] (''[[Augusta Treverorum]]''), construite in le seculo 4]] On pensa que le [[populos germanic]] [[Ethnogenesis|emergeva]] del [[Cultura de Jastorf|cultura de Jastorf]] durante le [[Etate de Bronzo nordic]] o le prime [[Etate de Ferro preroman]].<ref name="Heather">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082 |title=Germany: Ancient History |last=Heather |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Heather |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |accessdate=21 November 2020|archivedate=31 March 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331232159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Germanic Tribes (Teutons)|website=History Files |url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/BarbarianGermanics.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200426121258/https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/BarbarianGermanics.htm |archivedate=26 April 2020 |url-status=live|accessdate=16 March 2020}}</ref> Ab le sud de [[Scandinavia]] e le [[Germania|nord de Germania]], illes se expandeva verso le sud, le est e le west, entrando in contacto con le tribos [[Celtas|celtic]], [[Populos iranian|iranian]], [[Baltos|baltic]] e [[Slavos antique|slave]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_g6n9/page/35 |title=Medieval Experience: 300–1400 |last=Claster |first=Jill N. |publisher=New York University Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8147-1381-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_g6n9/page/35 35]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Hickey |editor-first=Raymond |chapter=Contact and the History of Germanic Languages|last=Roberge|first=Paul |title=The Handbook of Language Contact |date=2020 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd. |isbn=978-1119485025 |edition=2nd |pages=323–325|doi=10.1002/9781119485094.ch16 }}</ref> Le sud de Germania esseva habitate per populos de lingua celtic, qui pertineva al [[Cultura de La Tène|cultura de La Tène]] plus ample. Illes esseva plus tarde assimilate per le conquirentes germanic.<ref name="Heather2">{{cite web |last=Heather |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Heather |title=Germany: Ancient History |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331232159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082 |archivedate=31 March 2019 |accessdate=21 November 2020 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] }}</ref> Sub [[Augusto]], le [[Imperio Roman]] comenciava a invader terras habitate per le tribos germanic, creante un breve provincia roman de [[Germania Antiqua]] inter le fluvios [[Rheno]] e [[Elba]]. In le anno 9 d.C., tres [[Legion roman|legiones roman]] esseva [[Battalia del Foreste de Teutoburg|vincite]] per [[Arminio]] in le [[Battalia del Foreste de Teutoburg]].<ref>{{cite book|page=13|title=The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest|last=Wells|first=Peter|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2004|isbn=978-0-393-35203-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bordewich |first=Fergus M. |title=The Ambush That Changed History |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-ambush-that-changed-history-72636736/ |date=September 2006 |website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> Le resultato de iste battalia dissuadeva le romanos de lor ambition de conquirer [[Germania]] e es assi considerate un del eventos le plus importante in le [[Historia de Europa|historia europee]].{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=57}} Verso le anno 100 d.C., quando [[Tacito]] scribeva ''[[Germania (libro)|Germania]]'', le tribos germanic se habeva stabilite al longo del Rheno e del Danubio (le [[Limes Germanicus]]), occupante le major parte del Germania moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frontiers of the Roman Empire – The Lower German Limes |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1631/ |accessdate=10 April 2025 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> Tamen, [[Baden-Württemberg]], le sud de [[Bavaria]], le sud de [[Hesse]] e le [[Renania]] occidental habeva [[Guerras germanic|essite incorporate]] in [[Provincia roman|provincias roman]].{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|pp=9–13}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Modi |first=J. J. |date=1916 |title=The Ancient Germans: Their History, Constitution, Religion, Manners and Customs |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheJournalOfTheAnthropologicalSocietyOfBombay/The-Journal-of-the-Anthropological-society-of-Bombay#page/n651/mode/2up |journal=The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay |volume=10 |issue=7 |quote=Raetia (modern Bavaria and the adjoining country) |page=647}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Ancient History: X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C. – A.D. 69 |last=Rüger |first=C. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-26430-3 |editor-last=Bowman |editor-first=Alan K. |edition=2nd |volume=10 |pages=527–28 |chapter=Germany |orig-year=1996 |editor-last2=Champlin |editor-first2=Edward |editor-last3=Lintott |editor-first3=Andrew |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZLW4-wba7UC&pg=PA528 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223193524/https://books.google.com/books?id=JZLW4-wba7UC&pg=PA528 |archivedate=23 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Circa 260, populos germanic irrumpeva in terras controlate per le romanos.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The crisis of empire, A.D. 193–337 |last1=Bowman |first1=Alan K. |last2=Garnsey |first2=Peter |last3=Cameron |first3=Averil |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-30199-2 |series=The Cambridge Ancient History |volume=12 |page=442}}</ref> Post le invasion del [[Hunos]] in 375, e con le declino de Roma ab 395, tribos germanic se moveva plus al sud-west: le francos establiva le [[Regno Franc]] e pulsava verso le est pro subjugar [[Ducato de Saxonia|Saxonia]] e [[Ducato de Bavaria|Bavaria]]. Areas del moderne Germania oriental esseva habitate per tribos [[Slavos occidental|slave occidental]].{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|pp=9–13}} === Francia Oriental e le Sacre Imperio Roman === {{Main|Francia Oriental|Sacre Imperio Roman}} [[File:East Francia 843.svg|thumb|[[Francia Oriental]] in 843]] [[File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Martin Luther, 1528 (Veste Coburg).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Martin Luther]], nascite in [[Eisleben]] in 1483, contestava le indulgentias del [[Ecclesia Catholic]], dante origine al [[Reformation]] e al [[Protestantismo]].]] [[Carolo Magne]] fundava le [[Imperio Carolingian]] in 800; illo esseva [[Tractato de Verdun|dividite in 843]].{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|p= 11}} Le regno successor oriental de [[Francia Oriental]] se extendeva del Rheno in le west al fluvio Elba in le est e del Mar del Nord al Alpes.{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|p= 11}} Subsequentemente, le Sacre Imperio Roman emergeva de illo. Le regnantes [[Ottonian]] (919–1024) consolidava plure major [[Ducato radice|ducatos]].<ref>{{cite book|page=55|title=Franks and Saracens|last=Falk|first=Avner|publisher=Routledge|year=2018|isbn=978-0-429-89969-0}}</ref> In 996, [[Papa Gregorio V|Gregorio V]] deveniva le prime Papa german, nominate per su cosino [[Otton III]], a qui ille coronava pauc postea como Sacre Imperator Roman. Le Sacre Imperio Roman absorbeva le Italia del nord e [[Burgundia (region historic)|Burgundia]] sub le imperatores [[Salian]] (1024–1125), ben que le imperatores perdeva poter per le [[Controversia del Investitura]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Lives of the Popes: The Pontiffs from St. Peter to Benedict XVI |last=McBrien, Richard |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2000 |page=138}}</ref> Sub le imperatores del [[Domo de Hohenstaufen|Hohenstaufen]] (1138–1254), principes german incoragiava le colonisation german al sud e al est ({{lang|de|[[Ostsiedlung]]}}).{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|pp= 19–20}} Membros del [[Liga Hanseatic]], principalmente citates del Germania del nord, prosperava in le expansion del commercio.{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|pp= 13–24}} Le population declinava a partir del [[Grande Fame de 1315–1317|Grande Fame]] in 1315, sequite per le [[Morte Nigre]] de 1348–1350.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nelson |first=Lynn Harry |url=http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/black_death.html |title=The Great Famine (1315–1317) and the Black Death (1346–1351) |publisher=University of Kansas |accessdate=19 March 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429072010/http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/black_death.html |archivedate=29 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Le [[Bulla de Auro de 1356|Bulla de Auro]] promulgate in 1356 forniva le structura constitutional del Imperio e codificava le election del imperator per septe [[principe-elector]]es.{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|p= 27}} [[Johannes Gutenberg]] introduceva le imprimeria de typos mobile in Europa, ponente le base pro le [[democratisation del cognoscentia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Eisenstein|first=Elizabeth|year=1980|pages=[https://archive.org/details/printingpressasa00eise_181/page/n24 3]–43|title=The printing press as an agent of change|url=https://archive.org/details/printingpressasa00eise_181|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29955-8}}</ref> In 1517, [[Martin Luther]] incitava le Reformation Protestante e [[Biblia de Luther|su traduction del Biblia]] comenciava le standardisation del lingua; le [[Pace de Augsburg]] de 1555 tolerava le fide "evangelic" ([[Lutheranismo]]), sed etiam decretava que le fide del principe debeva esser le fide de su subditos ({{lang|la|[[cuius regio, eius religio]]}}).<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.barcelonagse.eu/sites/default/files/working_paper_pdfs/540.pdf|last=Cantoni|first=Davide|title=Adopting a New Religion: The Case of Protestantism in 16th Century Germany|year=2011|journal=Barcelona GSE Working Paper Series|accessdate=17 March 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809160613/http://www.barcelonagse.eu/sites/default/files/working_paper_pdfs/540.pdf|archivedate=9 August 2017|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809160613/http://www.barcelonagse.eu/sites/default/files/working_paper_pdfs/540.pdf |date=9 August 2017 }}</ref> Del [[Guerra de Cologne]] usque al [[Guerra del Trenta Annos]] (1618–1648), conflictos religiose devastava le terras german e reduceva significativemente le population.<ref name="Philpott">{{Cite journal |last=Philpott |first=Daniel |date=January 2000 |title=The Religious Roots of Modern International Relations |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-politics_2000-01_52_2/page/206 |journal=World Politics |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=206–245 |doi=10.1017/S0043887100002604|ssrn=1424223 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/savagewarsofpeac0000macf/page/51 |title=The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian Trap |last=Macfarlane |first=Alan |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-631-18117-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/savagewarsofpeac0000macf/page/51 51]}}</ref> Le [[Pace de Westfalia]] finiva le guerra religiose inter le [[Statos Imperial]].<ref name="Philpott" /> Le systema legal initiate per un serie de [[Reforma Imperial|Reformas Imperial]] (approximatemente 1495–1555) forniva un considerabile autonomia local e un plus forte [[Dieta Imperial (Sacre Imperio Roman)|Dieta Imperial]].<ref>{{cite book|page=113 |last1=Härter |first1=Karl|chapter=The Early Modern Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (1495–1806): A Multi-Layered Legal System |title=Law and Empire: Ideas, Practices, Actors|editor1=Jeroen Duindam |editor2=Jill Diana Harries |editor3=Caroline Humfress |editor4=Hurvitz Nimrod |publisher=Brill|year=2013|isbn=978-90-04-24951-6|doi=10.1163/9789004249516_007}}</ref> Le [[Domo de Habsburg]] teneva le corona imperial de 1438 usque al morte de [[Carolo VI, Sacre Imperator Roman|Carolo VI]] in 1740. Post le [[Guerra de Succession Austrian]] e le [[Tractato de Aquisgrano (1748)|Tractato de Aquisgrano]], le filia de Carolo VI, [[Maria Theresa]], regnava como [[Regina consorte|imperatrice consorte]] quando su sposo, [[Francisco I, Sacre Imperator Roman|Francisco I]], deveniva imperator.<ref>{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturespowereur00scot_130/page/n62 45]|title=Cultures of Power in Europe during the Long Eighteenth Century|editor1=Hamish Scott |editor2=Brendan Simms|year=2007 |url=https://archive.org/details/culturespowereur00scot_130|url-access=limited|isbn=978-1-139-46377-5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=British Museum|accessdate=15 March 2020|url=https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/term_details.aspx?bioId=49231|title=Maria Theresa, Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia|archivedate=20 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620152726/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG111929|url-status=live}}</ref> A partir de 1740, le [[dualismo german]] inter le [[monarchia de Habsburg]] austrian e le [[Regno de Prussia]] dominava le historia german. In 1772, 1793, e 1795, Prussia e Austria, insimul con le [[Imperio Russe]], concordava le [[Partitiones de Polonia]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change |url=https://archive.org/details/historyeasterneu00bide_296 |url-access=limited |last1=Bideleux |first1=Robert |last2=Jeffries |first2=Ian |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyeasterneu00bide_296/page/n171 156]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Region, State and Identity in Central and Eastern Europe |last1=Batt |first1=Judy |last2=Wolczuk |first2=Kataryna |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |page=153}}</ref> Durante le periodo del [[Guerras del Revolution Francese]], le [[era napoleonic]] e le subsequente [[Recesso Final del Reichsdeputation|reunion final del Dieta Imperial]], le major parte del [[Citates Imperial Libere]] esseva annexate per territorios dynastic; le territorios ecclesiastic esseva secularisate e annexate. In 1806 le {{lang|de|Imperium}} esseva dissolvite; Francia, Russia, Prussia, e le Habsburgos (Austria) competeva pro le hegemonia in le statos german durante le [[Guerras Napoleonic]].{{sfn|Fulbrook |1991|p= 97}} == Statos federal de Germania == * [[Baden-Württemberg]] * [[Basse Saxonia]] * [[Bavaria]] * [[Berlin]] * [[Brandeburgo]] * [[Bremen (stato)|Bremen]] * [[Hamburgo]] * [[Hesse]] * [[Mecklenburgo-Pomerania Occidental]] * [[Rhenania del Nord-Westfalia]] * [[Rhenania-Palatinato]] * [[Saarland]] * [[Saxonia]] * [[Saxonia-Anhalt]] * [[Schleswig-Holstein]] * [[Thuringia]] == Parlamento del Republica Federal == In le parlamento german il ha 736 membros, eligite omne quatro annos. Situation post le election del [[26 de septembre]] [[2021]]: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Gruppo politic ! Abbreviation ! Numero de membros |- | Partito Union Christian Democratic | CDU || align="right" | 197 |- | Partito Socialdemocrate German | SPD || align="right" | 206 |- |Partito Sinistre | Linke || align="right" | 39 |- | Partito Verde / Coalition 63 | G / B90 || align="right" | 118 |- | Partito Union Christian Social | CSU || align="right" | 45 |- | Alternative por Germania | AfD || align="right" | 80 |- | Partito Libere Democratic | FDP || align="right" | 92 |- | '''Total''' || || align="right" | '''736''' |} == Economia == == Demographia == Germania es un pais con un alte population pro area. Sequente un calculo de anno 2011 Germania ha 80.767.463 habitantes. In 2010 le habitante medie habeva un etate de 43,7 annos e in 2013 un femina medie habeva 1,41 infantes. Malgrado cuje Germania ha plus mortes como nascentias le population de Germania incerar per immigration. 74 million habitantes ha un burgesia de Germania e 20% ha un origine non german. == Cultura == == Sport == Le sport plus popular in Germania es [[football]]. Germania esseva quatro vices campion del mundo ([[1954]], [[1974]], [[1990]], [[2014]]) e duo vices le campionato del mundo del football eveniva in Germania ([[1974]] e [[2006]]). == Religion == Religiones de Germania del Est * 31,2 % - [[Catholicismo|catholicos roman]] * 30,8 % - [[Protestantismo|protestantes]] * 30,0 % - [[Atheismo|sin religion]] * 3,9 % - [[Musulman|islamitas]] (3,2 mio.). * 3,0 % - [[Ecclesia Orthodoxe|orthodoxes]] == Vide etiam == == Citates Principal == == Ligamines externe == {{refer}} <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Statos federal de Germania}} {{UE}} {{elem|paises del mundo}} {{Paises de Europa}} [[Categoria:Germania|*]] 1u1jut6hjbgttwjirifhglxskeqfl78 102 1807 698286 698060 2026-08-04T03:41:12Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 698286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q6256 . ?item wdt:P30 wd:Q46 } |columns=item,P41,P94,label,P242,P36,P2046,P38,P297,description |sort=P30,label |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! imagine del bandiera ! imagine del scuto ! label ! position geographic ! capital ! area ! moneta ! ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 ! description |- | [[:d:Q20|Q20]] | [[File:Flag of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | [[Norvegia|Norvega]] | [[File:Europe-Norway.svg|center|48px]] | [[Oslo]]<ref name="ref_238811c00bbde06ebcef712fe55f6c4e005d6573d58ef9fc61e20136bd11c169">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/no.html</ref> | 385207 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f075e29ba400602608c9d0f2742b56de53a853804ebebcbdaa889a2bc9ca10eb">https://www.kartverket.no/kunnskap/Fakta-om-Norge/Arealstatistikk/Arealstatistikk-Norge/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q132643|corona norvegian]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:NO NO] | pais in Europa |- | [[:d:Q27|Q27]] | [[File:Flag of Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica de Irlanda]] | [[File:EU-Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Dublin]] | 69797 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1aca3d43d4cf0ba69f864fd92459be3c7e5347af31cbe9d7c89d86c03c615ca5">https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/key-facts-and-figures/life-eu_en</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:IE IE] | |- | [[:d:Q28|Q28]] | [[File:Flag of Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | [[Hungaria]] | [[File:EU-Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | [[Budapest]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 93011.4 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_0e8a04ccdbb38c486094c3321971af7815300f2cf7c847a315389a4c541782fc">http://www.ksh.hu/apps/shop.kiadvany?p_kiadvany_id=81322</ref> | ''[[:d:Q47190|forint hungare]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:HU HU] | |- | [[:d:Q29|Q29]] | [[File:Flag of Spain.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de España (variant).svg|center|48px]] | [[Espania]] | [[File:Spain on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Madrid]]<ref name="ref_71f48b845957dc61c36dc7c60d2661c2aebd68d9cc47907d548c76e59c9d3dc3">''[[:d:Q847664|constitution of Spain]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | 505990 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_71259f2df20025f4f6ebfbd2cea3654df36bc05b2af744c8bb54649653486875">http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario08/anu08_01entor.pdf</ref> | [[Euro]]<ref name="ref_a83b6ec5485bcf6625a88ed1d810e46891c86937cd293a13c9c96339df9ceb48">https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/html/index.en.html</ref> | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:ES ES] | |- | [[:d:Q31|Q31]] | [[File:Flag of Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great coat of arms of Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | [[Belgica]] | [[File:EU-Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | [[Brussel]]<ref name="ref_effb07acb78b00e96857dd630ea9dbef3dfa2b85064c06fc36d489bac27ac036">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/be.html</ref><ref name="ref_cf8ffd9fa05b0d7e236b0e111cb1395c12ffa35206a807cfeae261a0752a11b4">http://www.traveldir.org/belgium/</ref> | 30688 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_b6045ba397001d57a685257fa78ba294520cf6abae5c822cb219ab67a689bfa0">''[[:d:Q12480|Statbel]]''</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:BE BE] | |- | [[:d:Q32|Q32]] | [[File:Flag of Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Greater coat of arms of the grand-duchy of Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | [[Luxemburg]] | [[File:EU-Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | [[Luxemburg (citate)|Luxemburg]]<ref name="ref_31ff9a393dcba335ef95ebe7ec7b7cfaf816029e0c224a93b1ff9dea7ef2ae2b">https://luxembourg.public.lu/dam-assets/publications/tout-savoir-sur-le-grand-duche-de-luxembourg/tout-savoir-sur-le-grand-duche-de-luxembourg-en.pdf</ref> | 2586.36 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_c8e6fd9bce7de3930a7ec00313a19aa893cc51d30d6347b8cf3d0062efa2e83f">https://lustat.statec.lu</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:LU LU] | |- | [[:d:Q33|Q33]] | [[File:Flag of Finland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Finland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Finlandia]] | [[File:Finland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Helsinki]]<ref name="ref_318da0135bfb25d1f42d651688f070b4056ca932b27cf562763c8b665a912c1c">''[[:d:Q14334357|Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen]]''</ref> | 338478.34 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_45fa35ad65f8e138eaadf805bf5345a74d1792fe016fc52eff727dd0c68b6042">''[[:d:Q117800624|Area of Finland's municipalities 2023-01-01]]''</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:FI FI] | |- | [[:d:Q34|Q34]] | [[File:Flag of Sweden.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great coat of arms of Sweden.svg|center|48px]] | [[Svedia]] | [[File:Sweden on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Stockholm]] | 447425.16 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the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Varsovia]] | 312683 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_befea119af7b88a867f718383855db6d3f58746b050d5fd52e4d98760829a83e">''[[:d:Q9311474|Statistical Yearbook of Poland]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q123213|zloty polonese]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:PL PL] | |- | [[:d:Q37|Q37]] | [[File:Flag of Lithuania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Lithuania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lituania]] | [[File:Lithuania on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Vilnius]]<ref name="ref_8733203edf880b0fdce16649f429617b8e0121a1c001d8d42e043cd1c7c14f6e">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/lh.html</ref> | 65300 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_c92956357b061d1115c1d301b7b0e504d7c6d4547d6a61d3e759d4d2924cd32c">https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17536867</ref> | [[Euro]]<ref name="ref_e85ecc421b867904b4d65f25ee53e62ee873d5ef5f84b05f1db692603bdafe46">https://lietuva.lt/en/about_lithuania/quick_facts</ref><ref name="ref_c92956357b061d1115c1d301b7b0e504d7c6d4547d6a61d3e759d4d2924cd32c">https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17536867</ref> | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:LT LT] | |- | [[:d:Q38|Q38]] | [[File:Flag of Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Italia]] | [[File:Italy on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Roma]]<ref name="ref_bc3d19d9b31811e635d1687f26f2bde9f4c377e9839a06c8c97a2e653aa9a4f3">http://www.governo.it/costituzione-italiana/parte-seconda-ordinamento-della-repubblica/titolo-v-le-regionile-province-e-i</ref> | 302068 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_8f75b8c83fc8103d6bd5bf19dd786289cda0d0b87d5a016400665bd155f6e6a5">https://www.tuttitalia.it/italia/</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:IT IT] | Italia es un pais del sud de Europa, membro del Union Europee |- | [[:d:Q39|Q39]] | [[File:Flag of Switzerland.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_ab7fc05533a6a1045f2ce8ad338b0792ed51296f1397b7e775499d19e43c8e57">https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20091656/index.html#app1ahref0</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of Switzerland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Switza]] | [[File:Switzerland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Berna]]<ref name="ref_0080a764532c5d04f2a034ba39e581993e729ab6db18d709944b4f8bbb323f6a">https://www.bk.admin.ch/bk/de/home/dokumentation/gesetzgebung/rechtsbereiche-der-bk/abgeschlossene-gesetzgebungsprojekte/bundesstadtstatus-stadt-bern.html</ref> | 41291 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_5e2ad7e643fbd628f1fdbcaf44a25a09db7c28f256dd1b609e662806fb674840">https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiques/espace-environnement.html</ref> | ''[[:d:Q25344|franc switze]]''<ref name="ref_663e2930757545804a5b00c887b1bb8066e5be398347a05d0a012035d6dd16bb">http://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/19994336/index.html</ref> | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:CH CH]<ref name="ref_6cd8801fcdcc31cbeca09b4fb996c0a9fb9114f78fcc46b30c1e4ff7835db233">https://www.rts.ch/decouverte/monde-et-societe/histoire/6218180-quel-est-le-sens-du-sigle-ch.html</ref><ref name="ref_8ea1db8b436db3de339e6cc0fce3cf4e8fc7b1e1fa5586be6d4084d4d9e3f99f">https://www.youtube.com/shorts/8Qz9dNZoU4U</ref> | republica federal in Europa occidental |- | [[:d:Q40|Q40]] | [[File:Flag of Austria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Austria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Austria]] | [[File:EU-Austria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Vienna]]<ref name="ref_8c9140023642283c5ce8f0054419301e4e661b4d544d74f911a04dbe4e1b2919">''[[:d:Q1005391|Federal Constitutional Law]]''</ref> | 83878.99 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_337104bf542d61ec28a5b64ad960c201fe14eae452e70f309dab87be0ecfd867">http://www.statistik.at/web_de/static/k37_054436.pdf</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:AT AT] | |- | [[:d:Q41|Q41]] | [[File:Flag of Greece.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Greece.svg|center|48px]] | [[Grecia]] | [[File:Greece on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Athenas]]<ref name="ref_7f80c57339dd698c07901fec3c81610dd872f97c45364d2194c244d9e12c1466">http://europa.eu/about-eu/countries/member-countries/greece/index_en.htm</ref><ref name="ref_bbccf96b5d48698decad5413c8b90dacd924a8ba54e80d8c7e2a8f52fe06c774">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gr.html</ref> | 131957 kilometro quadrate | [[Euro]]<ref name="ref_c4645e1075bcebd44aa84cbb4b0d6c0ecd4ae11e2ee35b3e82ae94f8ec7e4cc6">http://www.traveldir.org/greece/</ref> | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:GR GR] | |- | [[:d:Q43|Q43]] | [[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Turchia]] | [[File:Turkey (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Ankara]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 783562 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q172872|lira turc]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:TR TR] | |- | [[:d:Q45|Q45]] | [[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Portugal.svg|center|48px]] | [[Portugal]] | [[File:Portugal on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lisbona]]<ref name="ref_2274eec7680da6de2af360ad52dc0dcb205135a73c09adf2640233a86ab74895">https://lisbonne.net/lisbonne-pas-capitale-du-portugal</ref> | 92225 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_75175874fc4cffd6c95463ffa3b26c832005e827e7b1a3e1d02a14147ea413cd">https://www.pordata.pt/Municipios/Superf%C3%ADcie-57</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:PT PT] | |- | [[:d:Q55|Q55]] | [[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal coat of arms of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Pais Basse|Paises Basse]] | [[File:Netherlands on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Amsterdam]]<ref name="ref_58dbd44dd08b9f37acd16121c2dec12ee17d24f5b3b22c695c03dcc4f9e05131">''[[:d:Q2299064|Constitution of the Netherlands]]''</ref> | 37378 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1ad7e72c8eabebd651004f5afd9a520aeb1efbabe68278ff0b7c63c9610d120c">https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/eu-countries/netherlands_nl</ref> | [[Euro]] | | pais constitutive del Regno del Paises Basse |- | [[:d:Q142|Q142]] | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_24586f4cbffe0665081df82c9c5e73f79348356487223b2dc34f514cfc958a02">https://www.europe1.fr/politique/info-e1-le-drapeau-francais-a-change-de-couleur-4076943</ref> | [[File:Arms of the French Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Francia]] | [[File:EU-France (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Paris]] | 643801 kilometro quadrate | [[Euro]]<br/>''[[:d:Q214393|CFP Franc]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:FR FR] | |- | [[:d:Q145|Q145]] | [[File:Flag of the United Kingdom (3-5).svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_2e1423dcb8b790e2e90a3897a27b6871f1f66485f3fef42b8884658e2a229779">https://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/resources/union-flag-approved-designs</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (2022, variant 2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Regno Unite]] | [[File:Europe-UK.svg|center|48px]] | [[London]] | 242495 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_0d356e1a2755f6d5be930f6bc59055a2c20ee6f0f75bdfd374f011057ad93137">https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012/Table03.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q25224|libra sterling]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:GB GB] | |- | [[:d:Q159|Q159]] | [[File:Flag of Russia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg|center|48px]] | [[Russia]] | [[File:LocationRussia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Moscova]] | 17075400 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_37732cd1eab02c3a98ee9629d52854ad13f32935f90a43c8dbbe19b35ecdca91">https://www.britannica.com/facts/Russia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q41044|rublo russe]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:RU RU] | |- | [[:d:Q183|Q183]] | [[File:Flag of Germany.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_1d422822f174182146a3ebf7ed95f411618ba7c64ac7d21c1e4fe9147edeb999">''[[:d:Q56045|Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]]''</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of Germany.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_7b1be4b5c5406071713a14f29b675da8b4bf2fcf605c1e15c08f26ab8844ae1f">''[[:d:Q836156|Bundesgesetzblatt]]''</ref> | [[Germania]] | [[File:Germany (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Berlin]]<ref name="ref_1d422822f174182146a3ebf7ed95f411618ba7c64ac7d21c1e4fe9147edeb999">''[[:d:Q56045|Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]]''</ref><ref name="ref_22390ecfe75e90e8a84d49610b605c042f29948974bc2059607ac63abe076a08">https://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/themen/verfassung/staatliche-symbole/hauptstadt/hauptstadt-artikel.html</ref><ref name="ref_28b4a876afe5bc29aa93ea5e1d077508e10499391b0dca5ba9a493d360bd35a8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/germany</ref><br/>[[Berlin]] | 357587.77 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_c30c744cc8d1683921d063fbb9edf67b0445ec100626745fbcbc647782c7bed5">https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/85921/ssoar-2023-seeger_et_al-Kritische_Flachenfragen_-_Flachenveranderungen_und.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&lnkname=ssoar-2023-seeger_et_al-Kritische_Flachenfragen_-_Flachenveranderungen_und.pdf</ref> | [[Euro]]<ref name="ref_77b266e4cc5fb09dbdf9c956f50431b24e8e5a75cb501b7a5917e6f4500c3898">http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/countries/germany_en.htm</ref><ref name="ref_a36f4ca850e6b07461d2a0bd7885dbac40af5d7888b33a82a5f0f2ed3dcd3848">http://www.bpb.de/nachschlagen/lexika/lexikon-der-wirtschaft/19280/europaeische-wirtschafts-und-waehrungsunion</ref><ref name="ref_b6af13114b7c2e5ede55d0b35156b7579bea39bbba130ea00de400b2bbc4dd19">http://www.bundesfinanzministerium.de/Web/DE/Themen/Europa/Euro_auf_einen_Blick/Europaeische_Wirtschafts_und_Waehrungsunion/europaeische_wirtschafts_und_waehrungsunion.html</ref><ref name="ref_28b4a876afe5bc29aa93ea5e1d077508e10499391b0dca5ba9a493d360bd35a8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/germany</ref> | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:DE DE] | |- | [[:d:Q184|Q184]] | [[File:Flag of Belarus.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Belarus (2020–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[Bielorussia]] | [[File:Belarus on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Minsk]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | 207596.76 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_19a0807314a71637fb0d564051152981a05e56273c4261bd3fdcb5e073d74eae">http://www.gki.gov.by/docs/gzk_2010.doc</ref> | ''[[:d:Q21531507|Belarusian ruble]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:BY BY] | |- | [[:d:Q189|Q189]] | [[File:Flag of Iceland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Iceland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Islanda]] | [[File:Iceland (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Reykjavík|Reykjavik]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 103004 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q131473|corona islandese]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:IS IS]<ref name="ref_ccba58fac328c241efcff64a0bd89ed796d7a3c196fa3941e8ee5bb02a0c0e41">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:IS</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q191|Q191]] | [[File:Flag of Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Estonia]] | [[File:EU-Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tallinn]] | 45335 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_4653dfca016f1bd2f5883046c58081f4802a23cbdfacca99b1a6483a87daac2b">https://maaamet.ee/uudised/kingitus-eesti-sunnipaevaks-eesti-sai-95-saare-vorra-rikkamaks</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:EE EE] | |- | [[:d:Q211|Q211]] | [[File:Flag of Latvia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Latvia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lettonia]] | [[File:Latvia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Riga]] | 64593.77 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f15e7acdd449cf8bf828be04e7822998114a796fa4237c50bafc336afeb1a48b">https://data.stat.gov.lv/pxweb/lv/OSP_PUB/START__ENV__DR__DRT/DRT011/</ref><br/>61760.39 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f15e7acdd449cf8bf828be04e7822998114a796fa4237c50bafc336afeb1a48b">https://data.stat.gov.lv/pxweb/lv/OSP_PUB/START__ENV__DR__DRT/DRT011/</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:LV LV] | republica in le nord de Europa |- | [[:d:Q212|Q212]] | [[File:Flag of Ukraine.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_5ed3251867e0b91b05961b69a825c79af31d20592aa1b6c6c02c084f36419866">''[[:d:Q127974|flag of Ukraine]]''</ref> | [[File:Coat of Arms of Ukraine (Pantone).svg|center|48px]] | [[Ukraina]] | [[File:Ukraine (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Kiovia|Kiev]]<ref name="ref_d7f3fbf911ccc5e0cabba1efbe3a7d2fe53e36a359a9eb710109378e62030924">''[[:d:Q4041526|Internetowa encyklopedia PWN]]''</ref> | 603550 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_639b4cacb792146ec143caffa6445dcd00277784997c2ed13ebef532a6ddd8c4">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ukraine/#geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q81893|hryvnja ukrainian]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:UA UA] | pais de Europa oriental |- | [[:d:Q213|Q213]] | [[File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Chec]] | [[File:EU-Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Praga]]<ref name="ref_3e5b9bab813465412853331eda013f076fbcdd7ad1a4220fc096b9ec9c3819bf">''[[:d:Q2948382|Constitution of the Czech Republic]]''</ref> | 78871 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_9ee41a8991616554164e89056c906d4d44818b64305baad938165ac299409ac2">https://vdb.czso.cz/vdbvo2/faces/en/index.jsf?page=vystup-objekt-vyhledavani&vyhltext=plochy&bkvt=cGxvY2h5&katalog=all&pvo=ZPR15</ref> | ''[[:d:Q131016|corona tchec]]''<ref name="ref_7b8fee07168c08cd480effe044f8e06aaa0656a8fb3f22065da71124a1f9c99d">https://www.zakonyprolidi.cz/cs/1993-60</ref><ref name="ref_1f537b300470e69ca83c592c2d0e0c61c5175033c847a9a1395af234e0b92efb">https://www.zakonyprolidi.cz/cs/1993-61</ref> | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:CZ CZ] | pais de Europa |- | [[:d:Q214|Q214]] | [[File:Flag of Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Slovachia]] | [[File:EU-Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bratislava]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | 49033.720839 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_a7a4342b94af32933ebcce2cf712c39f8a59d3736f14ec754d7242dfd4f00729">''[[:d:Q125653046|Population density of Slovakia – SR-area-region-district, cities-rural [om7015rr] : Area (square meter)]]''</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:SK SK] | |- | [[:d:Q215|Q215]] | [[File:Flag of Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Slovenia]] | [[File:EU-Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ljubljana]] | 20271 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_492e1685a33864a8ecd1ef9ca439efcffe18d8ae23067530c37b93bde4e62e2f">https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/File/DocSysFile/10033/Spremembe_povrsine_Slovenije.pdf</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:SI SI] | |- | [[:d:Q217|Q217]] | [[File:Flag of Moldova.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Moldova.svg|center|48px]] | [[Moldavia]] | [[File:Location Moldova Europe.png|center|48px]] | [[Chișinău]] | 33843.5 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_320523ebb83cf98848ef4bc8a90a8d71e83172da42f7fd7a46d9be6dab1189f1">https://moldova.md/en/content/geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q181129|leu moldave]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:MD MD] | pais de Europa |- | [[:d:Q218|Q218]] | [[File:Flag of Romania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Romania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Romania]] | [[File:Romania on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Bucarest]] | 238397 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_540e176c09c27df8a6aaad20084302c1382c7ec4e715c970e1db69993d860bbc">http://www.ziare.com/stiri/eveniment/romania-si-a-marit-suprafata-la-238-397-kilometri-patrati-1470103</ref><ref name="ref_7470a15f5c308b39110d7bcaa354d77ec90926aff1f81c8c3758c255095f32e4">http://www.gandul.info/stiri/acesta-este-noul-teritoriu-al-romaniei-16481528</ref> | ''[[:d:Q131645|leu romanian]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:RO RO] | |- | [[:d:Q219|Q219]] | [[File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Bulgaria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bulgaria]] | [[File:Bulgaria (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Sofia]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 110993.6 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_b935a0a66833771bd7ab112d9853ebe1a287cd8e9aac1b6386fa9e1016b57022">http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0159&g=</ref> | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:BG BG] | |- | [[:d:Q221|Q221]] | [[File:Flag of North Macedonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of North Macedonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Macedonia del Nord|Republica del Macedonia del Nord]] | [[File:North Macedonia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Skopje]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 25713 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q177875|denar macedone]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:MK MK] | |- | [[:d:Q222|Q222]] | [[File:Flag of Albania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Albania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Albania]] | [[File:Albania (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Tirana]] | 28748 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1dce4a8b917510d678fa50fb5300544652cf231b551806ae27c17c359782f237">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html</ref> | [[Lek (moneta)|lek]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:AL AL] | |- | [[:d:Q224|Q224]] | [[File:Flag of Croatia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Croatia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Croatia]] | [[File:EU-Croatia (orthographic projection).png|center|48px]] | [[Zagreb]] | 56594 kilometro quadrate<ref 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''[[:d:Q173751|tenge kazakh]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:KZ KZ] | stato euroasiatic |- | [[:d:Q233|Q233]] | [[File:Flag of Malta.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Malta.svg|center|48px]] | [[Malta]] | [[File:EU-Malta.svg|center|48px]] | [[Valletta]] | 316 kilometro quadrate | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:MT MT] | |- | [[:d:Q235|Q235]] | [[File:Flag of Monaco.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Monaco.svg|center|48px]] | [[Monaco (principato)|Monaco]] | [[File:Monaco on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Monaco (principato)|Monaco]] | 2.08 kilometro quadrate | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:MC MC] | |- | [[:d:Q236|Q236]] | [[File:Flag of Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | [[Montenegro]] | [[File:LocationMontenegro.svg|center|48px]] | [[Podgorica]]<ref 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Liechtenstein.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Staatswappen-Liechtensteins.svg|center|48px]] | [[Liechtenstein]] | [[File:Liechtenstein on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | [[Vaduz]] | 160 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_dc0531c9baebf3ff52b09c3ffe8a977fc1fb9512131cb80fc2011b77431c4b64">https://www.liechtenstein.li/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q25344|franc switze]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:LI LI] | |- | [[:d:Q403|Q403]] | [[File:Flag of Serbia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Serbia]] | [[File:Europe-Serbia (2006–2008).svg|center|48px]] | [[Belgrad]]<ref name="ref_c45902245eea33e4f11d3bf6ef345c5456cb8bec6ea3278dc70af18b81bc8d86">''[[:d:Q1287641|Constitution of Serbia]]''</ref> | 88499 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_5dc6c90aa11e33f2f250e2ba6c7c763c70b43d6fc03e0cab6516dfeefe6d4081">https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2021/Pdf/G20212054.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q172524|dinar serbe]]'' | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:RS RS] | |- | [[:d:Q29999|Q29999]] | [[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal coat of arms of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Regno del Paises Basse]] | [[File:Kingdom of the Netherlands in its region (special marker).svg|center|48px]] | [[Amsterdam]] | 42201 kilometro quadrate | [[Euro]]<br/>''[[:d:Q232270|Aruban florin]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q737779|Caribbean guilder]]''<br/>[[dollar statounitese]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:NL NL]<ref name="ref_1ee5efeb77e0cbe3693cec1afddbd89041df9072c7d9d0d91d7eb2afadeb8725">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:NL</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q756617|Q756617]] | [[File:Flag of Denmark.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National coat of arms of Denmark.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q756617|Kingdom of Denmark]]'' | [[File:Kingdom of Denmark (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | [[Copenhagen]] | 2220930 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q25417|corona danese]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q191068|Faroese króna]]'' | | |- | [[:d:Q1246|Q1246]] | [[File:Flag of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the Republic of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kosovo]] | [[File:Europe-Republic of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Pristina]] | 10909 kilometro quadrate | [[Euro]] | [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:XK XK]<ref name="ref_340a4f838ffef57460c18ac702f8d4ac538781c29d17f9e24d207fe647cd3e76">http://www.ezv.admin.ch/pdf_linker.php?doc=Tares_Laenderverzeichnis</ref><ref name="ref_2d7b85f9baede4b2843ef9c22c3f0a2ff5e143eab24ab1ff68a9a202b342473a">http://www.bundesbank.de/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/Service/Meldewesen/Aussenwirtschaft/Schluessel/laenderverzeichnis.pdf?__blob=publicationFile</ref><ref name="ref_af84e8830afff808014548c46f40338fe57f60774a9c843c57b8122296f7d0b7">https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1116645/Kosovo_Toponymic_Factfile.pdf</ref><ref name="ref_a5a3f0808a59d4aa3f2da03504b739f49f185bafd529a0f5e9b47d8957853b5c">https://geonames.wordpress.com/2010/03/08/xk-country-code-for-kosovo/</ref><ref name="ref_937c6bbd6bfb69a4643c9d81b9091e467aaa0382019a79bd818515d4a82743c4">http://www.swift.com/dsp/resources/documents/IBAN_Registry.pdf</ref><ref name="ref_241b3c69b6162e9dfb245dd36516324f946f8a340e1ca856d2b8b741bff10a7d">http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Country_codes</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q23681|Q23681]] | [[File:Flag of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q23681|Northern Cyprus]]'' | [[File:Northern Cyprus (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q2762100|North Nicosia]]'' | 3355 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q172872|lira turc]]'' | | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 1r801o1q7778udxsmwbtbmzt83qrifh 0 8084 698268 659879 2026-08-04T00:05:53Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698268 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Ctenophora | fossil_range = [[Cambrio]]-[[Holoceno|Present]]<br>{{Fossil range|540|0}}<ref name="Chen2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Chen | first1 = Jun-Yuan | last2 = Schopf | first2 = J. William | last3 = Bottjer | first3 = David J. | last4 = Zhang | first4 = Chen-Yu | last5 = Kudryavtsev | first5 = Anatoliy B. | last6 = Tripathi | first6 = Abhishek B. | last7 = Wang | first7 = Xiu-Qiang | last8 = Yang | first8 = Yong-Hua | last9 = Gao | first9 = Xiang | last10 = Yang | first10 = Ying | date = April 2007 | title = Raman spectra of a Lower Cambrian ctenophore embryo from southwestern Shaanxi, China | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2007-04-10_104_15/page/6289 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 104 | issue = 15 | pages = 6289–6292 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0701246104 | pmid=17404242 | pmc=1847456| bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.6289C | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Tang2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Tang | first1 = F. | last2 = Bengtson | first2 = S. | last3 = Wang | first3 = Y. | last4 = Wang | first4 = X. L. | last5 = Yin | first5 = C. Y. | title = Eoandromeda and the origin of Ctenophora | doi = 10.1111/j.1525-142X.2011.00499.x | journal = Evolution & Development | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 408–414 | date = 20 September 2011 | pmid = 23016902| s2cid = 28369431 }}</ref><ref name="Stanley1983">{{Cite journal | last1 = Stanley | first1 = G. D. | last2 = Stürmer | first2 = W. | doi = 10.1038/303518a0 | title = The first fossil ctenophore from the Lower Devonian of West Germany | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1983-06-09_303_5917/page/518 | journal = Nature | volume = 303 | issue = 5917 | pages = 518–520 | date = 9 June 1983 |bibcode = 1983Natur.303..518S | s2cid = 4259485 }}</ref><ref name="Morris1996">{{Cite journal | last1 = Conway Morris | first1 = S. | last2 = Collins | first2 = D. H. | doi = 10.1098/rstb.1996.0024 | title = Middle Cambrian Ctenophores from the Stephen Formation, British Columbia, Canada | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 351 | issue = 1337 | pages = 279–308 | date = 29 March 1996| bibcode = 1996RSPTB.351..279C }}</ref> | image = Comb jelly.jpg | image_caption = Ctenophorae | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | taxon_rank= [[Phylo (rango taxonomic)|Phylo]] | taxon= Ctenophora | authority = [[Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz|Eschscholtz]], 1829 | type_species = ''{{Ill|en|Mnemiopsis leidyi}}''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=J. F. |last2=Pang |first2=K. |last3=Schnitzler |first3=C. E. |last4=Nguyen |first4=A.-D. |last5=Moreland |first5=R. T. |last6=Simmons |first6=D. K. |last7=Koch |first7=B. J. |last8=Francis |first8=W. R. |last9=Havlak |first9=P. |last10=Smith |first10=S. A. |last11=Putnam |first11=N. H. |last12=Haddock |first12=S. H. D. |last13=Dunn |first13=C. W. |last14=Wolfsberg |first14=T. G. |last15=Mullikin |first15=J. C. |last16=Martindale |first16=M. Q. |last17=Baxevanis |first17=A. D. |last18=Baxevanis |first18=AD|author-link14=Tyra Wolfsberg|title=The Genome of the Ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi and Its Implications for Cell Type Evolution |journal=Science |date=13 December 2013 |volume=342 |issue=6164 |pages=1242592 |doi=10.1126/science.1242592 |pmid=24337300 |pmc=3920664 }}</ref> | type_species_authority = [[Alexander Emanuel Agassiz|A. Agassiz]], 1865 | subdivision_ranks = [[Classe (rango taxonomic)|Classe]]s | subdivision = *[[Tentaculata]] *[[Nuda]] *[[Scleroctenophora]] †<ref name="A vanished history of skeletonization in Cambrian comb jellies">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500092|pmid=26601209|pmc=4646772|title=A vanished history of skeletonization in Cambrian comb jellies|journal=Science Advances|volume=1|issue=6|pages=e1500092|date=July 2015|last1=Shu|first1=Degan|last2=Zhang|first2=Zhifei|last3=Zhang|first3=Fang|last4=Sun|first4=Ge|last5=Han|first5=Jian|last6=Xiao|first6=Shuhai|last7=Ou|first7=Qiang|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0092O}}</ref> | range_map = | range_map_caption = omne mares. }} '''Ctenophora''' (del [[greco ancian]] ''ktenos'' '{{Ill|en|pectine|Comb}}' et ''phorein'' 'portar') es un [[phylo (rango taxinomic)|phylo]] de [[animal]]es [[mar]]in con circa 1000 species. Illos es notabile per le gruppo de [[cilio]] (evocante un pectine) utilisate pro natar. ==Phylogenia== ===Phylogenia externe=== Secundo un studio de 2023, Ctenophoros serea le gruppo le plus [[base|basal]] de animales actual (mesmo si [[Porifera|spongias]] parece minus complexe):<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schultz |first=Darrin T. |last2=Haddock |first2=Steven H. D. |last3=Bredeson |first3=Jessen V. |last4=Green |first4=Richard E. |last5=Simakov |first5=Oleg |last6=Rokhsar |first6=Daniel S. |date=2023-05-17 |title=Ancient gene linkages support ctenophores as sister to other animals |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05936-6 |journal=Nature |language=en |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05936-6 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> {{Clade | style=font-size:85%;line-height:100% |label1=[[Animalia]] | 1={{Clade |1=[[Ctenophora]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Porifera]] |label2=[[ParaHoxozoa]] |2={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=[[Cnidaria]] |2=[[Placozoa]] }} |2=[[Bilateria]] }} }} }} }} Secundo iste nove cladogramma, le subregno [[Eumetazoa]] perde su legitimitate. ===Phylogenia interne=== Phylogenia intra Ctenophora:<ref name="PodarHaddockEtAl2001MolecularPhylogeneticFrameworkForCtenophora">{{cite journal |last1=Podar |first1=Mircea |last2=Haddock |first2=Steven H.D. |last3=Sogin |first3=Mitchell L. |last4=Harbison |first4=G.Richard |title=A Molecular Phylogenetic Framework for the Phylum Ctenophora Using 18S rRNA Genes |url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2001-11_21_2/page/218 |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=November 2001 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=218–230 |doi=10.1006/mpev.2001.1036 |pmid=11697917 |citeseerx=10.1.1.384.6705 }}</ref></div>{{clade | style=font-size:85%;line-height:100% |label1=[[Ctenophora]] |1={{clade |1=[[Mertensiidae]] (Cydippida) |2={{clade |1=[[Platyctenida]] |2={{clade |1=[[Pleurobrachiidae]] (Cydippida) |2={{clade |1=[[Lobata]] |2=[[Thalassocalycida]] |3=[[Cestida]] }} |3={{clade |1=[[Haeckeliidae]] (Cydippida) |2=[[Beroida]] }} }} }} }} }} Le ordo Cydippida se revela [[polyphylia|polyphyletic]], dunque non valide. {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Animalia]] 2aonyszp7bgxtjhz0z7oct6hpc07nh1 0 8969 698181 688285 2026-08-03T19:45:24Z Amherst99 5103 698181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/generic}} Le '''intelligentia artificial'''{{linfo}} (curte: '''IA''' o '''AI''' per ''artificial intelligence'') es un campo del informatica con le objectivo de disveloppar machinas con un conducta intelligente. Le progressos es significante in alicun campos importante como le recognoscentia automatic de imagines e de linguas parlate o programmas per exemplo jocante [[chacos]] o [[go]]. Le intelligentia artificial es implementate per le [[linguage de programmation|linguages de programmation]] como per [[Lisp]], [[Python (linguage de programmation) |Python]], [[C++]], [[Java (linguage de programmation)|Java]], e [[Prolog]]. Le superintelligentia es un speculation super un forma artificial de intelligentia que superpassarea le intelligentia human. Alicun philosophos se oppone al intelligentia artificial. Éric Sadin, philosopho e poeta francese, considera le intelligentias artificial generative qua un "linguage necrose" Le IA es un thema frequente in films del [[scientia fictive]] como in ''Star Wars'' de George Lucas, ''Forbidden Planet'' de Fred Wilcox, ''The Matrix'' del Wachowskis, ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' de Stanley Kubrick, e ''A.I. Artificial Intelligence'' de Steven Spielberg. <gallery> File:Tiktok.png|IA, como Tik-Tok de Oz, existe anque in fiction File:R2-D2 - Genuine Movie Star.jpg|R2-D2 le droide in le film ''Star Wars'' File:Robby the Robot.JPG|Robby le Robot in le film ''Forbidden Planet'' File:HAL9000 Case.svg|Le computator HAL 9000 in le film ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' File:Curiosity - Robot Geologist and Chemist in One!.jpg|Le real robot ''Curiosity'' sur le planeta Marte </gallery> {{refer}} {{Technologia}} {{pecietta|technologia}} [[Categoria:Intelligentia artificial| ]] [[Categoria:Informatica]] g9eo5hwpmez539cp2wyxktkr3pcdlbl 0 14200 698250 603489 2026-08-03T23:36:13Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698250 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} '''Communion Anglican''', association mundial de ecclesias nacional e regional que es in communion con le [[Ecclesia Anglican]] e le archiepiscopo de [[Canterbury]]. Le numero total de membros de hoc association es de approximatemente 73 millones, partites in 385 [[diocese]]s in tote le mundo. Le association labora per le promotion del intendimente e del cooperation in obras que le resulta commun a tote le membros del communitate. Le Comunion une a ecclesias que comparte un herentia commun e que subscribe al Cuadrilatero de [[Lambeth]] de [[1884]]. Le Cuadrilatero, declaration de doctrinas considerate como essencial desde le puncto de vista de le anglicanos, defende le fide catholic e apostolic e declara que le Ecclesia christiana es establite in le Scripturas. Etiam admite le sacramentos del baptismo e le [[Eucharist]], le credo del [[apostol]]es, le credo de [[Nicea]] e le congregation episcopal (vide [[Episcopo]]). Tote le ecclesias utilisa le Libro del Oration Commun, que esseva adaptate e reformate secun le necesitates del momento e de alcuno locos in particular. ===Bibliographia=== {{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}} : {{cite book |last=Avis |first=Paul |year=1998 |chapter=What is 'Anglicanism'? |editor1-last=Booty |editor1-first=John E. |editor2-last=Sykes |editor2-first=Stephen |editor2-link=Stephen Sykes |editor3-last=Knight |editor3-first=Jonathan |title=The Study of Anglicanism |edition=rev. |location=London |publisher=SPCK |publication-date=2004 |pages=417–419 |isbn=978-1-4514-1118-8 |ref=harv }} : {{cite journal |last1=Brittain |first1=Christopher Craig |last2=McKinnon |first2=Andrew |year=2011 |title=Homosexuality and the Construction of "Anglican Orthodoxy": The Symbolic Politics of the Anglican Communion |url=https://archive.org/details/sociology-of-religion_autumn-2011_72_3/page/351 |journal=Sociology of Religion |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=351–373 |issn=1069-4404 |doi=10.1093/socrel/srq088 |hdl=2164/3055 |ref=harv }} : {{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Mark |year=2006 |title=Anglicanism: A Very Short Introduction |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-157819-9 |ref=harv }} : {{cite book |year=1957 |editor-last=Cross |editor-first=F. L. |editor-link=Frank Leslie Cross |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=harv }} : {{cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Jenkins |year=2002 |title=The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803341-7 |ref=harv }} : {{cite journal |last1=McKinnon |first1=Andrew M. |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Marta |last3=Brittain |first3=Christopher Craig |year=2011 |title=Bourdieu, Capital, and Conflict in a Religious Field: The Case of the 'Homosexuality' Conflict in the Anglican Communion |journal=Journal of Contemporary Religion |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=355–370 |issn=1353-7903 |doi=10.1080/13537903.2011.616033 |hdl=2164/4260 |ref=harv }} [[Categoria:Anglicanismo]] 0zgn9ff3o6mt5rd6wtzzz7hmiromkfs 0 14627 698221 693268 2026-08-03T22:54:47Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698221 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Rhinoceros sondaicus''', le '''Rhinocerote de Java''' ('''Rhinocerote Sunda''' plus precisemente), es un [[specie]] de [[rhinocerote]]s. Es membro del familia [[Rhinocerotidae]] e un del cinque species de [[rhinocerote]]s ancora existante. Illo pertine al gruppo del Rhinocerotes de India e mensura 3.1–3.2&nbsp;m in longitude e 1.4–1.7&nbsp;m in altura. Su corno, longe de cerca 25&nbsp;cm, es le plus parve inter altere species de rhinocerotes. ==Classification== ===Rango taxinomic=== * [[Specie]] ===Supertaxones=== * regnum = [[Animalia]] * phylum = [[Chordata]] * classis = [[Mammalia]] * ordo = [[Perissodactyla]] * familia = [[Rhinocerotidae]] * genus = ''[[Rhinoceros]]'' ===Subtaxones=== *''[[Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus]]'' *''[[Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis]] (extinguite)'' *''[[Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus]]'' == Evolution == Le comparation del [[DNA]] mitochondrial indica que ancestres del rhinocerotes modern ha scindate del ancestres de [[Equidae]] 50 milliones anos in passato.<ref name="DNA"> {{cite journal | title = The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequence of the Greater Indian Rhinoceros, ''Rhinoceros unicornis'', and the Phylogenetic Relationship Among Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla (+ Cetacea) | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_1996-11_13_9/page/1167 | last = Xu | first = Xiufeng |author2=Axel Janke |author3=Ulfur Arnason | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 13 | issue = 9 | pages = 1167–1173| year=1996 | pmid = 8896369 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025681 }} </ref> == Habitat == [[File:Ujungkulon.jpg|thumb|Le [[Parco national de Ujung Kulon]] alberga multe rhinocerotes de Java.]] Secundo le plus optimistic estimation, exista minus de 100 rhinocerotes de Java salvage.<ref name="CG"> {{cite journal | title = Genetic diversity, phylogeny and conservation of the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) | journal = Conservation Genetics | volume = 7 | issue = 3 |date=June 2006 | pages = 439–448 | last = Fernando | first = Prithiviraj |author2=Gert Polet |author3=Nazir Foead |author4=Linda S. Ng |author5=Jennifer Pastorini |author6=Don J. Melnick | doi = 10.1007/s10592-006-9139-4 }} </ref><ref name="NYT"> {{cite news | title = Racing to Know the Rarest of Rhinos, Before It's Too Late | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/science/11rhin.html | work = [[The New York Times]] | accessdate = 2007-10-14 | date = July 11, 2006 | last = Derr | first = Mark | authorlink = Mark Derr }} </ref> Le Rhinocerote de Java ha rangiate del isla de [[Indonesia]], a [[India]] e [[China]]. Le specie es ora [[in periculo critic]], con duo populationes salvage, e nulle in zoo. Illo es le plus rar mammal grande on terra.<ref name="Dinerstein"> {{cite book | title = The Return of the Unicorns; The Natural History and Conservation of the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros | last = Dinerstein | first = Eric | publisher = [[Columbia University Press]] | location = [[New York City|New York]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-231-08450-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=o6HuJQBmtksC&printsec=frontcover#v=snippet&q=%22Javan%20rhinoceros%22&f=false }} </ref> Un population de 40–50 individuos vive in [[Parco national de Ujung Kulon]] super le isla de [[Java]] in [[Indonesia]] e un minor population, estimate in 2007 a 8, supervive in [[Parco National Cat Tien]] in [[Vietnam]]. ===Ujung Kulon=== Le Ujung Kulon peninsula esseva devastate per le eruption del [[Krakatoa]] in 1883. Le Rhinocerotes de Java recolonisava le peninsula desde le explosion.<ref name=IPS>{{ Cite news | work = [[Inter Press Service]] | title = Environment-Indonesia: Javan Rhinoceros Remains At High Risk | date = January 16, 2001 | author = Dursin, Richel }}</ref> ==Galeria== <gallery> File:Panzernashorn2004.jpg|Un rhinocerote de India. </gallery> {{Refer}} ==Ligamentes extern== * [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/javan-rhino/ Javan Rhino Info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120205655/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/javan-rhino |date=2011-01-20 }} & [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 Javan Rhino Pictures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144442/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 |date=2007-12-09 }} on the [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com Rhino Resource Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711150112/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/ |date=2017-07-11 }} * [[International Rhino Foundation]] dedicated to the conservation of rhinos: [http://www.rhinos-irf.org/javan/ Javan Rhino] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722044955/http://www.rhinos-irf.org/javan/ |date=2011-07-22 }} * [[ARKive]] - [http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ images and movies of the Javan Rhinoceros ''(Rhinoceros sondaicus)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029165304/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ |date=2007-10-29 }} * [http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm UNEP & WCMC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720025625/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm |date=2008-07-20 }} species sheet on the Javan Rhinoceros. [[Categoria:Species in periculo]] [[Categoria:Perissodactyla]] [[Categoria:Fauna de Asia]] [[Categoria:Megafauna de Eurasia]] maxzed1mpdqeigxp1bku4nq10j643sr 0 14855 698186 690549 2026-08-03T21:52:13Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698186 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} [[File:DNA Overview.png|thumb|220px|Le structura de un parte de helice duple ADN|left]] {{infobox/articulo}} '''Acido disoxyribonucleic''' o '''deoxyribonucleic''' ('''ADN''', {{In lingua|en|DNA}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cleij |first=Piet |authorlink=Piet Cleij |title=Dictionario de biologia interlingua-anglese |year=2012 |publisher=[[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] |isbn=978-2-36607-002-6 |pages=pp. 3,5,55,59}}</ref> es un [[acido nucleic]] que contine le instructiones [[genetic]] usate in le [[biologia de disveloppamento|disveloppamento]] e functionamento de tote le [[vita|organismos vive]] cognoscite e alicun [[virus]]es. Le rolo principal de [[molecula]]s '''ADN''' es memorar [[information]] de termino longe. '''ADN''' es comparate frequentemente con un insimul de [[cyanotypo]]s, o un codice, perque illo contine le instructiones necessari pro construer altere componentes de [[cellula]]s, como [[proteina]]s e moleculas [[ARN]] (acido ribonucleic). Le segmentos de ADN que supporta isto information genetic se appella [[gen]]es, ma altere sequentias de ADN ha proposito structural, o es implicate in regularitate del uso de isto information genetic. ADN es composite, (in chimia organic) de duo longe [[polymero]]s de unitates simple nominate [[nucleotide]]s. == Proprietates == [[File:DNA chemical structure.svg|right|thumb|350px|Le structura chemical de ADN. [[Ligamine de hydrogeno|Ligamines de hydrogeno]] es designato con lineas con punctos.]] '''ADN''' es un [[polymer]] longe composito de unitos que se repeta, nominate [[nucleotide]]s.<ref name=Alberts>{{cite book |last=Alberts |first=Bruce | coauthors=Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and Peter Walters |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell; Fourth Edition |publisher=Garland Science|year=2002 |location=New York and London |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=mboc4.TOC&depth=2 |isbn=0-8153-3218-1 |oclc=145080076 48122761 57023651 69932405}}</ref><ref name=Butler>{{cite book | author=Butler, John M. | year=2001 | title=Forensic DNA Typing | publisher= Elsevier | isbn=978-0-12-147951-0 | oclc=223032110 45406517}}pp. 14–15.</ref> Le catena de ADN es 22 a 26 [[Ångström]]s large (2.2 to 2.6 [[nanometre]]s), e uno nucleotide es 3.3&nbsp;Å (0.33&nbsp;nm) longe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mandelkern M, Elias J, Eden D, Crothers D |title=The dimensions of DNA in solution |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1981-10-15_152_1/page/153 |journal=J Mol Biol |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=153–61 |year=1981 |pmid=7338906 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(81)90099-1}}</ref> In le organismos vive, ADN no exista como un molecule solo, ma como un par de molecules associate stricte.<ref name=Watson>{{cite journal |author=Watson J, Crick F |title=Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid |url=http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/Y/W/_/scbbyw.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=171 |issue=4356 |pages=737–8 |year=1953 |pmid=13054692 |doi=10.1038/171737a0|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=berg>Berg J., Tymoczko J. and Stryer L. (2002) ''Biochemistry.'' W. H. Freeman and Company {{ISBN|0-7167-4955-6}}</ref> Multiple [[nucleotide]] in ligamine, como in ADN, isto polymer es nominate [[polynucleotide]].<ref name=IUPAC>[http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/misc/naabb.html Abbreviations and Symbols for Nucleic Acids, Polynucleotides and their Constituents] IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (CBN), Accessed 03 Jan 2006</ref> === Cannellaturas === [[File:DNA orbit animated.gif|frame|right|Animation de la structura de un section de ADN. <ref>Creato ab [http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/cgi/explore.cgi?pdbId=1D65 PDB 1D65]</ref>]] Le helice duble es un spiral dextera. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Wing R, Drew H, Takano T, Broka C, Tanaka S, Itakura K, Dickerson R |title=Crystal structure analysis of a complete turn of B-DNA |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1980-10-23_287_5784/page/755 |journal=Nature |volume=287 |issue=5784 |pages=755–8 |year=1980 |pmid=7432492 |doi=10.1038/287755a0}}</ref> <!--The narrowness of the minor groove means that the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove. As a result, proteins like [[transcription factor]]s that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contacts to the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove.--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Pabo C, Sauer R |title=Protein-DNA recognition |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-biochemistry_1984_53_annual/page/293 |journal=Annu Rev Biochem |volume=53 |pages=293–321 |year=1984 |pmid=6236744 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.bi.53.070184.001453}}</ref> == Historia de recerca de DNA == [[File:Francis Crick.png|thumb|right|[[Francis Crick]]]] '''ADN''' esseva primero isolate de le physician [[Switza|Switze]] [[Friedrich Miescher]] [[1869]], quando il discoperiva un substantia microscopic in le [[pure]] de bandages chirurgic. Proque il esseva discoperite in le [[nucleo (biologia)|nucleo]] del [[cellula]], il lo nominava ille "nuclein".<ref>{{en}} {{cite journal |author=Dahm R |title=Friedrich Miescher and the discovery of DNA | journal=Dev Biol |volume=278 |issue=2 | pages=274–88 |year=2005 |pmid=15680349 |doi=10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.11.028}}</ref> In [[1919]], [[Phoebus Levene]] discoperiva le unitate basic del ADN, le [[nucleotide]]<ref>{{en}} Levine, Phoebus A. [http://www.jbc.org/content/40/2/415.full.pdf+html The Structure of Yeast Nucleic Acid]. Journal of Biological Chemistry: 40, 415-424.</ref> In le [[annos 1950]], [[Edwin Chargaff]] discoperiva que le amonta de [[thymine]] (T) esse casi equivilante al amonta del [[adenine]] (A); per isto, il discoperiva que le mesmo occure con guanine (G) e cytosine (C). Un annos postea in [[1952]], un scientista britannic, [[Rosalind Franklin]], studiava crystallos de DNA - specialmente, su diffraction de [[radio X|radios X]]. Con iste imagines e con communicationes private con Chargaff, [[James Dewey Watson|James Watson]] e [[Francis Crick]] sugeriva que hodie esse reguardava como le prime modello correcte del structura helical duple de ADN. Con [[Maurice Wilkins]], cuje labor supportava le hypothese de Watson e Crick, illos ganiava le [[Premio Nobel]] pro physiologia o medicina in [[1962]]. (Franklin esseva considerate un pionero equal, ma ille moriva in [[1958]] per cancere ovarian, e le premio nobel non esse acccordate postumemente.) Le final discoperatura in le analyse de DNA esseva le labor facite per [[Har Gobind Khorana|Khorana]], [[Robert Holley|Holley]] e [[Marshall Warren Nirenberg|Nirenberg]]. Per le discoperatura per Crick que le codice genetic esseva basate in triplettos de bases, nominate "[[codon]]", Khorana, Holley, e Nirenberg discoperiva lo pro que le codones codiva; iste esseva le initio de [[biologia molecular]]. == Vide etiam == <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * [[Perturbation genetic]] * [[Plasmid]] * [[Nucleic acid analogues]] * [[Nucleic acid methodes]] * [[Nucleic Acid Notationes]] * [[ADN sequentiante]] * [[Polymerase chain reaction]] * [[Phosphoramidite]] </div> {{Referentias}} == Lectura in plus == * Clayton, Julie. (Ed.). ''50 Years of DNA'', Palgrave MacMillan Press, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-1479-8}} * Judson, Horace Freeland. ''The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology'', Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-87969-478-4}} * [[Robert Olby|Olby, Robert]]. ''The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA'', first published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick; {{ISBN|978-0-486-68117-7}}; the definitive DNA textbook, revised in 1994, with a 9 page postscript. * [[Matt Ridley|Ridley, Matt]]. ''Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives)'' HarperCollins Publishers; 192 pp, {{ISBN|978-0-06-082333-7}} 2006 * Rose, Steven. ''The Chemistry of Life'', Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-14-027273-4}}. * Watson, James D. and Francis H.C. Crick. [http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf A structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid] (PDF). ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 171, 737–738, 25 April 1953. * Watson, James D. ''DNA: The Secret of Life'' {{ISBN|978-0-375-41546-3}}. * Watson, James D. ''[[The Double Helix|The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (Norton Critical Editions)]]''. {{ISBN|978-0-393-95075-5}} * Watson, James D. "Avoid boring people and other lessons from a life in science" (2007) New York: Random House. {{ISBN|978-0-375-41284-4}} * Calladine, Chris R.; Drew, Horace R.; Luisi, Ben F. and Travers, Andrew A. ''Understanding DNA'', Elsevier Academic Press, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-12-155089-9}} {{Nucleic acids}} [[Categoria:ADN| ]] [[Categoria:Genetica]] [[Categoria:Biologia cellular]] [[Categoria:Anatomia]] [[Categoria:Biologia]] 6dt6tf1yr6e49pzynynnmt9gnxuewdc 0 14893 698193 663607 2026-08-03T22:05:11Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698193 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} '''Acido ribonucleic''' ('''ARN''' o '''RNA''') es un [[acido nucleic]]. Isto significa que ille consiste de un catena longe de unitates de [[nucleotide]]. Un nucleotide consiste de un basse nitrogenous nominate [[nucleobasse]], un saccharo/sucre de [[ribose]], e un [[phosphate]]. ARN es multo similarte con le [[ADN]], ma ha differencias in alicun/pauc importante detailes de structura: in le cellula, ARN es monocatenari (consiste de un filo), durante que ADN es bicatenari; ARN nucleotides contine ribose durante que ADN contine [[deoxyribose]] (un typo de ribose ommite uno atomo de oxygeno); e ARN ha le base de [[uracil]] e non de [[thymine]] que es presente in ADN. == Structura == [[File:Piwi-siRNA-basepairing.png|thumb|right|230px|Watson-Crick base pairs in a [[siRNA]] (hydrogen atoms are not shown)]] Cate nucleotide in ARN contine un saccharo/sucre de [[ribose]], con carbones numerotate 1' a 5'. <!--A base is attached to the 1' position, generally [[adenine]] (A), [[cytosine]] (C), [[guanine]] (G) or [[uracil]] (U). Adenine and guanine are [[purine]]s, cytosine and uracil are [[pyrimidine]]s. A [[phosphate]] group is attached to the 3' position of one ribose and the 5' position of the next. The phosphate groups have a negative charge each at physiological pH, making RNA a charged molecule (polyanion). --> Le bases pote formar [[ligamine de hydrogeno|ligamines de hydrogeno]] inter cytosine e guanine, inter adenine e uracil e inter guanine e uracil. [[ligamines de hydrogeno]]<ref name="pmid15561141">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee JC, Gutell RR | title = Diversity of base-pair conformations and their occurrence in rRNA structure and RNA structural motifs | url = https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_2004-12-10_344_5/page/1225 | journal = Journal of Molecular Biology | volume = 344 | issue = 5 | pages = 1225–49 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15561141 | doi = 10.1016/j.jmb.2004.09.072 }}</ref> Altere interactiones es possibile<ref>{{cite book | title=RNA biochemistry and biotechnology| author=Barciszewski J, Frederic B, Clark C| date=1999| pages=73–87| publisher=Springer| isbn=0792358627 | oclc=52403776}}</ref> [[File:Ciliate telomerase RNA.JPG|thumb|Secondary structure of a [[telomerase RNA]]]] [[Magnesium|Mg²⁺]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tan ZJ, Chen SJ |title=Salt dependence of nucleic acid hairpin stability |journal=Biophys. J. |volume=95 |pages=738–52 |year=2008 |pmid=18424500 |doi=10.1529/biophysj.108.131524}}</ref> == Comparition con ADN == ARN e [[ADN]] e differite in 3 characteristicas principal. [[File:50S-subunit of the ribosome 3CC2.png|thumb|The [[50S]] ribosomal subunit. RNA is in orange, protein in blue. The active site is in the middle (red).]] == Typos de ARN == {{seealso|Lista de ARN}} [[File:Full length hammerhead ribozyme.png|thumb|upright|Structure of a [[hammerhead ribozyme]], a ribozyme that cuts RNA]] == Historia de discoperta == Le [[acido nucleic|acidos nucleic]] esseva discoperta in 1868 de [[Friedrich Miescher]], que nominate le material 'nuclein' proque ille esseva trovate in le [[nucleus de cellula|nucleus]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Dahm R| title=Friedrich Miescher and the discovery of DNA | journal=Developmental Biology | year=2005| volume=278| issue=2| pages=274–88 | pmid=15680349 | doi = 10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.11.028 }}</ref> Le cellules prokaryotic que non ha un nucleus, contine acidos nucleic, es un discoperta tarde. Le role de ARN in le synthese del protein esseva suspectate in 1939.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Nature | author=Caspersson T, Schultz J | title=Pentose nucleotides in the cytoplasm of growing tissues | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1939-04-08_143_3623/page/602 | year=1939 | volume=143 | doi=10.1038/143602c0 | pages=602–3}}</ref> [[Severo Ochoa]] ha ganiate le [[Premio Nobel in medicina]] in 1959 dupo illo ha discoperta como ARN es synthesite.<ref>{{cite web | author=Ochoa S| title=Enzymatic synthesis of ribonucleic acid| work=Nobel Lecture |year=1959| url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1959/ochoa-lecture.pdf}}</ref> == Vide etiam == * [[Genetica]] * [[Biologia molecular]] * [[Phosphoramidite]] == Referentias == {{reflist|2}} == Ligamines externe == * [http://www.imb-jena.de/RNA.html RNA World website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314023716/http://www.imb-jena.de/RNA.html |date=2007-03-14 }} Collection de ligamines (structures, sequences, utiles, journals) * [http://ndbserver.rutgers.edu/atlas/xray/ Nucleic Acid Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012034325/http://ndbserver.rutgers.edu/atlas/xray/ |date=2007-10-12 }} Imagines de ADN, ARN e complexes. {{Nucleic acids}} [[Categoria:Genetica]] [[Categoria:Biologia cellular]] n7otsegfc2fa1syfr8dek03o23gxyy0 0 14988 698282 684936 2026-08-04T00:18:03Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698282 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Woody Guthrie NYWTS.jpg|right|thumb|Woody Guthrie, autor del canto "This Land Is Your Land." In su guitarra es le phrase "Iste machina occide fascistas."]] Le '''musica de SUA''' reflecte le multi-ethnic population del pais con multe diverse stilos. [[Rock]], [[blues]], [[musica country|country]], [[rhythm & blues]], [[jazz]], [[musica pop|pop]], [[techno]], [[salsa]], [[boogaloo]], e [[musica hip hop|hip hop]] es le multe cognoscite SUA [[genere de musica]]s. SUA ha le large industria de musica in mundo e le musica de SUA es ascoltate in tote le mundo. {{Commonscat|Music of the United States}} === Identitate social === Le musica interveni con aspectos de identitate cultural e aspectos social, [[Linguas in Statos Unite de America|linguas]], racia e ethnicitate. Le relation inter le racia e musica es le plus determinante. <ref>Wolfe, Charles K. with Jacqueline Cogdell DjeDje, "Two Views of Music, Race, Ethnicity and Nationhood" in the ''Garland Encyclopedia of World Music''</ref> === Diversitate === [[File:USmusicmap.png|center|800px|]] Le Statos Unite de America es un mixtura de culturas e de nationalitates del mundo. <ref>Cowdery, James R. with Anne Lederman, "Blurring the Boundaries of Social and Musical Identities" in the ''Garland Encyclopedia of World Music'', pp 322–333</ref> == Musica folk american == {{Main|Musica folk Americana}} Le tribos de americanos native canta un specific varietate de musica folk. Le gruppos de americanos de ancestria african ha disveloppate le [[musica blues]] e le [[musica gospel]]. Compositores statounitese de cantos influencite per le tradition de musica folk de lor pais include [[Pete Seeger]], le autor del canto anti-guerra "[[Where Have All the Flowers Gone?]]" ("A Ubi Veniva Omne le Flores?"), e [[Woody Guthrie]], cuje canto "[[This Land Is Your Land]]" ("Iste Terra es Tu Terra") era scripte in opposition al typo de patriotismo nationalistic que appoia le abusos del governamento e del classes ric contra le major parte del populo. {{sample box start|Musica folk de SUA}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item | filename=Cotton-EyedJoe.ogg | title="Cotton-Eyed Joe" | description=[[Cotton-Eyed Joe]] es un canto folk traditional e un [[dansa in ligna]] cognoscite in le sud del SUA | format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} === Altere communitates de immigrantes === Le Statos Unite de America es un amalgama de immigrantes. [[Espania]] e sequente [[Mexico]] controlate multe del territorio del west de Statos Unite de America ante le [[Guerra Mexican-American]], inclusive le state de [[Texas]]. Dupo Texas e altere territorios esseva addite ab le Statos Unite de America, le nativos texan que ha vivite in isto statos comenciava de disveloppar un musica basate al musica texan con influentias de musica traditional mexican como le [[mariachi]] e le [[corrido]]<ref>Burr, Ramiro. "Accordion Enchilada" in the ''Rough Guide to World Music, Volume 2'', pg. 604</ref> Le [[accordion]] esseva adoptate de musicos de folk Tejano ab le initio del [[seculo 20]]. == Musica popular == Musica popular origine es le [[Renascentia]] periodo de Europa con [[ballada]]s e altere traditiones popular. === Popular cantos ante le tempore === {{sample box start|[[Musica patriotic de SUA]]}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item | filename=Star-spangled banner.ogg | title="The Star-Spangled Banner" | description=Performate de Fred Waring (1942) | format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item | filename=USMC stars stripes forever.ogg | title="Stars and Stripes Forever" | description=de John Phillip Sousa | format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item | filename=Dixie (1916).ogg | title="Dixie" | description=Performed in 1916 de Metropolitan Mixed Chorus | format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} [[File:1900sc SM Dixie.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Sheet music for "[[Dixie (song)|Dixie]]"]] === Blues e spiritual === Le musica spiritual esseva le expression de religion, cantata per sclavos [[Statouniteses african|african-american]] on le plantationes del sud.<ref>Garofalo, pg. 19</ref> Blues es un combination de cantos de labor african. Blues e spiritual o gospel. {{sample box start|blues-derived early popular music}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item | filename=Maple Leaf RagQ.ogg | title="Maple Leaf Rag" | description=Composition de Scott Joplin | format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} {{main|Blues|gospel music}} [[File:Bessie Smith (1936) by Carl Van Vechten.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Cantator de blues [[Bessie Smith]]]] === Jazz === {{AP|Jazz}} [[Jazz]] es un typo de musica characterisate de [[swung]], [[blues]] e improvisation. [[File:Dizzy Gillespie playing horn 1955.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bebop pioneer [[Dizzy Gillespie]] ]] === Musica Country === Musica Country es un mixtura de musica blues de african-american e musica spiritual adaptate pro popular audientias (primarimente personas blanc in le west interior e le sud del SUA) comenciante in le [[annos 1920]]. [[File:Randytravis.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Cantator de Country [[Randy Travis]]]] === R&B e soul === R&B es le abbreviation de ''rhythm & blues'' e habite le initio in le [[annos 1930]] e [[annos 1940]]. [[File:Mariah Carey11 Edwards Dec 1998 uncropped.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cantator de R&B [[Mariah Carey]].]] === Rock, metal e punk === {{AP|Rock music|heavy metal music|punk rock}} Rock & roll es un typo de musica popular disveloppate in altere paises con blues e R&B. Le origines del rock es un subjecto de debatto in SUA. [[File:Aerosmith_Tom_Hamilton.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Aerosmith]] in 2003]] Heavy metal es characterisate per rhythmos aggressive, guitarras con distortion e amplificate. === Hip hop === [[Hip hop]] es un movimento cultural, e le musica es parte de illo. === Musica latin in SUA === [[File:Map of USA showing Latin music.png|thumb|right|250px|Latin music in the United States]] Musica latino in SUA es basato al musica mexican [[corrido]], al musica Puerto Rican [[reggaeton]], e al musica colombian [[cumbia]]. Le stilos multo populare include [[conga]], [[rumba]], [[mambo]], le [[annos 1950]] [[cha-cha-cha]] e le [[salsa]]. == Governamento, politicas e lege == Le governmento de SUA enforce le leges e le derectos de [[proprietate intellectual]] in le industria de musica. == Industria e economia == Total industria de musica revenue es 40 miliardes de dollares de SUA in tote le mundo e 12 miliarde de dollares in SUA.<ref>Le mundo numero es del {{cite web|url=http://www.idea.piercelaw.edu/articles/40/40_3/14.Richard.pdf|title=The Music Industry and Its Digital Future: Introducing MP3 Technology|work=PTC Research Foundation of Franklin Pierce (pdf)|accessmonthday=April 12|year=2006|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-10-20|archivedate=2006-06-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614200034/http://www.idea.piercelaw.edu/articles/40/40_3/14.Richard.pdf}}</ref> Multe de companies de recorda de musica es basato in SUA. == Education == Musica es un parte importante del [[education in SUA]]. == Festivales == {{sample box start|Musica de Christmas}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item | filename=Jingle Bells.ogg | title="Jingle Bells" | description=Canto secular de Christmas | format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item | filename=Oh Holy Night (Kevin MacLeod) (ISRC USUAN1100127).oga | title="O Holy Night" | description=Canto religious de Christmas | format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} Musica es un parte importante de dias festive in SUA. == Referentias == * {{cite book |author = [[Amiri Baraka|Baraka, Amiri]] (Leroi Jones) |isbn = 0-688-18474-X |publisher = William Morrow |title = Blues People: Negro Music in White America |year = 1963 }} * {{cite book |author = Blush, Steven |isbn = 0-922915-71-7 |publisher = Feral House |title = American Hardcore: A Tribal History |year = 2001 }} * {{cite book |author = Chase, Gilbert |isbn = 0-252-00454-X |publisher = University of Illinois Press |title = America's Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present |year = 2000 }} * {{cite book |author = Clarke, Donald |isbn = 0-312-11573-3 |publisher = St. Martin's Press |title = The Rise and Fall of Popular Music |year = 1995 }} * {{cite book |author = Collins, Ace |isbn = 1-57297-072-3 |publisher = Boulevard Books |title = The Stories Behind Country Music's All-Time Greatest 100 Songs |year = 1996 }} * {{cite book |author = Crawford, Richard |isbn = 0-393-04810-1 |publisher = W. W. Norton & Company |title = America's Musical Life: A History |year = 2001 }} * {{cite book |author = Ewen, David |publisher = Prentice Hall |title = Panorama of American Popular Music |year = 1957 }} * {{cite book |author = Ferris, Jean |isbn = 0-697-12516-5 |publisher = Brown & Benchmark |title = America's Musical Landscape |year = 1993 }} * {{cite book |editor = Koskoff, Ellen (ed.) |isbn = 0-8240-4944-6 |publisher = Garland Publishing |title = Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 3: The United States and Canada |year = 2000 }} * {{cite book |author = Garofalo, Reebee |isbn = 0-205-13703-2 |publisher = Allyn & Bacon |title = Rockin' Out: Popular Music in the USA |year = 1997 }} * {{cite book |author = Gillett, Charlie |isbn = 0-285-62619-1 |publisher = Outerbridge and Dienstfrey |title = The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll |year = 1970 |others = cited in Garofalo }} * {{cite book |author = Nelson, George |isbn = 978-0-252-07498-1 |location = New York |publisher = University of Illinois Press |title = Where Did Our Love Go?: The Rise and Fall of the Motown Sound? |year = 2007 }} * {{cite book |author = Kempton, Arthur |isbn = 0-375-42172-6 |location = New York |publisher = Pantheon Books |title = Boogaloo: The Quintessence of American Popular Music |year = 2003 }} * {{cite book |author = Lipsitz, George |isbn = 0-03-059207-0 |publisher = J. F. Bergin |title = Class and Culture in Cold War America |year = 1982 }} * {{cite book |author = Malone, Bill C. |isbn = 0-292-71096-8 |publisher = University of Texas Press |title = Country Music USA: Revised Edition |year = 1985 |others = cited in Garofalo }} * {{cite book |author = Nettl, Bruno |publisher = Prentice-Hall |title = Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents |year = 1965 }} * {{cite journal |author = Palmer, Robert |journal = Rolling Stone |pages = 48 |title = The Fifties |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_rolling-stone_1990-04-19_576/page/n55 |date = April 19, 1990 |others = cited in Garofalo }} * {{cite book |author = Ward, Ed, Geoffrey Stokes and Ken Tucker |isbn = 0-671-54438-1 |publisher = Rolling Stone Press |title = Rock of Ages: The ''Rolling Stone'' History of Rock and Roll |year = 1986 }} * {{cite book |author = Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.) |isbn = 1-85828-636-0 |publisher = Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books |title = Rough Guide to World Music |year = 2000 }} * {{cite book |author = Sawyers, June Skinner |isbn = 0-306-81007-7 |publisher = Da Capo Press |title = Celtic Music: A Complete Guide |year = 2000 }} * {{cite book |author = Schuller, Gunther |isbn = 0-19-504043-0 |publisher = Oxford University Press |title = Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development |year = 1968 }} * {{cite book |author = Struble, John Warthen |isbn = 0-8160-2927-X |publisher = Facts on File |title = The History of American Classical Music |year = 1995 }} * {{cite book |author = [[David Szatmary]] |isbn = 0-13-022636-X |publisher = Prentice Hall |title = Rockin' in Time: A Social History of Rock-And-Roll |year = 2000 }} * {{cite book |author = Werner, Craig |isbn = 0-452-28065-6 |publisher = Plume |title = A Change Is Gonna Come: Music, Race and the Soul of America |year = 1998 }} == Referentias == <references/> == Plus de literatura == * {{cite book|author=Claghorn, Charles Eugene|title=Biographical Dictionary of American Music|publisher=Parker Publishing Company, Inc|year=1973|isbn=0-13-076331-4}} * {{cite book|author=Elson, Charles Louis|title=The History of American Music|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2005|isbn=1-4179-5961-4}} * {{cite book|author=Gann, Kyle|title=American Music in the 20th Century|year=1997|publisher=Schirmer|isbn=0-02-864655-X}} * {{cite book|author=Hamm, Charles|title=Music in the New World|year=1983|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=0-393-95193-6}} * {{cite book|author=Hitchcock, H. Wiley|title=Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1999|isbn=0-13-907643-3}} * {{cite book|author=Kingman, Daniel|year=1990|title=American Music: A Panorama|edition=2nd ed|location=New York|publisher=Schirmer Books}} * {{cite book|author=Nicholls, David (ed.)|title=The Cambridge History of American Music|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|isbn=0-521-45429-8}} * {{cite book|author=Seeger, Ruth Crawford|title=The Music of American Folk Song and Selected Other Writings on American Folk Music|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|year=2003|isbn=1-58046-136-0}} * {{cite web|title=Performing Arts, Music|work=Library of Congress Collections|url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/browse/ListSome.php?category=Performing%20Arts,%20Music}} == Ligamines externe == * [http://www.afm.org/public/home/index.php American Federation of Musicians] * [http://www.americanguild.org/ American Guild of Music] * [http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/ American Music Preservation] * [http://www.afm.org/public/home/index.php ''Music Business Journal''] * [http://www.mpa.org/ Music Publisher's Association] * [http://www.musiclibraryassoc.org/ Music Library Association] [[Categoria:Musica in Statos Unite de America| ]] {{revision}} cte80jmax813vb1lptmacz0otbc4h8e 0 15463 698263 662719 2026-08-03T23:58:02Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 6 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698263 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} Le '''Homeopathia''' (ab [[lingua grec|greco]] ''hómoios-'' ''ὅμοιος-'' ("simul-") + ''páthos'' ''πάθος'' ("suffrentia"))<ref>Oxford English Dictionary</ref> es un forma de medicina alternative primo exponite per [[Samuel Hahnemann]] in 1796, le qual tracta un maladia con preparationes multo diluite create ab substantias que normalmente causarea effectos similar al symptomas del maladia. Iste substantias es [[dilution serial|serialmente diluite]], con succussion inter cata passo, secundo le credentia que isto augmenta le effecto del tractamento. Iste dilution es normalmente multo extense, e frequentemente continua usque al puncto del probabilitate que remane nulle molecula del substantia original.<ref name="Dynamization and Dilution"> {{cite web |title=Dynamization and Dilution |publisher=Creighton University Department of Pharmacology |url=http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/dilution.htm |accessdate=2007-10-09 }}</ref><!-- Also: <ref name=SmithHM /><ref name="homsim" /> --> In addition al maladia mesme, le homeopathos pote usar aspectos del stato physic e physiologic del patiente pro seliger inter tractamentos.<ref>Hahnemann Samuel, [http://homeoint.org/books/hahorgan/organ200.htm#P217 ''Organon of medicine''], aphorism 217</ref><ref name="Devrient"> {{cite book |last=Hahnemann |first=Samuel |last2=Devrient |first2=Charles H. |last3=Stratten |first3=Samuel (tr.) |url=http://www.archive.org/details/homopathicmedic00devrgoog |original_title=Organon der Heilkunst |title=The Hœmeopathic Medical Doctrine, or Organon of the healing art |original_language=German |year=1833 |oclc=32732625 }} aphorism 5</ref> Postea es consultate libros de referentia create per homeopathos, appellate "reparatorios", e un remedio es seligite a base del indice de symptomas. Le remedios homeopathic es generalmente considerate como secur, con rar exceptiones;<ref name=zicam-settlement>{{cite web |url=http://www.onlinelawyersource.com/news/zicam-settlement.html |title=Zicam Settlement |accessdate=2007-10-25 |publisher=Online Lawyer Source |archivedate=2008-02-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206070829/http://www.onlinelawyersource.com/news/zicam-settlement.html }}</ref><ref name=pmid14705842> {{cite journal |author=Chakraborti, D; Mukherjee, SC; Saha, KC; Chowdhury, UK, ''et al'' |title= Arsenic toxicity from homeopathic treatment |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=963–967 |year=2003 |doi=10.1081/CLT-120026518 }}</ref> nonobstante, homeopathos ha essite accusate de poner patientes in risco con recommendationes a evitar le [[medicina conventional]], como [[vaccination]]es,<ref name="pmid8554846"> {{cite journal |author=[[Edzard Ernst|Ernst E]], White AR |title=Homoeopathy and immunization |journal=The British journal of general practice: the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners |volume=45 |issue=400 |pages=629–630 |year=1995 |pmid=8554846 }}</ref> drogas anti-[[malaria]],<ref name=malaria2> {{cite news |first=Meirion |last=Jones |title=Malaria advice 'risks lives' |date=2006-07-14 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/newsnight/5178122.stm |accessdate=2007-07-25 }}</ref> e [[antibiotico]]s.<ref name = "minimum-67-4">{{cite journal |url=http://www.minimum.com/reviews/science-homeopathy.htm |title=Critical review of ''The Science of Homeopathy'' |journal=British Homoeopathic Journal |volume=67 |number=4 |month=October |year=1978 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529192321/http://www.minimum.com/reviews/science-homeopathy.htm |date=2013-05-29 }}</ref><!-- This is a sample of the refs found in the main section--> In multe paises, le leges que governa le regulation e prova del drogas conventional non es applicabile al remedios homeopathic.<ref name=WHO> {{cite web |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_EDM_TRM_2001.2.pdf |title=Legal status of traditional medicine and complementary/alternative medicine: A worldwide review |accessdate=2007-09-12 |year=2001 |format=PDF |work=World Health Organization |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] }}</ref><!-- This is the chief reference for the main section below.--> Le assertiones concernente le efficacia del homeopathia (ultra le [[placebo|effecto placebo]]) non es supportate per le massa collective del evidentia [[methodo scientific|scientific]] e [[medicina clinic|clinic]].<ref name="pmid12492603"> {{cite journal |author=[[Edzard Ernst|Ernst E]] |title=A systematic review of systematic reviews of homeopathy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-clinical-pharmacology_2002-12_54_6/page/577 |journal=Br J Clin Pharmacol |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=577–82 |year=2002 |pmid=12492603 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2125.2002.01699.x }}</ref><ref name=nhsdirect> {{cite web |url=http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/articles/article.aspx?articleId=197&sectionId=27 |title=Homeopathy results |accessdate=2007-07-25 |publisher=[[National Health Service]] }}</ref><ref name=amapseudo> {{cite web |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13638.html |title=Report 12 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (A–97) |date=June 1997 |accessdate=2007-07-25 |publisher=[[American Medical Association]] }}</ref><ref name=pmid17285788> {{cite journal |title=Homeopathy for childhood and adolescence ailments: systematic review of randomized clinical trials |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mayo-clinic-proceedings_2007-01_82_1/page/69 |author=Altunç U, Pittler MH, [[Edzard Ernst|Ernst E]] |journal=Mayo Clin Proc |year=2007 |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |pmid=17285788 |doi=10.4065/82.1.69 }}</ref><ref name="Adler"> {{cite news |author=Adler Jerry |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/105581 |title=No way to treat the dying |work=[[Newsweek]] |date=4 February 2008 }}</ref> Un specific [[Pharmacologia|effecto pharmacologic]] in le absentia de moleculas active es scientificamente implausibile<ref name="shang"> {{cite journal |author=Shang A, Huwiler-Müntener K, Nartey L, ''et al'' |title=Are the clinical effects of homoeopathy placebo effects? Comparative study of placebo-controlled trials of homoeopathy and allopathy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_august-27-september-2-2005_366_9487/page/726 |journal=Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9487 |pages=726–732 |year=2005 |pmid=16125589 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67177-2 }}</ref><ref name="Ernst2005">{{cite journal |author=[[Edzard Ernst|Ernst E]] |title=Is homeopathy a clinically valuable approach? |journal=Trends Pharmacol Sci |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=547–8 |year=2005 |pmid=16165225 |doi=10.1016/j.tips.2005.09.003 }}</ref> e viola plure principios fundamental del scientia,<ref name=NatureWhenToBelieve/> como le [[lege de action de massa]].<ref name=NatureWhenToBelieve> {{cite journal|title=When to believe the unbelievable |journal=Nature |volume=333 |issue=30 |pages=787 |year=1988 |doi=10.1038/333787a0 }}</ref> Un pauc de experimentos de bon qualitate supporta le efficacia del homeopathia, sed le resultatos non es definitive ni ha essite replicate,<ref name=Time19951125>{{cite news |author=Toufexis Anastasia |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983466-2,00.html |title=Is homeopathy good medicine? |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=25 September 1995 |pages=2 |accessdate=2008-04-20 |archivedate=2008-05-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501131719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983466-2,00.html }}(page numbering given from online version)</ref> plure experimentos de bon qualitate existe que monstra nulle evidentia in favor de alcun effecto del homeopathia, e le experimentos del remedios homeophatic ha generalmente essite demonstrate de haber problemas que los impedi de esser considerate como evidentia inambigue pro le efficacia del homeopathia.<ref name=Linde1999> {{cite journal |author=Linde et al |journal=J Clin Epidemiol |volume=52 |issue=7 |pages=631–636 |year=1999, |title=Impact of study quality on outcome in placebo-controlled trials of homeopathy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-epidemiology_1999-07_52_7/page/631 |doi=10.1016/S0895-4356(99)00048-7 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12492603"/> <ref> {{cite study |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13638.html |title=Report 12 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (A–97) |accessdate=2007-07-25 |publisher=[[American Medical Association]] }}<br /> {{cite journal |author=Linde K, Jonas WB, Melchart D, Willich S |title=The methodological quality of randomized controlled trials of homeopathy, herbal medicines and acupuncture |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_2001-06_30_3/page/526 |journal=International journal of epidemiology |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=526–531 |year=2001 |pmid=11416076 |doi=10.1093/ije/30.3.526 }}<br /> {{cite journal |title=Homeopathy for childhood and adolescence ailments: systematic review of randomized clinical trials |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mayo-clinic-proceedings_2007-01_82_1/page/69 |author=Altunç U, Pittler MH, Ernst E |journal=Mayo Clin Proc |date=2007 |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |pmid= 17285788 |doi=10.4065/82.1.69 }}</ref> A causa del manco de [[evidentia scientific]] convincente demonstrante le efficacia del homeopathia<ref name="Adler"/> e su uso de remedios sin ingredientes active, le homeopathia ha essite describite como [[pseudoscientia]]<ref name="NSBattitudes">{{cite web |author=National Science Board |month=April |year=2002 |title=Science and engineering indicators |chapter=7 |chapter_title=Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Public Understanding |url=http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind02/c7/c7s5.htm |section_title=Science Fiction and Pseudoscience |location=Arlington, Virginia |publisher=National Science Foundation Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences |accessdate=2009-02-17 |archivedate=2016-04-25 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425234305/http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind02/c7/c7s5.htm }}</ref> e [[charlatanismo]].<ref name="WahlbergQuack"> {{cite journal |author=Wahlberg A |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.07.024 |title=A quackery with a difference—New medical pluralism and the problem of 'dangerous practitioners' in the United Kingdom |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=65 |issue=11 |pages=2307–2316 |pmid=17719708 }}</ref><ref name="AtwoodQuack"> {{cite journal |author=Atwood KC |year=2003 |month=April |title='Neurocranial Restructuring' and Homeopathy, Neither Complementary nor Alternative |journal=Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg |volume=129 |issue=12 |pages=1356–7 |pmid=14676179 |doi=10.1001/archotol.129.12.1356 }}</ref> == Referentias == {{Reflist|2}} [[Categoria:Medicina alternative]] 6od9yxkll61d1xg3yuxu5yvo6q5z8a2 102 17292 698287 683995 2026-08-04T06:58:13Z Tortoise0308 17411 actualisation partial 2026 698287 wikitext text/x-wiki {{revision}} Le [[Concurso de Canto Eurovision]] habeva plus de 50 ganiatores, e ille es un competition annual organisate de paises membros del [[Union Europee de Diffusores]]. Le concurso ha le debut in 1956, e es uno de le plus longe existente programme de [[television]] in le mundo. Le ganiator es desemnate con punctos con tele-votes.</onlyinclude><ref>[http://www.eurovision.tv/addons/files/Extract_ESC2007Rules.pdf Extract from the rules for the 2007 Eurovision Song Contest]. Eurovision.tv. Retrieved on 22 August 2007.</ref><onlyinclude> Le primero Concurso de Eurovision ha essite ganiate non on punctes, ma on votes (due per pais), e solo le ganiator esseva anunciate.<ref>[http://www.eurovision.tv/index/main?page=66&event=273#event_info_273 Eurovision 1956]. Eurovision.tv. 24-Maio-2008.</ref> == Ganiatores == {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! class="autorowspan"!width=5%| Anno ! class="autorowspan"| Pais ! class="unsortable"| Canto ! class="unsortable"| Cantator ! class="autorowspan"| Punctos ! class="autorowspan"| Margine ! class="autorowspan"| Secunde placia ! class="autorowspan"| Tertie placia ! class="unsortable"| Data ! class="unsortable"| Citate |- | {{escyr|1956}} | {{Esc|Helvetia}} | "[[Refrain (song)|Refrain]]" | [[Lys Assia]] | N/A</onlyinclude><ref group="N" name="1956result">Solo le 1 placia esseva annunciate in 1956.</ref><onlyinclude> | N/A | N/A | N/A | 24 Maio 1956 | [[Lugano]] |- | {{escyr|1957}} | {{Esc|Hollanda}} | "[[Net als toen]]" | [[Corry Brokken]] | {{nts|31}} | {{nts|14}} | {{Esc|France}} | {{Esc|Denmark}} | 3 March 1957 | [[Frankfurt|Frankfurt am Main]] |- | {{escyr|1958}} | {{Esc|France}} | "[[Dors, mon amour]]" | [[André Claveau]] | {{nts|27}} | {{nts|3}} | {{Esc|Switzerland}} | {{Esc|Italia}} | 12 Martio 1958 | [[Hilversum]] |- | {{escyr|1959}} | {{Esc|Netherlands}} | "[[Een beetje]]" | [[Teddy Scholten]] | {{nts|21}} | {{nts|5}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | 11 Martio 1959 | [[Cannes]] |- | {{escyr|1960}} | {{Esc|France}} | "[[Tom Pillibi]]" | [[Jacqueline Boyer]] | {{nts|32}} | {{nts|7}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Monaco}} | 25 Martio 1960 | [[London]] |- | {{escyr|1961}} | {{Esc|Luxembourg}} | "[[Nous les amoureux]]" | [[Jean-Claude Pascal]] | {{nts|31}} | {{nts|6}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Helvetia}} | 18 Martio 1961 | [[Cannes]] |- | {{escyr|1962}} | {{Esc|France}} | "[[Un premier amour]]" | [[Isabelle Aubret]] | {{nts|26}} | {{nts|13}} | {{Esc|Monaco}} | {{Esc|Luxemburg}} | 18 Martio 1962 | [[Luxembourg City|Luxembourg]] |- | {{escyr|1963}} | {{Esc|Denmark}} | "[[Dansevise]]" | [[Grethe & Jørgen Ingmann]] | {{nts|42}} | {{nts|2}} | {{Esc|Switzerland}} | {{Esc|Italia}} | 23 Martio 1963 | [[London]]<includeonly> |}</includeonly></onlyinclude> |- | {{escyr|1964}} | {{Esc|Italy}} | "[[Non ho l'età]]" | [[Gigliola Cinquetti]] | {{nts|49}} | {{nts|32}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Monaco}} | 21 Martio 1964 | [[Copenhagen]] |- | {{escyr|1965}} | {{Esc|Luxembourg}} | "[[Poupée de cire, poupée de son]]" | [[France Gall]] | {{nts|32}} | {{nts|6}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | 20 Martio 1965 | [[Naples]] |- | {{escyr|1966}} | {{Esc|Austria}} | "[[Merci Chérie]]" | [[Udo Jürgens]] | {{nts|31}} | {{nts|15}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | {{Esc|Norvega}} | 5 Martio 1966 | [[Luxembourg City|Luxembourg]] |- | {{escyr|1967}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | "[[Puppet on a String]]" | [[Sandie Shaw]] | {{nts|47}} | {{nts|25}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | 8 April 1967 | [[Vienna]] |- | {{escyr|1968}} | {{Esc|Spain|1939}} | "[[La, la, la]]" | [[Massiel]] | {{nts|29}} | {{nts|1}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | 6 April 1968 | [[London]] |- |rowspan=4|{{escyr|1969}}<ref name="madrid">Four countries tied for first place at the 1969 Contest. As no tie-break structure was in place, all four were declared joint winners.</ref> | {{Esc|Spain|1939}} | "[[Vivo cantando]]" | [[Salomé (singer)|Salomé]] |rowspan=4|{{nts|18}} |rowspan=4| N/A |rowspan=4| N/A |rowspan=4| N/A |rowspan=4| 29 Martio 1969 |rowspan=4| [[Madrid]] |- | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | "[[Boom Bang-a-Bang]]" | [[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]] |- | {{Esc|Netherlands}} | "[[De troubadour]]" | [[Lennie Kuhr]] |- |{{Esc|France}} | "[[Un jour, un enfant]]" | [[Frida Boccara]] |- | {{escyr|1970}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | "[[All Kinds of Everything]]" | [[Dana Rosemary Scallon|Dana]] | {{nts|32}} | {{nts|6}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Germania}} | 21 Martio 1970 | [[Amsterdam]] |- | {{escyr|1971}} | {{Esc|Monaco}} | "[[Un banc, un arbre, une rue]]" | [[Séverine (singer)|Séverine]] | 128 | {{nts|12}} | {{Esc|Spain|1939}} | {{Esc|Germania}} | 3 April 1971 | [[Dublin]] |- | {{escyr|1972}} | {{Esc|Luxembourg}} | "[[Après toi]]" | [[Vicky Leandros]] | 128 | {{nts|14}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Germania}} | 25 Martio 1972 | [[Edinburgh]] |- | {{escyr|1973}} | {{Esc|Luxembourg}} | "[[Tu te reconnaîtras]]" | [[Anne-Marie David]] | 129 | {{nts|4}} | {{Esc|Spain|1939}} | {{Esc|UK}} | 7 April 1973 | [[Luxembourg City|Luxembourg]] |- | {{escyr|1974}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | "[[Waterloo (song)|Waterloo]]" | [[ABBA]] | {{nts|24}} | {{nts|6}} | {{Esc|Italy}} | {{Esc|Hollanda}} | 6 April 1974 | [[Brighton]] |- | {{escyr|1975}} | {{Esc|Netherlands}} | "[[Ding-A-Dong]]" | [[Teach-In]] | 152 | {{nts|14}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Italia}} | 22 Martio 1975 | [[Stockholm]] |- | {{escyr|1976}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | "[[Save Your Kisses for Me]]" | [[Brotherhood of Man (band)|Brotherhood of Man]] | 164 | {{nts|17}} | {{Esc|France}} | {{Esc|Monaco}} | 3 April 1976 | [[Le Haga]] |- | {{escyr|1977}} | {{Esc|France}} | "[[L'oiseau et l'enfant]]" | [[Marie Myriam]] | 136 | {{nts|15}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Irlanda}} | 7 Maio 1977 | [[London]] |- | {{escyr|1978}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | "[[A-Ba-Ni-Bi]]" | [[Izhar Cohen]] & [[Alphabeta]] | 157 | {{nts|32}} | {{Esc|Belgium}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | 22 April 1978 | [[Paris]] |- | {{escyr|1979}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | "[[Hallelujah (Gali Atari and Milk & Honey song)|Hallelujah]]" | [[Gali Atari]] & [[Milk and Honey (artist)|Milk and Honey]] | 125 | {{nts|9}} | {{Esc|Spain}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | 31 Martio 1979 | [[Jerusalem]] |- | {{escyr|1980}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | "[[What's Another Year?]]" | [[Johnny Logan (singer)|Johnny Logan]] | 143 | {{nts|15}} | {{Esc|Germany}} | {{Esc|UK}} | 19 April 1980 | [[The Hague]] |- | {{escyr|1981}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | "[[Making Your Mind Up]]" | [[Bucks Fizz (band)|Bucks Fizz]] | 136 | {{nts|4}} | {{Esc|Germany}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | 4 April 1981 | [[Dublin]] |- | {{escyr|1982}} | {{Esc|Germany}} | "[[Ein bißchen Frieden]]" | [[Nicole (artist)|Nicole]] | 161 | {{nts|61}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | {{Esc|Helvetia}} | 24 April 1982 | [[Harrogate]] |- | {{escyr|1983}} | {{Esc|Luxembourg}} | "[[Si la vie est cadeau]]" | [[Corinne Hermès]] | 142 | {{nts|6}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | {{Esc|Svedia}} | 23 April 1983 | [[Munich]] |- | {{escyr|1984}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | "[[Diggi-Loo Diggi-Ley]]" | [[Herreys]] | 145 | {{nts|8}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | {{Esc|Espania}} | 5 Maio 1984 | [[Luxembourg City|Luxembourg]] |- | {{escyr|1985}} | {{Esc|Norway}} | "[[La det swinge]]" | [[Bobbysocks]] | 123 | {{nts|18}} | {{Esc|Germania}} | {{Esc|Svedia}} | 4 Maio 1985 | [[Gothenburg]] |- | {{escyr|1986}} | {{Esc|Belgium}} | "[[J'aime la vie]]" | [[Sandra Kim]] | 176 | {{nts|36}} | {{Esc|Switzerland}} | {{Esc|Luxemburg}} | 3 Maio 1986 | [[Bergen]] |- | {{escyr|1987}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | "[[Hold Me Now (Johnny Logan song)|Hold Me Now]]" | [[Johnny Logan (singer)|Johnny Logan]] | 172 | {{nts|31}} | {{Esc|Germany}} | {{Esc|Italia}} | 9 Maio 1987 | [[Brussels]] |- | {{escyr|1988}} | {{Esc|Switzerland}} | "[[Ne partez pas sans moi]]" | [[Céline Dion]] | 137 | {{nts|1}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Denmark}} | 30 April 1988 | [[Dublin]] |- | {{escyr|1989}} | {{Esc|Yugoslavia}} | "[[Rock Me (Riva song)|Rock Me]]" | [[Riva (music group)|Riva]] | 137 | {{nts|7}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Denmark}} | 6 Maio 1989 | [[Losanna]] |- | {{escyr|1990}} | {{Esc|Italy}} | "[[Insieme: 1992]]" | [[Toto Cutugno]] | 149 | {{nts|17}} | {{Esc|Ireland}}, {{Esc|France}}<ref group="N">Ireland and France tied for second place in the 1990 Contest.</ref> | - | 5 Maio 1990 | [[Zagreb]] |- | {{escyr|1991}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | "[[Fångad av en stormvind]]" | [[Carola Häggkvist|Carola]] | 146 | {{nts|0}}<ref group="N">Sweden won the 1991 Contest following a tie-break.</ref> | {{Esc|France}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | 4 Maio 1991 | [[Roma]] |- | {{escyr|1992}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | "[[Why Me? (Linda Martin song)|Why Me]]" | [[Linda Martin]] | 155 | {{nts|16}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Malta}} | 9 Maio 1992 | [[Malmö]] |- | {{escyr|1993}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | "[[In Your Eyes (Niamh Kavanagh song)|In Your Eyes]]" | [[Niamh Kavanagh]] | 187 | {{nts|23}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Svedia}} | 15 Maio 1993 | [[Millstreet]] |- | {{escyr|1994}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | "[[Rock 'n' Roll Kids]]" | [[Paul Harrington]] & [[Charlie McGettigan]] | 226 | {{nts|60}} | {{Esc|Poland}} | {{Esc|Germania}} | 30 April 1994 | [[Dublin]] |- | {{escyr|1995}} | {{Esc|Norway}} | "[[Nocturne (Secret Garden song)|Nocturne]]" | [[Secret Garden (duo)|Secret Garden]] | 148 | {{nts|29}} | {{Esc|Spain}} | {{Esc|Svedia}} | 13 Maio 1995 | [[Dublin]] |- | {{escyr|1996}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | "[[The Voice (Eimear Quinn song)|The Voice]]" | [[Eimear Quinn]] | 162 | {{nts|48}} | {{Esc|Norway}} | {{Esc|Svedia}} | 18 Maio 1996 | [[Oslo]] |- | {{escyr|1997}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | "[[Love Shine a Light]]" | [[Katrina and the Waves]] | 227 | {{nts|70}} | {{Esc|Ireland}} | {{Esc|Turkey}} | 3 Maio 1997 | [[Dublin]] |- | {{escyr|1998}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | "[[Diva (song)|Diva]]" | [[Dana International]] | 172 | {{nts|6}} | {{Esc|United Kingdom}} | {{Esc|Malta}} | 9 Maio 1998 | [[Birmingham]] |- | {{escyr|1999}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | "[[Take Me to Your Heaven (song)|Take Me to Your Heaven]]" | [[Charlotte Perrelli|Charlotte Nilsson]] | 163 | {{nts|17}} | {{Esc|Iceland}} | {{Esc|Germania}} | 29 Maio 1999 | [[Jerusalem]] |- | {{escyr|2000}} | {{Esc|Denmark}} | "[[Fly on the Wings of Love]]" | [[Olsen Brothers]] | 195 | {{nts|40}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | {{Esc|Lettonia}} | 13 Maio 2000 | [[Stockholm]] |- | {{escyr|2001}} | {{Esc|Estonia}} | "[[Everybody (Tanel Padar and Dave Benton song)|Everybody]]" | [[Tanel Padar]], [[Dave Benton]] & [[Soul Militia|2XL]] | 198 | {{nts|21}} | {{Esc|Denmark}} | {{Esc|Grecia}} | 12 Maio 2001 | [[Copenhagen]] |- | {{escyr|2002}} | {{Esc|Lettonia}} | "[[I Wanna]]" | [[Marie N]] | 176 | {{nts|12}} | {{Esc|Malta}} | {{Esc|Estonia}}<br />{{Esc|UK}} | 25 Maio 2002 | [[Tallinn]] |- | {{escyr|2003}} | {{Esc|Turkey}} | "[[Everyway That I Can]]" | [[Sertab Erener]] | 167 | {{nts|2}} | {{Esc|Belgium}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | 24 Maio 2003 | [[Riga]] |- | {{escyr|2004}} | {{Esc|Ukraine}} | "[[Wild Dances (single)|Wild Dances]]" | [[Ruslana (singer)|Ruslana]] | 280 | {{nts|17}} | {{Esc|Serbia and Montenegro}} | {{Esc|Grecia}} | 15 Maio 2004<ref group="N" name="semi final">Since 2004 the Contest has included a televised semi-final. In 2004 this was held on the Wednesday before the final, and between 2005 and 2007 it was held on the Thursday of "Eurovision Week". Since 2008 two semi-finals have been held, on Tuesday and Thursday respectively.</ref> | [[Istanbul]] |- | {{escyr|2005}} | {{Esc|Greece}} | "[[My Number One]]" | [[Elena Paparizou|Helena Paparizou]] | 230 | {{nts|38}} | {{Esc|Malta}} | {{Esc|Romania}} | 21 Maio 2005 | [[Kiev]] |- | {{escyr|2006}} | {{Esc|Finland}} | "[[Hard Rock Hallelujah]]" | [[Lordi]] | 292 | {{nts|44}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | {{Esc|Bosnia e Herzegovina}} | 20 Maio 2006 | [[Athen]] |- | {{escyr|2007}} | {{Esc|Serbia}} | "[[Molitva]]" | [[Marija Šerifović]] | 268 | {{nts|33}} | {{Esc|Ukraina}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | 12 Maio 2007 | [[Helsinki]] |- | {{escyr|2008}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | "[[Believe (Dima Bilan song)|Believe]]" | [[Dima Bilan]] | 272 | {{nts|42}} | {{Esc|Ukraine}} | {{Esc|Grecia}} | 24 Maio 2008<ref group="N" name="two semi finals">Since 2008 the Contest has included two semi-finals, held on the Tuesday and Thursday before the final.</ref> | [[Belgrade]] |- | {{escyr|2009}} | {{Esc|Norway}} | "[[Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)|Fairytale]]" | [[Alexander Rybak]] | 387 | {{nts|169}} | {{Esc|Iceland}} | {{Esc|Azerbaijan}} | 16 Maio 2009 | [[Moscow]] |- | {{escyr|2010}} | {{Esc|Germany}} | "[[Sattelite]]" | [[Lena Meyer-Landrut|Lena]] | 246 | {{nts|74}} | {{Esc|Turkey}} | {{Esc|Romania}} | 29 Maio 2010 | [[Oslo]] |- | {{escyr|2011}} | {{Esc|Azerbaijan}} | "[[Running Scared]]" | [[Ell & Nikki]] | 221 | {{nts|32}} | {{Esc|Italy}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | 14 Maio 1960 | [[Düsseldorf]] |- | {{escyr|2012}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | "[[Euphoria (Loreen)|Euphoria]]" | [[Loreen]] | 372 | {{nts|113}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | {{Esc|Serbia}} | 26 Maio 2012 | [[Baku]] |- | {{escyr|2013}} | {{Esc|Denmark}} | "[[Only Teardrops]]" | [[Emmelie de Forest]] | 281 | {{nts|47}} | {{Esc|Azerbaijan}} | {{Esc|Ukraine}} | 18 Maio 2013 | [[Malmö]] |- | {{escyr|2014}} | {{Esc|Austria}} | "[[Rise Like a Phoenix]]" | [[Conchita Wurst]] | 290 | {{nts|52}} | {{Esc|Netherlands}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | 10 Maio 2014 | [[Malmö]] |- | {{escyr|2015}} | {{Esc|Sweden}} | "[[Heroes (Måns Zelmerlöw)|Heroes]]" | [[Måns Zelmerlöw]] | 365 | {{nts|62}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | {{Esc|Italy}} | 23 Maio 2015 | [[Vienna]] |- | {{escyr|2016}} | {{Esc|Ukraine}} | "[[1944 (single)|1944]]" | [[Jamala]] | 534 | {{nts|23}} | {{Esc|Australia}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | 16 Maio 2016 | [[Stockholm]] |- | {{escyr|2017}} | {{Esc|Portugal}} | "[[Amar pelos dois]]" | [[Salvador Sobral]] | 758 | {{nts|143}} | {{Esc|Bulgaria}} | {{Esc|Moldavia}} | 13 Maio 2017 | [[Kiev]] |- | {{escyr|2018}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | "[[Toy]]" | [[Netta]] | 529 | {{nts|93}} | {{Esc|Cypro}} | {{Esc|Austria}} | 12 Maio 2018 | [[Lisbona]] |- | {{escyr|2019}} | {{Esc|Paises Basse}} | "[[Arcade]]" | [[Duncan Laurence]] | 498 | {{nts|26}} | {{Esc|Italia}} | {{Esc|Russia}} | 18 Maio 2019 | [[Tel Aviv]] |- | {{escyr|2020}} | colspan="10" style="background:#f0f0f0;"| Cancellate a causa de [[COVID 19]] |- | {{escyr|2021}} | {{Esc|Italia}} | "[[Zitti e buoni]]" | [[Måneskin]] | 524 | {{nts|25}} | {{Esc|Francia}} | {{Esc|Switza}} | 22 Maio 2021 | [[Rotterdam]] |- | {{escyr|2022}} | {{Esc|Ukraina}} | "[[Stefania]]" | [[Kalush Orchestra]] | 631 | {{nts|165}} | {{Esc|Regno Unite}} | {{Esc|Espania}} | 14 Maio 2022 | [[Turin]] |- | {{escyr|2023}} | {{Esc|Svedia}} | "Tattoo"" | [[Loreen]] | 583 | {{nts|57}} | {{Esc|Finlandia}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | 13 de maio 2023 | [[Liverpool]] |- | {{escyr|2024}} | {{Esc|Switza}} | "The Code" | [[Nemo]] | 591 | {{nts|44}} | {{Esc|Croatia}} | {{Esc|Ukraina}} | 11 de maio 2024 | [[Malmö]] |- | {{escyr|2025}} | {{Esc|Austria}} | "Wasted Love" | [[JJ]] | 436 | {{nts|79}} | {{Esc|Israel}} | {{Esc|Estonia}} | 17 de maio 2025 | [[Basel]] |- | [[2026]] | [[Bulgaria]] | "Bangaranga" | [[Dara]] | 516 | {{nts|173}} | [[Israel]] | [[Romania]] | [[16 de maio]] [[2026]] | [[Vienna]] |} == Ganiatores del semifinal == {| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%" |- style="background:#efefef" ! Anno ! Pais ! Canto ! Cantator ! Punctos ! class="unsortable"| Data ! class="unsortable"| Citate |- | [[Eurovision 2004|2004]] | {{Esc|Serbia e Montenegro}} | «[[Lane Moje]]» | [[Željko Joksimović]] | {{nts|263}} | 12 de maio 2004 | [[Estambul]] |- | [[Eurovision 2005|2005]] | {{Esc|Romania}} | «[[Let Me Try]]» | [[Luminita Anghel]] & [[Sistem]] | {{nts|235}} | 19 de maio 2005 | [[Kiev]] |- | [[Eurovision 2006|2006]] | {{Esc|Finlandia}} | «[[Hard Rock Hallelujah]]» | [[Lordi]] | {{nts|292}} | 18 de maio 2006 | [[Athena]] |- | [[Eurovision 2007|2007]] | {{Esc|Serbia}} | «[[Molitva]]» | [[Marija Serifovic]] | {{nts|298}} | 10 de maio 2007 | [[Helsinki]] |- |rowspan="2"| [[Eurovision 2008|2008]] | {{Esc|Grecia}} | «[[Secret Combination]]» | [[Kalomira]] | {{nts|156}} | 20 de maio 2008 |rowspan="2"| [[Belgrad]] |- | {{Esc|Ukraina}} | «[[Shady Lady]]» | [[Ani Lorak]] | {{nts|152}} | 22 de maio 2008 |- |rowspan="2"| [[Eurovision 2009|2009]] | {{Esc|Islanda}} | «[[Is It True?]]» | [[Yohanna]] | {{nts|174}} | 12 de maio 2009 |rowspan="2"| [[Moscova]] |- | {{Esc|Norvega}} | «[[Fairytale]]» | [[Alexander Rybak]] | {{nts|201}} | 14 de maio 2009 |- |} == Per pais == [[File:Eurovision winners map.svg|thumb|450px|Mappa del paises ganiatores del festival, con su respectivo numero de victorias.]] {| class="wikitable" |- !Ganiate !Paieses !Annos |- |7 |{{Esc|Ireland}} |{{escyr|1970}}, {{escyr|1980}}, {{escyr|1987}}, {{escyr|1992}}, {{escyr|1993}}, {{escyr|1994}}, {{escyr|1996}} |- |6 |{{Esc|Sweden}} |{{escyr|1974}}, {{escyr|1984}}, {{escyr|1991}}, {{escyr|1999}}, {{escyr|2012}}, {{escyr|2015}} |- |rowspan="3"| 5 |{{Esc|France}} |{{escyr|1958}}, {{escyr|1960}}, {{escyr|1962}}, ''{{escyr|1969}}'', {{escyr|1977}} |- |{{Esc|Luxembourg}} |{{escyr|1961}}, {{escyr|1965}}, {{escyr|1972}}, {{escyr|1973}}, {{escyr|1983}} |- |{{Esc|United Kingdom}} |{{escyr|1967}}, ''{{escyr|1969}}'', {{escyr|1976}}, {{escyr|1981}}, {{escyr|1997}} |- |4 |{{Esc|Netherlands}} |{{escyr|1957}}, {{escyr|1959}}, ''{{escyr|1969}}'', {{escyr|1975}} |- |rowspan="3"| 3 |{{Esc|Israel}} |{{escyr|1978}}, {{escyr|1979}}, {{escyr|1998}} |- |{{Esc|Norway}} |{{escyr|1985}}, {{escyr|1995}}, {{escyr|2009}} |- |{{Esc|Denmark}} |{{escyr|1963}}, {{escyr|2000}}, {{escyr|2013}} |- |rowspan="6"| 2 |{{Esc|Spain}} |{{escyr|1968}}, ''{{escyr|1969}}'' |- |{{Esc|Switzerland}} |{{escyr|1956}}, {{escyr|1988}} |- |{{Esc|Italy}} |{{escyr|1964}}, {{escyr|1990}} |- |{{Esc|Germany}} |{{escyr|1982}}, {{escyr|2010}} |- |{{Esc|Austria}} |{{escyr|1966}}, {{escyr|2014}} |- |{{Esc|Ukraine}} |{{escyr|2004}}, {{escyr|2016}} |- |rowspan="11"| 1 |{{Esc|Monaco}} |{{escyr|1971}} |- |{{Esc|Belgium}} |{{escyr|1986}} |- |{{Esc|Yugoslavia}} |{{escyr|1989}} |- |{{Esc|Estonia}} |{{escyr|2001}} |- |{{Esc|Lettonia}} |{{escyr|2002}} |- |{{Esc|Turkey}} |{{escyr|2003}} |- |{{Esc|Greece}} |{{escyr|2005}} |- |{{Esc|Finland}} |{{escyr|2006}} |- |{{Esc|Serbia}} |{{escyr|2007}} |- |{{Esc|Russia}} |{{escyr|2008}} |- |{{Esc|Azerbaijan}} |{{escyr|2011}} |} Annos in ''italicos'' indicate ganiates union de cantatores. == Per lingua == Durnate 1966 e 1973, e durante 1977 e 1998, paises esseva permetite de performar in le lingua de ille; vide le principal [[Concurso Eurovision del Canto]] articulo. [[File:ESC 2007 Serbia - Marija Serifovic - Molitva.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Marija Šerifović]]'s "[[Molitva]]" deveni le primero [[Lingua Serbian]] canto que gania le concurso, le primero ganiator del [[1989]] in un lingua que non ha producite un ganiator ante e le primero ganiator del [[1998]] que esseva in altere lingua del [[Anglese]].]] {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%" |- style="background:#efefef" |- !Ganiate !Lingua !Annos !Paises |- |24 |[[Anglese]] |[[Eurovision 1967|1967]], [[Eurovision 1969|1969]], [[Eurovision 1970|1970]], [[Eurovision 1974|1974]], [[Eurovision 1975|1975]], [[Eurovision 1976|1976]], [[Eurovision 1980|1980]], [[Eurovision 1981|1981]], [[Eurovision 1987|1987]], [[Eurovision 1992|1992]], [[Eurovision 1993|1993]], [[Eurovision 1994|1994]], [[Eurovision 1996|1996]], [[Eurovision 1997|1997]], [[Eurovision 1999|1999]], [[Eurovision 2000|2000]], [[Eurovision 2001|2001]], [[Eurovision 2002|2002]], [[Eurovision 2003|2003]], [[Eurovision 2004|2004]],<ref group="N" name="wilddances">This song was partially sung in [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]].</ref> [[Eurovision 2005|2005]], [[Eurovision 2006|2006]], [[Eurovision 2008|2008]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 2009|2009]] |[[United Kingdom]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Sweden]], [[Netherlands]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Lettonia]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]],<ref group="N" name="wilddances"/> [[Greece]], [[Finland]], [[Russia]], [[Norway]] |- |14 |[[Francese]] |[[Eurovision 1956|1956]], [[Eurovision 1958|1958]], [[Eurovision 1960|1960]], [[Eurovision 1961|1961]], [[Eurovision 1962|1962]], [[Eurovision 1965|1965]], [[Eurovision 1969|1969]], [[Eurovision 1971|1971]], [[Eurovision 1972|1972]], [[Eurovision 1973|1973]], [[Eurovision 1977|1977]], [[Eurovision 1983|1983]], [[Eurovision 1986|1986]], [[Eurovision 1988|1988]] |[[Switzerland]], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Monaco]], [[Belgium]] |- |rowspan="2"| 3 |[[Dutch]] |[[Eurovision 1957|1957]], [[Eurovision 1959|1959]], [[Eurovision 1969|1969]] |[[Netherlands]] |- |[[Hebrew]] |[[Eurovision 1978|1978]], [[Eurovision 1979|1979]], [[Eurovision 1998|1998]] |[[Israel]] |- |rowspan="5"| 2 |[[Norvegian]] |[[Eurovision 1985|1985]], [[Eurovision 1995|1995]] |[[Norway]] |- |[[Svedese]] |[[Eurovision 1984|1984]], [[Eurovision 1991|1991]] |[[Sweden]] |- |[[Italiano]] |[[Eurovision 1964|1964]], [[Eurovision 1990|1990]] |[[Italia]] |- |[[Germano]] |[[Eurovision 1966|1966]], [[Eurovision 1982|1982]] |[[Austria]], [[Germany]] |- |[[Espaniol]] |[[Eurovision 1968|1968]], [[Eurovision 1969|1969]] |[[Spain]] |- |rowspan="4"| 1 |[[Danish]] |[[Eurovision 1963|1963]] |[[Denmark]] |- |[[Croatian]] |[[Eurovision 1989|1989]] |[[Yugoslavia]] |- |[[Ukrainian]] |[[Eurovision 2004|2004]] |[[Ukraina]]<ref group="N" name="wilddances"/> |- |[[Serbian]] |[[Eurovision 2007|2007]] |[[Serbia]] |} == Notas e Referentias == === Notas de pede === <references group="N" /> === Citationes === <references /> === Referentias === {{commonscat| Winners of the Eurovision Song Contest}} * [http://www.eurovision.tv/page/history Historia de Eurovision]. Eurovision.tv. Retrieved on 19 August 2007. * John Kennedy O'Connor (2005). ''The Eurovision Song Contest 50 Years The Official History''. [[London]]: Carlton Books Limited. {{ISBN|1-84442-586-X}}. * [http://www.esctoday.com/annual/contests.php?section=history History]. ESCtoday.com. Obtinute in 19 de Augusto 2007. {{Eurovision years}} {{Eurovision winners}} {{traduction|en|List of Eurovision Song Contest winners|340929977}} [[Categoria:Ganiatores del Concurso de Canto Eurovision| ]] [[Categoria:Eurovision]] 237ibdsgq0joug7ax5sgpxkjmz8xqio 0 17444 698270 662604 2026-08-04T00:07:43Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Chimpanze<ref name=MSW3>Groves, C.P. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 182–183}}</ref> | status = EN | image = Schimpanse zoo-leipig.jpg | image_width=300px | image2 = Apeldoorn Apenheul zoo Bonobo.jpg | image2_caption = [[Bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') | image2_width= 300px | image_caption = [[Chimpanze commun]] (''Pan troglodytes'') | domain=[[Eucaryote|Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordato|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Primate|Primates]] | familia = [[Hominide|Hominidae]] | subfamilia = [[Homininae]] | tribus = [[Hominini]] | subtribus = Panina | genus = [[Chimpanze|Pan]] | genus_authority = [[Lorenz Oken|Oken]], 1816 | type_species = ''[[Chimpanze commun|Pan troglodytes]]'' | range_map = Pan (genus) distribution map.png | range_map_caption = Distribution de subspecies de ''Pan''{{legend|#ee0|''Pan troglodytes verus''}}{{legend|#0b0|''Pan troglodytes vellerosus''}}{{legend|#80f|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''}}{{legend|#08f|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}{{legend|#e00|''Pan paniscus''}} | subdivision_ranks = [[Specie]]s e [[Subspecie]]s | subdivision = * ''Pan troglodytes'' ([[chimpanze commun]]) ** ''Pan troglodytes verus'' ** ''Pan troglodytes vellerosus'' ** ''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' ** ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'' * ''Pan paniscus'' ([[bonobo]]) }} '''Chimpanze''' (pronunciate ''shimpanzé''<ref>[http://www.interlingua.com/ied/cerca?edit%5Bkeys%5D=chimpanze&op=Cerca&edit%5Bform_id%5D=your_form_id "chimpanze" in le IED]</ref>) es le nomine commun pro le duo [[specie]]s de [[simia]] que forma le [[genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] '''''Pan''''': * le [[chimpanze commun]] (''Pan troglodytes''), in [[Africa]] Central e del West; * le [[bonobo]], a vices appellate le "chimpanze pygmeo", (''Pan paniscus''), in forestes del [[Republica Democratic del Congo]]. Le [[Congo (fluvio)|Fluvio Congo]] forma le frontieras inter le habitat native del duo species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pan_troglodytes.html |title= ADW:Pan troglodytes:information|accessdate=2007-08-11 |work=Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)}}</ref> Ambes es considerate como species in periculo de extinction. ''Pan troglodites'' es dividite in quatro subspecies: ''P. t. verus'', ''P. t. vellerosus'', ''P. t. troglodytes'', e ''P. t. schweinfurthii''. ''Pan paniscus'' non es dividite. Le chimpanzes es membros del familia del [[hominide]]s, un familia que contine etiam le [[gorilla]]s, [[homine]]s, e [[orangutan]]es. Le chimpanzes se separava ab le evolution del homine circa 6 milliones de annos retro e le duo species de chimpanze es le plus proxime relativos de homines. Totes es membros del tribo de Hominini (con le subtribo del species extincte [[Hominide]]). Le chimpanzes es le sol membros cognoscite del subtribo ''Panina''. Le duo species de ''Pan'' se separava un million de annos retro. ==Classification== ===Supertaxones=== * classe = [[Mammalia]] * ordine = [[Primate|Primates]] * familia = [[Hominide|Hominidae]] * subfamilia = [[Homininae]] * tribo = [[Hominini]] * subtribo = [[Panina]] == Historia de evolution == [[File:Hominoid taxonomy 7.svg|thumb|Le relationes taxonomic del hominoides]] Le genere ''Pan'' es considerate como parte del subfamilia [[Homininae]] como le [[homine]]s. Le duo species es le plus proxime relativos in vivo con [[homine]]s e habeva un ancestre commun 6 milliones annos retro.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0831a-nih.html |title=Chimps and Humans Very Similar at the DNA Level |publisher=News.mongabay.com |date= |accessdate=2009-06-06}}</ref> Le recercas de [[Mary-Claire King]] in 1973 trovava un [[ADN]] 99% identic inter homines e chimpanzes,<ref>Mary-Claire King, ''Protein polymorphisms in chimpanzee and human evolution'', Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley (1973).</ref> ma nove recercas trovava que le similitude es, in realitate, 94%.<ref name=ns>{{cite web | url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=9D0DAC2B-E7F2-99DF-3AA795436FEF8039 |date= 2006-12-19 | title = Humans and Chimps: Close But Not That Close | publisher = Scientific American | accessdate = 2006-12-20}}</ref> == Intelligentia == {{further|[[Cognition in Primates]]}} [[File:1911 EB Chimpanzee Brain.png|thumb|right|250px|Diagramma del cerebro. Topographia del gruppos principal de foci in the campo motor del chimpanze]] Chimpanzes fabrica utensiles e usa los pro obtener alimentos e pro social monstration; illes es manipulative e capabile de deception; illes pote apprender le uso de symbolos e comprende aspectos del lingua human includente un poco de syntaxe relational, conceptos de numeros e sequentias numeric;<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/A105/lectures/A105L12.html | title = Chimpanzee intelligence | publisher = [[Indiana University]] | accessdate = 2008-03-24 | date = 2000-02-23 | archivedate = 2016-09-17 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160917161331/http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/A105/lectures/A105L12.html }}</ref> e illes es capabile de planification spontanee pro un evento o statut future.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Osvath|first=Mathias|date=2009-03-10|title=Spontaneous planning for future stone throwing by a male chimpanzee|journal=Current Biology|publisher=Elsevier|volume=19|issue=5|pages=R190–R191|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.01.010|pmid=19278627}}</ref> === Uso de utensiles === Un discoperta del plus grande importantia esseva in octobre 1960 quando [[Jane Goodall]] observava le uso de utensiles inter chimpanzes. Recerca recente indicava que le uso de utensiles per chimpanzes de petra es datate 4.300 annos retro.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Julio Mercader, Huw Barton, Jason Gillespie, Jack Harris, Steven Kuhn, Robert Tyler, Christophe Boesch | year = 2007 | title = 4300-year-old Chimpanzee Sites and the Origins of Percussive Stone Technology | journal = PNAS | volume = Feb | pages = }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | author = Bijal T. | title = Chimps Shown Using Not Just a Tool but a "Tool Kit" | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_chimps.html | accessdate = 2010-1-20 | date = 2004-9-6}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | author = Fox, M. | title = Hunting chimps may change view of human evolution | url = http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070222/sc_nm/chimps_hunting_dc | accessdate = 2007-02-22 | date = 2007-02-22 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070224115149/http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070222/sc_nm/chimps_hunting_dc | archivedate = 2007-02-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iastate.edu/~nscentral/news/2007/feb/chimpstools.shtml |title=ISU anthropologist's study is first to report chimps hunting with tools |accessdate=2007-08-11 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2007-02-22 |publisher=Iowa State University News Service |archivedate=2007-08-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816143403/http://www.iastate.edu/%7Enscentral/news/2007/feb/chimpstools.shtml }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/animals/070212_chimp_tools.html |title=Chimps Learned Tool Use Long Ago Without Human Help |accessdate=2007-08-11 |last=Whipps |first=Heather |date=2007-02-12 |publisher=LiveScience |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://janegoodall.net/chimp_central/chimpanzees/gombe/tool.asp |title=Tool Use |accessdate=2007-08-11 |publisher=Jane Goodall Institute |archivedate=2007-05-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520045747/http://www.janegoodall.net/chimp_central/chimpanzees/gombe/tool.asp }}</ref> === Empathia === [[File:Chimpanzee mom and baby cropped.jpg|left|thumb|Matre e neonato chimpanze]] Recerca recente ha demonstrate que chimpanzes ingagia in comportamento [[altruism|altruistic]] intra le gruppos,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070625085134.htm |title=Human-like Altruism Shown In Chimpanzees |accessdate=2007-08-11 |date= 2007-06-25|work=Science Daily }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Brenda |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1999 |month=June |title=Levels of Selection, Altruism, and Primate Behavior |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=171–194|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-review-of-biology_1999-06_74_2/page/171|accessdate= 2007-08-11 |quote= |doi=10.1086/393070 |pmid=10412224 }}</ref> ma es indifferente del bon-statut de membros del gruppos non relative.<ref name="Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members">{{cite web|author=Nature |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7063/full/nature04243.html |title=Nature 437, 1357–1359 (27 October 2005) |doi=10.1038/nature04243 |publisher=Nature.com |date= |accessdate=2009-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Appendices for chimpanzee spirituality by James Harrod |url=http://www.originsnet.org/chimpspiritdatabase.pdf |accessdate=2010-03-17 |archivedate=2008-05-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527230019/http://www.originsnet.org/chimpspiritdatabase.pdf }}</ref> === Communication === Chimpanzes communica in un maniera similar al communication non verbal del hommines, usante vocalisationes, gestos del mano, e expressiones facial. Recerca super le [[cerebro]] del chimpanze ha monstrate que lor communication activa un area del cerebro que es in le mesme position que [[area Broca]], le centro del lingua in le cerebro human.<ref>{{cite episode | title = Communication | episodelink = | series = Evolve | serieslink = Evolve (TV series) | airdate = 2008-09-14 | season = 1 | number = 7}}</ref> === Studios de lingua === {{main|Linguage de grande simios}} [[File:ChimpanzeeProfile.jpg|thumb|Profilo de un Chimpanze]] Scientistas ha cercate como inseniar lingua human a multe species de [[simia]]s superior. In le [[annos 1960]], Allen e Beatrice Gardner inseniava durante 51 menses le [[lingua de signos]] a un chimpanze nominate [[Washoe (chimpanze)|Washoe]] que apprendeva 151 signos, e illa instrueva isto de maniera spontanee a altere chimpanzes.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gardner, R. A., Gardner, B. T. | year = 1969 | title = Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee | journal = Science | volume = 165 | pages = 664–672 | doi = 10.1126/science.165.3894.664 | pmid = 5793972 | issue = 894}}</ref> Durnate un longe period de tiempo, Washoe apprendeva plus de 800 signos.<ref>{{cite book | author = Allen, G. R., Gardner, B. T. | year = 1980 | chapter = Comparative psychology and language acquisition | editor = Thomas A. Sebok and Jean-Umiker-Sebok (eds.) | title = Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two-Way Communication with Man | location = New York | publisher = Plenum Press | pages = 287–329}}</ref> === Memoria === Un studio de 30 annos al [[Universitate de Kyoto]] [[Instituto de recerca pro primates]] ha demonstrate que chimpanzes pote apprender le numeros 1-9 e lor valores. Le chimpanzes demonstra un aptitude pro memoria photographic in experimentos super un chimpanze nominate [[Ayumu (chimpanze)|Ayumu]]. Ayumu pote punctar le position de numeros 1-9 visibile durante minus de 1 seconda. Le mesme experimento esseva facite super le campion mundial de memoria [[Ben Pridmore]] in le plus tentativas.<ref>The study was presented in a [[five TV|five]] documentary called [http://demand.five.tv/Episode.aspx?episodeBaseName=C5133620006 "The Memory Chimp"], part of the channel's ''[[Extraordinary Animals]]'' series.</ref> === Riso in simias === [[File:2006-12-09 Chipanzees D Bruyere.JPG|thumb|300px|right|alt=Chimpanzees juvene| Chimpanzes juvene jocante]] [[Riso]] non es unic a homines. <ref name=Discover2003> {{cite journal |author=Steven Johnson | date=[[2003-04-01]]|title=Emotions and the Brain |journal=Discover Magazine|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2003/apr/featlaugh |accessdate= 2007-12-10}}</ref> :''Vide etiam: [[Riso in animales]]'' == Interactiones con homines == === Historia === [[File:2006-12-09 Chimpanzee Gregoire D Bruyere.JPG|thumb|300px|right|alt=chimpanze al etate de 62 annos|[[Gregoire (chimpanze)|Gregoire]]: chimpanze al etate de 62 annos]] [[File:HugoRheinholdApeWithSkull.DarwinMonkey.2.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Affe mit Schädel]] ("Simia con cranio") per [[Hugo Rheinhold]] es un exemplo del vista del chimpanze al fin del seculo 19.]] [[File:Lightmatter chimp.jpg|thumb|right|Chimpanze al [[Zoo de Los Angeles]]]] === Studios === [[File:Chimpanzee_Enos_before_the_flight_of_Mercury-Atlas_5.jpg|left|thumb|[[Enos (chimpanze)|Enos le astro-chimpanze]] ante insertion a in le capsula [[Mercury-Atlas 5]] in 1961.]] In Novembre 2007, 1.300 chimpanzes exista in 10 laboratorios in le S.U.A. (dentre 3.000 simias in vivo in captivitate in le laboratorios de S.U.A.).<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.releasechimps.org/mission/end-chimpanzee-research | title = End chimpanzee research: overview | publisher = Project R&R, New England Anti-Vivisection Society | date = 2005-12-11 | accessdate = 2008-03-24 | archivedate = 2008-04-17 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080417043712/http://www.releasechimps.org/mission/end-chimpanzee-research/ }}</ref> Multe recercas es intrusive<ref name=HSUSmap>{{cite web | url = http://www.hsus.org/animals_in_research/chimps_deserve_better/research/chimpanzee-lab-and-sanctuary-map.html | title = Chimpanzee lab and sanctuary map | publisher = The Humane Society of the United States | accessdate = 2008-03-24 | archivedate = 2008-03-07 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080307055400/http://www.hsus.org/animals_in_research/chimps_deserve_better/research/chimpanzee-lab-and-sanctuary-map.html }}</ref>como "inoculation con agent infectious, chirurgie o biopsiee e testare de medicament".<ref name=HSUSresearch>{{cite web | url = http://www.hsus.org/animals_in_research/chimps_deserve_better/research/overview_of_research_uses_and.html | title = Chimpanzee Research: Overview of Research Uses and Costs | publisher = Humane Society of the United States | accessdate = 2008-03-24 | archivedate = 2008-03-07 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080307055406/http://www.hsus.org/animals_in_research/chimps_deserve_better/research/overview_of_research_uses_and.html }}</ref> Duo laboratorios federalmente financiate usa chimpanzes: Yerkes National Primate Research Laboratory al [[Universitate Emory]] in Atlanta, Georgia, and the [[Southwest National Primate Center]] in San Antonio, Texas.<ref name=Lovgren>Lovgren, Stefan. [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0906_050906_chimplabs.html Should Labs Treat Chimps More Like Humans?], ''National Geographic News'', September 6, 2005.</ref> == Vide etiam == * [[Projecto del genoma del chimpanze]] * [[Grande simias como personas]] * [[Lista de simias]] == Referentias == <references/> == Lege plus == * Hawks, John. [http://www.slate.com/id/2212232/ "How Strong Is a Chimpanzee?"] ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'', February 25, 2009. * Pickrell, John. (September 24, 2002). {{en}}[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/09/0924_020924_dnachimp.html "Humans, Chimps Not as Closely Related as Thought?"]. ''National Geographic.'' {{en}} [[Categoria:Hominidae]] 9tlhgr8wwancq9a3pbqb47pph51xi41 0 17609 698216 688302 2026-08-03T22:47:09Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698216 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} {{Taxobox | name = ''Chironex fleckeri'' | status = | image = Avispa marina cropped.png | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Cnidaria]] | classis = [[Cubozoa]] | ordo = [[Chirodropida]] | familia = [[Chirodropidae]] | genus = '''''Chironex''''' | binomial = Chironex fleckeri | binomial_authority = [[Ronald Vernon Southcott|Southcott]], 1956 | range_map = Chironex fleckeri Range Map.svg | range_map_caption = Distribution supponite de ''Chironex fleckeri''. }} '''Chironex fleckeri''' es un [[specie]] de [[cubomedusa]]. ==Nomine vernacular== *[[Vespa del mar]] ==Description== Es un specie [[veneno]]se mortal de cubomedusac que vive in le aquas del costa del [[Australia]] del Nord e [[Nove Guinea]], nord le [[Philippinas]] e [[Vietnam]].<ref name=distrbution>Fenner, P. J. (2000). ''[http://www.marine-medic.com.au/pages/biology/biologyBreakup/jellyfishChironex.pdf Chironex fleckeri – the north Australian box-jellyfish.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216120627/http://marine-medic.com.au/pages/biology/biologyBreakup/jellyfishChironex.pdf |date=2017-02-16 }}'' marine-medic.com</ref> Illo es considerate le plus mortal [[medusa]] in le mundo que provoca le numerose incidentes resultante in injuria o morte del humanos.<ref name="Fenner1996">{{cite journal |author=Fenner PJ, Williamson JA |title=Worldwide deaths and severe envenomation from jellyfish stings |journal=The Medical Journal of Australia |volume=165 |issue=11-12 |pages=658–61 |year=1996 |pmid=8985452 |url=http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/dec2/fenner/fenner.html |quote=The chirodropid ''Chironex fleckeri'' is known to be the most lethal jellyfish in the world and has caused at least 63 recorded deaths in tropical Australian waters off Queensland and the Northern Territory since 1884}}</ref> Le quantitate del veneno (toxina) de un animal es bastante pro occider 60 humanos adultes.<ref name="Camprell"/> Le prime adjuta consiste in lavar le area con [[aculeo]]s con [[vinagre]] (o [[aceto]]), e in nulle circumstantia con [[alcohol]] o [[lotione]]s basate super [[alcohol]], o spiritos methylate. [[Cardiopulmonario resuscitation|Resuscitation]] [[Cardiopulmonario resuscitation|cardiopulmonar]] ([[CPR]]) pote esser necessari. Adjuta medical es necessari immediatemente post usar [[vinagre]] e [[CPR]]. ''C. fleckeri'' ha tentaculos de 3 metros de longitude que es coperite con milles de [[cnidocyto]]s que, in contacto, lancea [[sagitta]]s [[microscopic]], alicun delivra un veneno de un [[potere|poter]] [[extreme]]. Si le area de sagittas ([[aculeos) es significante, un victima non-tractate pote morir in 3 minutas.<ref name="Camprell">Biology, 7ed. Campell & Reece{{pn}}</ref> ''Chironex fleckeri'' es le plus grande del classe [[cubozoa]] (nominate communmente [[medusa-cubo]]), multe medusas de iste classe pote haber un veneno toxic similar. Ille [[campana]] cresce a le mesura de un [[balla]] de [[basket|basketball]], e ha 4 bochete de 15 [[tentacole|tentaculo]]s. Le color es [[blau]] palide, e es un creatura virtualmente [[transparente]] que es quasi impossibile de vider in le aqua, e un periculo pro le [[natator]]es. Quando illo nata le tentaculos contrahe e ha le longitude de 15 cm e 5 mm in diametro; quando illes flutua, le tentaculos es [[magre]] e se extende a circa 3 metros de longitude. Le tentaculos es coperite con un concentration alte de [[cellula]]s con sagittas (o aculeos) nominate "[[cnidocyto]]s". ==Distribution e habitato== Le [[medusa]] es [[pelagic]] e ha essite documentate ab le costal aquas de Australia e [[Nove Guinea]] usque al le nord del [[Philippines|Philippinas]] e [[Vietnam]].<ref name=distrbution/>. Ma un proxime specie, ''[[Chironex yamaguchii]]'' (=''Chiropsalmus quadrigatus'') es describite in [[Japon]] in 2009 e confusion inter le duo species es possibile.<ref name=yamaguchii>Lewis, C. and B. Bentlage (2009). Clarifying the identity of the Japanese Habu-kurage, Chironex yamaguchii, sp nov (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Chirodropida). Zootaxa 2030: 59–65</ref> [[File:Marinesting1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Medusa-cubo avertismento a [[Cape Tribulation]] plaja de Queensland, Australia.]] {{Refer}} == Ligamines externe == * [http://web.fccj.org/~dbyres/2011projects/chironex/chironex_fleckeri.htm ''Chironex fleckeri'' on fccj.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415230648/http://web.fccj.org/~dbyres/2011projects/chironex/chironex_fleckeri.htm |date=2008-04-15 }} * {{cite journal |author=Hartwick R, Callanan V, Williamson J |title=Disarming the box-jellyfish: nematocyst inhibition in Chironex fleckeri |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_1980-01-12_1_1/page/15 |journal=The Medical Journal of Australia |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=15–20 |year=1980 |month=January |pmid=6102347}} * {{cite journal |author=Beadnell CE, Rider TA, Williamson JA, Fenner PJ |title=Management of a major box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) sting. Lessons from the first minutes and hours |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_1992-05-04_156_9/page/655 |journal=The Medical Journal of Australia |volume=156 |issue=9 |pages=655–8 |year=1992 |month=May |pmid=1352619}} * [http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/project-net/dma/pages/seawasp-01.html Australian Institute of Marine Science - Sea wasp information page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405062642/http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/project-net/dma/pages/seawasp-01.html |date=2007-04-05 }} * [http://www.marine-medic.com.au/ Marine Medic page about box jelly and other Australian poisonous marine creatures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304225638/http://www.marine-medic.com.au/ |date=2010-03-04 }} * [http://www.mydr.com.au/default.asp?article=2596 Management of various animal envenomations including box jelly] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403235145/http://www.mydr.com.au/default.asp?article=2596 |date=2008-04-03 }} [[Categoria:Cubozoa]] 0v7viw2nigkddqa376ktti3q6ji4wcj 0 19835 698217 697942 2026-08-03T22:48:43Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698217 wikitext text/x-wiki {{eminente}} {{infobox/articulo/generic}} [[File:Tutmask.jpg|thumb|right|Le mascara del pharaon [[Tutankhamun]], un artefacto iconic del [[pharoan]] del Egypto e (per isto) le governamento e cultura del egypto antique.]] Le '''Egypto antique'''{{linfo}} esseva un [[civilisation]] del est de Nord-Africa, concentrate preter le fluvio [[Nilo]] in le [[Etate de Bronzo]] in lo que hodie es le pais de [[Egypto]]. Le civilisation egyptian se formava circa [[3150 a.Chr.]] con le unification politic de [[Egypto Alte]] e [[Egypto Basse]] sub le prime [[pharaon]]. Le historia del Egypto ancian occurreva in un serie de regnos stabile, separate de eras de instabilitate nominate le ''evos intermediate''. Le tres regnos principe esseva le [[Regno Ancian]], le [[Regno Medio|Regno Medie]], e le [[Regno Nove]], le final regno notabile. Le pinnaculo del civilisation esseva in le Regno Nove, in le [[regno de Ramses]]. Post su regno, le civilisation falleva lentemente, e Egypto esseva conquirite per un succession de poteres estranier in iste etate tarde. Le dynastia final esseva le [[Dynastia Ptolemaic]], fundate per [[Ptolemeo I|Ptolemeo Soter]], un general de [[Alexander le Grande|Alexandro le Grande]]. Le Dynastia Ptolemaic durava usque [[30 a.Chr.]], quando esseva capturate per le [[Imperio Roman]] e deveniva un [[Aegyptus|provincia roman]]. Le successo del civilisation egyptie esseva partialmente pro su habilitate de adaptar-se al conditiones del [[Valle del Nilo]]. Le prediction del [[Inundation|inundationes]] e le [[irrigation]] controlate del valle fertile produceva surplus de recoltas, que duceva a un [[disvellopament social|disveloppamento social]] e [[cultura]]l. Con ressources disponibile, le governamento patrocinava le exploitation mineral del valle e [[deserto]] ambiente, le disveloppamento de un del prime systemas de scriber ([[hieroglyphico]]s); le organisation de projectos massive de [[construction]] e [[agricultura]]; commercio con regiones ambiente; e un [[fortia armate]] que poteva batter inimicos estranier e asserer controlo egyptian. Lo que motivava e organisava iste activitate esseva un [[bureaucratia]] de [[scriba]]s, capites religiose, e administratores sub le controlo de un pharaon qui assecurava le cooperation e unitate del gente egyptian con un systema elaborate de credentias religiose. Le complimentos plure de Egypto ancian include le creation del technicas de [[metition|metir]], construction, e de facer petrerias, que facilitava le creation de [[pyramide]]s, [[templo]]s, e [[obelisco]]s; un systema de [[mathematica]]; un systema practic e effective de [[medicina]]; systemas de [[irrigation]] e technicas de production agricultural; le prime [[nave]]s cognoscite; [[vitro]]; nove formas del [[litteratura]]; e le prime [[tractato de pace]] cognoscite. Su arte e architectura esseva copiate largemente, e su antiquitates portate al areas distante del mundo. Le [[ruina]]s de su monumentos ha inspirate le imaginationes de viagiatores e scriptores per seculos. Un respecto nove verso antiquitates e excavationes in le prime annos del etate moderne causava le investigation scientific del civilisation egyptian e un appreciation melior de su legato cultural. == Historia == {|class="infobox" style="font-size: 95%; text-align: center; background:#FFFFEB;" |- |style="border-bottom:1px solid #FFF; background:#FFFFEB;"|'''Antique Egypto<br />[[Annexo:Lista de pharaones de Egypto|Dynastias e pharaones]]''' |- |[[Periodo predynastic de Egypto|Periodo predynastic]] |- |[[Periodo protodynastic de Egypto|Periodo protodynastic]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|''[[Periodo archaic de Egypto|'Periodo archaic']]'': [[Dynastia I de Egypto|I]]-[[Dynastia II de Egypto|II]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|'''[[Regno Antique de Egypto|Regno Antique]]''': [[Dynastia III de Egypto|III]] [[Dynastia IV de Egypto|IV]] [[Dynastia V de Egypto|V]] [[Dynastia VI de Egypto|VI]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|[[Prime periodo intermedie de Egypto|'''I''' PI]]: [[Dynastia VII de Egypto|VII]] [[Dynastia VIII de Egypto|VIII]] [[Dynastia IX de Egypto|IX]] [[Dynastia X de Egypto|X]] [[Dynastia XI de Egypto|XI]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|'''[[Regno Medie de Egypto|Regno Medie]]''': [[Dynastia XI de Egypto|XI]] [[Dynastia XII de Egypto|XII]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|[[Secunde periodo intermedie de Egypto|'''II''' PI]]: [[Dynastia XIII de Egypto|XIII]] [[Dynastia XIV de Egypto|XIV]] [[Dynastia XV de Egypto|XV]] [[Dynastia XVI de Egypto|XVI]] [[Dynastia XVII de Egypto|XVII]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|'''[[Imperio Nove de Egypto|Imperio Nove]]''': [[Dynastia XVIII de Egypto|XVIII]] [[Dynastia XIX de Egypto|XIX]] [[Dynastia XX de Egypto|XX]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|[[Tertie periodo intermedie de Egypto|'''III''' PI]]: [[Dynastia XXI de Egypto|XXI]] [[Dynastia XXII de Egypto|XXII]] [[Dynastia XXIII de Egypto|XXIII]] [[Dynastia XXIV de Egypto|XXIV]] [[Dynastia XXV de Egypto|XXV]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|'''[[Periodo tardive de Egypto|Periodo tardive]]''': [[Dynastia XXVI de Egypto|XXVI]] [[Dynastia XXVII de Egypto|XXVII]] |- |[[Dynastia XXVIII de Egypto|XXVIII]] [[Dynastia XXIX de Egypto|XXIX]] [[Dynastia XXX de Egypto|XXX]] [[Dynastia XXXI de Egypto|XXXI]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ccc;"|'''[[Periodo Hellenistic de Egypto|Periodo Hellenistic]]''': |- |[[Dynastia Macedonic de Egypto|Macedonic]]. [[Dynastia Ptolemaic|Ptolemaico]] |- |style="border-top: 1px solid #ddd;"|'''[[Periodo Roman de Egypto|Periodo Roman]]''' |} Le obtention de un chronologia exacte del antique Egypto es un carga complexe. Existe diverse criterios de datation inter [[egyptologo]]s, con divergentias de alcun annos in le ultime periodos, de decennios al principio del Imperio Nove e de quasi un seculo durante le [[Regno Antique]] (vide: [[Chronologia del Antique Egypto]]). Le prime problema surge per le facto que le egyptios non utilisava un systema de datation homogenee: illes non habeva un concepto de un era simile al [[Anno Domini]], o le costume de nominar le annos, como in [[Mesopotamia]] (vide [[Limmu]]). Illes datava con referentia al regnatos del diverse pharaones, superponente possibilemente le interregnos e le epochas de [[corregentia]]. Un problema addite surge al comparar le distincte [[Listas Regal]] de [[pharaon]]es, proque illos es incomplete o con datos contradictori, mesme in le proprie texto. Le operas del melior historico antique super Egypto, [[Manethon]], se perdeva e nos los cognosce solmente a transverso de [[epitome]]s de scriptores posterior como [[Flavio Josepho]], [[Eusebio de Cesarea]], [[Sexto Julio Africano]] o le monacho [[Georgio Syncello]]. Infortunatemente le datas de alcun regnatos varia de un autor a un altere. ==== Comenciamentos ==== Le evidentias [[archeologia|archeologic]] indica que le civilisation egyptie comenciava circa le VI millennio a.Chr., durante le [[Neolithico]], quando se stabiliva le prime populatores (vide le [[Periodo predynastic de Egypto|periodo predynastic]]). Le fluvio [[Nilo]], circa le qual se stabiliva le population, ha essite le linea de referentia pro le [[Cultura del Antique Egypto|cultura egyptie]] depost que le [[nomade]]s [[Chassa-collection|chassatores-collectores]] comenciava a viver in su ripas durante le [[pleistoceno]]. Le tracias de iste prime populatores remaneva in le objectos e signos gravate in le roccas al longe del valle del Nilo e in le [[oases]]. Al longe del Nilo, in le [[Mesolithico|XI millennio a.Chr.]], una cultura de collectores de grano habeva essite substituite per un altere de [[chassa]]tores, [[piscator]]es e collectores qui usava [[Etate de Petra|instrumentos de petra]]. Le studios tamben indica stabilimentos human in le sud-west de Egypto, vicin al frontiera con [[Sudan]], ante 8000 a.Chr. Le evidentia [[geologia|geologic]] e studios [[climatologia|climatologic]] suggere que le cambios del [[climate]], circa 8000 a.Chr., comenciava a [[Desertification|desiccar]] le terras de chassa e pastura de Egypto, conformante paulatim le [[deserto del Sahara]]. Le tribos del region tendeva a aggruppar se in le vicinitate del fluvio, ubi surgeva parve vicos que developpava un economia agricola. Il ha evidentias de pastura e del cultivation de [[cereal]]es in le est del Sahara in le VII millennio a.Chr. Circa 6000 a.Chr., jam habeva apparite in le valle del Nilo le [[agricultura]] organisate e le construction de grande vicos. Al mesme tempore, in le sud-west illes se dedicava al elevamento de bestial e tamben construeva. Le [[mortero de calce]] se usava jam in 4000 a.Chr. Es le denominate periodo predynastic, que comencia con le cultura de [[Naqada]]. Inter 5500 e 3100 a.Chr., durante le Predynastico, le parve stabilimentos prosperava al longe del Nilo. In 3300 a.Chr., momentos ante le [[Dynastia I|prime dynastia]], Egypto esseva dividite in duo regnos, cognoscite como [[Alte Egypto]] (''Ta Shemau'') e [[Basse Egypto]] (''Ta Mehu'').<ref>{{cita libro|autor=Adkins, L. and Adkins, R.|título=The Little Book of Egyptian Hieroglyphics|url=https://archive.org/details/littlebookofegyp0000adki_b9s5|año=2001|isbn =0-340-79485-2|editorial = Londres: Hodder and Stoughton}}</ref> Le frontiera inter ambes se situava in le actual zona de [[Cairo]], al sud del [[delta del Nilo]]. Le historia de Egypto, como Stato unificate, comencia circa 3050 a.Chr. con [[Menes]] ([[Narmer]]), qui unificava le Alte e le Basse Egypto e esseva su prime rege. Le [[Cultura del Antique Egypto|cultura]] e [[Costumes del Antique Egypto|costumes]] egyptie esseva notabilemente stabile e a pena variava in quasi 3000 annos, includente [[Mythologia egyptie|religion]], [[Arte del Antique Egypto|expression artistic]], architectura e structura social. Le chronologia del reges egyptie comencia in ille epocha. Le [[Annexo:Lista de pharaones de Egypto|chronologia conventional]] es le acceptate durante le [[Seculo XX|20e seculo]], sin includer alcun del revisiones que se ha facite in ille tempore. Mesme in un mesme travalio, le archeologos offere frequentemente, como possibile, varie datas e mesme varie chronologias, e pro isto pote haber discrepantias inter le datas monstrate in le distincte fontes. Tamben se da varie possibile transcriptiones del nomines. Traditionalmente le [[egyptologia]] classifica le historia del civilisation pharaonic dividite in dynastias, sequente le structura narrative del [[epitome]]s del ''[[Aegyptiaca]]'' (''Historia de Egypto''), del sacerdote egyptie [[Manethon]]. ==== Periodo predynastic ==== {{AP|Periodo Predynastic de Egypto|l1=Periodo predynastic}} {{VT|Naqada I|Naqada II}} In le periodo predynastic (c. 5500 a.Chr.-3300 a.Chr.) le prime populatores de [[Egypto]] attingeva le ripas del [[fluvio Nilo]], tunc un conglomerato de paludes e foco de [[malaria]], in lor fuga del crescente desertification del [[Sahara]]. [[File:Egypte louvre 316.jpg|thumb|Un typic Naqada II vasa decorate con gazellas. (Periodo predynastic)]] On sape per le restos archeologic que in le antiquitate le [[Sahara]] habeva un climate mediterranee, plus humide que le actual. In le massivos del [[Ahaggar]] e le [[Tibesti]] habeva abundante vegetation. Pro ille populatores, le Sahara serea un extense steppa con grande herbivores a chassar. Le culturas saharian es, in grande mesura, incognite, sed non pro isto inexistente. Le successive phases del [[neolithico]] es representate per le culturas de [[El Fayum]], verso 5000 a.Chr., le cultura [[tasiense]], verso 4500 a.Chr. e le cultura de [[Merimde]], verso 4000 a.Chr. Tote illos cognosce le petra polite, le ceramica, le agricultura e le elevamento de bestial. Le base del economia esseva le agricultura que se realisava profitante le [[limo]], fertilisante natural que apportava le annue inundationes del fluvio Nilo. Post iste culturas appareva le [[badariense]] e le amratiense o [[Naqada I]], inter 4000 e 3800 a.Chr. Verso le anno 3600 a.Chr. surge le gerzeense o [[Naqada II]], que se diffunde per tote Egypto, unificante lo culturalmente. Iste consonantia cultural ducera al unitate politic, que surgera post un periodo de luctas e alianzas inter clanes pro imponer lor suprematia. Pro attinger major efficacia de production, verso 3500 a.Chr., comenciava a realisar se le prime operas de canalisation e surge le scriptura con [[hieroglyphico]]s in [[Abydos]]. In iste epocha comenciava le proto-Statos: Le prime communitates faceva habitabile le pais e se organisava in regiones appellate [[nomo]]s. Le habitantes del Delta habeva un organisation feudal e arrivava a stabilir duo regnos con duo chefs o monarchas respectivemente. Un regno esseva stabilite in un loco paludose, que se appellava ''regno del Junco'' e habeva como symbolo un thallo de junco. Su capital esseva [[Buto]]; illes habeva un [[cobra]] como [[totem]]. Le altere regno habeva como capital [[Busiris (Basse Egypto)|Busiris]] e como totem un [[vulture]] sed su symbolo esseva un [[ape]] e arrivava a esser cognoscite como ''regno del Ape''. Ambe regnos esseva separate per un bracio del fluvio Nilo. Le ''regno del Ape'' conquireva le ''regno del Junco'' de maniera que le Delta remaneva unificate. Sed alcun del vincitos fugiva pro stabilir se in le zona del [[Alte Egypto]] ubi illes fundava citates dante les le mesme nomine que illos que illes habeva lassate in le Delta. Pro isto multe citates de iste epocha ha nomines simile in le Alte e Basse Egypto. Iste gente prosperava considerabilemente usque a arrivar a organisar se in un Stato. ==== Periodo protodynastic ==== {{AP|Periodo protodynastic de Egypto|l1=Periodo protodynastic}} {{VT|Naqada III}} [[File:Egypte louvre 321.jpg|thumb|Paletta ceremonial de epocha protodynastic. [[Louvre]].]] Le protodynastico (c. 3300-3050 a.Chr.) es considerate le phase final del periodo predynastic, tamben cognoscite como [[dynastia 0]], predynastico tardive, o periodo Naqada III. Illo es regite per governantes del [[Alte Egypto]] qui residera in [[Thinis]], se face representar con un [[serekh]] e adora [[Horus]]. Le nomine de iste reges figura in le [[Petra de Palermo]], gravate 700 annos postea. In iste periodo surge le prime authentic citates, tal como Thinis, [[Nubet]], [[Nekheb]], [[Nekhen]], etc. Es typic de iste epocha le magnific vasas taliate in petra, cultellos e palettas ceremonial, o le capites de macias votive. [[Narmer]] poteva esser le ultime rege de iste epocha, e le fundator del dynastia I. ==== Periodo Archaic ==== {{AP|Periodo archaic de Egypto|l1=Periodo Archaic}} [[File:CeremonialFlintKnife-Djer.png|thumb|Cultello ceremonial de epocha archaic. Royal Ontario Museum.]] Le periodo archaic (c. 3050-2890 a.Chr.) seque le predynastico, al fin del qual Egypto se trovava dividite in parve regnos; le principales esseva: illo de [[Hieraconpolis]] (Nekhen) in le [[Alte Egypto]] e illo de [[Buto]] (Pe) in le [[Basse Egypto]]. Le processo de unification esseva realisate per le reges de Hieraconpolis. Le tradition egyptie attribueva le unification a [[Menes]], remanente isto reflectite in le [[Listas Regal]]. Iste personage es, secundo [[Alan Gardiner]], le rege [[Narmer]], le prime [[pharaon]] del qual on ha constantia que regnava in tote Egypto, post un serie de luctas, tal como remaneva testificate in le [[paletta de Narmer]]. Iste periodo es formate per le dynastias I e II. ==== Imperio Antique ==== {{AP|Imperio Antique de Egypto|l1=Imperio Antique}} [[File:Ancient Egypt old and middle kingdom-es.svg|thumb|Egypto durante le imperios antique e nove.]] [[File:Khafre statue.jpg|thumb|Statua de Kephren.]] [[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|Le Pyramides de Giza.]] In le Imperio Antique (c. 2686-2181 a.Chr.), sub le dynastia III le capital se stabiliva definitivemente in [[Memphis (Egypto)|Memphis]], de ubi procede le denomination del pais, post que le nomine del principal templo, ''Hat Ka Ptah'' «casa del spirito de [[Ptah]]», que passava al greco como ''Aegyptos'', con le tempore designava primo le quartiero in le qual illo se trovava, postea tote le citate e plus tarde le regno. In le epocha del tertie dynastia comenciava le costume de eriger grande [[Pyramide (architectura)|pyramides]] e monumental conjunctos in petra, gratias al pharaon [[Djoser]]. Tamben le grande pyramides de [[Giza]], attribuite al pharaones [[Cheops]], [[Kephren]] e [[Mycerino]] se data in iste periodo. Le [[dynastia V]] marca le ascension del alte clero e le influente governatores local ([[Nomarcha|nomarchas]]), e durante le longe regnato de [[Pepy II]] se accentuara un epocha de forte decentralisation, denominate [[prime periodo intermedie de Egypto]]. Le Imperio Antique comprende le dynastias III a VI. ==== Prime Periodo Intermedie ==== {{AP|Prime Periodo Intermedie de Egypto|l1=Prime periodo intermedie}} Iste periodo (c. 2181-2050 a.Chr.) esseva un epocha ubi le poter esseva decentralisate e se transfere inter le Imperio Antique e le Imperio Medie. Comprende desde le dynastia VII usque al medie del dynastia XI, quando Mentuhotep II reunificava le pais sub su commando. Malgrado le decadentia, iste epocha se distingueva per un grande florescentia litterari, con textos doctrinal o didactic, que monstra le grande cambio social. Le importante cambio de mentalitate, assi como le crescentia del classes medie in le citates originava un nove conception del credentias, reflectente se in le apparition del denominate [[Textos del Sarcophagos]]. [[Osiris]] se converteva in le divinitate plus popular, con [[Montu]] e [[Amon (mythologia)|Amon]]. Le [[nomo]]s de [[Heracleopolis]] e [[Thebas (Egypto)|Thebas]] se constitueva como hegemonic, imponente se finalmente iste ultime. Es le dynastias VII a XI. [[File:MentuhotepII-FuneraryStatue-CloseUp MetropolitanMuseum c.jpg|thumb|Mentuhotep II. [[MMNY]].]] ==== Imperio Medie ==== {{AP|Imperio Medie de Egypto|l1=Imperio Medie}} [[File:Egypte louvre 231 visage.jpg|thumb|Amenemhat III, le ultime monarcha grande del Imperio Medie.]] On considera que le Imperio Medie (c. 2050-1750 a.Chr.) se initia con le reunification de Egypto sub [[Mentuhotep II]]. Es un periodo de grande prosperitate economic e expansion exterior, con pharaones pragmatic e interprendente. Iste periodo es formate per le fin del dynastia XI e le XII. Se realisava ambitiose projectos de irrigation in [[El Fayum]], pro regular le grande inundationes del Nilo deviante lo verso le laco ''[[Moeris]]'' (El Fayum). Tamben se potentiava le relationes commercial con le regiones circumvicin african, asiatic e mediterranee. Le representationes artistic se humanisava, e se imponeva le culto al deo [[Amon (mythologia)|Amon]]. In le medie de 1800 a.Chr., le dirigentes [[hyksos]] vinceva le pharaones egyptie; lo que comenciava como un migration gradual de libyanos e cananeos verso le delta del Nilo, se transformava con le tempore in conquesta militar de quasi tote le territorio egyptie, originante le cadita del Imperio Medie. Le hyksos vinceva proque illes possedeva melior armas, e sapeva utilisar le factor surprisa. ==== Secunde Periodo Intermedie ==== {{AP|Secunde Periodo Intermedie de Egypto|l1=Secunde periodo intermedie}} In iste periodo (c. 1750-1500 a.Chr.) in Egypto dominava le governantes [[hyksos]], chefes de populos nomade del peripheria, specialmente libyos e asiaticos, qui se stabiliva in le delta, e habeva como capital le citate de [[Avaris]]. Finalmente, le dirigentes egyptie de Thebas declarava le independentia, essente denominate le dynastia XVII. Illes proclamava le «salvation de Egypto» e dirigeva un «guerra de liberation» contra le hyksos. Esseva le dynastias XIII a XVII, partialmente coetanee. [[File:Egypt Picture6.jpg|thumb|[[Ramses II]]. Imperio Nove. [[Luxor]].]] ==== Imperio Nove ==== {{AP|Imperio Nove de Egypto|l1=Imperio Nove}} Le Imperio Nove (c. 1500-1070 a.Chr.) es un periodo de grande expansion exterior, tanto in [[Asia]] —ubi illes arriva al [[Euphrates]]— como in [[Kush]] (Nubia). Le [[Dynastia XVIII de Egypto|dynastia XVIII]] comenciava con un serie de pharaones guerreros, desde [[Amosis I]] usque a [[Thutmosis III]] e [[Thutmosis IV]]. Sub [[Amenophis III]] se arrestava le expansion e se initiava un periodo de pace interne e externe. Post un periodo de debilitate monarchic, arrivava al poter le castas militar, le [[Dynastia XIX de Egypto|dynastia XIX]] o [[Ramesida]] que, fundamentalmente sub [[Seti I]] e [[Ramses II]], se monstrava energic contra le expansionista reges [[hittita]]s. Durante le regnatos de [[Merenptah]], successor de [[Ramses II]], e [[Ramses III]], del [[Dynastia XX de Egypto|dynastia XX]], Egypto habeva a confruntar le invasiones del [[populos del mar]], originari de diverse areas del [[Mar Mediterranee|Mediterraneo]] oriental ([[civilisation egee|Egeo]], [[Anatolia]]), e del [[Libia|libyos]]. [[File:Il tempio di Hatshepsut.JPG|thumb|Djeser-Djeseru (le sublime del sublimes) de [[Hatshepsut]] es le edificio principal del complexo de templos funerari in [[Deir el-Bahari]].]] Le pharaones del [[Imperio Nove de Egypto|Imperio Nove]] initiava un campania de construction a grande scala pro promover le deo [[Amon]], de qui le crescente culto se stabiliva in [[Karnak]]. Tamben illes construeva monumentos pro glorificar lor proprie complimentos, tanto real como imaginari. Hatshepsut utilisara tal hyperbole durante su regnato de quasi vinti-duo annos que esseva multo succedite, marcate per un longe periodo de pace e prosperitate, con expeditiones commercial a Punt, le restauration del retes de commercio exterior, grande projectos de construction, includente un elegante templo funerari que rivalisa con le architectura grec de mille annos plus tarde, obeliscos colossal e un [[capella]] in Karnak. [[File:SFEC EGYPT ABUSIMBEL 2006-003.JPG|thumb|Quatro statuas colossal de [[Ramses II]] flanquea le entrata de su templo de [[Abu Simbel]].]] Malgrado su complimentos, le herede de [[Hatshepsut]], su fillastro [[Thutmosis III]], tentava de rader tote tracia de su legato verso le fin del regnato, appropriante se de multe de su complimentos. Ille tamben tentava de cambiar multe traditiones stabilite que se habeva developpate al longe de seculos. Possibilemente esseva un tentativa inutile de evitar que altere feminas se deveniva pharaon e frenar assi lor influentia in le regno. Circa 1350 a.Chr., le stabilitate del Imperio pareva menaciate, ancora plus quando [[Amenhotep IV]] ascendeva al throno e institueva un serie de reformas radical, que habeva un resultato chaotic. Cambiante su nomine per illo de [[Akhenaton]], ille promoveva como deitate supreme le usque tunc obscur deitate solar [[Aton]], initiante un reforma religiose tendente al [[monotheismo]]. In parte, le monotheismo de Akhenaton esseva un producto del absolutismo regal; le vetere deos habeva disparite, sed le rege manteneva —pro su proprie beneficio politic— su rolo traditional como mediator inter le homines e le desiderios del nove deo. Le pharaon supprimeva le culto al majoritate del altere deitates e, super toto, tentava de annullar le poter del influente sacerdotes de Amon in [[Thebas (Egypto)|Thebas]], a qui ille videva como corrupte. Al transferer le capital al nove citate de Akhet-Aton (actual Amarna), Akhenaton faceva aures surde al evenimentos del Proxime Oriente (ubi le hittitas, Mitanni e le assyrios se disputava le controlo) e se concentrava unicamente in le nove religion. Le nove philosophia religiose comportava un nove stylo artistic, que accentuava le humanitate del rege super le monumentalitate. Post su morte, le culto de Aton esseva abandonate rapidemente, le sacerdotes de Amon recuperava le poter e retornava le capital a Thebas. Sub lor influentia le pharaones posterior —[[Tutankhamon]], [[Ay]] e [[Horemheb]]— tentava de rader tote mention de [[Akhenaton]] e su «heresia», ora cognoscite como le Periodo de [[Amarna]]. Circa 1279 a.Chr. ascendeva al throno [[Ramses II]], tamben cognoscite como ''le Grande''. Le sue serea un del regnatos plus longe del historia egyptie. Ille mandava construer plus templos, plus statuas e obeliscos, e ingenerar plus filios que qualcunque altere pharaon. Audace chef militar, Ramses II conduceva su armea contra le hittitas in le [[battalia de Kadesh]] (in le actual Syria); post arrivar a un puncto morte, finalmente ille acceptava un tractato de pace con le regno hittita. Es le tractato de pace plus antique registrate, circa 1258 ante Christo. Egypto se retirava del major parte de su possessiones asiatic lassante le hittitas competer, sin successo, con le crescente poter emergente de Assyria e le novemente arrivate phrygios. Le ricchessa de Egypto, totevia, se habeva convertite in un objectivo tentante pro le invasion; in particular, pro le libyos beduinos del west e le [[populos del mar]], que formava parte del potente confederation de piratas grecs del [[mar Egeo]]. Initialmente, le armea esseva capace de repeller le invasiones, sed Egypto terminava per perder le controlo de su territorios in le sud de Syria e Canaan, que in grande parte cadeva in poter del assyrios e hittitas. Le impacto del menacias externe se videva aggravate per problemas interne como le corruption, le furto del tumbas regal e le tumultos popular. Post recuperar lor poter, le summe sacerdotes del templo de [[Amon]] in Thebas habeva accumulate vaste extensiones de terra e multa ricchessa, debilitante le Stato. Le pais terminava dividite, dante initio al [[Tertie Periodo Intermedie]]. ==== Tertie Periodo Intermedie ==== {{AP|Tertie periodo intermedie de Egypto|l1=Tertie periodo intermedie}} Le Tertie Periodo Intermedie (c. 1070-656 a.Chr.) comencia con le instauration de duo dynastias de origine [[Populos libyc|libyc]] que se repartiva Egypto: un, desde [[Tanis (Egypto)|Tanis]], le biblic Zoan, in le [[Basse Egypto]], e un altere, de qui le reges prendeva le titulo de [[Summe sacerdotes de Amon]], desde [[Thebas (Egypto)|Thebas]]. Le periodo termina con le domination del reges [[Cush]]itas. Es le dynastias, partialmente coetanee, XXI a XXV. ==== Periodo tardive ==== {{AP|Periodo Tardive de Egypto|l1=Periodo Tardive}} Le periodo tardive (c. 656-332 a.Chr.) comencia con le dynastia [[Saita]], seque un dynastia nubie, un tentativa de invasion assyrie e con duo periodos de domination [[Persia|persa]], assi como con varie dynastias coetanee de governantes egyptie independente. Egypto se converteva finalmente in un [[satrapia]]. Es le dynastias XXVI a XXXI. ==== Periodo hellenistic ==== {{AP|Periodo Hellenistic de Egypto}} {{Vide etiam|Alexandro Magne|Alexandria ad Egypto|Periodo hellenistic}} [[File:Napoli BW 2013-05-16 16-24-01.jpg|left|thumb|Alexandro Magne.]] Le periodo hellenistic (332-30 a.Chr.) se initia con le conquesta de Αἴɣυπτος (''Aígyptos'') per [[Alexandro Magne]] de [[Macedonia historic|Macedonia]] in 332 a.Chr., e le arrivata al poter in 305 a.Chr. de le [[dynastia ptolemaic]], de origine macedonic. Illo fini con le incorporation de Egypto al [[Imperio roman]] post le [[battalia de Actium]], in le anno 31 a.Chr. In le anno 30 a.Chr. mori [[Cleopatra VII|Cleopatra]] e Egypto se converte in un provincia del Imperio roman. ==== Periodo Roman ==== {{AP|Periodo Roman de Egypto}} Iste periodo (30 a.Chr.-640 p.Chr.) comencia le 30 de julio del anno 30 a.Chr., [[Cesar Augusto|Octavio]] entrava in [[Alexandria]], liquidante definitivemente le independentia politic de [[Egypto (provincia romana)|Egypto]] e convertente lo in provincia [[Antique Roma|roman]]. Illo passava a su succesores le [[Imperio byzantin]] post que le Imperio roman esseva repartite le anno 395 in Occidente e Oriente, e remaneva in su manos usque al conquesta per le [[populo arabe]] del anno 640. Le ultime vestigios del traditional cultura del Antique Egypto fini definitivemente a comenciamentos del [[Seculo VI|6e seculo]], con le ultime sacerdotes de [[Isis]], qui officiava le templo del insula de [[Philae]], al proscriber se le culto al «deos pagan». == Geographia == Le geographia del Antique Egypto, tanto in su aspecto climatic como geopolitic, esseva multo simile a celle del Egypto moderne. Le territorio se organisava circum un stricte frangia fertile a ambe lateres del [[Nilo]] —includente le delta e alcun oasis disperse— durante que le resto del pais esseva coperite per vaste desertos: le libyc a occidente, le arabic a oriente e le peninsula del Sinai a nord-oriente. Iste configuration natural ha profundemente formate le civilisation egyptie, attrahente colonias preter le valle del fluvio durante que le terras adjacente remaneva inhabitabile. [[File:Ancient Egypt map-fr.svg|thumb|180px|Locos principal de Egypto antique.]] === Climate e dynamica fluvial === Egypto habeva un climate predominantemente desertic e calide. Le zonas apte pro agricultura esseva extrememente limitate, concentrate in le fertile banda del Nilo e in alcun oasis. In le antiquitate, le phenomeno de desertification progredeva lentemente, con areas como le plateau de Giza devenite desertic malgrado haber essite savanna. Le crescentia annual del Nilo esseva fundamental pro le agricultura: su inundationes depositava limo nigre que fertilisava le solo, e su variationes poteva significar tanto prosperitate como disastro pro le population. === Frontieras natural e extension territorial === Le frontieras traditional del Antique Egypto coincideva in grande mesura con los del Egypto moderne: al nord, le Mar Mediterranee; al sud, le prime cataracta del [[Nilo]]; al west, le deserto libyc; al est, le Mar Rubie e le [[Deserto del Sinai|deserto del Sinai]]. Ben que iste formationes marcava le limites del pais, le influentia egyptie se extendite occasionalmente ultra illos —al sud usque a Nubia, e verso Asia Minor e le region del [[Euphrate]] al nord e est—, ma iste expansion era sovente temporari. === Organisation administrative: le nomos === Le Antique Egypto esseva dividite in unitates administrative appellate nomos (territorios), dirigite per un nomarcha in nomine del pharaon. Iste divisiones habeva un rolo purmente administrative in periodos de forte centralisation, ma in epochas de debilitate del poter pharaonic —como durante le periodos intermedie— illos ganiava autonomia e poteva mesmo functionar como principatos independente. <center> <gallery> File:Lower Egypt Nomes 01.png|thumb|Nomos in Basse Egypto. File:UpperEgyptNomes.png|thumb|Nomos in Alte Egypto. </gallery> </center> === Regiones geographic principal === Le geographia egyptie se subdivideva in plure regiones major: le Basse Egypto (le delta) al nord, le Medio Egypto (circa Asyut), le Alte Egypto (le valle verso le sud), e Nubia, situate al sud del curso del Nilo. Le Basse Egypto esseva plus humide e de basse altitude, durante que le Alte Egypto, plus estrete e elevate, concentrava le major parte del civilisation. Nubia, ben que geographicamente externe al nucleo egyptie, manteneva relationes commercial e militar importante con le valle del Nilo. == Governamento == === Organisation politic === {{AP|Stato pharaonic}} [[File:Pharaoh with double crown.svg|197px|thumb|Le pharaon es frequentemente representate con le symbolos del poter regal.]] Le Egypto antique es un monarchia [[Theocratia|theocratic]]. Ben plus que un rege, le [[pharaon]] es simultaneemente le administrator principal, le chef del armeas, le prime magistrato e le [[Clero del Egypto antique|prestre supreme de Egypto]]. In effecto, [[Pharaon]] habeva un mission a complir: mitter in opera le regula de [[Maat]] sur Terra, es dicer, assecurar le harmonia inter le homines e le celo, esser garante del moral de su populo, contribuente assi a assecurar su eternitate. Pro exercer su controlo sur le terras e le ressources, le pharaon se appoia sur un administration composite de functionarios qui gere su affaires quotidianmente. Iste administration es dirigite per su homine de confidentia, le [[Vizir in le Egypto antique|vesir]], qui age como representante del rege e coordina le agrimensura del terras, le tresor, le projectos de construction, le systema juridic e le archivos<ref name="Manuelian358">{{harvsp|Der Manuelian|1998|p=358}}</ref>. Le territorio egyptie es dividite in quaranta-duo regiones administrative, appellate [[Nomo (Egypto antique)|nomos]], que es cata un regite per un [[nomarcha]], responsabile ante le vesir de su competentia. Le templos constitue le spina dorsal del economia egyptie. Assi, le templos es non solmente locos de culto sed illos es equalmente responsabile del collecta e del immagazinage del ricchessas del nation in un systema administrate de granarios e de tresorerias que redistribue le cereales e le benes{{sfn|Der Manuelian|1998|p=363}}. === Systema judiciari === [[File:Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372 Cropped and bg reduced.png|thumb|Le [[Scriba in le Egypto antique|scribas]] ha le carga de consignar le taxas e tote le documentos administrative.]] Al culmine del systema judiciari egyptie se trova officialmente le pharaon qui es cargate de promulgar le leges, de render justitia e de mantener le ordine public, un concepto que le antique egyptios denomina [[Maat]]<ref name="Manuelian358"/>. Ben que necun [[Lista de codices juridic|codice juridic]] ha supervivite, le documentos judiciari del epocha monstra que le lege egyptie es fundate sur le bon senso inter le ben e le mal que se basa ante toto sur le resolution de conflictos e sur le conclusion de accordos plus tosto que sur un insimul complexe de leges<ref name=UCJohnson/>. Consilios de ancianos, cognoscite sub le nomine de [[Kenbet]] in le Nove Imperio, es cargate de judicar localmente le affaires judiciari implicante parve creditos e conflictos minor<ref name="Manuelian358"/>. Le casos le plus grave implicante homicidios, importante operationes immobiliari e [[Pillage de tumbas egyptie|pillage de tumbas]] es inviate al ''Grande Kenbet'', presidite per le vesir o le pharaon. Le demandatores e le defendentes se representa se ipse e jura haber dicite tote le veritate. In certe casos, le Stato assume simultaneemente le rolo de procurator e de judice. Il non es alora rar que le accusato sia fustigate pro obtener confessiones e le nomines del conspiratores. Nonobstante, que le accusationes sia grave o non, le scribas judiciari prende nota per scripto del planca, del testimonios e del verdicto del caso pro referentia futur{{sfn|Oakes|2003|p=472}}. Secundo le gravitate del actos incriminate, le sententias pro le crimines minor varia de un simple multa al mutilation del facie, passante per colpos o le exilio. Le criminales le plus periculose tal como le homicidas o le piliatores de tumbas es condemnate al morte, sia per decapitation, per submersion o per impalamento. In le casos multo grave, le sanction poteva mesmo esser extendite al familia del criminal<ref name="Manuelian358"/>. A partir del Nove Imperio, le oraculos joca un rolo major in le systema judiciari rendente justitia in le affaires civil e penal. Le procedura consiste in demandar al deo un « si » o un « no » a un question concernente le benfundato de un caso. Con le supporto de un certe numero de prestres, le deo rende su judicamento seligente le un o le altere del responsas, inclinante se in avante o in retro o punctante un del responsas scripte sur un folio de [[Papyro (papiro)|papyro]] o un [[ostracon]]<ref>{{Ouvrage|langue=ia|auteur1=A. G. McDowell|titre=Village life in ancient Egypt|sous-titre=laundry lists and love songs|lieu=Oxford|éditeur=[[Oxford University Press]]|année=1999|pages totales=279|passage=168|isbn=0-19-814998-0}}</ref>. === Le armea === {{Vide anque|Armea egyptie}} Durante le Vetule Regno non habeva necessitate de un armea permanente. Quando on habeva besonio de affrontar un incursion beduin o le necessitate de un predonage, on organisava un levata; juvenes esseva dunque recrutate qui, un vice terminate le guerra, retornava a lor travalio habitual. Multo plus commun esseva totevia le recrutamento de mercenarios, in particular libyos e nubianos. Iste ultimes esseva multo appreciate como archeros. Le armea assumeva un rolo importante a partir del Medio Regno, arrivante a su culmine in le Nove Regno, periodo de grande expeditiones militar. Le armea egyptie esseva perfectemente organisate, e al guida del truppas stava sempre le pharaon, sur qui recadeva le commando absolute. Malgrado iste concentration de poter, ille, como occurreva con su poter religiose, delegava su functiones al generales. Il ha totevia multe pharaones, prime inter omnes Ramses II, qui accompaniava le truppas in battalia e frequentemente combatteva a lor latere. Le truppas esseva composte de corpores de archeros, de infanteria e de cavalleria, o pro dicer melior "carriera", iste ultime reservate principalmente al aristocraticos. Multo frequentemente in le armeas egyptie le truppa sur le carros esseva le plus numerose. Illos esseva carros legier, differente (per exemplo) de illos hittita, e veloce. Illos esseva frequentemente usate como truppa de ruptura in le armeas egyptie. Sur le carro habeva un archero sed supertoto un soldato armate de un longe lancea de guerra. Del carros egyptie on pote dicer que illos constitueva le "cavalleria legier" del armea, precisemente proque illos esseva veloce e versatile. Le egyptios habeva cognoscite le carro de guerra per le populo invasor Hyksos. == Economia == === Agricultura === Le economia del antique Egypto esseva fundamentalmente basate super le agricultura e le elevamento de animales. Le vita dependeva del cultivation de terras inundate annualmente per le [[Fluvio Nilo|Fluvio Nilo]].<ref>{{Cita libro|título=Egipto : El mundo de los faraones|url=[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/636855248|editorial=Konemann|fecha=1997|fechaacceso=2022-05-24|isbn=3-89508-898-6|oclc=636855248|nombre=Regine|apellidos=Schulz|nombre2=Matthias|apellidos2=Seidel}}](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/636855248|editorial=Konemann|fecha=1997|fechaacceso=2022-05-24|isbn=3-89508-898-6|oclc=636855248|nombre=Regine|apellidos=Schulz|nombre2=Matthias|apellidos2=Seidel}})</ref> Le egyptios developpava un extense systema de dicas, stagnos, e canales de irrigation que se extendeva a transverso del terra agricola. Preter ripas del fluvio, le paisanos cultivava varie typos de cereales. Le grano recoltate esseva immagazinate in granarios e postea usate pro producer pan e bira. Le principal culturas esseva frumento, hordeo, e lino. Le agricultura esseva structurate circa le cyclo annual del Nilo. Quatro phases descriptive esseva traditionalmente identificate: “perla blanc” (quando le Nilo ascendeva e inundava, apportante limo fertile), “perla nigre” (quando le aquas se retirava, lassante ric limo nigre), “esmeraldo verde” (quando le culturas germinava), e “auro rubie” (quando le campos maturava). Plus formalmente, le anno esseva dividite in tres saisons: ''Akhet'', ''Peret'', e ''Shemu''. ''Akhet'', le saison del inundation (junio a septembre), lassava un strato de limo ric in minerales sur le campos, renovante le fertilitate del solo. Durante ''Peret'' (octobre a februario), le saison del semination, le fermeros attendeva que le aquas se exhaurirea ante de ara e seminar le solo inricchite. Le irrigation esseva mantenite per canales e dicas. Finalmente, ''Shemu'' (martio a maio) esseva le saison del recolta, quando le culturas esseva colligite usante falces de ligno. In plus de cereales, le jardines egyptie produceva pisos, lenticulas, cibollas, porros, cucumeres, e lactuca, assi como uvas, dactylos, ficos, e granatas. Le bestial elevate pro carne includeva porcos, bovinos, oves, capras, aucas, e anates. Le egyptios produceva plus alimentos de lo que illes consumeva e se dedicava al excambio de benes excedentari. Le importationes ab territorios estranier includeva incenso, argento, e fin ligno de cedro. Multe commercio egyptie esseva realisate per barca al longo del Nilo e a transverso del Mediterraneo. Durante le major parte de su historia de tres millennios, le antique Egypto esseva considerate inter le regiones le plus ric del mundo antique. === Commercio === Le activitate commercial in le antique Egypto se extendeva ultra le excambio de productos agricola e materias prime. Expeditiones esseva organisate pro obtener benes de luxo e joieles pro le tresor regal del pharaones, e il ha anque evidentia de traffico de sclavos e mesmo le vendita de positiones administrative o de servicio in le templos. Un classe de agentes commercial cognoscite como ''shutiu'' realisava activitates de emption e vendita pro conto del major institutiones pharaonic tal como templos, le palatio regal, e le proprietates del corona. Illes poteva anque vender sclavos a individuos private o realisar transactiones commercial independente pro profito personal. Discoperitas archeologic in le antique citate de Balat, situate in le Oase de Dakhla, ha revelate quasi 200 tablettas de argilla e numerose inscriptiones. Iste trovatas indica que durante le fin del tertie millennio a.Chr., Balat serviva como un base de operationes e puncto de providimento pro expeditiones inviate per le pharaones a in Africa central. Iste expeditiones, a vices comprendente circa 400 homines, cercava pigmentos preciose que esseva transportate per caravana al Valle del Nilo. Le ruta commercial esseva marcate per depositos de vasos placiate a intervallos de approximatemente 30 kilometros a transverso del deserto, extendente se usque al plateau de [[Gilf Kebir|Gilf Kebir]] in le sud-west de Egypto.<ref name=":0" /> Investigatores suggere que le ruta pote haber attingite usque al region del [[Laco Chad|Laco Chad]].<ref>{{cita libro |apellido=Moreno García |nombre=Juan Carlos |capítulo=Los vendedores en el Antiguo Egipto |título=Los vendedores y las civilizaciones |editor=Felip Masó Ferrer |año=2007 |editorial=Würth España, S.A. |isbn=84-611-6707-4 |páginas=11-36}}</ref> === Administration e taxation === Pro scopos administrative, Egypto esseva dividite in unitates territorial cognoscite como ''sepats'' (nominate ''nomos'' in greco). Iste division data del periodo predynastic (ante 3100 a.Chr.), quando le nomos functionava como citate-statos autonome, e illo durava plus de tres millennios. Finalmente, le pais comprendeva 42 nomos: 20 in le Basse Egypto e 22 in le Alte Egypto. Cata nomo esseva governate per un nomarcha qui exercitava autoritate regional. Le governamento imponeva varie impostos, que esseva pagate in natura—per medio de labor o benes—post que le moneta non existeva in periodos anterior. Le vesir (''tyaty'') esseva responsabile de supervisar le systema fiscal pro conto del pharaon. Su officiales manteneva registros del reservas immagazinate e del rendimentos projectate. Le impostos esseva evalutate secundo le occupation e le productivitate: le paisanos (o plus tarde le proprietarios de terras) pagava in productos agricola; le artisanos contribueva con parte de lor benes manufacturate; le piscatores e chassatores pagava con lor capturas. Le stato exigeva anque labor de [[corvée]] del familias durante plure septimanas cata anno. Le individuos participava in operas public tal como excavation o mundation de canales, construction de templos e tumbas, e, quando necessari, expeditiones minor (a minus que prisioneros de guerra esseva disponibile pro tal cargas). Familias plus ric poteva ingagiar substitutos pro complir iste obligationes. In general, le economia del antique Egypto esseva strictemente integrate con su institutiones administrative e religiose, formante un systema centralmente organisate in le qual le agricultura, le taxation, le labor, e le commercio esseva pilares interdependente del poter e prosperitate del stato. == Societate == [[File:Figurenpaar Ägypten Museum Rietberg RAG 1.jpg|thumb|Un copula egyptie sedite]] Le societate presentava un structura fortemente [[hierarchia|hierarchisate]].{{sfn|name=Go53|Gomes|2010|p=53}}{{sfn|name=Co31|Cotrim|1999|p=31-32}} Illo esseva [[patriarchato|patriarchal]], con le homine administrante le domo, con participation del femina, e decidente le heredes per medio de su testamento. Le ancianos esseva consultate e honorate post le morte.{{sfn|name=Be19|Beting|2009|p=19}} Le maritage in le mundo egyptie esseva [[monogamia|monogame]] (ben que il ha casos de [[bigamia]] e [[poligamia]] in le corte pharaonic) e non esseva sanctionate per le religion. Non existeva un ceremonia de maritage, ni un registro de illo. Apparentemente il bastava que un copula affirmava que illes voleva cohabitar pro que le union esseva acceptate. Le homines se maritava inter le dece-sex e le dece-octo annos e le feminas circa le dece-duo o dece-quatro annos. Proque le feminas esseva le transmissores del sanguine regal, como forma de legitimation del poter, il habeva maritages inter fratres. Tamben il habeva maritages inter pharaones e un de lor filias.{{sfn|name=Be24|Besozzi|2005|p=24}} Le homines con un position economic plus elevate poteva haber, ultra le sposa legitime (''nebet-per'', "le seniora del domo"), varie [[concubina]]s, lo que esseva vidite como un signo de ricchessa. Tamen, le feminas qui habeva plus de un homine esseva occidite.{{sfn|Gomes|2010|p=55}} Le [[prostitution]] esseva un practica moralmente condemnate, sed illo esseva practicate sur le ripas del Nilo. Esseva registrate in [[papyro]]s e [[ostracon]]s le practica de favores sexual in excambio de moneta, assi como mention de relationes sexual collective, lo que duce a considerar le possibilitate del existentia de [[prostibulo]]s. In Egypto non habeva prostitution sacrate, essente le relation divinitate-sacerdotissa mermente symbolic.<ref name=Be24/> Le antique egyptios videva homines e feminas, includente le personas de tote le classes social, excepte le sclavos, como essentialmente equal ante le lege, e mesmo le plus humile paisano habeva le derecto de petition al [[Tjati|vesir]] e su corte pro reparation. Tanto homines quanto feminas habeva le derecto de posseder e vender immobiles, facer contractos, maritar se e [[divortio|divortiar se]], reciper hereditage e haber litigios in tribunal. Le cupulas poteva posseder benes in commun e proteger se con contractos de [[maritage]] in caso de divortio, que stipulava le obligationes financiari del marito verso le sposa e le infantes al fin del maritage. Le feminas habeva un grande gamma de electiones personal e opportunitates de realisation. Illas poteva esser del regalitate, travaliar in le palatio como nutrices, concubinas o [[escantion|escantiones]] (servitores de [[vino]] del pharaon) e, in le templos, ab cantatrices a sacerdotessas.{{sfn|name=Be23|Beting|2009|p=23}} Alteres exerceva poteres divin como [[Sposas divin de Amon|sposas de Amon]]. Malgrado iste libertates, le feminas frequentemente non participava in rolos official del administration, serviente solmente in rolos secundari, e non esseva tan susceptibile de esser educate como le homines.<ref name=Jo2004/> Quando le marito moriva, le feminas assumeva le direction de familia e, in le caso del pharaones, le Stato. Feminas como [[Hatshepsut]] e [[Cleopatra]] arrivava a devedir pharaones. Le feminas poteva reciper hereditage paterne. Normalmente, le filio le plus vetere assumeva le throno pharaonic post le morte de su patre, tamen, quando il habeva solmente filias como successores al throno, le plus vetere debeva maritar se pro que su marito assumeva le throno.<ref name=Be23/> [[File:CopulatingCouple-PtolemaicPeriod BrooklynMuseum.png|thumb|vertical|Arte erotic]] {{Citation2|bq=s| 1=Sia como illo vult, […] le femina esseva ''[[sui juris]]'', potente disponer liberemente de su benes, intamar processos in le justitia, prender le initiativa del divortio tanto quanto le homine, ducer un rolo active in diverse activitates productive, de servicios e eventualmente de gestion, in fin ir e venir con ample libertate. Il habeva, sin dubita, certe limitationes. Assi, per exemplo, si […] nos trova feminas qui exerce functiones administrative o sacerdotal del quales depende benes e personas pertinente al palatio e al templos, isto diminue multo in le periodos posterior. Mesmo pro le Imperio Ancian, le presentia de feminas in ille functiones sempre esseva quantitativemente multo inferior a illo del homines. In altere parolas, le direction del vita public sempre esseva massivemente in manos masculin; e tal tendentia se reinfortiava con le tempore. In le vita private, tamen, in terminos general, se manteneva le ample derectos del femina: equal participation in le hereditage paterne e materne, controlo sur su benes personal (mesmo quando gerite per le marito, situation satis currente), etc. Il es certe, nonobstante, que le femina esseva considerate como habente un vocation essentialmente domestic […] ligate sia al administration del domo […], sia al realisation de cargas in su ambito: fabrication de pan e cerevisia, manufactura de filos e texitos. […] Con major frequentia, esseva le homine qui interveniva in transactiones e, in general, in le gestion del patrimonio familiar, ben que le intervention directe del femina esseva considerate como alique normal in multe casos, per exemplo, al esser absente le marito, o in su incapacitate, o ancora durante le viduitate, essente le filios minor.| 2=Cardoso, Ciro Flamarion. ''Algumas visões da mulher na literatura do Egito faraônico'' ({{AC|II milênio|n}}). Citado em: ''História''. São Paulo: UNESP, 1993, v. 12. p. 103-5.<ref name=Pa71/>}} === Education === [[File:The seated scribe.jpg|thumb|vertical|Statua de un [[scriba]] sedite (IV dynastia, {{Circa|{{formatnum:2620}}-{{AC|2500|n}})|nl}}]] Le infantes (pueros e puellas) initiava lor education basic in le sino familiar; le pueros apprendeva de lor patres principios ethic, visiones del vita, conducta social, ritos popular, etc; le purass apprendeva de lor matres economia domestic, culinaria, preparation e confection de vestimentos; le purass ric poteva apprender a sonar instrumentos, cantar, dansar assi como a leger, scriber e travaliar con operationes arithmetic.{{sfn|name=ROM2018|ROM|2018}} In le processo educational del classes plus opulente on utilisava le si-nominate "Libros de Instruction", que contineva regulas pro viver ordinatemente in societate assi como elementos moral tal como justitia, sapientia, obedientia, bonitate e moderation.{{sfn|name=Al2017|Alchin|2017}} In le Antique Egypto il habeva pauc scholas functionante exclusivemente pro le education de homines del regalitate, del nobilitate o de illes qui aspirava a devenir scribas, sacerdotes, artistas, sculptores o designatores. Initiante lor studios inter le cinque e septe annos, le pueros apprendeva [[lectura]] e [[scriptura]], [[historia]] e [[geographia]], [[scientia]], [[medicina]] e [[astronomia]], [[arithmetica]] e [[geometria]] e [[musica]]. Illos esseva institutiones con disciplina multo rigorose, ubi le pueros qui se comportava mal o non prestava attention esseva fustigate.<ref name=ROM2018/><ref name=Al2017/> Differente del juvenes del classes opulente qui ibat al schola, le juvene filios de paisanos, piscatores e artisanos apprendeva ab un etate tener le officios de lor patres pro que assi illes poteva succeder los.{{sfn|Parsons|2017b}} === Hierarchia social === [[File:Egypt Queen Pharaoh Hatshepsut statue.jpg|thumb|vertical|Le [[pharaon]] exprimeva le proprie vita de Egypto e esseva le culmine del hierarchia. In le foto statua de [[Hatshepsut]], in le [[Museo Egyptie (Cairo)|Museo Egyptie]] de [[Cairo]]]] Al culmine del hierarchia social esseva le [[pharaon]], qui possedeva poteres absolute, prendente decisiones militar, religiose, economic e judicial,{{sfn|name=Bra103|Braick|2006|p=103}} ultra esser le proprietario nominal de tote le terras.<ref name=Go53/>{{sfn|name=Be22|Besozzi|2005|p=22}} In le periodos de inundation le pharaon ordinava que le population exerceva altere functiones como, per exemplo, le construction de obras public.{{sfn|Shaw|1995|p=141}} Durante que vive, le pharaon esseva considerate como un personification del deo [[Horus]], durante que su antecessor defuncte esseva associate a [[Osiris]], patre de Horus, habeva o non relation de consanguinitate inter le soveranos. A partir del V dynastia egyptie le reges se presenta tamben como filios de [[Ra]], le deo solar.{{sfn|name=Pe28|Pedro|2005|p=28}} Le pharaones possedeva multe feminas e filios. Su femina principal, denominate ''hemet nesut'', "sposa del rege", poteva esser su soror o un de su filias. Le pharaones possedeva diverse insignias: le ''pschent'' (le union del coronas del [[Alte Egypto|Alte]] e [[Basse Egypto]]), le [[sceptro]]s ''crossa'' e [[flagello]], le ''nemes'' (ornamento pro le capite decorate con un colubra e un vulture que symbolisava, respectivemente, le Basse e Alte Egypto) e le barba posticie. Illo poteva esser symbolicamente traducite como [[sphinge]], e esseva associate a animales como le panthera, le leon e le bove. Le parola pharaon, veniente del egyptie ''per aâ'', significa "Casa Grande". Illo deveniva le nomine official del chefs de Egypto solmente durante le XVIII dynastia egyptie, proque usque tunc habitualmente le lideres se refereva a se mesme como ''nesu'' (rege) o ''neb'' (senior). A partir del V dynastia egyptie le [[titulatura regal egyptie|titulatura]] del reges includeva cinque nomines regal: nomine de [[Horus]], nomine del Duo Mestressas, nomine de Horus de Auro, prenomine e nomine.<ref name=Be22/> Infra le pharaon e su familia in le pyramide social se trovava le gruppo denominate como "[[classe social|classe]] del faldetta blanc" (o classe del dominantes), in referentia al vestimento de lino decorate que illes portava.{{sfn|Billard|1978|p=109}} Primarimente veniva le nomarchas e vesires. Le nomarchas administrava le provincias imperial durante que le vesires controlava le collecta de impostos, fiscalisava le obras public, le granarios regal, participava in le alte tribunal de justitia e dirigeva le policia e le truppas. Infra istes esseva le sacerdotes qui administrava le templos, cultos e le festas religiose, esseva consilieros del pharaones e usufrueva de terras, exemption de impostos e prestigio. Multo importante pro le machina bureaucratic del governamento, le [[scriba]]s colligeva impostos, organisava le leges e le scriptura, determinava le valor del terras, copiava poemas, hymnos e historias, scribeva litteras, realisava [[censo demographic|censos populational]] e calculava le stock de alimentos, production agricola, area de terras arabile, activitates commercial, de soldatos, necessitates del palatio, etc. A partir del Imperio Nove surge un nove classe, le grande commerciantes, qui monopolisava le commercio exterior.<ref name=Go53/><ref name=Be22/> [[File:Slavebeating.jpg|thumb|left|Fustigation de un sclavo]] Infra le classes dominante se situava le classes dominate. Primarimente veniva le soldatos qui recipeva productos pro servicios prestate e prendeva predas de [[saccheo]], sed qui nunquam ascendeva a alte postos in le exercito. Infra istes veniva le [[artisano]]s ([[textura|textores]], pictores, barbitonsores, cocos, barcheros, ceramistas, sculptores, joieleros, [[ferrero]]s, etc.), qui travalia specialmente pro le pharaones, pro le nobilitate e pro le templos e pro le parve commerciantes qui vendeva lor productos in le mercatos del citates. Le paisanos (o ''fellahs'') formava le major parte del population e esseva agricultores, elevatores de boves e piscatores. Mesmo essente illes le productores, le productos agricola esseva proprietate directe del Stato, del templos o del familia nobile qui possedeva le terra.{{sfn|Manuelian|1998|p=383}} Le paisanos tamben esseva subjecte a un imposto sur le travalio e esseva obligate a travaliar in le construction de ovras public e mundation de canales in un systema simile al [[corvea]] [[Etate Media|medieval]] in Europa.{{sfn|James|2005|p=136}} Tamben illes esseva obligate a travaliar in le transportos e a vices in le exercito. Infra le paisanos veniva le base del pyramide, le [[sclavo]]s (''hemu'' e/o ''baku''{{sfn|name=Be54|Beting|2009|p=54}}). Captivos o condamnatos del justitia, illes travaliava in activitates domestic, public o religiose.{{sfn|Santiago|2006|p=96}} Illes frueva de derectos civil e apprendeva le scriptura.<ref name=Go53/><ref name=Co31/> === Vita quotidian === [[File:Lawrence Alma-Tadema Egyptian Chess Players.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nobilitate|Nobiles]] jocante un forma primitive de [[schacos]], secundo le conception artistic de [[Sir]] [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]], (1879)]] [[File:Female topless egyption dancer on ancient ostrakon.jpg|thumb|left|Dansatrice]] [[File:Maler der Grabkammer der Nefertari 003.jpg|thumb|sinistra|'Nefertari jocante Senet', pictura del tumba del Regina [[Nefertari]] de Egypto {{-nwrap||1295|1255}}]] [[File:LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png|thumb|left|Occupationes del classes inferior]] Le majoritate del antique egyptios esseva fermeros ligate al terra. Lor habitationes esseva restringite al membros del familia immediate, e esseva construite de briccas de fango designate pro remaner fresc in le calor del die. Cata domo habeva un cocina con un tecto aperte, que contineva un mola pro moler grano e un parve furno pro panificar.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=401}} Le ceramica serviva como utensiles domestic pro le immagazinage, preparation, transporto, e consumption de alimentos, bibitas, e materias prime. Le muros esseva pingite in blanc e poteva esser coperite con tapisseria de lino tincte. Le solos esseva coperite con mattas de canna, durante que scannos de ligno, lectos elevate del terra e tabulas individual componeva le mobilario.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=403}} [[File:Ägyptischer Maler um 1400 v. Chr. 001.jpg|thumb|Le egyptios celebrava festas e festivales, accompaniate per musica e dansa.]] Le antique egyptios accordava un grande valor al hygiene e al apparentia. Le majoritate se baniaba in le Nilo e usava un sapon pastose facite de grassia animal e creta. Le homines radeva lor corpores integre pro munditia; perfumos e unguentos aromatic coperiva mal odores e leniva le pelle.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=405}} Le vestimentos esseva facite de simple folios de lino blanchite, e tanto homines como feminas del classes superior portava perruccas, joieles, e cosmeticos. Le infantes iva sin vestimentos usque al maturitate, a circa 12 annos, e a iste etate le masculos esseva circumcidite e habeva lor capites rasate. Le matres esseva responsabile del cura del infantes, durante que le patre forniva le subsistentia del familia.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|pp=406–407}} Musica e dansa esseva divertimentos popular pro illes qui poteva permitter se los. Instrumentos antique includeva flautas e harpas, durante que instrumentos simile a trompettas, oboes, e fistulas se developpava plus tarde e deveniva popular. In le Nove Regno, le egyptios jocava campanas, cymbalos, tamburinos, tambures, e lutos e lyras importate de Asia.{{sfnp|Music in Ancient Egypt|2003}} Le sistro esseva un instrumento musical simile a un sonalia que esseva specialmente importante in ceremonias religiose. [[File:ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg|right|thumb|Ruinas de Deir el-Medina]] Le antique egyptios frueva de un varietate de activitates de otio, includente jocos e musica. Senet, un joco de tabuliero ubi le pecias se moveva secundo le hasardo, esseva particularmente popular depost le tempores le plus antique; un altere joco simile esseva mehen, que habeva un tabuliero de joco circular. "Canes e Chacalos", anque cognoscite como 58 foros, es un altere exemplo de jocos de tabuliero jocate in le Antique Egypto. Le prime joco complete de iste joco esseva discoperite in un tumba theban del pharaon egyptio Amenemhat IV que data del XIII Dynastia.{{sfnmp|1a1=Metcalfe|1y=2018|2a1=Seaburn|2y=2018}} Jongleria e jocos de balla esseva popular con le infantes, e le lucta es anque documentate in un tumba a Beni Hasan.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=126}} Le membros ric del antique societate egyptie frueva anque del chassa, pisca, e de viages in barca. Le excavation del village de laboratores de Deir el-Medina ha resultate in un del contos le plus completemente documentate del vita communitari in le mundo antique, que se extende per quasi quatro centos annos. Il non ha un sito comparabile in le qual le organisation, interactiones social, e conditiones de travalio e de vita de un communitate ha essite studiate in tal detalio.{{sfnp|Hayes|1973|p=380}} ===Lingua=== {{AP|Lingua egyptie}} ====Disveloppamento historic==== {{Hiero | ''r n kmt''<br /> 'Lingua egyptie' | <hiero>r:Z1 n km m t:O49</hiero> | align=right | era=egypt}} Le [[lingua egyptie]] es un lingua [[Linguas afro-asiatic|afro-asiatic]] del nord strictemente ligate al [[linguas berber]] e [[linguas semitic|semitic]].{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995b|p=2137}} Le lingua egyptie antique compartiva similmente ligamines linguistic con altere linguas afro-asiatic como le [[linguas chadic]] de Africa occidental e central, le linguas [[Linguas cushitic|cushitic]] de Africa del nord-est, e le [[linguas ethio-semitic]], que se trova in Ethiopia e Eritrea.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morkot |first1=Robert |title=The Egyptians: an introduction |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-27104-5 |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schuh |first1=Russell G. |title=The Use and Misuse of Language in the Study of African History |journal=Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies |date=1997 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=36–81 |doi=10.5070/F7251016656 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0qt6q69k |language=en |issn=0041-5715|doi-access=free }}</ref> Multe academicos ha acceptate un origine de phylo linguistic african post que cinque del sex subfamilias afro-asiatic, incluse le lingua egyptie, es parlate in le continente african, e solmente un in Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mc Call |first1=Daniel F. |title=The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_1998-02_39_1/page/139 |journal=Current Anthropology |date=1998 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=139–144 |doi=10.1086/204702 |jstor=10.1086/204702 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref> Illo ha le plus longe historia cognoscite de omne lingua, habente essite scribite ab {{circa|3200}}{{nbsp}}a.Chr. usque al Medievo e remanente como un lingua parlate pro plus tempore. Le phases del egyptio antique es le [[egyptio antique]], le [[egyptio medie]] (egyptio classic), le [[egyptio tardive]], le [[Demotico (egyptio)|demotico]] e le [[lingua copte|copto]].{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=161}} Le scriptos egyptie non monstra differentias dialectal ante le copto, sed illo esseva probabilemente parlate in dialectos regional circa Memphis e plus tarde Thebas.{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=162}} Le egyptio antique esseva un [[lingua synthetic]], sed illo deveniva plus [[Lingua analytic|analytic]] plus tarde. Le egyptio tardive disveloppava [[Articulo (grammatica)|articulos]] definite e indefinite prefixal, que reimplaciava le ancian [[suffixo]]s inflectional. Habeva un cambio del ancian [[ordine de parolas]] [[verbo–subjecto–objecto]] a [[subjecto–verbo–objecto]].{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995b|pp=2137–2138}} Le scripturas [[Hieroglypho egyptie|hieroglyphic]], [[hieratico]] e demotic egyptie esseva eventualmente reimplaciate per le [[alphabeto copte]], plus phonetic. Le copto es ancora usate in le liturgia del [[Ecclesia Orthodoxe Copte|Ecclesia Orthodoxe Egyptie]], e tracias de illo se trova in le [[arabe egyptie]] moderne.{{sfnp|Vittman|1991|pp=197–227}} ====Sonos e grammatica==== Le egyptio antique ha 25 consonantes simile a illos de altere linguas afro-asiatic. Istos include consonantes [[consonante pharyngee|pharyngee]] e [[consonante emphatic|emphatic]], occlusivas sonor e surde, [[consonante fricativa|fricativas]] surde e [[consonante affricata|affricatas]] sonor e surde. Illo ha tres vocales longe e tres curte, que se expandeva in le egyptio tardive a circa novem.{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995a|p=46}} Le parola de base in egyptio, simile al semitico e al berber, es un [[radice semitic|radice triliteral]] o biliteral de consonantes e semiconsonantes. Suffixos es addite pro formar parolas. Le conjugation verbal corresponde al [[persona (grammatica)|persona]]. Per exemplo, le skeleto triconsonantal '''S-Ḏ-M''' es le nucleo semantic del parola 'audir'; su conjugation de base es ''sḏm'', 'ille audi'. Si le subjecto es un substantivo, suffixos non es addite al verbo:{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995a|p=74}} ''sḏm ḥmt'', 'le femina audi'. Le adjectivos es derivate de substantivos per un processo que le egyptologos appella ''[[grammatica arabe|nisbation]]'' a causa de su similitude con le arabe.{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=175}} Le ordine de parolas es {{smallcaps|predicato–subjecto}} in sententias verbal e adjectival, e {{smallcaps|subjecto–predicato}} in sententias nominal e adverbial.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|pp=67, 70, 109}} Le subjecto pote esser movite al initio del sententias si illo es longe e es sequite per un pronomine resumptive.{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995b|p=2147}} Verbos e substantivos es negate per le [[particula (grammatica)|particula]] ''n'', sed ''nn'' es usate pro sententias adverbial e adjectival. Le [[accento (linguistica)|accento]] cade sur le ultime o penultime syllaba, que pote esser aperte (CV) o claudite (CVC).{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=173}} ====Scriptura==== [[File:Rosetta Stone BW.jpeg|thumb|Le [[Petra de Rosetta]] ({{circa|196}} a.Chr.) permitteva al linguistas comenciar le [[dechifrumento del scripturas egyptie antique|deciframento del scripturas egyptie antique]].{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=13}}|280x280px]] Le [[Hieroglypho egyptie|scriptura hieroglyphic]] data de {{circa|3000}}{{nbsp}}a.Chr., e es componite de centenas de symbolos. Un hieroglypho pote representar un parola, un sono, o un determinativo silente; e le mesme symbolo pote servir a differente propositos in differente contextos. Le hieroglyphos esseva un scriptura formal, usate sur monumentos de petra e in tumbas, que poteva esser tan detaliate como obras de arte individual. In le scriptura quotidian, le scribas usava un forma cursive de scriptura, appellate [[hieratico]], que esseva plus rapide e facile. Ben que le hieroglyphos formal pote esser legite in filas o columnas in ambe directiones (ben que typicamente scribite de dextra a sinistra), le hieratico esseva sempre scribite de dextra a sinistra, usualmente in filas horizontal. Un nove forma de scriptura, le [[Demotico (egyptio)|demotico]], deveniva le stylo de scriptura prevalente, e es iste forma de scriptura—insimul con le hieroglyphos formal—que accompania le texto grec sur le Petra de Rosetta.{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995a|pp=10–26}} Circa le prime seculo p.Chr., le alphabeto copte comenciava a esser usate insimul con le scriptura demotic. Le copto es un [[alphabeto grec]] modificate con le addition de alcun signos demotic.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=7}} Ben que le hieroglyphos formal esseva usate in un rolo ceremonial usque al quarte seculo, verso le fin solmente un pauc de sacerdotes poteva ancora leger los. Quando le institutiones religiose traditional esseva dissolvite, le cognoscentia del scriptura hieroglyphic esseva in su major parte perdite. Tentativas de dechifrar los data del periodos byzantin{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=166}} e islamic in Egypto,{{sfnp|El-Daly|2005|p=164}} sed solmente in le annos 1820, post le discoperta del Petra de Rosetta e annos de recerca per [[Thomas Young (scientifico)|Thomas Young]] e [[Jean-François Champollion]], esseva le hieroglyphos [[dechifrumento del scripturas egyptie antique|substantialmente dechifrate]].{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=8}} ===Litteratura=== {{AP|Litteratura egyptie antique}} [[File:Minnakht 01.JPG|thumb|Hieroglyphos sur un stela in le [[Louvre]], {{circa|1321}} a.Chr.]] Le scriptura appareva prime in association con le regalitate sur etiquettas e marcas pro articulos trovate in tumbas regal. Illo esseva primarimente un occupation del scribas, qui laborava in le institution ''Per Ankh'' o le Domo del Vita. Iste ultime comprendeva officios, bibliothecas (appellate Domo de Libros), laboratorios e observatorios.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=235}} Alcun del pecias le plus cognoscite del litteratura egyptie antique, como le [[Textos del Pyramides]] e del [[Textos del Sarcophagos|Sarcophagos]], esseva scribite in egyptio classic, que continuava a esser le lingua de scriptura usque a circa 1300{{nbsp}}a.Chr. Le egyptio tardive esseva parlate ab le Nove Regno in avante e es representate in documentos administrative del [[Periodo ramesside|periodo ramesside]], poesia de amor e contos, assi como in textos demotic e copte. Durante iste periodo, le tradition de scriptura habeva evolvite in le autobiographia de tumba, como illos de [[Harkhuf]] e [[Weni le Elder|Weni]]. Le genero cognoscite como ''[[Sebayt]]'' ('instructiones') esseva disveloppate pro communicar inseniamentos e guidantia de nobiles famose; le [[Papyro de Ipuwer]], un poema de lamentationes que describe [[disastro natural|disastros natural]] e agitacion social, es un exemplo famose. Le ''[[Historia de Sinuhe]]'', scribite in [[egyptio medie]], poterea esser le classico del litteratura egyptie.{{sfnp|Lichtheim|1975|p=11}} Alsi scribite in iste tempore esseva le [[Papyro Westcar]], un insimul de historias contate a [[Khufu]] per su filios relative al meravillas peractivate per sacerdotes.{{sfnp|Lichtheim|1975|p=215}} Le [[Instruction de Amenemope]] es considerate un chef-d'œuvre del litteratura del Proxime Oriente.{{sfnp|Day|Gordon|Williamson|1995|p=23}} Verso le fin del Nove Regno, le [[egyptio tardive|lingua vernacular]] esseva plus frequentemente empleate pro scriber pecias popular como le [[Historia de Wenamun]] e le [[Instruction de Any]]. Le prime conta le historia de un nobile qui es robate sur su cammino pro emer cedro de Libano e de su lucta pro retornar a Egypto. Ab circa 700{{nbsp}}a.Chr., historias narrative e instructiones, como le popular Instructiones de Onchsheshonqy, assi como documentos personal e de commercio esseva scribite in le scriptura e phase [[Demotico (egyptio)|demotic]] del egyptio. Multe historias scribite in demotico durante le periodo [[Greco-roman]] esseva situate in eras historic previe, quando Egypto esseva un nation independente governate per grande pharaones como [[Ramesses II]].{{sfnp|Lichtheim|1980|p=159}} === Religion === {{AP|Religion del Antique Egypto}} [[File:The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Le Libro del Mortos esseva un guida pro le viage del defuncto in le vita post le morte.]] [[File:La Tombe de Horemheb cropped.jpg|alt=Relievo pingite de un homine sedite con pelle verde e vestimentos stricte, un homine con le capite de un chacal, e un homine con le capite de un falcon|thumb|Le deos Osiris, Anubis, e Horus in le tumba de Horemheb (KV57) in le Valle del Reges]] Le religion del Antique Egypto esseva un systema complexe de credentias e practicas que impregnava tote le vita quotidian, politic e artistic del pais desde le epocha predynastic usque al arrivata del [[christianismo]] e del [[islam]]ismo durante le periodos grecoroman e arabe. Le governamento pharaonic se basava sur le derecto divin del rege, considerate como intermediario inter le deos e le humanitate. Le pantheon egyptie esseva populate per numerose deitates con poteres supernatural, invocate pro adjuta e protection. Tamen, le deos non esseva sempre vidite como totalmente benevolente; illos debeva esser placate per offrendas, preces e rituales. Le mythos e conceptiones religiose variava e evolveva con le tempore, e le sacerdotes non tentava unificar le differente traditiones in un systema unic e coerente.<ref>{{sfnp|James|2005|p=102}}</ref><ref>{{sfnp|Redford|2003|p=106}}</ref> Iste pluralitate de ideas esseva considerate como diverse facetas del realitate plus tosto que contradictiones. Le deos esseva adorate in templos administrate per sacerdotes in nomine del pharaon. Al centro del templo se trovava le statua sacrate del deo in un sanctuario. Le templos non esseva generalmente aperite al publico; solmente durante certe festas le statua esseva portate foras pro adoration popular.<ref>{{sfnp|James|2005|p=117}}</ref> Con le tempore, specialmente post le [[Imperio Nove]], le rolo spiritual exclusive del pharaon diminuiva, e le sacerdotes developpava systemas de oraculos pro communicar directemente le voluntate del deos al populo.<ref>{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=313}}</ref> Le egyptios credeva que le esser human esseva componite de plure elementos: le corpore physic e aspectos spiritual como le ''ka'' (fortia vital), le ''ba'' (personalitate o anima), le ''akh'' (spirito efficiente), le ''šwt'' (umbra) e le nomine.<ref>{{sfnp|Allen|2000|pp=79,94–95}}</ref> Le corde esseva considerate le sede del pensamento e del emotiones. Post le morte, le aspectos spiritual requireva le preservation del corpore o un substituto, como un statua, pro servir de habitation permanente. Le preparation pro le vita post le morte occupava un loco central in le religion egyptie. Textos como le ''[[Libro del Mortos]]'' contineva instructiones pro guidar le defuncto in le ultra-tumba. Durante le judicio final, le corde del defuncto esseva pesate contra le pluma del veritate. Si illo esseva trovate digne, le defuncto deveniva un del "mortos benedicte" e poteva viver como un ''akh'' in harmonia con le deos; si non, su corde esseva devorate per Ammit e ille esseva annihilate.<ref>{{sfnp|Wasserman|1994|pp=150–153}}</ref> Le construction de pyramides, hypogeos e tumbas ricmente decorate reflecte iste credentias. Le preservation del corpore per mumification e le deposition de alimentos, joieles e objectos personal in le tumba garantiva le continuation del existentia in le altere vita. Initialmente solmente le pharaones habeva le derecto al immortalitate, ma durante le [[Imperio Nove]] iste sperantia se extendeva a tote le population, secundo lor medios economic. Le religion influentiava profundemente le arte egyptie, caracterisate per ordine, symmetria e representationes de deos, pharaones e symbolos sacrate. Le contactos commercial con regiones como [[Nubia]], [[Punt]], le mundo egee e le [[Proxime Oriente]] contribuiva al diffusion de elementos cultural e religiose, ma le base del systema mythologic remaneva distinctemente african. ==Cultura== ===Cocina=== [[File:Maler der Grabkammer der Itet 002.jpg|thumb|Chassa de aves salvage e aration de un campo, tumba de Nefermaat e su sposa Itet (circa 2700 a.Chr.)]] Le cocina egyptie remaneva remarcabilemente stabile trans le tempore; de facto, le cocina del Egypto moderne conserva alcun similitudes frappante con le cocina del ancianos. Le dieta de base consisteva de pan e bira, supplementate con vegetales como cibollas e alio, e fructos como dactylos e ficus. Vino e carne esseva fruite per omnes in dies de festa, durante que le classes superior se lo permitteva de un maniera plus regular. Pisces, carne, e aves poteva esser salate o siccate, e poteva esser cocite in ragout o rostite sur un grillia.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|pp=399–400}} ===Architectura=== {{Main|Architectura del Egypto antique}} Le architectura del Antique Egypto include alcun del structuras le plus famose in le mundo: le Grande Pyramides de Giza e le templos a Thebas. Projectos de construction esseva organisate e financiate per le stato pro scopos religiose e commemorative, sed anque pro reinfortiar le vaste poter del pharaon. Le antique egyptios esseva constructores experte; usante solmente instrumentos simple sed efficace e instrumentos de observation, le architectos poteva construer grande structuras de petra con grande accuratessa e precision que es ancora invidiate hodie.{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|pp=94–97}} Le habitationes domestic de egyptios de élite e ordinari esseva construite de materiales peribile como briccas de fango e ligno, e non ha supervivite. Le paisanos viveva in domos simple, durante que le palatios del élite e del pharaon esseva structuras plus elaborate. Alcun palatios supervivente del Nove Regno, como illos in Malkata e Amarna, monstra muros e solos ricamente decorate con scenas de personas, aves, stagnos de aqua, deitates e designos geometric.{{sfnp|Badawy|1968|p=50}} Structuras importante como templos e tumbas que esseva destinate a durar pro sempre esseva construite de petra in loco de briccas de fango. Le elementos architectural usate in le prime edificio de petra a grande scala del mundo, le complexo mortuari de Djoser, include supportos de columna e architrave in le motivo de papyro e loto. Le templos egyptian antique le plus antique preservate, como illos a Giza, consiste de salas singule e claudite con placas de tecto supportate per columnas. In le Nove Regno, le architectos addeva le pylon, le patio aperte, e le sala hypostyle claudite al fronte del sanctuario del templo, un stylo que esseva standard usque al periodo greco-roman.{{sfnp|Types of temples in ancient Egypt|2003}} Le architectura de tumba le plus antique e popular in le Regno Antique esseva le mastaba, un structura rectangular con tecto platte de bricca de fango o petra construite super un camera de sepultura subterranee. Le pyramide a scalones de Djoser es un serie de mastabas de petra accumulate le un super le altere. Pyramides esseva construite durante le Regnos Antique e Medie, sed le majoritate del governantes posterior los abandonava in favor de tumbas excavate in le roca minus conspicue.{{sfnp|Dodson|1991|p=23}} Le uso del forma de pyramide continuava in capellas de tumbas private del Nove Regno e in le pyramides nubian regal de Nubia.{{sfnp|Dodson|Ikram|2008|pages=218, 275–276}} <gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="170"> File:Model of a Porch and Garden MET DP350593.jpg|Modello de un portico e jardin domestic, circa 1981–1975 a.Chr. File:The Temple of Dendur MET DT563.jpg|Le Templo de Dendur, completate verso 10 a.Chr., Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) File:Philae temple at night.jpg|Le Templo de Isis de Philae, ben preservate, es un exemplo de architectura egyptie e sculptura architectural. File:Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg|Illustration de varie typos de capitales, per Karl Richard Lepsius </gallery> ===Arte=== {{Vide etiam|Arte del Egypto antique|Pictura del Egypto antique|Sculptura del Egypto antique}} [[File:Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna MET DT10878.jpg|thumb|Menna e su familia chassante in le paludes, Tumba de Menna, circa 1400 a.Chr.]] Le antique egyptios produceva arte pro servir scopos functional. Durante plus de 3500 annos, le artistas adhereva a formas artistic e iconographia que esseva developpate durante le Regno Antique, sequente un stricte insimul de principios que resisteva al influentia estranier e al cambio interne.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=29}} Iste standardes artistic—lineas simple, formas, e areas platte de color combinate con le characteristic projection platte de figuras sin indication de profunditate spatial—creava un senso de ordine e equilibrio intra un composition. Imagines e texto esseva intimemente intertexite sur muros de tumbas e templos, sarcophagos, stelas, e mesmo statuas. Le Paletta de Narmer, per exemplo, exhibi figuras que pote anque esser legite como hieroglyphos.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=21}} A causa del regulas rigide que governava su apparentia altemente stilisate e symbolic, le arte egyptie antique serviva su scopos politic e religiose con precision e claritate.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=12}} [[File:Calcite Basin Supporting a Boat with Shrine00 (6).jpg|thumb|Modellos de tumbas egyptie como benes funerari]] Artisanos egyptie antique usava petra como un medio pro sculper statuas e fin relievos, sed usava ligno como un substituto economic e facile a sculper. Pigmentos esseva obtenite de minerales como minerales de ferro (ocres rubie e jalne), minerales de cupro (blau e verde), fuligine o carbon de ligno (nigre), e petra calcari (blanc). Pigmentos poteva esser miscite con gumma arabic como un ligator e pressate in peciettas, que poteva esser humidificate con aqua quando necessari.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=105}} Le pharaones usava relievos pro registrar victorias in battalia, decretos regal, e scenas religiose. Citatanos commun habeva accesso a pecias de arte funerari, como statuas ushabti e libros del mortos, que illes credeva los protegerea in le vita de ultra-tumba.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=122}} Durante le Regno Medie, modellos de ligno o argilla que depingeva scenas del vita quotidian deveniva additiones popular al tumba. In un tentativa de duplicar le activitates del viventes in le vita post le morte, iste modellos monstra laboratores, domos, barcas, e even formationes militar que es representationes a scala del ideal vita post le morte.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=74}} Malgrado le homogeneitate del arte egyptian antique, le stylos de tempores e locos particular reflecteva a vices cambiante attitudes cultural o politic. Post le invasion del Hyksos in le Secunde Periodo Intermediari, frescos de stylo minoic esseva trovate in Avaris.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=204}} Le exemplo le plus frappante de un cambio politicamente motivate in formas artistic veni del Periodo de Amarna, ubi figuras esseva radicalmente alterate pro conformar se al ideas religiose revolutionari de Akhenaten.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=149}} Iste stylo, cognoscite como arte de Amarna, esseva rapidemente abandonate post le morte de Akhenaten e reimplaciate per le formas traditional.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=158}} <gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="170"> File:Kneeling portrait statue of Amenemhat holding a stele with an inscription 01.jpg|Statua stelophore de Amenemhat; circa 1500 a.Chr. File:Tomb of Nebamun.jpg|Fresco que depinge Nebamun chassante aves; circa 1350 a.Chr. File:Portrait head of pharaoh Hatshepsut or Thutmose III 01.jpg|Capite de portrait del pharaon Hatshepsut o Thutmose III; 1480–1425 a.Chr. File:Falcon Box with Wrapped Contents MET 12.182.5a b EGDP023129.jpg|Cassa de falcon con contento involvite; 332–30 a.Chr. </gallery> ===Costumes de sepultura=== [[File:Anubis attending the mummy of Sennedjem.jpg|thumb|Anubis, le deo associate con le mummification e le rituales de sepultura, curante un mummia]] Le antique egyptios manteneva un insimul elaborate de costumes de sepultura que illes credeva esseva necessari pro assecurar le immortalitate post le morte. Iste costumes implicava le preservation del corpore per mummification, le execution de ceremonias de sepultura, e le interramento con le corpore de benes que le defuncto usarea in le vita post le morte.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=122}} Ante le Regno Antique, corpores sepultate in fossas del deserto esseva naturalmente preservate per desiccation. Le conditiones aride e desertic esseva un beneficio durante tote le historia del Antique Egypto pro sepulturas del pauperes, qui non poteva permitter se le elaborate preparationes de sepultura disponibile pro le elite. Egyptios plus ric comenciava a sepultar lor mortos in tumbas de petra e usar mummification artificial, que implicava remover le organos interne, envolver le corpore in lino, e sepultar lo in un sarcophago de petra rectangular o un lecto de ligno. Comenciante in le Quarte Dynastia, alcun partes esseva preservate separatemente in vasos canopic.{{sfnp|Ikram|Dodson|1998|p=29}} [[File:Tutankhamun tomb photographs 4 326.jpg|thumb|upright|Un figura de ligno pingite trovate in le tumba regal de Tutankhamun]] Verso le Nove Regno, le antique egyptios habeva perfectionate le arte del mummification; le optime technica prendeva 70 dies e implicava remover le organos interne, remover le cerebro per le naso, e siccar le corpore in un mixtura de salas appellate natron. Le corpore esseva tunc involvite in lino con amuletos protective inserite inter le stratos e placiate in un sarcophago anthropoide decorate. Mummias del Periodo Tardive esseva anque placiate in cassas de mummias de cartonnage pingite. Le practicas de preservation real declinava durante le eras ptolemaic e roman, durante que un major emphase esseva placiate sur le apparentia exterior del mummia, que esseva decorate.{{sfnp|Ikram|Dodson|1998|pp=40, 51, 138}} Egyptios ric esseva sepultate con plus grande quantitates de articulos de luxo, sed tote le sepulturas, independentemente del stato social, includeva benes pro le defuncto. Textos funerari esseva frequentemente includite in le tumba, e, comenciante in le Nove Regno, anque statuas ushabti que on credeva executarea labores manual pro illes in le vita post le morte.{{sfnp|Shabtis|2001}} Rituales in le quales le defuncto esseva magicamente re-animate accompaniava le sepulturas. Post le sepultura, on expectava que le parentes vivente apportarea occasionalmente mangiar al tumba e recitarea preces in nomine del defuncto.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=124}} ==Technologia, medicina e mathematica== ===Technologia=== [[File:Egyptian glass jar.jpg|thumb|right|Le fabrication de vitro esseva un arte multo disveloppate.]] In technologia, medicina, e mathematica, le Antique Egypto attingeva un nivello relativemente alte de productivitate e sophistication. Le [[empirismo]] traditional, como evidenciate per le papyros de [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith]] e de [[Ebers Papyrus|Ebers]] ({{circa|1600 a.Chr.}}), es primarimente accreditate al Egypto. Le egyptios creava lor proprie alphabeto e [[decimal|systema decimal]]. ===Faience e vitro=== Mesme ante le Regno Antique, le antique egyptios habeva disveloppate un material vitrose cognoscite como [[faience]], le qual illes tractava como un typo de petra semipreciose artificial. Le faience es un ceramica non argillose facite de [[Silicon dioxide|silica]], parve quantitates de [[Calcium oxide|calce]] e [[Sodium oxide|soda]], e un colorante, typicamente cupro.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=177}} Le material esseva usate pro facer granos de collar, tegulas, figurines, e parve mercantias. Plure methodos pote esser usate pro crear faience, sed typicamente le production involveva le application del materiales pulverisate in forma de un pasta super un nucleo de argilla, le qual esseva postea cocite. Per un technica connexe, le antique egyptios produceva un pigmento cognoscite como [[Egyptian blue|blau egyptie]], anque appellate frita blau, le qual es producite per fusion (o [[sintering|sinterisation]]) de silica, cupro, calce, e un alkali tal como natron. Le producto pote esser molite e usate como un pigmento.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=109}} Le antique egyptios poteva fabricar un grande varietate de objectos de vitro con grande habilitate, sed il non es clar si illes disveloppava le processo independentemente.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=195}} Il es anque incerte si illes faceva lor proprie vitro brute o simplemente importava lingotes pre-fabricate, le quales illes fundeva e finiva. Tamen, illes habeva expertisa technic in le confection de objectos, assi como in le addition de [[Micromineral|elementos de tracia]] pro controlar le color del vitro finite. Un gamma de colores poteva esser producite, incluse jalne, rubie, verde, blau, purpura, e blanc, e le vitro poteva esser facite o transparente o opaque.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=215}} ===Medicina=== Le problemas medic del antique egyptios derivava directemente de lor ambiente. Viver e travaliar proxime al Nilo apportava hasardos de [[malaria]] e debilitante parasitos de [[schistosomiasis]], le quales causava damnos hepatic e intestinal. Fauna salvage periculose tal como crocodiles e hippopotamos esseva anque un menacia commun. Le labores de tote le vita in le agricultura e le construction poneva tension super le spina dorsal e le articulationes, e vulneres traumatic del construction e del guerra causava un impacto significante sur le corpore. Le arena e le particulas de petra del farina molite per petra abradeva le dentes, lassante los susceptibile a [[abscess]]os (ben que le [[dental caries|carie dental]] esseva rar).{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=94}} Le dietas del riccos esseva ric in sucros, lo que promoveva maladias [[Periodontitis|periodontal]].{{sfnp|Filer|1995|pp=78–80}} Malgrado le physicos idealisate portrayate sur le muros del tumbas, le mumias obese de multe membros del classe superior monstra le effectos de un vita de excessos.{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=21}} Le [[life expectancy|sperantia de vita]] adulte esseva circa 35 annos pro homines e 30 pro feminas, sed attinger le edat adulte esseva difficile proque circa un tertio del population moriva in le infantia.{{efn|Le figuras es date pro le sperantia de vita ''adulte'' e non reflecte le sperantia de vita ''al nascentia.'' ({{harvp|Filer|1995|p=25}})}} [[File:Edwin Smith Papyrus v2.jpg|thumb|left|Le [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|papyro chirurgic de Edwin Smith]] describe anatomia e tractamentos medic, scribite in [[hieratic|hieratico]], {{circa|1550 a.Chr.}}.]] Le medicos del Antique Egypto esseva renominate in le ancian Oriente Proxime pro lor habilitates de sanation, e alcunos, tal como [[Imhotep]], remaneva famose multo post lor mortes.{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=39}} Herodotus remarcava que existeva un alte grado de specialisation inter le medicos egyptie, con alcunos tractante solmente le capite o le stomaco, durante que alteres esseva medicos de oculos e dentistas.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=243}} Le formation del medicos occurreva in le institution ''Per Ankh'' o "Casa del Vita", specialmente illos con sede in [[Bubastis|Per-Bastet]] durante le Nove Regno e in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] e [[Sais, Egypt|Saïs]] in le periodo tardive. [[Medical papyri|Papyros medic]] monstra [[Empirical evidence|cognoscentia empiric]] de anatomia, vulneres, e tractamentos practic.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|pp=244–246}} Le vulneres esseva tractate per bandar los con carne crude, lino blanc, suturas, retes, tampones, e pannos impregnate de melle pro prevenir infectiones,{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=250}} durante que [[opium]], [[thyme|thymo]], e [[Atropa belladonna|belladonna]] esseva usate pro alleviar le dolor. Le prime registros de tractamento de combustiones describe pansamentos que usava le lacte de matres de infantes mascule. Precationes esseva facite al dea [[Isis]]. Pan mucide, melle, e sales de cupro esseva anque usate pro prevenir infectiones causate per le impuritate in le combustiones.{{sfnp|Pećanac|Janjić|Komarcević|Pajić|2013|pages=263–267}} Alio e cebollas esseva usate regularmente pro promover le bon sanitate e on pensava que illos alleviava le symptomas de [[asthma]]. Le chirurgos del Antique Egypto suturava vulneres, reduceva [[broken bones|fracturas de ossos]], e amputava membros malade, sed illes recognosceva que alcun vulneres esseva tan grave que illes poteva solmente render le patiente confortabile usque al morte.{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=38}} ===Technologia maritime=== Le prime egyptios sapeva como assemblar plancas de ligno in un [[hull (watercraft)|casco de nave]] e habeva maestrate formas avantiate de [[construction naval]] jam in 3000 a.Chr. Le [[Archaeological Institute of America]] reporta que le naves de [[Plank (wood)|plancas]] le plus ancian cognoscite es le [[Abydos boats|barcas de Abydos]].{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} Un gruppo de 14 naves discoperite in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] esseva construite de plancas de ligno "sute" insimul. Discoperite per le egyptologo David O'Connor del [[New York University]],{{sfnp|Schuster|2000}} on trovava que [[strap|corrigias]] texite habeva essite usate pro ligar le plancas insimul,{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} e [[Cyperus papyrus|cannas]] o [[Poaceae|herba]] insertate inter le plancas adjutava a sigillar le juncturas.{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} Proque le naves es omnes sepultate insimul e proxime a un edificio mortuari pertinente al [[Khasekhemwy|pharaon Khasekhemwy]], originalmente on pensava que omnes pertineva a ille, sed un del 14 naves data de 3000{{nbsp}}a.Chr., e le vasos de ceramica associate sepultate con le vascellos suggere anque datas anterior. Le nave datante de 3000{{nbsp}}a.Chr. habeva un longitude de 75 m e on pensa ora que illo forsan pertineva a un pharaon anterior, forsan un tan antique como [[Hor-Aha]].{{sfnp|Schuster|2000}} Le prime egyptios sapeva anque como assemblar plancas de ligno con [[treenail|clavos de ligno]] pro fixar los insimul, usante resina pro [[calafatage]] del juncturas. Le "[[Khufu ship|nave de Khufu]]", un vascello de 43.6 m sigillate in un fovea in le complexo de pyramides de Giza al pede del [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Grande Pyramide de Giza]] in le [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Quarte Dynastia]] circa 2500{{nbsp}}a.Chr., es un exemplo supervivente de dimension complete que pote haber complite le function symbolic de un [[solar barque|barca solar]]. Le prime egyptios sapeva anque como fixar le plancas de iste nave insimul con juncturas de [[mortise and tenon|morsa e tenon]].{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} [[File:Ancient Egyptian Seafaring Ship.jpg|thumb|left|Nave maritime de un expedition a Punt, de un relievo del [[Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut|templo mortuari de Hatshepsut]], Deir el-Bahari]]Se sape que grande naves maritime esseva multo usate per le egyptios in lor commercio con le citates-statos del Mediterraneo oriental, specialmente [[Byblos]] (sur le costa del Libano moderne), e in plure expeditiones al Mar Rubie verso le [[Land of Punt|Pais de Punt]]. De facto, un del prime parolas egyptie pro un nave maritime es un "Nave de Byblos", lo que originalmente definiva un classe de naves maritime egyptie usate in le ruta de Byblos; tamen, al fin del Regno Antique, le termino habeva venite a includer grande naves maritime, qualcunque esseva lor destination.{{sfnp|Wachsmann|2009|p=19}} In 1977, un ancian canal nord-sud esseva discoperite extendente se del [[Lake Timsah|Laco Timsah]] al Lacos Ballah.{{sfnp|Shea|1977|pp=31–38}} Illo esseva datate al [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Regno Medie del Egypto]] per extrapolation del datas de ancian sitos construite secundo su curso.{{sfnp|Shea|1977|pp=31–38}}{{efn|Vide [[Suez Canal|Canal de Suez]].}} In 2011, archeologos de Italia, le Statos Unite, e Egypto, excavante un laguna siccate cognoscite como [[Mersa Gawasis]], discoperiva tracias de un ancian porto que olim lanceava prime viages, tal como le expedition de [[Hatshepsut]] a Punt, verso le oceano aperte. Alcun del evidentias le plus evocative del sito pro le proessa maritime del antique egyptios include grande fustes de nave e centenas de pedes de cordas, facite de papyro, bobinate in enorme fardellos.{{sfnp|Curry|2011}} In 2013, un equipa de archeologos franco-egyptie discoperiva lo que on crede esser le porto le plus ancian del mundo, datante de circa 4500 annos retro, del tempore del rege Khufu, sur le costa del Mar Rubie, proxime a Wadi el-Jarf (circa 110 millias al sud de [[Suez]]).{{sfnmp|1a1=Boyle|1y=2013|2a1=Lorenzi|2y=2013}} ===Mathematica=== [[File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG|right|thumb|Facsimile del [[Astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb|carta astronomic in le tumba de Senenmut]], 18ve dynastia{{sfnp|Astronomical Ceiling|2020}}]] Le prime exemplos attestate de calculos mathematic se data del periodo predynastic de [[Naqada]], e monstra un [[Egyptian numerals|systema de numerales egyptie]] plenmente disveloppate.{{efn|Le comprension del mathematica egyptie es incomplete debite al paucitate de material disponibile e al manco de studio exhaustive del textos que ha essite discoperite ({{harvp|Imhausen|2007|p=13}}).}} Le importantia del mathematica pro un egyptio educate es suggerite per un littera ficticie del Nove Regno in le qual le scriptor propone un competition erudite inter se e un altere scriba concernente le tascas de calculo quotidian tal como le contabilitate de terra, labor, e grano.{{sfnp|Imhausen|2007|p=11}} Textos tal como le [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus|Papyro Mathematic de Rhind]] e le [[Moscow Mathematical Papyrus|Papyro Mathematic de Moscova]] monstra que le Antique egyptios poteva realisar le quatro operationes mathematic de base — addition, subtraction, [[Ancient Egyptian multiplication|multiplication]], e division — usar fractiones, calcular le areas de rectangulos, triangulos, e circulos e computar le volumines de cassas, columnas e pyramides. Illes comprendeva conceptos basic de [[Egyptian algebra|algebra]] e [[Egyptian geometry|geometria]], e poteva solver [[systems of equations|systemas de equationes]].{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|p=222}} Le nubianos anque exercitava un methodologia [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] comparabile a lor homonimos egyptie.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/482bd90a-de71-49b3-9bbc-d8ff0ab974b3 |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=50–3 |s2cid=89542474}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref> {{hiero | {{frac|2|3}} | <hiero>D22</hiero>| align=right| era=egypt}} Le [[Mathematical notation|notation mathematic]] esseva decimal, e basate sur signos hieroglyphic pro cata potentia de dece usque a un million. Cata un de istos poteva esser scribite tante vices como necessari pro summar le numero desirate; assi, pro scriber le numero octoginta o octocento, le symbolo pro dece o cento esseva scribite octo vices respectivemente.{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|p=217}} Proque lor methodos de calculo non poteva tractar le majoritate del fractiones con un numerator major que un, illes debeva scriber [[Egyptian fraction|fractiones]] como le summa de plure fractiones. Per exemplo, illes resolveva le fraction ''duo quintos'' in le summa de ''un tertio'' + ''un dece-quinto''. Tabellas de valores standard facilitava isto.{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|p=218}} Alcun [[Vulgar fraction|fractiones commun]], tamen, esseva scribite con un glypho special — le equivalente del moderne duo tertios es monstrate a dextra.{{sfnp|Gardiner|1957|p=197}} Le mathematicos del Antique Egypto cognosceva le [[Pythagorean theorem|theorema de Pythagoras]] como un formula empiric. Illes esseva conscie, per exemplo, que un triangulo habeva un angulo recte opposite al [[hypotenuse|hypotenusa]] quando su lateres esseva in un ration de 3–4–5.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=241}} Illes esseva capace de estimar le area de un [[circle|circulo]] per subtraher un nono de su diametro e quadrar le resultato: :Area ≈ [({{frac|8|9}})''D'']² = ({{frac|256|81}})''r''² ≈ 3.16''r''², un approximation rationabile del formula {{nowrap|'''[[Pi|π]]'''''r''²}}.{{sfnmp|1a1=Strouhal|1y=1989|1p=241|2a1=Imhausen|2y=2007|2p=31}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{ref}} {{traduction|en|Ancient Egypt|439875029}} {{traduction|es|Antiguo Egipto|89395803}} [[Categoria:Egypto antique| ]] 3eix5biu0lt3r79gea6vnp89gc11fm7 0 25038 698223 694453 2026-08-03T22:56:12Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698223 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox}} [[File:Robert-fleury-Le_Dernier_Jour_de_Corinthe.jpg|thumb|197px|right|'' Le Ultime Die de Corintho'', un pictura facite in 1870 per Tony Robert-Fleury]] Le '''historia de Grecia''' es un del plus documentate e studiate. Il ha fontes scripte desde le secunde millennio a.Chr. In le antiquitate, [[Grecia]] esseva un del regiones con plus developpamento technologic in Occidente e esseva possessor de un ric tradition cultural. Illo esseva famose pro su cognoscentias scientific, su pensatores e scriptores, su arte e templos. Le pais que actualmente es nominate Grecia cognosceva se como ''Hellade'' ma non esseva un stato centralisate e politicamente esseva fragmentate in multe polis o citate-stato independente inter illes, que un vices se alliava e altere confrontava se in guerras sanguinari. Le civilisation grec habeva un forte developpamento in le philosophia. Illo es nominate le "cuna del civilisation occidental" jam que su grande pensatores esseva qui developpava le prime conceptos de "atomo" e su arte, characterisava se pro le construction de grande templos, in le musica distaccava lor dansas folkloric e lor cantos se faceva in tote lor activitates. ==Grecia Preistoric== {{AP|Balkan prehistoric|Prehistoria de Anatolia|Cypro Preistoric}} {{vide anque|Dimini|Sesklo|Dispilio|Cava de Theopetra|Imprentas de Trachilos}} ===Periodo Pre-Paleolithic=== [[Fossil]]es de un del prime pre-homines (''[[Ouranopithecus macedoniensis]]'', 10.6–8.7 milliones de annos retro),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Merceron|first=G.|date=2005-12-01|title=Un Nove Methodo de Analyse de Microusuage Dental: Application a Primates Existente e Ouranopithecus macedoniensis (Mioceno Tardi de Grecia)|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/palaios/article/20/6/551-561/145784|journal=PALAIOS|language=en|volume=20|issue=6|pages=551–561|doi=10.2110/palo.2004.p04-17|bibcode=2005Palai..20..551M|s2cid=84921970|issn=|url-access=subscription}}</ref> e de probabilemente le plus directe ancestre ancian de tote le homines (''[[Graecopithecus]]'', 7.2 milliones de annos retro) esseva trovate in [[Grecia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fuss|first1=Jochen|last2=Spassov|first2=Nikolai|last3=Begun|first3=David R.|last4=Böhme|first4=Madelaine|date=2017-05-22|title=Affinitates potential de hominin de Graecopithecus ab le Mioceno Tardi de Europa|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12|issue=5|article-number=e0177127|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0177127|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5439669|pmid=28531170|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1277127F|doi-access=free}}</ref> In ultra, [[Imprentas de Trachilos|imprentas de 5.7 milliones de annos retro]] esseva trovate super le [[Insula grec]] de [[Crete]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-09-02|title=Imprentas super insula grec es 5.7 milliones de annos retro|url=https://archive.org/details/nature-uk_2017-09-07_549_7670/page/8|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=549|issue=7670|page=8|doi=10.1038/d41586-017-03029-9|pmid=32080375 |bibcode=2017Natur.549S...8. |doi-access=free}}</ref> que pote suggerer evolution hominin foras de [[Africa]], contrari a hypotheses actual.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-10-01|title=Possible imprentas de hominin ab le Mioceno tarde (circa 5.7 Ma) de Crete?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001678781730113X|journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association|language=en|volume=128|issue=5–6|pages=697–710|doi=10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.07.006|issn=0016-7878|hdl=20.500.12128/3647|hdl-access=free|last1=Gierliński |first1=Gerard D. |last2=Niedźwiedzki |first2=Grzegorz |last3=Lockley |first3=Martin G. |last4=Athanassiou |first4=Athanassios |last5=Fassoulas |first5=Charalampos |last6=Dubicka |first6=Zofia |last7=Boczarowski |first7=Andrzej |last8=Bennett |first8=Matthew R. |last9=Ahlberg |first9=Per Erik |bibcode=2017PrGA..128..697G }}</ref> === Periodo Paleolithic ({{circa}} 2M a.Chr.– 13000 a.Chr.) === Le periodo [[Paleolithic]] es generalmente sub-studiate in [[Grecia]] proque le recerca ha traditionalmente concentrate super le partes posterior del [[Prehistoria]] ([[Neolithic]], [[Etate de Bronzo]]) e le tempores classic. Nonobstante, avantiamentos significative ha essite attingite super annos recentemente, e le registro archeologic ha essite enrichite con nove material, colligite le major parte in le marco de inquestas regional ma etiam trans excavationes systematic o de excavation de salvatage. Nove cavas e abrigos de petra, assi como sitos aperte-aeree recentemente discooperite e importante es nunc excavate.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last1=Tourloukis|first1=Vangelis|last2=Harvati|first2=Katerina|date=2017|title=Le registro Paleolithic de Grecia: Un synthese del evidentia e un agenda de recerca pro le futuro|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316750974 |access-date=2021-08-13|website=[[ResearchGate]]|language=en}}</ref> Scholars crede Grecia esseva primo occupate inter 1.5 e 2.5 milliones de annos retro quando membros precoce del genere [[Homo (genere)|Homo]] comenciava a diffunder se trans Eurasia. Totevia, nulle evidentia definitive de habitation iste primitive ha essite discooperite ancora.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tourkoulis |first1=V |title=Le registro archeologic del Pleistoceno Precoce e Medie de Grecia: stato actual e prospectos futur |date=November 17, 2010 |publisher=LUP Dissertations |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2933485/view |access-date=5 September 2025}}</ref> Le tracias indisputate le plus precoce de habitation hominin in le pais usque nunc esseva unearthat in [[Arcadia (unitate regional)|Arcadia]], [[Peloponneso]] e data 700,000 annos retro.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Killgrove |first1=Kristina |title=Evidentia le plus ancian de homines in Grecia es 700,000 annos retro, un quarto de million de annos plus ancian que le registro previe |website=[[Live Science]] |date=8 junio 2023 |url=https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/oldest-evidence-of-humans-in-greece-is-700000-years-old-a-quarter-of-a-million-years-older-than-previously-thought |access-date=24 augusto 2024}}</ref> Le [[Cava de Apidima]] in [[Peninsula de Mani|Mani]], Grecia del sud, contine le restos cognoscite le plus ancian de [[Homine moderne anatomicamente|homines moderne anatomicamente]] foras de [[Africa]], datate a 210,000 annos retro.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harvati|first1=Katerina|last2=Röding|first2=Carolin|last3=Bosman|first3=Abel M.|last4=Karakostis|first4=Fotios A.|last5=Grün|first5=Rainer|last6=Stringer|first6=Chris|last7=Karkanas|first7=Panagiotis|last8=Thompson|first8=Nicholas C.|last9=Koutoulidis|first9=Vassilis|last10=Moulopoulos|first10=Lia A.|last11=Gorgoulis|first11=Vassilis G.|date=2019|title=Fossiles del Cava de Apidima provide le evidentia le plus precoce de Homo sapiens in Eurasia|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1376-z|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=571|issue=7766|pages=500–504|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z|pmid=31292546|s2cid=195873640|issn=0028-0836|url-access=subscription|hdl=10072/397334|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Zimmer|date=2019|title=Un Osso de Cranio Discooperite in Grecia Pote Alterar le Historia del Prehistoria Human|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/10/science/skull-neanderthal-human-europe-greece.html|access-date=2021-08-25|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-10|title='Restos le plus ancian' foras de Africa re-setta horologio de migration human|url=https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |access-date=2021-08-25|website=phys.org|language=en}}</ref> Repertas Antropologic e Archeologic actualmente cognoscite permitte le division del Paleolithic in le area grec in [[Paleolithic Inferior]] (700,000–100,000 BP), [[Paleolithic Medie]] (100,000–35,000 BP) e [[Paleolithic Superior]] (35,000–11,000 BP).<ref name=":1" /> Il ha, usque nunc, pauco sitos del Paleolithic Inferior, dum il ha plus de le Medie e Superior. Isto es partialmente a causa del activitate tectonic intense in le area grec e le ascension e cadita del [[Mar Egee]] que destrueva omne tracia de habitation ab alcun regiones geographic.<ref name=":0" /> [[Reperta Paleolithic|Repertas Paleolithic]] de Grecia esseva primo [[Report|reportate]] in 1867, ma le prime [[Recerca|recerca]] [[Organisate]] super le sitos esseva ducite multe [[Anno|annos]] plus tarde, inter 1927 e 1931, per le [[Archeologo|archeologo]] [[Austriac]] [[Adalbert Markovits]]. Le prime excavation de un sito paleolithic occurreva in 1942 al [[Cava de Seidi]] in [[Boetia]] per le archeologo german [[Rudolf Stampfuss]]. Recerca plus systematic, totevia, esseva facite durante le annos 1960 in [[Epiro (region)|Epiro]], [[Macedonia (Grecia)|Macedonia]], [[Thessalia]] e le [[Peloponneso]] per gruppos de recerca [[anglese]], [[american]] e [[german]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Habitation Paleolithic in Grecia|url=http://www.ime.gr/chronos/01/en/pl/housing/index.html |access-date=2021-08-13|website=Fundation del Mundo Hellenic (Ίδρυμα Μείζονος Ελληνισμού)}}</ref> === Periodo Mesolithic (13000–7000 a.Chr.) === Le [[Mesolithic]] in [[Grecia]] occurreva inter le [[Paleolithic Superior]] e le [[Neolithic]]. [[Sito Mesolithic|Sitos Mesolithic]] in Grecia esseva [[Limitate]], e le [[Majoritate]] es [[Locate]] [[Proxime]] le [[Costa]]. [[Cava de Franchthi]], le [[Cava de Kalamakia]]<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Le cava Paleolithic de Kalamakia|journal=Heliyon |date=maio 2020 |volume=6 |issue=5 |article-number=e03958 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03958 |last1=Kolendrianou |first1=Maria |last2=Ligkovanlis |first2=Stefanos |last3=Maniakas |first3=Ioannis |last4=Tzortzi |first4=Marianthi |last5=Iliopoulos |first5=George |doi-access=free |pmid=32490227 |pmc=7253483 }}</ref> in [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] ([[Region de Peloponneso|Peloponneso]]), le [[Cava de Asprochaliko]] in [[Epirus (region)|Epiro]] (ubi le prime [[Excavation]] habeva [[Loco]] in 1960)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Historia grec|url=https://www.in2greece.com/english/historymyth/ancient_hist_and_myth.htm}}</ref> e le [[Cava de Theopetra]] es inter le plus importante [[Sito Mesolithic|sitos Mesolithic]] in Grecia e [[Europa del Sud-Est]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Perles|first=Catherine|title=Le Mesolithic a Franchth|publisher=Le schola britannic a Athenas|year=2003}}</ref> e esseva habitate quasi continuemente trans le [[Periodo Paleolithic|Paleolithic]] e le [[Periodo Mesolithic]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Habitation Palaeolithic in Grecia|url=http://www.ime.gr/chronos/01/en/pl/housing/index.html |access-date=2021-08-25|website=Fundation del Mundo Hellenic (Ίδρυμα Μείζονος Ελληνισμού)}}</ref> === Periodo Neolithic al Etate de Bronzo (7000–1100 a.Chr.) === [[File:Proto Greek Area reconstruction.png|thumb|275px|[[Lingua Proto-grec|Area linguistic Proto-grec]] secundo le [[Linguista]] [[Vladimir I. Georgiev]].<ref>{{harvnb|Georgiev|1981|loc=pp. 156, 192}}.</ref>]] {{main|Europa Neolithic|Grecia Neolithic|Pelasges|Periodo Helladic|Proto-grec}} Le [[Revolution Neolithic]] attingeva [[Europa]] comenciante in 7000–6500 a.Chr. quando agriculturalistas del [[Proximo Oriente]] entrava le [[Peninsula grec]] ab [[Anatolia]] per salto de insula trans le [[Mar Egee]]. Le sitos Neolithic cognoscite le plus precoce con economias agricultural disveloppate in Europa, datate 8500–9000 BP, esseva trovate in [[Grecia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pashou|Drineas|Yannaki|2014|loc=p. 5: "Le sitos Neolithic le plus precoce con economias agricultural disveloppate in Europa datate 8500–9000 BPE es trovate in Grecia. Le characteristicas general del cultura material del Neolithic Grec e le characteristicas Genetic del recoltas preservate e herbas associate del sitos Neolithic grec le plus precoce puncta a origine del Proximo Oriente. Como iste migrantes del Proximo Oriente attingeva Grecia es un question de speculation...Nostre datos supporta le route Anatolian plus tosto que le route Levantine proque illos consistentemente monstra le [[Insulas Egee]] a esser connectite al Proximo Oriente trans Anatolia. Evidentia archeologic ab sitos Neolithic grec e sitos Neolithic del Proximo Oriente e Anatolian suggerer que ondas multiple de migrantes Neolithic attingeva Grecia e Europa del Sud. Le plus probabile routes multiple esseva usate in iste migrationes ma, como nostre datos monstra, le route maritime e salto de insula esseva prominente."}}</ref> Le tribos de lingua grec le prime, parlante le predecessor del [[Lingua Mycenean]], arrivava in le [[Grecia continental]] alicun tempore in le Periodo Neolithic o le [[Etate de Bronzo Precoce]] ({{circa}} 3200 a.Chr.).<ref>Un vision general comprehensive in J.T. Hooker's ''Grecia Mycenean'' ({{harvnb|Hooker|1976|loc=Capitulo 2: "Antes le Etate Mycenean", pp. 11–33 e passim}}); pro un hypothese differente excludente migrationes massive e favorente un scenario autochthone, vide Colin Renfrew's "Problemas in le Correllation General de Stratos Archeologic e Linguistic in le Grecia Preistoric: Le Modello de Origine Autochthone" ({{harvnb|Renfrew|1973|pp=263–276, specialmente p. 267}}) in ''Migrationes del Etate de Bronzo'' per R.A. Crossland e A. Birchall, eds. (1973).</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Coleman|2000|pp=101–153}}.</ref> ====Civilisation Cycladic e Minoan==== {{AP|Civilisation Cycladic|Civilisation Minoan}} Le [[Cultura Cycladic]] es un cultura material Neolithic Tarde e [[Etate de Bronzo Precoce]] significative del [[Cyclades]], le plus ben cognoscite pro su idolo feminin schematic platte sculpate del marmore blanco pure del insulas. Le [[Civilisation Minoan]] del [[Etate de Bronzo Medie]] in [[Creta]] durava ab {{circa|3000|1400 a.Chr.}}.<ref name="Waldman-Mason">{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|loc="Minoans", pp. 521–526}}.</ref> Pauco information specific es cognoscite super le Minoanos, includente lor systema scripte, que esseva registrate con le scripto [[Linear A]] non-decifrate<ref name="Waldman-Mason" /> e [[Hieroglyphos Cretan]]. Mesmo le nomine ''Minoan'' es un appellation moderne, derivate de [[Minos]], le rege legendari de Crete. Illes esseva primarimente un populo mercantil ingagiate in commercio ultra-marin extense trans le integre region mediterranee.<ref name=Waldman-Mason/> Civilisation Minoan esseva affectate per un numero de cataclysmas natural, tal como le eruption vulcanic a [[Thera]] ({{Circa|1628-1627 a.Chr.}}) e seismos ({{Circa|1600 a.Chr.}}).<ref name=Waldman-Mason/> In 1425 a.Chr., tote le palatios Minoan excepte [[Knossos]] esseva devastate per incendio, que permitteva al [[Grecos Mycenean]], influentiate per le cultura del Minoanos, a expander ad in Crete.<ref name=Waldman-Mason/> Restos del Civilisation Minoan que precedeva le Civilisation Mycenean super Crete esseva primo discooperite in le era moderne per [[Sir Arthur Evans]] in 1900, quando ille comprava e comenciava a excavar le sito a Knossos.<ref>{{harvnb|Castleden|1993|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|loc="Minoans", pp. 521–526}}.</ref> '''Periodo Helladic Pre-Mycenean''' Sequente le fin del Neolithic grec, le ultime periodo del Etate de Petra, le [[Periodo Helladic Precoce]] e [[Periodo Helladic Medie]] esseva establishite super le [[Grecia continental]]. Le transition lente ab le Periodo Neolithic Final habeva loco con le Cultura Eutresis ({{Circa|3200|2650 a.Chr.}}). Super centos de annos, communitates agricultural transitionava ab instrumentos de petra a instrumento de metal. Sequente tal disveloppamento materialista, micro-statos plus potente e le base del futur [[Civilisation Mycenean]] esseva disveloppate. Colonias del Etate de Bronzo Precoce videva disveloppamento plus durante Helladic III, exemplificate per le Cultura Tiryns ({{Circa|2200|2000 a.Chr.}}), e le Periodo Helladic Medie ante le Periodo Mycenean discutite infra. ====Civilisation Mycenean==== {{AP|Grecia Mycenean}} [[File:Mycenaean World en.png|thumb|left|275px|Grecia Mycenean, {{circa}} 1400–1100 a.Chr..]] [[Civilisation Mycenean]] originava e evolveva ab le societate e cultura del [[Periodo Helladic Precoce]] e [[Periodo Helladic Medie]] in [[Grecia continental]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dickinson|1977|pp=32, 53, 107–108}}; {{harvnb|Dickinson|1999|pp=97–107}}.</ref> Illo emergentiava {{circa|1600 a.Chr.}}, quando Cultura Helladic esseva transformate sub influentia ab [[Crete Minoan]], e illo durava usque le collabimento del palatios Mycenean {{Circa|1100 a.Chr.}}. [[Grecia Mycenean]] es le Civilisation del [[Etate de Bronzo Tarde]] Helladic de [[Grecia Antique]], e illo formava le scenario historic del epopeia de [[Homero]] e le major parte del [[Mythologia grec]] e [[Religion grec]]. Le Periodo Mycenean prende su nomine del sito archeologic [[Mycenae]] in le [[Argolid]] nord-est, in le [[Peloponnesos]] de [[Grecia del sud]]. [[Athenas]], [[Pylos]], [[Thebes (Grecia)|Thebes]], e [[Tiryns]] etiam ha sitos Mycenean importante. Civilisation Mycenean esseva dominate per un aristocratia guerrero. Circa 1400 a.Chr., le Myceneanos extendeva lor controlo a Crete, le centro del Civilisation Minoan, e adoptava un forma del scripto Minoan Linear A pro scriber un forma precoce del [[Lingua grec]]. Le scripto de era Mycenean es appellate [[Linear B]], que esseva decifrate in 1952 per [[Michael Ventris]]. Le Mycenaeanos inhumava lor nobile in tombas de alveario (''tholoi''), grande cameras circular de inhumation con un tecto de vaulta alte e passage de entrata recte lineate con petra. Illes frequentemente inhumava pugnales o alicun altere forma de equipamento militar con le defuncte. Nobilitate esseva etiam frequentemente inhumate con mascas de auro, tiaras, armatura, e armas incrustate de jowel. Mycenaeanos esseva inhumate in un position de sidente, e alicun del nobilitate subiva mummification. Circa 1100–1050 a.Chr., le Civilisation Mycenean collabeva. Numerose citates esseva saccate, e le region entrava lo que historicos vide como un "[[Etate Obscur Grec|etate obscur]]". Durante iste periodo, Grecia experientiava un declinamento in population e alphabetismo. Le Grecos illes mesme ha traditionalmente culpate iste declinamento super un invasion per un altere onda de gente grec, le [[Dorians]], ben que il ha evidentia archeologic scarce pro iste vista. ==Grecia Antique (1100–146 a.Chr.)== {{main|Grecia Antique}} [[File:Dodona Theater - Gallery version.jpg|thumb|Le theatro antique de [[Dodona]]]] [[File:Ναός του Ηφαίστου.jpg|thumb|Le [[Templo de Hephaestos]] in Athenas]] [[Grecia Antique]] refere se a un periodo del historia grec que durava ab le [[Etate Obscur Grec]] ({{Circa|1050|750 a.Chr.}}) usque al fin del [[Antiquitate classic|antiquitate]] ({{circa|600 d.C.}}). In usage commun, illo pote referer se a tote le historia grec ante—o includente—le [[Imperio Roman]], ma le historicos tende a usar le termino plus precisamente. Alcunos include le periodos del civilisationes [[Civilisation Minoan|minoan]] e [[Historia del Grecia Mycenaean|mycenaean]], durante que alteres argumenta que iste civilisationes esseva tanto differente del culturas grec posterior que illos deberea esser classificate separatemente. Traditionalmente, le periodo grec antique esseva considerate comenciar con le data del prime [[Jocos Olympic]] in 776&nbsp;a.Chr., ma le majoritate del historicos hodie extende le termino retro usque circa 1000&nbsp;a.Chr., verso le initio del Etate Obscur Grec Le Etates Obscur grec es sequite per le [[Grecia archaic|periodo archaic]], que comenciava circa {{Circa|800 a.Chr.}} e durava usque al [[secunde invasion persian de Grecia]] in 480&nbsp;a.Chr. Esseva durante iste periodo que se disveloppava le [[Historia del alphabeto grec|alphabeto grec]] e le [[Literatura grec antique|prime litteratura grec]], assi como le ''[[Polis|poleis]]'' ("citate-statos") del Grecia antique. Con le fin del Etate Obscur, le [[Colonisation grec|grecos se expandiva]] al costas del [[Mar Nigre]], del [[Italia del Sud]] (le assi appellate "[[Magna Grecia]]") e del [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. Le [[Grecia classic|periodo classic]] comenciava durante le [[Guerra greco-persian|guerras greco-persian]] in le 5e seculo a.Chr. e esseva marcate per un crescente autonomia del [[Imperio Persian]], assi como per le florescentia del [[Democratia grec antique|democratia]], [[Arte grec antique|arte]], [[Theatro del Grecia antique|theatro]], [[Literatura grec antique|litteratura]] e [[Philosophia grec antique|philosophia]]. Le data traditional pro le fin del periodo grec classic es le morte de [[Alexandro Magne]] in 323 a.Chr., e le periodo sequente es appellate [[Historia del Grecia hellenistic|hellenistic]], que termina con le ascension del [[Imperio Roman]] al fin del prime millennio a.Chr. Non tote considera le periodos grec classic e hellenic como distincte—alcunos scriptores tracta le civilisation grec antique como un continuum usque al diffusion del [[Christianitate]] in le 3e seculo. Grecia antique es considerate per multe historicos como le cultura fundamental del [[Occidente|civilisation occidental]]. Le cultura grec habeva un forte influentia super le Imperio Roman, que portava un version de illo a multe partes de Europa. Le civilisation grec antique ha essite immensemente influente super le lingua, le politica, le systemas educational, le philosophia, le arte e le architectura del mundo moderne, specialmente durante le [[Renascentia]] in Europa occidental e de novo durante varie revivalos [[Neoclassicismo|neoclassic]] in le seculos 18 e 19 in Europa e le Americas. ===Etate del Ferro (1100–800 a.Chr.)=== Le Etate Obscur grec ({{circa|1100|800}}&nbsp;a.Chr.) refere se al periodo del historia grec que seque le presumite [[Invasion doric]] e le [[Crollo del Etate del Bronze tardive|fin del civilisation mycenaean]] in le 11e seculo a.Chr., usque al ascension del prime [[Polis|citate-statos grec]] in le 9e seculo a.Chr. e le epopeas de [[Homero]] e le prime scriptos in le [[Alphabeto grec]] in le 8e seculo a.Chr. Le crollo del civilisation mycenaean coincideva con le cadita de plure altere grande imperios in le Proxime Oriente, in particular le [[Hittitas|Hittite]] e le [[Egypto Antique|Egyptian]]. Le causa remane un poco mysteriose, ma es frequentemente attribuite al invasion del ipothetic [[Populos del mar]], armate con armas de ferro. Un presumite [[Invasion doric]] pote etiam haber contribuite, como es affirmate per le legenda grec antique, ben que illo non es confirmate per le registros archaeologic. Secundo le tradition, le [[Dorios]] migrava verso Grecia equipate con armas de ferro superior, colonisante e dispersante con facilitat le ja debilitates Mycenaeanos. Le periodo que seque iste eventos es collectivamente cognoscite como le Etate Obscur Grec. Durante iste periodo, reges governava, ma eventualment illes esseva replaciate per un [[aristocratia]], e postea, in certe regiones, per un aristocratia intra un aristocratia—un elite del elite. Le guerra cambiava de foco: le cavalleria perdeva su rolo primari in favor del infanteria. A causa de su minor costo e disponibilitate local, le ferro replaciava le bronze como material preferite pro le fabrication de instrumentos e armas. Lentemente, tamen, cresceva un plus grande equalitate inter le diverse classes social, lo que conduceva al deposition del reges e al ascension del familia. Al fin de iste periodo de stagnation, le civilisation grec esseva coperite per un renaissance cultural que se diffundeva per tote le mundo grec, usque al costas del [[Mar Nigre]] e [[Hispania]]. Le scriptura esseva reapprendite ab le [[Phoenicios]], e se diffundeva eventualment verso le nord, in [[Italia]] e inter le [[Gaules]]. ===Grecia Archaic=== {{main|Grecia Archaic}} {{further|Periodo Orientalisante|Arte Geometric}} In le 8ve seculo a.Chr., [[Grecia]] comenciava a emerger del [[Etate Obscur Grec|etates obscur]] que sequeva le cadita del civilisation Mycenean. [[Alphabetismo]] habeva essite [[Perdita|perdite]] e scripto Mycenean Oblidate, ma le [[Gente grec|Grecos]] adoptava le alphabeto Phoenician, modificante illo pro crear le [[Alphabeto grec]]. Ab circa le 9ne seculo a.Chr., registros scripte comencia a apparer.<ref>{{harvnb|Hall|2014|loc=3: Le fin del mundo mycenean e su consequentia (le perdita e tecuperation de scriptura)}}.</ref> Grecia esseva [[Division|dividite]] in multe parve communitates auto-governante, un patrono largemente dictate per le geographia grec, ubi omne insula, valle, e plana es separate de su vicino per le mar o montania.<ref>{{harvnb|Sealey|1976|pp=10–11}}.</ref> Le [[Periodo Archaic]] pote esser comprendite como le [[Periodo Orientalisante]], quando Grecia esseva al [[Frangia]], ma non sub le influentia, del [[Imperio Neo-Assyrian]] incipiente. Grecia adoptava quantitates significative de elementos cultural del [[Oriente]], in [[arte]] assi como in [[religion]] e [[mythologia]]. Archeologicamente, [[Grecia Archaic]] es marcate per ceramica Geometric. ===Grecia Classic=== {{main|Grecia Classic}} [[File:3393 - Athens - Stoà of Attalus - Herodotus - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 9 2009.jpg|thumb|Busto de [[Herodoto]] in [[Stoa de Attalus]], un del [[Historico|historicos]] nominabile le plus precoce cuje [[Obra]] [[Superviver|supervive]].]] [[File:Leónidas en las Termópilas, por Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|''[[Leonidas]] a [[Thermopylae]]'' per [[Jacques-Louis David]].]] Le unitate politic basic in [[Grecia Antique]] esseva le ''[[polis]]'' (''πόλις''), a vices traducite como "[[citate-stato]]". Le termino presta se al parola anglese moderne "politica", que litteralmente significa "le cosas del ''polis''". Al minus in theoria, cata ''polis'' esseva [[Independentia politic|politicemente independente]]. Totevia, alicun ''poleis'' esseva subordinate a altere (e.g., un colonia traditionalmente deffereva a su citate-matre, e alicun habeva governos completemente dependente super altere (e.g., le [[Trenta Tyrannos]] in [[Athenas]] esseva imponite per [[Sparta]] sequente le [[Guerra del Peloponneso]]), ma le poter titularmente supreme in cata ''polis'' esseva locate intra ille citate. Isto significava que quando Grecia iva al guerra (e.g., contra le [[Imperio Persian]]), illo prendeva le forma de un alliantia eunte al guerra. Illo etiam dava oportunitate ample pro guerra intra Grecia inter differente ''poleis''. ====Guerra Persian==== {{AP|Guerra Greco-Persian}} Duo guerras major formava le [[Mundo grec classic]]. Le prime esseva le [[Guerra Greco-Persian|Guerra Persian]] (499–449 a.Chr.), recontate in le ''[[Le Historias de Herodoto|Historias]]'' del historico grec [[Herodoto]] . Per le fin del 6te seculo a.Chr., le [[Imperio Persian Achaemenid]] regulava super tote le citate-stato grec in [[Ionia (Asia Minor)|Ionia]] (le costa occidental de [[Turchia]] moderne) e habeva facite ganios territorial in le [[Balkan]] e [[Europa del Est]] proprie assi ben. In 499 a.Chr., le citate grec de Ionia, conducite per [[Mileto]], [[Revolta Ionian|revoltava]] contra le Imperio Persian e esseva supportate per alicun citates continental, includente [[Historia de Athenas|Athenas]] e [[Eretria]]. Postea le rebellione habeva essite quellate, [[Dario I]] lanciava le [[Prime invasion persian de Grecia]] pro exactar vindicta super le Grecos continental. In 492 a.Chr., general persian [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] conduceva un armea (supportate per un flotta) trans le [[Hellespont]], re-subjugante [[Thracia]] e addente [[Macedonia (regno antique)|Macedonia]] como un regno cliente totalmente subjugate.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2011|pp=343}}.</ref> Totevia, ante ille poteva attinger Grecia proprie, su flotta esseva destruite in un tempesta proxime [[Monte Athos]]. In 490 a.Chr., Dario inviava un altere flotta directemente trans le [[Mar Egee]] (plus tosto que sequente le route de terra como Mardonius habeva facite) pro subducer Athenas. Postea destruer le citate de Eretria, le flotta atterrava e faciava le armea athenian al [[Battalia de Marathon]], que finiva in un victoria athenian decisive. In 480 a.Chr., [[Xerxes I]], successor a Dario I, lanciava le [[Secunde invasion persian de Grecia]]. Le Persianos punctava victorias precoce, le plus notabile a [[Battalia de Thermopylae|Thermopylae]], ubi un parve fortia grec conducite per [[Rege]] [[Leonidas I|Leonidas I de Sparta]] manteneva le passo pro tres dies ante esser outflanked e overwhelmed. Fortias persian overrunneva [[Grecia del nord]] e [[Grecia central]],<ref>{{harvnb|Rhodes|2007|p=3}}.</ref> [[Destruction Achaemenid de Athenas|capturante e ardente]] le citate evacuante de Athenas. Totevia, le citate-stato grec tosto tornava le marisma con un victoria naval audace al [[Battalia de Salamis]] plus tarde ille anno. Le general athenian [[Themistocles]] lurava le flotta persian plus grande in le stricto stricte, ubi su dimension provava un disavantagia. Xerxes retirava se, lassante su general [[Mardonius (nepote de Dario I)|Mardonius]] pro continuar le campania; in 479 a.Chr., fortias de terra grec disfactava decisivemente le Persianos al [[Battalia de Plataea]]. Pro persequer le guerra e postea pro defender Grecia ab attaccos persian plus, Athenas fundava le [[Liga Delian]] in 477 a.Chr. Initialmente, cata citate in le Liga contribuerea naves e soldatos a un armea commun, ma in tempore Athenas permitteva (e postea compelleva) le citates plus parve a contribuer fundos a fin que illo poteva suppler lor quota de naves. Secession ab le Liga poteva esser punite. Sequente reversal militar contra le Persianos, le thesauro esseva movite ab [[Delos]] a Athenas, fortificante plus le controlo de iste super le Liga. Le Liga Delian esseva eventualemente referite pejorativamente como le [[Imperio Athenian]]. In 458 a.Chr., dum le Guerra Persian esseva ancora continue, guerra irrumpeva inter le [[Liga Delian]] e le [[Liga Peloponnese]], comprehendente [[Sparta]] e su alliatos. Postea alicun combatte inconclusive, le duo lateres signava un tractato de pace in 447 a.Chr. Ille pace esseva stipulate pro durar trenta annos: in su loco, illo manteneva solmente usque 431 a.Chr., con le incepto del [[Guerra del Peloponneso]]. ====Guerra del Peloponneso==== {{AP|Guerra del Peloponneso}} Le fontes principal concernente le Guerra del Peloponneso (431–404 a.Chr.) es ''Historia del Guerra del Peloponneso'' de [[Thucydides]] e ''Hellenica'' de [[Xenophon]]. Ambe historicos esseva etiam generales athenian qui viveva trans le Guerra. Le Guerra comenciava in 431 a.Chr. super un disputa inter le citate de Corcyra e Epidamnus. Corintho, un alliato de Sparta in le Liga Peloponnese, interveniva super le latere Epidamnian. Timorose de timor que Corintho capturarea le Flotta Corcyran (le secunde solmente al flotta athenian in dimension), Athenas interveniva. Illes impediva Corintho ab aterrage super Corcyra al [[Battalia de Sybota]], assediava [[Battalia de Potidaea|Potidaea]], e interdiceva tote commercio con [[Megara]], alliato locate proxime de Corintho, con le Decreto Megarian. Il habeva disaccordo inter le Grecos concernente qual partito violava le Tractato inter le Ligas Delian e Peloponnese, como Athenas esseva technicamente defendente un nove alliato. Le Corinthianos tornava a Sparta pro adjuta. Timorose del virtute crescite de Athenas e testimoniante le voluntate de Athenas a usar illo contra le Megarianos (le embargo haberea ruinate illes), Sparta declarava le Tractato violate, e le Guerra del Peloponneso comenciava in serio. Le prime stadio del Guerra (cognoscite como le [[Guerra Archidamian]] pro le Rege Spartan [[Archidamus II]]) durava usque 421 a.Chr. con le signar del [[Pace de Nicias]]. Illo comenciava con le General athenian [[Pericles]] recommendante que su citate combatte un guerra defensive, evitante battalia contra le fortia de terra superior conduite per Sparta, e importar omne necessari per mantenimento de su marina potente. Athenas simplemente superviverea Sparta, cuje citatanos timorose lassar lor citate pro longe de timor que le helotes, un population subjugate de Sparta, revoltarea. Iste strategia requireva que Athenas endurarea assiedos regular, e in 430 a.Chr. illo esseva visitate con un terribile [[Peste de Athenas|peste que occideva circa un quarto de su gente]], includente Pericles. Con Pericles ite, elementos minus conservative ganiava poder in le citate e Athenas iva al offensive. In 425 a.Chr., illo capturava 300–400 hoplites (soldatos) spartano al [[Battalia de Pylos]], un fraction significative del fortia combatiente spartano que illo non poteva permitter a perder. Intertanto, Athenas suffreva disfactas humiliante a [[Battalia de Delium|Delium]] in 424 a.Chr. e [[Battalia de Amphipolis|Amphipolis]] in 422. Le Pace de Nicias in 421 concludeva le prime stadio del Guerra, con Sparta recuperante su hoplites e Athenas recuperante le citate de [[Amphipolis]]. [[File:Map athenian empire 431 BC-en.svg|thumb|350px|Mappa del [[Liga Delian]] ("Imperio o Alliantia Athenian") in 431 a.Chr., justo precedente le Guerra del Peloponneso.]] Illes qui signava le Pace de Nicias in 421 a.Chr. jurava a mantener illo pro cinquanta annos, ma pace durava solmente septe annos. Le secunde stadio del Guerra del Peloponneso comenciava in 415 a.Chr. quando Athenas imbarcava super le [[Expedition Sicilian]] in Magna Grecia pro supportar su alliato [[Segesta]] in [[Sicilia]] contra un attacco per [[Syracuse, Italia|Syracuse]] (un alliato spartano etiam in Sicilia) e conquerer le Insula. Initialmente, Sparta esseva reluctante a adjutar Syracuse, ma [[Alcibiades]], le general athenian qui habeva argumentate pro le Expedition Sicilian, defectionava al causa spartano post esser accusation de acto grossiermente impie. Alcibiades convinceva le Spartanos que illes non poteva permitter Athenas a subducer Syracuse. Le campania finiva in disastro pro le Athenianos. Postea le disfacta athenian in Sicilia, possessiones Ionian de Athenas revoltava con le supporto de Sparta, como avisate per Alcibiades. In 411 a.Chr., un [[Revolta oligarchic in Athenas de 411 a.Chr.|revolta oligarchic]] in Athenas manteneva foras le chantia pro pace, ma le marina athenian, que maneva committe al Democratia, refusava a acceptar le cambio e continuava combatte in le nomine de Athenas. Le marina appellava super Alcibiades, qui habeva essite fortiate a abandonar le causa spartano post reputantemente seduce le sposa de [[Agis II]], un rege spartano, e faceva ille su capo. Le oligarchia in Athenas collabeva e Alcibiades reconquereva lo que habeva essite perdite pro Athenas. In 407 a.Chr., Alcibiades esseva [[Reemplaciamento|reemplaciate]] sequente un parve disfacta naval al [[Battalia de Notium]]. Le General spartano [[Lysander]], fortificante su poter naval de citate, comenciava a ganiar victoria post victoria. Athenas ganiava le [[Battalia de Arginusae]] in 406 a.Chr. ma esseva impedite per malo tempore ab rescatar multe de su marineros, conducente le citate a executar o exiliar octo de su commandante naval superior. Lysander sequeva con un colpo de schiacciamento al [[Battalia de Aegospotami]] in 405 a.Chr. que quasi destrueva le flotta athenian. Athenas rendeva un anno plus tarde, finiente le Guerra del Peloponneso e comenciante un periodo breve de [[Hegemonia spartano]] in Grecia. Le Guerra lassava devastation in su consequentia. Discontentamento con hegemonia spartano ab ambe alliato athenian e alliato spartano anterior conduceva al [[Guerra Corinthian]] de 395–387 a.Chr. Supportate per le [[Imperio Persian Achemenide]], Athenas, [[Thebes, Grecia|Thebes]], Corintho, e [[Argos, Peloponneso|Argos]] affaibliva significativemente poter militar spartano, ben que sin successo in finir dominantia spartano. Le Guerra Corinthian concludeva con le [[Tractato de Antalcidas]] in 387 a.Chr., in le qual Sparta esseva fortiate a ceder [[Ionia (Asia Minor)|Ionia]] e [[Cypro]] al Imperio Persian. Le Guerra Corinthian e su consequentia semeva plus le semine de discontentamento in Grecia spartano, inducente le Thebanos a attaccar un vez plus. Lor General, [[Epaminondas]], schiacciava Sparta al [[Battalia de Leuctra]] in 371 a.Chr., inaugurante un periodo de dominatia Theban in Grecia. In 346 a.Chr., incapace a prevaler in su [[Tertie Guerra Sacre|guerra de dece annos]] con Phocis, Thebes appellava super [[Philippo II de Macedon]] pro adjuta. [[Macedon]] rapidemente unificava le citate-stato grec sub hegemonia Macedonian in le [[Liga de Corintho]] in 338–337 a.Chr. In 336 a.Chr., poder esseva transferite al filio de Philippo, [[Alexandre le Grande]], qui passava le dece annos sequente conquerente le Imperio Persian e multe de Asia del West e Egypto. Per le etate de 30, Alexandre habeva create un del plus grande imperios in [[Historia]], extendente ab [[Grecia]] a India nord-west historic.<ref>Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009) ''Le Grove Encyclopedia de Arte e Architectura Islamic: Mosul a Zirid, Volumine 3''. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; Como le avanpost le plus est del imperio de Alexandre le Grande, le citate esseva renominate Alexandria Eschate ("Alexandria le plus extreme") in 329 BC."{{pb}}Golden, Peter B. ''Asia Central in Historia Mundial'' (Oxford University Press, 2011), 25;"[...] su campanias in Asia Central apportava Khwarazm, Sogdia e Bactria sub regula Greco-Macedonian. Como alterubi, Alexandre fundava o renominate un numero de citates, tal como Alexandria Eschate ("Alexandria le plus foras", proxime a moderne Khojent in Tajikistan)."</ref> Ille esseva invicte in Battalia e es largemente considerate a esser un del commandantes militar le plus grande e succedite del historia.{{Sfn|Yenne|2010|page=159}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Attingimentos de Alexandre le Grande |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements |access-date=19 augusto 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702234248/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements |archive-date=2 julio 2021 |url-status=live}} "Alexandre le Grande esseva un del plus grande strategos militar e ducentes in historia mundial."</ref> Postea le morte de Alexandre in 323 a.Chr., le [[Imperio Macedonian]] disintegrate sub guerras civil diffuse, comenciante le [[Etate Hellenistic]] de Historia grec ===Grecia Hellenistic=== {{AP|Periodo Hellenistic|Grecia Hellenistic}} Le Periodo Hellenistic de Historia grec comencia con le Morte de [[Alexandro Magne]] in 323 a.Chr. e fini con le [[Guerra Achaean|conquest del peninsula e insulas grec]] per [[Roma]] in 146 a.Chr. Ben que le establimento de regula roman non rumpeva le continuitate de Societate e Cultura hellenistic, que maneva essentialmente incambiate usque le Advento de [[Christianismo]], illo marcava le fin de Independentia politic grec. Durante le Periodo Hellenistic, le importantia de "Grecia proprie" (hoc es, le Territorio de Grecia moderne) intra le Mundo de lingua grec declinava forte. Le grande centros de Cultura hellenistic esseva [[Alexandria]] e [[Antiochia ad Orontem|Antiochia]], Capital de [[Egypto Ptolemaic]] e [[Syria Seleucid]], respectivemente. (Vide [[Civilisation hellenistic]] pro le Historia de Cultura grec foras Grecia in iste periodo.) [[Athenas]] e su alliato revoltava contra [[Macedon]] super audition que Alexandre le Grande habeva morte in 323 a.Chr., ma esseva disfate intra un Anno in le [[Guerra Lamian]]. Intertanto, un lucta pro poder irrumpeva inter le general de Alexandre, que resultava in le rumper-se de su Imperio e le establimento de un numero de nove regnos in le [[Guerras del Diadochi]]. [[Ptolemeo I Soter|Ptolemeo]] esseva lassate con Egypto, e [[Seleuco I Nicator|Seleucus]] con le Levante, Mesopotamia, e punctos Est. Controlo de Grecia, Thracia, e Anatolia esseva contestate, ma per 298 a.Chr. le [[Dynastia Antigonid]] habeva supplantate le [[Dynastia Antipatrid]]. [[File:Stag hunt mosaic, Pella.jpg|thumb|left|Le [[Mosaico del Chassa de Cervo]] al [[Museo Archeologic de Pella]] (3tie seculo a.Chr.)]] Controlo Macedonian del citate-stato esseva intermittente, con un numero de revolta. Athenas, [[Rhodes]], [[Pergamum]], e altere statos grec reteneva Independentia substantial e univa se al [[Liga Aetolian]] como un medios de defender illo e restaurar Democratia in lor Stato, como illes videva Macedon como un Regno tyrannic. Le [[Liga Achaean]], dum nominalmente subjecto al [[Dynastia Ptolemaic]], esseva in effecto independente, e controlava le major parte de Grecia del sud. [[Sparta]] etiam maneva independente, ma generalmente refusava a unir se a ulle Liga. [[File:Diadochen1.png|thumb|300px|Le regnos Hellenistic major includeva le regnos Diadochi: {{legend|#787CAD|Regno de [[Ptolemeo I Soter]]}} {{legend|#50A249|Regno de [[Cassander]]}} {{legend|#C38833|Regno de [[Lysimachus]]}} {{legend|#C3B933|Regno de [[Seleuco I Nicator]]}} {{legend|#AF3662|[[Epirus]]}} Etiam monstrate super le Mappa: {{legend|#85AB54|Colonia grec}} {{legend|#A361BD|[[Carthage]] (non-grec)}} {{legend|#70A9BE|[[Roma Antique|Roma]] (non-grec)}} Le areas orange esseva frequentemente in disputa post 281 a.Chr. Le Regno Attalid occupava alicun de iste Area. Non monstrate: Regno Indo-grec.]] In 267 a.Chr., [[Ptolemeo II]] persuadava le citate grec a revoltar contra Macedon in lo que deveniva le [[Guerra Chremonidean]], nominate post le Duce athenian [[Chremonides]]. Le citate esseva disfate e Athenas perdeva su Independentia e Institution democratic. Isto marcava le fin de Athenas como un Actor politic, ben que illo maneva le citate le plus grande, le plus ric, e le plus cultivate in Grecia. In 225 a.Chr., Macedon disfactava le Flotta egyptian a [[Cos]] e apportava le Insula Egee, excepte Rhodes, sub su regula assi ben. Sparta maneva hostil al Achaeanos, e in 227 a.Chr. illo invadeva [[Achaea]] e saisiva Controlo del Liga. Le Achaeanos restante preferiva Macedon distante a Sparta proxime e alliato con le anterior. In 222 a.Chr., le Armea Macedonian disfactava le Spartanos e annexava lor citate—le Prime vez Sparta habeva jam essite occupate per un Stato differente. [[Philippo V de Macedon]] esseva le Ultimo governante grec con ambe le Talento e le Oportunitate pro unificar Grecia e preservar su Independentia contra le Poder semper-crescite de Roma. Sub su Auspicie, le [[Pace de Naupactus]] (217 a.Chr.) apportava Conflict inter Macedon e le Liga grec a un Fin, e a iste Tempore ille controlava tote Grecia excepte Athenas, Rhodes, e Pergamum. In 215 a.Chr., totevia, Philippo formava un Alliantia con le Inimico de Roma [[Carthage]]. Roma prompte lurava le Citate Achaean foras de lor Loyalitate nominal a Philippo, e formava Alliantia con Rhodes e Pergamum, nunc le Poder le plus forte in [[Asia Minor]]. Le [[Prime Guerra Macedonian]] irrumpeva in 212 a.Chr. e finiva inconclusivemente in 205 a.Chr., ma Macedon esseva nunc marcate como un Inimico de Roma. In 202 a.Chr., Roma disfactava Carthage e esseva Libere a tornar su Attention Estward. In 198 a.Chr., le [[Secunde Guerra Macedonian]] irrumpeva proque Roma videva Macedon como un Alliato potential del [[Imperio Seleucid]], le Poder le plus grande in le Est. Alliato de Philippo in Grecia desertava ille, e in 197 a.Chr. ille esseva disfate decisivemente al [[Battalia de Cynoscephalae]] per le Proconsul [[Titus Quinctius Flaminius]]. Per fortuna pro le Grecos, Flaminius esseva un Homine moderate e un Admirator de Cultura grec. Philippo habeva a render su Flotta e devenir un Alliato Roman, ma ille esseva altere parte sparate. Al [[Jocos Isthmian]] in 196 a.Chr., Flaminius declarava tote le Citate grec Libere, ben que guarnisons roman esseva ponite a [[Corintho]] e [[Chalcis]]. Ma le Libertate promissa per Roma esseva un Illusion. Tote le Citate excepte Rhodes esseva enrollate in un Nove Liga que Roma ultimemente controlava, e constitutiones aristocratic esseva favorate e promovite activemente. ==Grecia Roman (146 a.Chr. – 324 p.Chr.)== {{main|Imperio Roman|Mundo Greco-Roman|Grecia Roman}} [[File:Tony robert-fleury, l'ultimo giorno di corinto, ante 1870.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Description del [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|Battalia de Corintho]] in le ultime die ante que le legiones roman pillava e incendiava le citate de [[Corinth]]. ''Le ultime die in Corintho'', [[Tony Robert-Fleury]], 1870.]] [[File:Patras Roman Odeon 9281478.jpg|thumb|Vista del Odeon Roman de [[Patras]]]] In le secunde seculo a.Chr., Grecia esseva conquirite per le [[Republica Roman]] e veniva sub su controlo. Nonobstante, le cultura grec floresceva durante iste periodo—le citate-statos manteneva un nivello de autonomia politic, e le societate roman adoptava multe aspectos del cultura grec. Pro exemplo, [[Roman poetry|poetas roman]] como [[Ovidio]], [[Vergilio]], e [[Horatio]] recontava e adoptava multe mythos grec antique, plicante los in le cultura roman. Le societate roman mesmo affirmava de compartir un linea cultural con Grecia, como exemplificate per le [[epopeia]] de Vergilio, le ''[[Eneide]]'', que detalia lor [[mytho fundational]] de como le populo roman descendeva del [[Troia|Troian]] [[Eneas]] del lore [[Homero|Homeric]]. Ben que le periodo de regula roman in Grecia es conventionalmente datate como comenciante ab le [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|saccheamento de Corintho]] per le roman [[Lucius Mummius]] in 146 a.Chr., [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] habeva jam venite sub controlo roman con le disfacta de su rege, [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]], per le roman [[Aemilius Paullus]] a [[Pydna]] in 168 a.Chr. Le Romanos divideva le region in quatro republicas plus micre, e in 146 a.Chr. [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] officialmente deveniva un provincia, con su capital a [[Thessalonica]]. Le resto del [[city-states|citate-statos]] grec eventualemente pagava homagios a Roma, terminante lor ''[[de jure]]'' autonomia equalmente. Le Romanos lassava le administration local al grecos sin facer ulle tentativa de abolir le patronos politic traditional. Le [[Athenian Agora|agora in Athenas]] continuava a esser le centro del vita civic e politic. Le decreto del [[Caracalla|Imperator Caracalla]] in 212 p.Chr., le ''[[Constitutio Antoniniana]]'', extendeva le citatnia foras de [[Italy|Italia]] a tote le homines libere adulte in le integre Imperio Roman, elevante effectivemente le populationes provincial a stato equal con le citate de Roma mesme. Le importantia de iste decreto es historic, non politic. Illo poneva le base pro integration, ubi le mechanismos economic e judiciari del stato poteva esser applicate trans le Mediterraneo como esseva un vice facite ab [[Latium]] ad in tote Italia. In practica, le integration non occurreva uniformemente. Societates jam integrate con Roma, como Grecia, esseva favorate per le decreto, in opposition al provincias plus distante, plus povre, o plus culturalmente differente como [[Britannia]], [[Palestina]], o [[Egypto]]. Le decreto de Caracalla non poneva in motion le processos que duceva al transferentia de poter ab Italia e le West a Grecia e le Est, ma plus tosto les accelerava, ponente le fundamentos pro le augmento de un millennio de Grecia, in le forma del [[Imperio Roman Oriental]], como un major potentia in Europa e le Mediterraneo in le [[Medievo]]. == Medievo == ===Dominiation byzantin (324–1204)=== {{vide anque|Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism|Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire}} [[Image:Greece meteora monasteries.JPG|thumb|Monasterios [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodoxe]] del epocha byzantin in [[Meteora]].]] [[File:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|thumb|240px|Description del [[Greek fire|Foco Grec]] in le ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'' de [[John Skylitzes]] (tardive 11e seculo).]] Le division del [[Imperio Roman]] in [[Imperio roman de oriente|Est]] e [[Imperio roman de occidente|West]] e le subsequente collapso del Occidental accentuava le position de Grecia in le imperio e eventualemente lo apportava al centro de poter imperial. [[Constantinopole]] (nunc le [[Istanbul]] moderne) deveniva le citate central del imperio quando [[Constantino le Grande]] declarava [[Byzantium]] le nove capital del Imperio Roman, renominate le citate in su honor. Iste cambio politic significava le migration plus large verso le est de [[Hellenism (Academia)|Hellenismo]] verso [[Anatolia]], e illo nominalmente placiava le citate como le centro del [[Hellenic Culture|Cultura Hellenic]], un beacon pro le grecos que durava usque le era moderne. Le Imperio Roman Oriental, nunc etiam cognoscite como le [[Imperio Byzantin]], esseva dominate politicmente per le Imperatores Constantino Magne e [[Justinian I|Justinian]] ab 324 usque 610. Assimilante le tradition Roman, le imperatores cercava a construer le fundamento pro le disveloppamentos e le formation posterior del Imperio. Le prime seculos del Imperio esseva marcate per effortios pro securisar su frontieras e restaurar le territorios Roman, assi como le formation e le stabilimento del [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Ecclesia Orthodoxe Oriental]] e plure schismas religiose sequente lo. In le prime periodo del medie era byzantin (610–867), le imperio esseva attaccate tanto per inimicos ancian ([[Imperio Perse|Persianos]], [[Lombards]], [[Avaros pannonian|Avaros]], e [[Slavos]]) como etiam per nove ([[Arabes]], [[Bulgares]]). Le characteristica principal de iste periodo esseva instabilitate, nam le attaccos inimic tendeva a extender se profunde in le interior del Imperio, mesmo menaciante le capital mesme. Le attaccos del Slavos deveniva minus frequente a mesura que le [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans|migrationes slavic al Balcanes]] terminava e le populationes e statos slavic permanente comenciava a formar se. Initialmente hostile a Constantinopole usque a lor [[Christianisation del slavos|Christianisation]], le Byzantinos refereva se a iste tribos e statos como ''[[Sclavinia]]s''. Cambios etiam occurreva in le structura interne del imperio, a causa de conditiones tanto externe como interne. Le predominantia de parve fermeros libere, le expansion de possessiones militar, e le disveloppamento del systema de [[Thema (unitate administrative byzantin)|thema]]s apportava al completion le disveloppamentos initiate per le prime Imperatores Byzantin. Cambios cultural e religiose occurreva equalmente. Le administration e societate byzantin deveniva inseparabilemente grec. Additionalmente, le restoration del Orthodoxia post le movimentos iconoclaste (726–787 e 814–842) permitteva le successo del resumption de action missionari inter le populos vicin e lor collocation intra le sphera de influentia cultural byzantin. Durante iste periodo, le Imperio esseva geographicamente reducite e economicamente damnificate, proque illo perdeva regiones generante ricchessa. Nonobstante, illo obteneva major homogeneitate lingual, dogmatic, e cultural. Ab le tardive 8e seculo, le Imperio comenciava a recoperar se del impacto devastator de invasiones successive, e le reconquesta del peninsula grec comenciava. Greco-parlantes de [[Sicily|Sicilia]] e [[Asia-Minor|Asia Minor]] esseva apportate como colonos. Le Slavos esseva o chassate a Asia Minor o assimilate, e le ''Sclavinias'' esseva eradicate per fortia. Per le medietate del 9e seculo, le peninsula grec esseva sub controlo byzantin de nove, e su citates comenciava a recoperar se a causa de securitate meliorate e le restoration de controlo central effective. ===Prosperitate economic=== [[File:Wallsthess.jpg|thumb|Parte del [[Walls of Thessaloniki|Muros de Thessaloniki]] byzantin.]] Post que le [[Imperio Byzantin]] esseva [[Komnenian restoration|salvate de un periodo de crise]] per le resolute leadership del tres imperatores [[Komnenos|Komnenoi]] [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios]], [[John II Komnenos|John]], e [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel]] in le 12e seculo, Grecia prosperava. Recente recerca ha revelate que iste periodo esseva un tempore de crescimento significative in le economia rural, con nivellos de population in augmento e vaste tractos de nove terra agricultural essente ponite in production. Le construction diffuse de nove ecclesias rural circum iste tempore es un forte indication que prosperitate esseva generate mesmo in areas remote. Un constante augmento in le population duceva a un plus alte [[population density|densitate de population]], e il ha bon evidentia que le augmento demographic esseva accompanate per le reapparition de urbes. Secundo ''Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900–1200'' de Alan Harvey, le urbes expandeva significativamente in le dece-secunde seculo. Evidentia archaeologic monstra un augmento in le grandor de colonias urban, insimul con un "auctu notabile" in nove urbes. Illo etiam indica que multe urbes medieval, includente [[Athenas]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebas]], e [[Corinth]], experientiava un periodo de crescimento rapide e sustenite, comenciante in le 11e seculo e continuante usque le fin del 12e seculo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=Alan |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/economic-expansion-in-the-byzantine-empire-9001200/D9F35883AC7AD37EF9A33BC7E8625BB3 |title=Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire, 900–1200 |date=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-37151-3 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511562433}}</ref> Le crescimento del urbes attraheva commercio con le [[Venetian Republic|Republica Venetian]] in le Italia vicin, e iste interesse in commercio pare haber augmentate additionalmente le prosperitate economic in Grecia. Le Venetianos e alteres esseva mercantes active in le portos del [[Holy Land|Terra Sancte]], e illes se provideva per le expedition de mercantias inter le [[Regnos del Cruciatos]] de [[Outremer]] e le West, dum etiam commerciante extensivemente con Byzantium e [[Egypto]]. ===Revivification Artistic=== {{Main|Renassentia Macedonie}} [[File:20090803 hosiosloukas36.jpg|thumb|180px|Vista exterior del monasterio [[Hosios Loukas]], exemplo artistic del [[Macedonian Renaissance|Renassentia Macedonie]].]] Un renassentia del [[arte byzantin]] comenciava in le 10e seculo. Multe del [[ecclesias byzantin]] le plus importante in e circum [[Athenas]], per exemplo, esseva construite circa iste tempore. Iste revivification artistic reflecte le [[urbanization]] de Grecia durante iste periodo. Il habeva etiam un revivification in le [[Mosaico|arte de mosaico]], con artistas monstrante grande interesse in le depiction de paisages natural con animales salvage e scenas del chassa. Mosaicos deveniva plus realistic e vive, con un accento augmentate super le depiction de formas tridimensional. Con su amor de luxo e passion pro color, le arte de iste etate delectava se in le production de obras de maestro que spargeva le fama de [[Byzantium]] trans le mundo christian. Belle [[Seda byzantin|sedas del officinas de Constantinopole]] portraheva animales in color scintillante, tal como leones, elephantes, aquilas, e grifones confrontante se, o Imperatores magnificentemente arriate a cavallo o ingagiate in le chassa. Le oculos de multe patronos esseva attrahite e le economia de Grecia cresceva. In le provincias, scholas regional de architectura comenciava a producer multe stilos distinctive que traheva super un rango de influentias cultural. Tote iste suggere que il habeva un accento augmentate pro arte, con plus de gente habente accesso al ricchessa necessari pro commissionar e pagar pro tal travalio. Totevia, le meraviliose expansion del arte byzantin durante iste periodo, un del factos le plus remarcabile in le historia del imperio, non se stoppava illic. Ab le 10e al 12e seculo, Byzantium esseva le fonte principal de inspiration artistic pro le West. Pro exemplo, le mosaicos del [[St Mark's Basilica|Basilica de Sancte Marco]] e le [[Torcello Cathedral|Cathedral de Torcello]] in [[Venetia]] monstra clarmente influentia byzantin in lor stilo, arrangiamento, e iconographia. Similarmente in [[Sicilia]], le mosaicos del [[Capella Palatin]], [[Martorana]], e [[Cathedral de Monreale]] in [[Palermo]], assi como le [[Cefalù Cathedral|Cathedral de Cefalù]], monstra le influentia del arte byzantin super le [[Sicilia Norman]] in le 12e seculo. [[Al-andalus#Art and architecture|Arte Andalusian]] in Europa Occidental esseva etiam influentiate per Byzantium. [[Romanesque art|Arte Romanesc]], etiam, contine multe elementos byzantin, includente su formas decorative e le planos de alicun de su edificios (p.ex., le ecclesias a cupola del sud-west de [[France|Francia]]). [[Grand Prince of Kiev|Principes de Kiev]], [[Doge de Venetia|Doges Venetian]], abbates de [[Monte Cassino]], mercantes de [[Amalfi]], e le reges Norman de Sicilia tote traheva ab le cultura byzantin in lor arte. ===Le Quarte Cruciada (1204)=== {{main|Quarte Cruciada|Frankokratia}} [[File:LatinEmpire2.png|thumb|350px|Le division del [[Imperio Byzantin]] post le [[Quarte Cruciada]].]] Le anno 1204 marca le initio del periodo [[Byzantin Tardive]], quando Constantinopole e un numero de territorios byzantin esseva conquirite per le [[Latins|Latinos]] durante le [[Fourth Crusade|Quarte Cruciada]]. Durante iste periodo, un numero de statos grec byzantin successor emergeva. Le [[Imperio de Nicaea]], le [[Despotate of Epirus|Despotato de Epiro]], e le [[Empire of Trebizond|Imperio de Trebizond]] cata uno affirmava de esser le successor legitimate del Imperio Byzantin. Intertanto, le Cruciatos Latin e [[Franks|Franc]] fundava le [[catholic]] [[Imperio Latin]], cognoscite per le Byzantinos como ''[[Frankokratia|Frankokratia]]'' o ''[[Frankokratia|Latinokratia]]'', con Constantinopole como su capital. Inter su [[vassal state|statos vassalle]] esseva le [[Principality of Achaea|Principato de Achaea]], le [[Duchy of Athens|Ducato de Athenas]], le [[Duchy of the Archipelago|Ducato del Archipelago]], e le [[Kingdom of Thessalonica|Regno de Thessalonica]]. Sub le Imperio Latin, elementos de [[feudalism|feudalismo]] entrava le vita grec medieval. ===Ab restauration partial byzantin usque 1453=== Le Imperio Latin durava solmente 57 annos, e in 1261 [[Reconquesta de Constantinopole|Constantinopoleesseva reclaimate]] per le Imperio Nicaean e le [[Imperio Byzantin esseva restaurate]]. Totevia, in Grecia continental e le insulas grec, varie possessiones Latin e Venetian continuava a exister. Ab 1261 in avante, Byzantium experientiava un gradual debilitation de su structuras interne e le reduction de su territorios ab [[Ottoman Empire|invasiones Ottoman]], culminante in le [[cadita de Constantinopole]] le 29 de maio 1453. Le conquesta Ottoman de Constantinopole resultava in le fin official tanto del Imperio Roman Oriental como del periodo byzantin del historia grec. ==Regula Venetian e Ottoman (seculo 15 – 1821)== {{main|Stato da Màr|Grecia Ottoman|Republica Septinsular|Illumination Grec Moderne}} Le grecos resisteva in le [[Peloponneso]] usque 1460, e le [[Republica de Venetia|Venetianos]] e [[Republica de Genoa|Genoeses]] se affiggeva a alicun del insulas, ma per le initio del 16e seculo tote le [[Grecia continental]] e le major parte del [[Insulas Egee]] esseva conquirite per le [[Imperio Ottoman]], con le exclusion de plure [[Citates portuare|citate portu<a>l</a>ari]] ancora tenite per le Venetianos ([[Nafplio]], [[Monemvasia]], [[Parga]] e [[Methoni, Messenia|Methone]] le plus importante de illos). Le [[Cyclades]], in le medio del [[Mar Egee]], esseva officialmente annexate per le Ottomanes in 1579, ben que illos esseva sub stato vassalle desde le annos 1530. [[Cypro]] cadeva in 1571, e le Venetianos retineva [[Creta]] usque 1669. Le [[Insulas Ionian]] non esseva jammais regite per le Ottomanes, con le exception de [[Kefalonia]] (ab 1479 a 1481 e ab 1485 a 1500), e illos remaneva sub le regula del [[Republica de Venetia]]. Il esseva in le Insulas Ionian ubi le [[Statalitate|statalitate]] grec moderne nasceva, con le creation del [[Septinsular Republic|Republica del Septe Insulas]] in 1800. Quando le Ottomanes arrivava, duo [[Migration human|migrationes]] grec occurreva. In le prime, le [[Intelligentsia|intelligentia]] grec migrava a [[Europa Occidental]], influentiante le advento del [[Renassentia Europee]]. In le secunde, grecos lassava le [[Plana (geographia)|planas]] del peninsula grec e se restabli in le [[Montania|montanias]].<ref>{{harvnb|Vacalopoulos|1976|loc=p. 45: "Le grecos nunquam perdeva lor desiro de escappar del mano pesante del Turcos, mal governamento, le impression de lor infantes, le taxation augmentante de plus in plus pesante, e le capricios diverse del conquisitor. In facto, qualcunque que studia le ultime duo seculos del regula byzantin non pote evitar esser colpate per le propensitate del grecos a fugir le infortunio. Le routes que illes prendeva principalmente esseva: primo, verso le territorios predominantemente grec, que esseva o ancora libere o controlate per le Francos (isto es, le fortia venetian in le Despotato de Morea, assi como in le Insulas Egee e Ionian) o alteremente verso [[Italia]] e le [[Mundo Occidental|West]] in general; secundo, verso districtos montaniose remote in le interior ubi le jugo del conquisitor non esseva ancora sentite."}}</ref> [[Grecia Ottoman]] esseva un societate multiethnic, ma in un maniera multo differente del notion occidental moderne de multiculturalismo. Le grecos esseva date alicun privilegios e libertate per le [[Imperio]], ma illes esseva exponite a tyrannia derivante de malpractica de personal administrative regional, super le qual le [[Governamento Central|governamento central]] habeva solmente controlo remote e incomplete. Le [[Systema de millet|systema de millet]] ottoman contribueva al [[Cohesion ethnic|cohesion ethnic]] del grecos [[Orthodoxe]] per segregar le varie populos intra le Imperio Ottoman basate super le religion. Grecos vivente in le planas durante le regula ottoman esseva o [[Christianismo|christianos]] o [[Crypto-Christianitate|crypto-christianos]], "musulmanos" grec qui esseva practicantes secrete del fide [[Orthodoxe]] grec. Alicun grecos deveniva crypto-christianos pro evitar impostos pesante dum reteneva lor identitate religiose e ligamines al [[Ecclesia Orthodoxe Grec]]. Grecos qui converteva al [[Islam]] e non esseva crypto-christianos esseva considerate "Turcos" in le [[Oculo|oculos]] del grecos Orthodoxe mesmo si illes non adoptava le [[Lingua turc|lingua turc]], evidentia del tensiones ethnic e religiose in Grecia sub le regula Ottoman. Le Ottomanes regeva le major parte de Grecia usque le initio del [[Seculo 19|19e seculo]]. Le prime stato Hellenic auto-governate desde le [[Medievo]] esseva establite super le insulas Ionian durante le [[Guerras Revolutionari Francese]] in 1800, 21 annos ante le eruption del [[Guerra de Independentia Grec]] in Grecia continental. Illo esseva appellate le [[Republica Septinsular]] ([[Lingua grec|grec]]: {{Lang|el|Ἑπτάνησος Πολιτεία}}), o Republica del Septe Insulas Unite, e illo usava [[Corfu (citate)|Corfu]] como su [[Capital (politica)|capital]]. ==Nation Stato Grec Moderne (1821 – presente)== {{Main|Historia del Grecia moderne}} {{further|Guerra Grec de Independentia|Prime Republica Hellenic|Regno de Grecia|Idea Megali}} [[File:Navarino.jpg|thumb|Le [[Battalia de Navarino]], in octobre 1827, marcava le fin effective del regula Ottoman in Grecia.]] [[File:Nafplion view from Palamidi castle.JPG|thumb|[[Nafplio]], le prime capital del Grecia independente durante le governamento de [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]]]] In le prime menses de 1821, le grecos [[Guerra Grec de Independentia|declarava lor independentia]], ma non lo attingeva usque 1829. Le Grande Potentias initialmente compartiva le mesme vista concernente le necessitate de preservar le ''status quo'' del [[Imperio Ottoman]], ma tosto cambiava lor position. Scores de [[Philhellenes|philhellenes]] non-grec se voluntariava pro luctar pro le causa, includente [[Lord Byron]]. Le 20 de octobre 1827, un combinate fortia naval [[Regno Unite|britannic]], [[Francia|francese]] e [[Russia|russe]] destrueva le [[Armada|armada]] ottoman e [[Egypto|egyptie]]. Le [[Ministros de Affaires Estraniere|ministro de affaires estraniere]] russe, [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]], ille mesme un [[Corfu|grec Septinsular]], retornava a casa como [[Governator|Governator]] del [[Prime Republica Hellenic|Prime Republica]] e con su manipulation diplomatic, gereva a securisar le independentia grec e le dominio militar in le [[Region geographic de Grecia Central|Grecia Central]]. Le prime [[Capital (politica)|capital]] del Grecia independente esseva temporarimente [[Aigina]] (1828–1829) e plus tarde officialmente [[Nafplion]] (1828–1834). Post su [[Assassinato|assassinato]], le [[Potentia europee|potentias europee]] tornava Grecia in un [[Monarchia|monarchia]]; le prime [[Rege de Grecia|Rege]], [[Otto de Grecia]], veniva de [[Bavaria]] e le secunde, [[George I de Grecia|George I]], de [[Danmark]]. In 1834, le Rege Otto transfereva le capital a [[Athenas]]. [[File:Territorial Expansion of Greece from 1832–1947.gif|thumb|left|340px|Le [[Evolution territorial|evolution territorial]] del [[Regno de Grecia]] usque 1947]] Durante le seculos 19 e initio del 20, Grecia cercava a allargar su [[Frontiera|frontieras]] pro includer le [[Population|population]] [[Gente grec|grec]] [[Ethnic|ethnic]] del Imperio Ottoman. Grecia jocava un [[Rolo peripheric|rolo peripheric]] in le [[Guerra de Crimea]]. Quando Russia attaccava le Imperio Ottoman in 1853, le [[Lider|leaders]] grec videva un opportunitate a expander [[Nord|Nord]] e [[Sud|Sud]] ad in areas Ottoman que habeva un [[Majoritate|majoritate]] [[Christianismo|christian]]. Totevia, Grecia non coordinava su [[Plano|planos]] con Russia, non declarava [[Guerra|guerra]], e non recipeva [[Adjuta militar|adjuta militar]] o [[Adjuta financiari|financiari]] ab le exterior. Le [[Francia|franceses]] e [[Regno Unite|britannos]] saisiva su [[Porto|porto]] major e [[Neutralisation|neutralisava]] effectivemente le [[Armea grec|armea grec]]. Le effortios grec pro causar [[Insurrection|insurrectiones]] falleva post que illos esseva facilmente [[Crassamento|crassate]] per [[Fortias Ottoman|fortias Ottoman]]. Grecia non esseva invitate al [[Conferentia de pace|conferentia de pace]] e non faceva [[Ganio|ganios]] del guerra. Le [[Frustration|frustrate]] [[Liderato|liderato]] grec accusava le Rege de faller a prender [[Avantagia|avantagia]] del [[Situation|situation]]; su [[Popularitate|popularitate]] precipitava e ille esseva plus tarde fortiate a [[Abdicar|abdicar]]. Le [[Insulas Ionian]] esseva date per [[Regno Unite|Britannia]] super le arrivata del nove Rege [[George I de Grecia|George I]] in 1863 e [[Thessalia]] esseva [[Cession|cedite]] per le Ottomanes in 1880. ===Modernisation=== [[File:King George of Hellenes.jpg|thumb|180px|[[George I de Grecia]] esseva Rege del Hellenos ab 1862 a 1913]] In le tardive 19e seculo, modernisation transformava le structura social de [[Grecia]]. Le population cresceva rapidemente, ponente pression pesante super le systema de parve fermas con basse productivitate. Generalmente, le densitate de population plus que duplicava ab 41 personas per milia quadrate in 1829 a 114 in 1912 (16 a 44 per km$^2$). Un responsa esseva emigration al [[Statos Unite]], con un quarto de million de gente lassante inter 1906 e 1914. Entrepreneur trovava numerose opportunitates de negotio in le sector de detail e restaurant del citates american; alicun enviava moneta retro a lor familias, alteres retornava con centos de dollars, bastante pro comprar un ferma o un parve negotio in le village ancian. Le population urban triplava ab 8% in 1853 a 24% in 1907. [[Athenas]] cresceva ab un village de 6000 gente in 1834, quando illo deveniva le capital, a 63,000 in 1879, 111,000 in 1896, e 167,000 in 1907.<ref>{{harvnb|Myrsiades|Myrsiades|1992|pp=32–33}}.</ref> In Athenas e altere citates, homines arrivante de areas rural stabliva officinas e magazines, creante un classe medie. Illes se univa con bancheros, personal professional, studentes universitari, e officieros militar, pro demandar reforma e modernisation del systema politic e economic. Athenas deveniva le centro del marina mercante, que quadruplava ab 250,000 tonnellates in 1875 a plus que 1,000,000 tonnellates in 1915. A mesura que le citates se modernisava, homines de negotio adoptava le ultime stilos de architectura de [[Europa Occidental]].<ref>{{harvnb|Birēs|Kardamitsē-Adamē|2004|p=173}}.</ref> ===Guerras Balcanic=== {{Main|Golpe de stato de Goudi|Grecia in le Guerras Balcanic}} [[File:Vasileios Hatzis - Landing of Greek troops at Kavala.jpg|thumb|Le [[Landing|disbarcamento]] de [[Truppa grec|truppas grec]] in [[Kavala]] durante le Guerras Balcanic]] Le [[Participation|participation]] de Grecia in le [[Guerras Balcanic]] de 1912–1913 es un del [[Episodio|episodios]] le plus importante in le [[Historia grec moderne|historia grec moderne]], nam illo permitteva al [[Stato grec|stato grec]] a quasi [[Duplication|duplicar]] su [[Grandor|grandor]] e [[Attingimento|attinger]] le major parte de su [[Grandor territorial|grandor territorial]] presente. Como [[Resultato|resultato]] del Guerras Balcanic de 1912–1913, le major parte de [[Epirus (region)|Epiro]], [[Macedonia (Grecia)|Macedonia]], [[Crete]] e le [[Insulas Egee del nord]] esseva [[Incorporation|incorporate]] in le [[Regno de Grecia]]. ===Prime Guerra Mundial e Guerra Greco-Turc=== {{AP|Grecia in le Prime Guerra Mundial|Fronte Macedonian|Governamento Provisional de Defensa National|Schisma National|Guerra Greco-Turc (1919–1922)}} [[File:A Salonique, le défilé du premier bataillon grec volontaire.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Le I Battalion del Armea de Defensa National marcha super su via al fronte, 1916. Grecia se univa al Alliatos in le estate 1917.]] [[File:Map of Great Greece (Megali Hellas) Venizelos c1920.jpg|thumb|200px|Un mappa del [[Grecia Major]] post le [[Tractato de Sèvres]], quando le ''[[Megali Idea|Idea Megali]]'' pareva proxime al fulfillment, featurante [[Eleftherios Venizelos]].]] [[File:Greek Cavalry Asia Minor 1921.jpg|thumb|200px|Cavalleria grec attaccante durante le [[Guerra Greco-Turc (1919–1922)]].]] Le eruption del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]] in 1914 produceva un separation in le politica grec, con [[Constantine I de Grecia|Rege Constantine I]], un admirator de [[Germania]], appellante pro neutralitate dum le Prime Ministro [[Eleftherios Venizelos]] pressionava pro que Grecia se univa al Alliatos. <ref name="Clogg">{{harvnb|Clogg|2002|pp=86–98}}.</ref> Le conflicto inter le monarchistas e le Venizelistas a vices resultava in guerra aperte e deveniva cognoscite como le [[Schisma National]]. In 1917, le Alliatos fortiate Constantine a abdicar in favor de su filio [[Alexander (rege de Grecia)|Alexander]] e Venizelos retornava como premier. Al fin del guerra, le Grande Potentias esseva de accordo que le citate [[Ottoman]] de [[Smyrna]] ([[İzmir]]) e su hinterland, ambe de que habeva grande populationes grec, esserea manate super a [[Grecia]].<ref name="Clogg"/> [[Occupation de Smyrna|Truppas grec occupava Smyrna]] in 1919, e in 1920 le [[Tractato de Sèvres]] esseva signate per le governamento Ottoman; le tractato stipulava que in cinque annos de tempore un plebescito esserea tenite in Smyrna super si le region esserea unite a Grecia.<ref name="Clogg"/> Totevia, nationalistas turc, dirigite per [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], subverteva le governamento Ottoman e organisava un campania militar contra le truppas grec, resultante in le [[Guerra Greco-Turc (1919–1922)]]. Un major offensiva grec moliva a un stoppar in 1921, e per 1922 truppas grec esseva in retirata. Le fortias turc recapturava Smyrna le 9 de septembre 1922, e tunc un [[Incendio de Smyrna|incendio erumpeva in le citate]]. Il es debatibile qui es responsabile pro le incendio. Le incendio resultava in le mortes de Armenios e grecos in Smyrna.<ref name="Clogg"/> Le guerra esseva concludite per le [[Tractato de Lausanne (1923)]], secundo que il habeva esser un [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|excambio de population]] inter Grecia e [[Turchia]] super le base de Religion. Plus de un million de Christianos Orthodoxe lassava Turchia in excambio pro 400,000 Musulmanos de Grecia.<ref name="Clogg"/> Le eventos de 1919–1922 es regardate in Grecia como un particularmente calamitose periodo de Historia. Inter 1914 e 1923, un estimation de 750,000<ref name="Jones150-151">{{harvnb|Jones|2010|loc=pp. 150–151: "Per le initio del Prime Guerra Mundial, un majoritate del grecos ethnic del region ancora viveva in Turchia presente-die, le major parte in [[Thracia]] (le sol territorio Ottoman restante in Europa, abuttante le frontiera grec), e al longo del [[Mar Egee]] e Mar Nigre costas. Illes esserea objective tanto ante como latere le [[Armenio|Armenios]] de Anatolia e [[Assyrian|Assyrianos]] de Anatolia e Mesopotamia...Le major populationes de "Grecos Anatolian" include illes al longo del costa egee e in [[Cappadocia]] (Anatolia central), ma non le Grecos del region de Thracia west del [[Bosphorus]]...Un marco de "Genocidio Christian" acknowlege le revendicationes historic de populos Assyrian e grec, e le movimentos nunc agitante pro recognition e restitution inter le diasporas grec e Assyrian. Illo etiam trahe a luce le toll cumulative tote bastante astonishing inter le varie gruppos christian objective...del 1.5 million de Grecos de [[Asia Minor]] – Ionios, [[Ponto (region)|Pontianos]], e Cappadocianos – approximativemente 750,000 esseva massacrate e 750,000 exiliate. [[Morte Pontian|Mortes Pontian]] sol totalisava 353,000."}}</ref> a 900,000<ref name="Jones166">{{harvnb|Jones|2010|loc=p. 166: "Un estimation del morte toll de [[Grecos Pontian]] a tote le stadios del genocidio anti-Christian es circa 350,000; pro tote le Grecos del regno Ottoman prendite insimul, le toll certo excedeva medio million, e pote approchar le 900,000 mortes que un equipa de recercatores Statos Unite trovava in le periodo postguerra precoce. Le major parte del Grecos supervivente esseva expellite a Grecia como parte del exchangios de population tumultuose que poneva le sello super un stato fortemente "Turcificate"."}}</ref> grecos morte al manos del [[Turco Ottoman|Turcos Ottoman]], in lo que multe scholars ha terminate un [[Genocidio grec|genocidio]].<ref name="Jones171–172">{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=171–172}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Schaller|Zimmerer|2008|pp=7–14}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=International Association of Genocide Scholars |title=Resolution on Genocides Committed by the Ottoman Empire |url=http://genocidescholars.org/images/Resolution_on_genocides_committed_by_the_Ottoman_Empire.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428051032/http://genocidescholars.org/images/Resolution_on_genocides_committed_by_the_Ottoman_Empire.pdf |archive-date=2008-04-28 |accessdate=2025-10-28 |archivedate=2008-04-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428051032/http://genocidescholars.org/images/Resolution_on_genocides_committed_by_the_Ottoman_Empire.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament — full text|publisher=Armenia News – News.am|date=15 March 2010|access-date=18 July 2014|url=http://news.am/eng/news/16644.html}}</ref> ===Interguerra a Secunde Guerra Mundial=== {{AP|Historia de Grecia (1923–1940)}} {{vide anque|Secunde Republica Hellenic|Regime del 4 de Augusto|Grecia in le Secunde Guerra Mundial|Hyperinflation in Grecia|Resistentia Grec}} [[File:Demonstration for the declaration of the Greek Republic - 1924.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Proclamation del [[Secunde Republica Hellenic]] in 1924. Multitudes tenente placards depingente Alexandros Papanastasiou, Georgios Kondylis e Alexandros Hatzikyriakos]] [[File:Metaxas-regime-greek-fascism.png|thumb|200px|Membros del Organisation National de Juventute (EON) saluta in presentia del dictator [[Ioannis Metaxas]] (1938)]] [[File:AnatoliaCollege-SurrenderofGreece.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Georgios Tsolakoglou]] con officieros Wehrmacht arriva al Aula de Macedonia del [[Collegio Anatolia]] in [[Thessaloniki]], pro signar le rendition (april 1941)]] [[File:Vojski vo Grcija 1.jpg|thumb|200px|Cavalleria del [[Resistentia Grec]] durante le occupation del Axis]] Le [[Secunde Republica Hellenic]] esseva proclamate in 1924 solmente pro esser disestablishite in 1935 con le retorno del [[Rege George II de Grecia]]. In augusto 1936, le Prime Ministro [[Ioannis Metaxas]], con le accordo del Rege, suspendeva le Parlamento e establishiva le [[Regime de Metaxas|regime quasi-fascista de Metaxas]]. Malgrado le fortias armate numericmente parve e mal-equipate del pais, [[Grecia]] faceva un contribution decisive al effortios Alliate in le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Al initio del guerra, Grecia laterava con le Alliatos e refusava a ceder a demandas italian. [[Italia]] invadeva Grecia via [[Albania]] le 28 de octobre 1940, ma truppas grec repelleva le invasores post un lucta amare (vide [[Guerra Greco-Italian]]). Isto marcava le prime victoria Alliate in le guerra. Principalmente pro securisar su flanco strategic sud, le dictator german [[Adolf Hitler]] retardante interveniva e lanciava le [[Battalia de Grecia]] in april 1941. Unitates del [[Axis]] de [[Germania]], [[Bulgaria]], e Italia succeditemente invadeva Grecia, trans [[Yugoslavia]], fortiante le defensores grec foras. Le governamento grec eventualemente decideva a stoppar le lucta e assi stoppava inviar ammunition e provisiones al fronte del nord e le defensores esseva supra-currite facilemente. Le governamento grec alora procedeva, a mesura que le fortias Nazi veniva verso le capital de [[Athenas]], a lassar pro [[Crete]] e tunc [[Cairo]], [[Egypto]]. Le 20 de maio 1941, le Germanos tentava a [[Battalia de Crete|saisir Crete]] con un grande attacco per paratroopers, con le objectivo de reduction le minacia de un contra-offensiva per fortias Alliate in Egypto, ma confrontava resistentia pesante. Le campania grec poterea haber retardate planos militar german contra le [[Union Sovietic]], e il es argumentate que si le invasion german contra le Union Sovietic habeva comenciate le 20 de maio 1941 in loco de 22 de junio 1941, le assalto Nazi contra le Union Sovietic poterea haber succedite. Le perditas pesante de paratroopers german duceva le Germanos a lanciar non plus grande scala invasion-aeree. Durante le [[Occupation del Axis de Grecia]], milliones de Grecos morte in combatto directe, in campos de concentration, o de fame. Le occupatores assassinationava le major parte del [[Communitate judeic in Grecia|communitate judeic]] malgrado effortios per Christianos grec a abrigar le Judeos. Le economia esseva devastate, e le moneta suffreva un del plus mal [[Hyperinflation|hyperinflationes]] jammais registrate. Quando le [[Armea Sovietic]] comenciava su impulso trans [[Romania]] in augusto 1944, le Armea German in Grecia comenciava retirar nord e nordwest ab Grecia ad in Yugoslavia e Albania pro evitar esser seccate foras in Grecia. Assi, le [[Occupation german de Grecia|occupation german de Grecia]] terminava in octobre 1944. Le gruppo de Resistentia [[Armea de Liberation del Populo Grec|ELAS]] saisiva controlo de Athenas le 12 de octobre 1944. Truppas britannic habeva jam atterrate le 4 de octobre in [[Patras]], e entrava Athenas le 14 de octobre 1944.<ref>{{harvnb|Churchill|2010|p=285}}.</ref> Christina Goulter summarisa le devastation facite a Grecia durante le guerra:<ref>{{harvnb|Goulter|2014|pp=1023–1025}}.</ref> :"Inter 1941 e 1945, plus de 8% del population grec habeva morte; circa 2000 villages e parve citates habeva essite rasate al terra; fame esseva diffundite a causa del destruction de recoltas e pejorate in multe partes de Grecia post liberation quando laboratores agricultural migrava a centros urban pro escappar violentia politicamente inspirate in le campania; commercio o internemente o externemente habeva tote cessate; le major parte del marina mercante de Grecia jaceva al fundo del Mar; e transporto motorisate habeva essite confiscate per le occupatores del Axis." ===Guerra Civil Grec (1944–1949)=== [[File:The British Army in Greece 1945 NA21427.jpg|thumb|200px|Collisiones in [[Athenas]] durante le eventos ''[[Dekemvriana]]'']] Le [[Guerra Civil Grec]] (Eμφύλιος πόλεμος |translit=Emfílios pólemos) esseva le prime major confrontation del [[Guerra Frigide]].<ref>{{harvnb|Shrader|1999|loc=p. 266: "Como le prime major confrontation del Guerra Frigide, le guerra civil grec esseva un campo de prova pro le tacticas e technicas de guerra insurgente-contra-insurgente, que marcarea affaires militar pro le quatro decennios sequente."}}</ref> Illo esseva luctate inter 1944 e 1949 in Grecia inter le fortias nationalista/non-marxista de Grecia (financiariamente supportate per le [[Regno Unite]] al initio, e plus tarde per le [[Statos Unite]]<ref>{{harvnb|Marantzidis|Antoniou|2004|pp=223–231}}.</ref>) e le [[Armea Democratic de Grecia]] (ELAS), que esseva le branca militar del [[Partito Communista de Grecia]] (KKE). [[File:Gde.svg|thumb|Organisation e bases militar del [[Armea Democratic de Grecia|Armea Democratic]] dirigite per le Communistas, assi como routes de entrata a Grecia.]] Le conflicto resultava in un victoria pro le britannic — e plus tarde Statos Unite-supportate fortias governamental, que duceva a Grecia recipiente fundos american trans le [[Doctrina Truman]] e le [[Plano Marshall]], assi como devenir un membro de [[NATO]], que adjutava a definir le balance ideologic de poter in le [[Mar Egee]] pro le integre Guerra Frigide. Le prime phase del guerra civil occurreva in 1943–1944. Gruppos de resistentia marxist e non-marxist luctava le un le altere in un conflicto fratricidal pro establishir le liderato del [[Movimento de Resistentia Grec|movimento de resistentia grec]]. In le secunde phase (decembre 1944), le communistas ascendente, in controlo militar del major parte de Grecia, confrontava le governamento grec in exilio retornante, que habeva essite formate sub le auspicios del [[Alliatos Occidental]] in [[Cairo]] e originalmente includeva sex ministros affiliate al KKE. In le tertie phase (appellate per alicun le "Tertie Rotunda"), fortias de guerrilla controlate per le KKE luctava contra le governamento grec recognoscite internationalmente que esseva formate post que le electiones esseva boycottate per le KKE. Ben que le involvement del KKE in le rebelliones esseva universalmente cognoscite, le partito remaneva legal usque 1948, continuante a coordinar attaccos ab su officinas in Athenas usque proscription. Le guerra, que durava ab 1946 a 1949, esseva characterisate per [[Guerra de guerrilla]] inter le fortias KKE e fortias governamental grec principalmente in le rangos de montania del [[Grecia del nord]]. Le guerra terminava con le bombardamento de NATO del [[Monte Grammos]] e le disfacta final del fortias KKE. Le guerra civil lassava Grecia con un hereditate de polarisation politic. Como resultato, Grecia etiam entrava in un alliantia con le Statos Unite e univa NATO, dum relationes con su vicinos del nord communista, tanto pro-Sovietic como neutral, deveniva tensionate. === Disveloppamento Postguerra e Integration in le Bloco Occidental (1949–1967) === In le annos 1950 e 1960, Grecia disveloppava rapidemente, initialmente con le adjuta del grants e loans del Plano Marshall, etiam pro diminuer le influentia communista. In 1952, per unir NATO, Grecia clarmente deveniva parte del [[Bloco Occidental]] del Guerra Frigide. Ma in le societate grec, le division profunde inter le sectiones sinistre e dextere continuava. Le [[Economia grec|economia grec]] avantiamento plus trans crescimento in le sector de tourismo. Nove attention esseva date a derectos de feminas, e in 1952 suffragio pro feminas esseva garantite in le constitution, equalitate constitutional complete sequente, e [[Lina Tsaldari]] deveniva le prime ministro femina ille decennio. Le [[Miraculo economic grec]] es le periodo de crescimento economic sustenite, generalmente ab 1950 a 1973. Durante iste periodo, le economia grec cresceva per un media de 7.7%, secunde in le Mundo solmente a [[Miraculo economic japonese|Japon]].<ref name="Angus Maddison">[[Angus Maddison]], [http://www.ggdc.net/MADDISON/Monitoring.shtml "Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902194706/http://www.ggdc.net/MADDISON/Monitoring.shtml |date=2018-09-02 }}, [[OECD]] (1995)</ref><ref name="AllisonNicolaïdis1997">{{cite book|author1=Graham T. Allison|author2=Kalypso Nicolaïdis|title=Le Paradoxo Grec: Promissa Vs. Performance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4cON14zCgQC&pg=PA43|date=januario 1997|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-51092-9|page=43|quote=phase de 1960 a 1973 (le periodo acclamate per multe como le "miraculo economic grec"), producto domestic brute cresceva a un rata annual medie de 7.7 percento, ma exportationes de mercantias e servitios cresceva al rata medie multo plus alte de 12.6 }}</ref> === Dictatura Militar (1967–1974) === {{main|Junta Militar Grec de 1967–1974|Golpe de stato Cypriota de 1974}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-F0503-0204-005, Stuttgart, Maikundgebung.jpg|thumb|Protesto contra le [[Junta]] per exiliatos politic grec in [[Germania]], 1967]] In 1967, le militar grec saisiva poter in un [[Golpe de stato]], subvertente le governamento de centro dextere de [[Panagiotis Kanellopoulos]].<ref>{{harvnb|Clogg|2002|p=159}}.</ref> Illo establishiva le [[Junta militar grec de 1967–1974|junta militar grec de 1967–1974]] que deveniva cognoscite como le ''Regime del Colonellos''. Le accession del governamento del junta a poter duceva a un isolation de Grecia ab affaires europee e congelava le entrata de Grecia in le [[Union Europee]]. In 1973, le Regime aboliva le monarchia grec e in 1974, le Dictator [[Georgios Papadopoulos]] negava adjuta al Statos Unite. Post un secunde golpe de stato ille anno, le Colonello [[Dimitrios Ioannides]] esseva appunctate como le nove capite de stato. Ioannides esseva responsabile pro le [[Golpe de stato de 1974]] contra le Presidente [[Makarios III]] de [[Cypro]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bahcheli|Bartmann|Srebrnik|2004|p=167}}.</ref> Le golpe deveniva le pretexto pro le prime onda del [[Invasion turc de Cypro]] in 1974 (vide [[Relation greco-turc]]). Le eventos de Cypro e le clamor sequente un suppression sanguinose del [[Rebellion del Polytechnic de Athenas]] in Athenas duceva al implosion del Regime militar. === Tertie Republica Hellenic (1974 – presente) === {{main|Metapolitefsi|Tertie Republica Hellenic}} Post le fin del Regime militar, Democratia esseva restaurate. Le cadita del Junta esseva sequite per le [[Metapolitefsi]]. Metapolitefsi esseva initiate quando [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]] retornava ab exilio auto-exilio in [[Paris]] al invitation del Junta, pro devenir prime ministro interimari le 23 de julio 1974,<ref name="NATO">{{cite web|title=NATO Update 1974|date=26 octobre 2001|publisher=Organisation del Tractato del Atlantico del Nord|url=http://www.nato.int/docu/update/70-79/1974e.htm}}</ref> e plus tarde ganiava re-election pro duo terminos plus al capite del partito conservative [[Nea Dimokratia|Nove Democratia]]. In augusto 1974, fortias grec retirava del structura militar integrate de [[NATO]] in protesto al [[Occupation turc de Cypro del nord]].<ref>{{harvnb|Moustakis|2003|p=33}}.</ref> In 1974, un referendum votava 69%–31% pro confirmar le deposition del [[Rege Constantine II de Grecia]]. Un constitution republican democratic entrava in fortia.<ref>{{harvnb|Featherstone|1990|p=182}}.</ref> Un altere politico previemente exiliate, [[Andreas Papandreou]] etiam retornava e fundava le partito socialista [[PASOK]] (Movimento Socialista Panhellenic), que vinceva le election de 1981 e dominava politica grec pro quasi duo decennios.<ref>{{harvnb|Coccossis|Psycharis|2008|loc=pp. 44–45 (includente "Tabla 1: Periodos del Governamento Grec Post-dictatorial")}}.</ref> [[File:Persconferentie van Andreas Papandreaou in Poort van Cleve te Amsterdam, Bestanddeelnr 921-2803.jpg|thumb|120px|left|Le Prime Ministro Socialista [[Andreas Papandreou]]]] Post le restoration de Democratia, le stabilitate e prosperitate economic de Grecia meliorava significativemente. Grecia reuniva NATO in 1980, univa le [[Union Europee]] (EU) in 1981 e adoptava le [[euro]] como su moneta in 2001. Nove fundos de infrastructura del EU e ingressos crescente ab tourismo, expedition, servitios, industria leve e le industria de telecommunication ha apportate al grecos un standard de vita non precedente. Tensiones continua a exister inter Grecia e [[Turchia]] super Cypro e le [[Disputa egee|delimitation de frontieras]] in le Mar Egee ma relationes ha considerabilemente discogelate sequente seismos successive, primo in Turchia e tunc in Grecia, e un effusion de sympathia e assistentia generose per grecos e turcos ordinari (vide [[Diplomatia de seismo greco-turc]]). ===Grecia in le Eurozona=== {{main|Crisi de Debito Governamento Grec}} Le [[Recession economic global de 2008]] impactava Grecia, assi como le resto del paises in le [[Crisi de debito europee|eurozona]]. Ab tardive 2009, timores disveloppava in le mercatos de investimento de un [[Crisi de debito soveran]] concernente le habilitate de Grecia a pagar su debito, in vista del grande augmento in le debito governamental del pais.<ref>{{cite news|last=Matlock|first=George|title=Spreads de bonos governamental del zona euro peripheral se allarga|work=Reuters|date=16 februario 2010|access-date=19 julio 2014|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE61F0W720100216}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Acropolis nunc|agency=The Economist|date=29 april 2010|access-date=19 julio 2014|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2010/04/29/acropolis-now}}</ref> Iste crisi de confidentia esseva indicationate per un allargamento de spreads de rendement de bono e assecurantia de risco super swaps de defecto de credito comparate a altere paises, le plus importante [[Germania]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Matlock|first=George|title=Spread de rendement de bono grec/german plus de 1,000 bps|work=Reuters|date=28 april 2010|access-date=19 julio 2014|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/markets-bonds-greece-idUSLDE63R0WU20100428}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Oakley|first1=David|last2=Hope|first2=Kerin|title=Rendimentos de Gilt leva inter timores de debito del Regno Unite|agency=Financial Times|date=18 februario 2010|access-date=19 julio 2014|url=https://www.ft.com/content/7d25573c-1ccc-11df-8d8e-00144feab49a |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7d25573c-1ccc-11df-8d8e-00144feab49a.html |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Degradation del debito governamental grec a stato de bono junk creava alarma in mercatos financiari. Le 2 de maio 2010, le paises del eurozona e le [[Fundo Monetari International]] accordava super un {{Nowrap|€110 milliardos}} loan pro Grecia, conditional super le implementation de mesuras de austeritate pesante. In octobre 2011, lideres del eurozona etiam accordava super un proposta a scriber foras 50% del debito grec devite a creditor private, augmentante le quantitate del Facilitate de Stabilitate Financiari Europee a circa €1 Billion (un trillion in scala curte), e requirente bancas europee a attinger 9% de capitalisation pro reducer le risco de contagion financiari a altere paises. Iste mesuras de austeritate esseva extrememente impopular con le publico grec, precipitante demonstrationes e disquietude civil. Iste Periodo corresponde al [[Crisi de debito governamental grec]], que cambiava dramaticamente le scena politic. Initio in le periodo, [[PASOK]] esseva habile a capitalisar super un perdita de supporto pro ND. Totevia, per le initio del annos 2010, PASOK etiam attraheva culpa pro lor gere del crisi, e le partito radical [[SYRIZA]] deveniva le plus grande partito in le sinistre. Le position del extrema dextere esseva etiam fortificate in iste periodo. SYRIZA ha depost supra-currite PASOK como le partito principal del centro-sinistre. [[Alexis Tsipras]] dirigeva SYRIZA a victoria in le election general tenite le 25 de januario 2015, cadente curte de un majoritate absolute in le Parlamento per juste duo sedes. Le matin sequente, Tsipras attingeva un accordo con le [[Partito de Grecos Independente|partito de Grecos Independente]] a formar un coalition, e ille esseva jurate in como Prime Ministro de Grecia. Tsipras appellava electiones instantanee in augusto 2015, resignante de su posto, que duceva a un administration caretaker de un mense capite per le Judice [[Vassiliki Thanou-Christophilou]], le prime Prime Ministro Femina de Grecia. In le election general de septembre 2015, Alexis Tsipras dirigeva SYRIZA a un altere victoria, ganiante 145 ex 300 sedes e re-formante le coalition con le Grecos Independente. Totevia, ille esseva disfeito in le election legislative de julio 2019 per [[Kyriakos Mitsotakis]] qui dirige [[Nove Democratia]]. Le 7 de julio 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis esseva jurate in como le nove Prime Ministro de Grecia. Ille formava un governamento de centro-dextere post le victoria landslide de su Partito Nove Democratia. In martio 2020, le Parlamento de Grecia electionava un candidato non-partisan, [[Katerina Sakellaropoulou]], como le prime Presidente de Grecia femina. In junio 2023, le partito conservative Nove Democratia vinceva le [[Election legislative de Junio 2023]], significante un altere termino de quatro annos como Prime Ministro pro Kyriakos Mitsotakis. In 2024, le economia grec es previste a crescer circa 3%, significante illo approcha su grandor de pre-crisi de 2009 e multo supra-passante le crescimento economic medie del eurozona de 0.8%. Le 31 de augusto 2024, Grecia declarava un stato de urgentia in [[Volos]] post que plus de 100 tonnellates metric de pisces morte esseva recuperate del [[Porto de Volos]]. Le 13 de martio 2025, [[Konstantinos Tasoulas]] esseva jurate in como le nove presidente de Grecia. {{Referentias}} {{Historia de Europa per pais}} [[Categoria:Historia de Grecia]] ciisjm2jolkve26htvg3obpmmblga7d 0 25281 698243 693271 2026-08-03T23:29:36Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} <div style="float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-bottom: 10px; text-align: center;"> {| |- align="center" | [[Gruppo del tabella periodic|'''Gruppo''']] | [[Elementos de gruppo 13|'''13''']] | [[Elementos de gruppo 14|'''14''']] | [[Elementos de gruppo 15|'''15''']] |- align="center" | [[Periodo del tabella periodic|'''Periodo''']] |- align="center" | [[Elementos de periodo 3|'''3''']] | bgcolor="#cccccc" | <small>13</small><br />[[Aluminium|Al]] |- align="center" | [[Elementos de periodo 4|'''4''']] | bgcolor="#cccccc" | <small>31</small><br />[[Gallium|Ga]] |- align="center" | [[Elementos de periodo 5|'''5''']] | bgcolor="#cccccc" | <small>49</small><br />[[Indium|In]] | bgcolor="#cccccc" | <small>50</small><br />[[Stanno|Sn]] |- align="center" | [[Elementos de periodo 6|'''6''']] | bgcolor="#cccccc" | <small>81</small><br />[[Thallium|Tl]] | bgcolor="#cccccc" | <small>82</small><br />[[Plumbo|Pb]] | bgcolor="#cccccc" | <small>83</small><br />[[Bismuth|Bi]] |} </div> In [[chimia]], le termino '''metallo de post-transition''' (a alicun veces appellate '''metallos povre''' o simplemente '''altere metallos''', vide in basso) es usate pro describer le categoria de elementos metallic al dextra del [[elementos de transition]] in le [[tabella periodic]].<ref name="Brady">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=UVlGAAAAYAAJ&dq=post-transition+metal+brady&q=post-transition+%22just+to+the+right%22#search_anchor |title= General Chemistry: Principles and Structure |edition=5th |first= James E. |last=Brady| page= 96| publisher= Wiley |year= 1990 |isbn = 9780471621317}}</ref><ref name="Cox">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8yQOhvD3tWcC&pg=PA185#v=onepage&q=&f=false |title= Instant Notes in Inorganic Chemistry |edition=2nd |first=P. A. |last= Cox| pages= 185–186 |publisher=Garland Science/BIOS Scientific Publishers |year=2004 |isbn= 9781859962893}}</ref> Qual elementos deberea includer in le metallos de post-transition es totevia largemente disputate. == Elementos includite == Un prime definition de [[IUPAC]] declara que "le elementos de gruppos 3-12 es le elementos de bloco d. Iste elementos es etiam communmente referite como le metallos de transition, ben que le elementos de gruppos 12 non es sempre includite".<ref name="redbookp51">{{RedBookRef |pages= IR-3.5}}</ref> Dependente de le inclusion de gruppo 12 como metallos de transition, le metallos de post-transition pote o non pote include le [[elementos de gruppo 12]]: [[zinc]], [[cadmium]], e [[mercurio (elemento)|mercurio]]. Un examination de manuales e monographias in 2003 revelava que le elementos de gruppo 12 es includite e excludite con approximativemente equal frequentia.<ref name="Jensen2003">{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/ed080p952 |first=William B. |last= Jensen |year=2003 |title=The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-chemical-education_2003-08_80_8/page/952 |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=80 |issue=8 |pages=952–961 |bibcode = 2003JChEd..80..952J }}</ref> Un secunde definition de IUPAC declara "Un elemento qui atomo ha un subconcha d incomplete, o qual pote dar loco a [[cation]]es con un subconcha d incomplete".<ref>{{GoldBookRef|file=T06456 |title=Transition Metal}}</ref> Se basa super iste definition on poterea arguer que gruppo 12 se deberea divider con mercurio e [[copernicium]] como metallos de transition, e zinc e cadmium como metallos de post-transition. De pertinentia es le synthesis de [[fluorido de mercurio(IV)]], le que constata mercurio como un metallo de transition.<ref>{{cite journal| first1=Xuefang |last1=Wang |first2=Lester |last2=Andrews |first3= Sebastian |last3=Riedel |first4= Martin |last4=Kaupp |year=2007 |title=Mercury Is a Transition Metal: The First Experimental Evidence for HgF₄ |journal=Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. |volume=46 |issue=44 |pages=8371–8375 |doi=10.1002/anie.200703710 |pmid=17899620}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.speciation.net/Public/News/2007/10/12/3303.html |title=Elusive Hg(IV) species has been synthesized under cryogenic conditions |date=October 12, 2007 |accessdate=2 decembre, 2007 |publisher=EVISA news |archivedate=July 22, 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722211853/http://www.speciation.net/News/Elusive-HgIV-species-has-been-synthesized-under-cryogenic-conditions-;~/2007/10/12/3303.html }}</ref> Copernicium se predice haber un [[configuration electronic]] similar a mercurio, lo predicente como un metallo de transition etiam. A veces [[germanium]], [[antimonio]], e/o [[polonium]] etiam se include, ben que istos usualmente se considera como [[metalloides]].<ref name=Egdell>{{cite web| url=http://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/site/mathsphys/chem/year3/mt2007/posttrans/resources/lecture%201.pdf |format=PDF |title=Post Transition Metal Chemistry Lecture 1 |publisher= WebLearn - Oxford Campus, Department of Chemistry |year= 2007 |first= R. G. |last=Egdell |accessdate=2 decembre 2, 2007}}</ref> In le decennio de 1950, le plus manuales de chimia organic definiva elementos de transition como excludente gruppo 11 — [[cupro]], [[argento]], e [[auro]] — in addition a gruppo 12.<ref name="Jensen2003"/> == Metallos povre == Le nomine trivial '''metallos povre''' (o '''altere metallos''') es a alicun veces applicate al elementos metallic in bloco p del tabella periodic. Lor punctos de [[puncto de fusion|fusion]] e [[puncto de ebullition|ebullition]] es generalmente plus basse que illos de le metallos de transition e lor [[electronegativitete]] plus alte, e illos es etiam plus molle. Illos es distinguite de le [[metalloides]] per lor punctos de ebullition significantemente plus alte e conductivitate in le miste periodo. "Metallos povre" non es un nomenclatura approbava per le IUPAC, sed le gruppos se generalmente suppone includer [[aluminium]], [[gallium]], [[indium]], [[stanno]], [[thallium]], [[plumbo]], e [[bismuth]]. Rarmente [[germanium]], [[antimonio]], e [[polonium]] se etiam include, ben que istos se generalmente considera esser [[metalloides]]. Elementos 113, 114, 115, e 116 probabilemente poterea exhibir proprietates que es characteristic de metallos povre, sed quantitates sufficiente se non ha jam synthesesava pro examinar lor proprietates chimic. == Referentias == <references/> {{traducite|en|Post-transition metal}} [[Categoria:Tabella periodic]] [[Categoria:Gruppos de elementos chimic]] [[Categoria:Metallos de post-transition| ]] abw5b5ykkkydx084vamwguotj8ercs1 0 26507 698275 663314 2026-08-04T00:12:37Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} '''Messier 10''' o '''M10''' (etiam designate '''NGC 6254''') es un [[racemo globular]] in le [[constellation]] de [[Ophiuchus]]. Le object era discoperite per [[Charles Messier]] le 29ne de maio, 1764, qui lo catalogava como numero 10 in [[Cataloga Messier|su lista]]. Ille lo describeva como un racemo globular de milles de stellas. M10 ha un diametro apparente de circa 20 [[minutas de arco]], circa duo tertias del [[diametro apparente]] del [[Luna]]. Viste per [[telescopio]]s de dimension medie illo appare circa medietate ille dimension (8' a 9'), de su nucleo brillante es solo 35 annos lumine trans. M10 ha un [[diametro]] spatial de 83 annos lumine e se estima esser 14.300 annos lumine de Terra. Quatro [[stella variabile|stellas variabile]] ha essite discoperite in iste racemo. Iste racemo comple un orbita per le galaxia [[Via Lactee]] circa cata 140 million annos, durante que illo transversa le plano del disco galactic cata 53 million annos. Iste [[orbita rosetta]] ha un [[Eccentricitate (orbita)|eccentricitate]] de 0,21.<ref name="apj522"> {{cite journal | author=Gnedin, Oleg Y.; Lee, Hyung Mok; Ostriker, Jeremiah P. | year=1999 | title=Effects of Tidal Shocks on the Evolution of Globular Clusters | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1999-09-10_522_2/page/935 | journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] | volume=522 | issue=2 | pages=935–949 | bibcode=1999ApJ...522..935G | doi=10.1086/307659 |arxiv = astro-ph/9806245 }}</ref> == Ligamines externe == * Paginas Messier de [[SEDS]]: [http://www.maa.clell.de/Messier/D/m010.html de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811062750/http://www.maa.clell.de/Messier/D/m010.html |date=2011-08-11 }} [http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m010.html en] [http://messier.obspm.fr/f/m010.html fr] [http://astrolink.mclink.it/messier/m/m010.html it] * {{en}} [http://gclusters.altervista.org/cluster_4.php?ggc=M+10 Messier 10, Galactic Globular Clusters Database page] == Referentias == <references/> {{Celo|16|57|08.99|-|04|05|57.6|14300}} {{Catalogo Messier}} [[Categoria:Objectos Messier]] [[Categoria:Racemos globular]] [[Categoria:Constellation de Ophiuchus]] sbngya2s4jbv79mz94wcjw61yn5gzoe 0 29615 698208 684501 2026-08-03T22:37:45Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698208 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} Le '''Reporto Rind''' es un studio scientific publicate in [[1998]] in le ''Psychological Bulletin'' del [[Association American de Psychiatria]] per le psychologos [[Bruce Rind]], Philip Tromovitch e Robert Bauserman, con le titulo in [[anglese]] ''A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of childsexual abuse using college samples'' [Metanalyse del consequentias del abuso sexual infantil, a partir de casos non clinic]. Le scopo del recerca esseva establir, considerante le credentias basic del societate super le supponite consequentias negative del activitate sexual super le infantes, si le monstras analysate per le autores habeva essite realmente damnate per iste experientia. Le resultatos indica que circa 70% del monstras investigate considera que lor experientias sexual con adultos durante le infantia o adolescentia esseva positive o non habeva consequentias.<ref>Archivos relacionate con le methanalyse de Rind et al., in le sito del [http://www.ipce.info/ipceweb/Library/rbt_files.htm IPCE].</ref> Le studio esseva scopo de un grande polemica in [[Statos Unite]] a partir del criticas de alicun conservatores social e fundamentalistas religiose, e anque de alicun psychiatros e psychotherapeutas. Le [[Congresso del Statos Unite]] manifestava su preoccupation concernente consequentias que poterea haber le publication del resultatos del studio sur le paradigmas official concernente le [[pedophilia]] e le 12 de julio 1999 illo lo denunciava e condemnava in maniera quasi unanime.<ref name="ori"/> Le condemnation de un studio scientific de parte del congresso esseva in ille momento un facto sin precedentes.<ref name="orip"/> == Studios e conclusiones == In 1997, le professor de [[psychologia]] Bruce Rind, del [[Universitate de Temple]], e le studente de doctorato Philip Tromovitch, del [[Universitate de Pennsylvania]], publicava in ''[[The Journal of Sex Research]]'' un revision bibliographic de septe studios concernente le problemas de adaptation del victimas de abuso sexual infantil (ASI). == Studio == Le studio parti del affirmationes emittite per le medias e le litteratura specialisate que tote le relationes sexual son traumatisante pro le minores e que le abuso sexual causa un dommage psychologic grave, durabile e generalisate in pueros e pueras de maniera equivalente. Le scopo official del analyse realisate per Rind, Tromovich e Bauserman es verificar si le maniera como son vivite iste experientias se corresponde con tal affirmationes. === Terminologia === Le autores del studio considera inadequate le utilisation del expression "abuso sexual infantil" utilisate in le obras de psychologia pro definir tote le interactiones sexual que pote haber loco inter infantes o adolescentes e personas de etate significativemente plus grande, pois que, secundo illes explica, qualcunque de iste relationes, malgrado non esser legal o acceptate socialmente, poterea esser consensual e ergo non abusive. Nonobstante, illes justifica le utilisation del expression "abuso sexual infantil" (ASI) in su studio proque illo es le mesme que utilisava previemente le autores del travalios revisate.<ref>[http://www.ipce.info/library_2/rbt/exam/exam_1.htm Introduction]. ''A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of childsexual abuse using college samples''. IPCE. (in anglese)</ref> === Methodologia === Le studio de Rind, Tromovitch e Bauserman effectua un approximation e un consolidation metanalytic del resultados de 59 inquestas independante realisate inter 1975 e 1995 in universitates statunitense, le quales presenta de un parte resultatos de referentia concernente le studentes qui non ha essite objecto de ASI e del altere resultatos concernente le studentes qui si ha essite objecto de ASI. Le metanalyse se basa super le consolidation de tres ensembles: le differentias de equilibrio del studentes secundo si illes ha essite o non objecto de ASI, assi como in function de lor situation familiar, e le differentias de situation familiar inter le studentes objecto o non de ASI. Le scopo del tertie ensemble es determinar si le differentias in le equilibrio psychologic del studentes objecto de ASI pote esser confundite con illos debite a lor situation familiar e dunque si le relation inter le equilibrio e le ASI es fundate o non. Un del difficultates trovate per le autores es que le 59 studios comparate non utilisa le mesme definition del termino ''abuso sexual'' ni del termino ''infante'', fixante le etate limite del infantia inter 16 e 18 annos in 75 % del studios e 14 annos in 25 %. De altere parte, 70 % del studios considera le differentia de etate inter infante/adolescente e le adulte, ma non considera le consentimento del companion sexual le plus juvene. Altere difficultate es que alcun studios utilisate comporta un decomposition in categorias de illo qui es considerate como ''abuso sexual'', ma le categorias differe de un studio al altere (per exemplo exhibitionismo, caressas, toccos, masturbation, fellation, tentativa de copulation, e penetration). Rind, Tromovitch e Bauserman ha establite dunque un baremo de gravitate pro cata categoria. Iste baremo considera tamben le proximitate del relation inter le personas (parentes biologic, membros del familia o non), del frequentia del ASI e del utilisation o non del fortia o de menacias. === Resultatos === Secundo le resultatos del studio, 51% del casos de ASI in pueros e 39% del casos in pueras haberea consistite in caressas; 46% del subjectos de ASI lo haberea essite plure vices e 23% del casos de ASI in pueros ante 41% del casos de ASI in pueras se haberea realisate sub coercition. 14 % del pueros e 27 % del pueras del universitates haberea vivite al minus un vice un experientia classate como "abuso sexual" per un o plure del 59 studios comparate. Il existirea un correlation de minus de 1 % inter le disorientation (signos clinic de traumatismo) e le facto de haber essite objecto de ASI, e un correlation nove vices plus elevate inter le situation familiar e le disorientation. Le traumatismo referite non serea generaliste e durabile e illo non serea experimentate del mesme maniera per le pueras que per le garsones. Un factor de correlation tanto basse se explicarea pro le facto que in le studios comparabiles effectuate in ambientes clinic il existe un forte proportion de casos de [[incesto]], durante que istos non represententa plus que 16 % del casos de ASI inventariate durante inquestas in le universitates.<ref name="study" />. Le studio contine tamben un statistica in function del characteristicas del ASI -duration, frequentia, presentia de coercition e penetration. Le resultato de iste statistica es un prevalentia elevate (12 %) de signos clinic in le casos ubi habeva coercition, un prevalentia de circa 2 % in le casos de incesto e un prevalentia inferior a 1 % pro le altere casos. 10 % del casos de ASI experimentate per le pueras e 27 % del casos experimentate per le garsones haberea essite referite per le subjectos como un experientia positive. 70 % del casos de ASI experimentate per le pueras e 33 % del casos de ASI experimentate per le garsones haberea essite referite como un experientia negative. Le traumatismo a longe termino es pauc frequente, essente referite le traumatismo attribuite al ASI como passager in le majoritate del casos. Un factor de correlation tanto basse inter le desorientation e le facto de haber essite objecto de ASI non sustene le facto que plus de 50 % del pueras considera tal experientia como negative. == Controversia == Le studio esseva scopo de un grande polemica in Statos Unite, le qual comenciava con le criticas de alicun conservatores social e fundamentalistas religiose, e anque de alicun psychiatras e psychotherapeutas. Le prime reaction public significative esseva su origine in le Association National de Recerca e Therapia del Homosexualitate, un organisation consacracte a defender que le [[homosexualitate]] es un infermitate mental que on pote curar con psychotherapia. Posteriormente, le presentatora conservator de television Laura Schlessenger attacava le studio in su programma ''The Dr. Laura show'',<ref>Schlessenger, L. The Dr. Laura show. (23-3-1999)</ref> dante loco a un campania mediatic que se extendeva al circulos politic. Le [[Congresso del Statos Unite]] manifestava su preoccupation concernente le consequentias que poterea haber le publication del resultatos del studio sur le paradigmas official concernente le pedophilia e le 12 de julio 1999 illo lo denunciava e condemnava in maniera quasi unanime, per 355 votos a favor, nulle in contra e 13 abstentiones.<ref name="ori">[http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=106_cong_bills&docid=f:hc107enr.txt.pdf Whereas no segment of our society is more critical to the future of human survival than our children] (1999). 106th Congress, Resolution 107, Congresso del Statos Unite. (in anglese)</ref> Le condemnation de un studio scientific de parte del congresso esseva in ille momento un facto sin precedentes.<ref name="orip"> Rind, Bruce. [http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=NqT0GCxUDJsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA163#v=onepage&q&f=false 163-193 ''Advances in social & organizational psychology: a tribute to Ralph Rosnow'']. In: "Meta Analysis, Moral Panic, Congressional Condemnation, and Science: A Personal Journey", p. 163-193. New York: Taylor & Francis/Psychology Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-8058-5590-4}}. (in anglese)</ref> Pressionate proque illo se justificarea, le Association American de Psychiatria submetteva le metanalyse a un nove rondo de revision per pares e a un studio statistic professional, que portava al conclusion que le methodologia del studo esseva correcte.<ref>Fowler, Raymond D. [http://www.ndacan.cornell.edu/cmrlpostings/msg01569.html RE: APA statements] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615202711/http://www.ndacan.cornell.edu/cmrlpostings/msg01569.html |date=2012-06-15 }}. Child Maltreatment Researchers (Mailing List). (in anglese)</ref> Totevia, on continuava a publicar communicatos de pressa e refutationes que appunctava superficialmente a diverse rationes secundo le quales le studio deberea esser refusate.<ref>Ulrich, Heather M.; Randolph, Mickey; Acheson, Shawn. [http://www.srmhp.org/0402/child-abuse.html "Child Sexual Abuse: A Replication of the Meta-analytic Examination of Child Sexual Abuse by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman (1998)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315234308/http://www.srmhp.org/0402/child-abuse.html |date=2012-03-15 }}. ''The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice: objective investigations of controversial and unorthodox claims in clinical psychology, psychiatry and social work (SRMHP)'', Vol. IV, nro 2. ISSN 1538-4985. (in anglese)</ref> Le autor, inter alteres, contestava iste refutationes. A causa del pression externe derivate de iste investigation, le doctor Rind declarava que ille non poteva continuar con su investigationes pendente super iste thema e que ille cercarea altere objectos de recerca. In 2001 on publicava un serie de articulos que poneva in dubita le resultatos del studio,<ref name="Dallam">{{cite journal | title = Science or Propaganda? An Examination of Rind, Tromovitch and Bauserman | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-child-sexual-abuse_2001_9_3-4/page/109 | last = Dallam | first = SJ | journal = Journal of Child Sexual Abuse | publisher = Haworth Press |volume = 9 | issue = 3/4 | pages = 109–134 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1300/J070v09n03_06 }} * Publicate como capitulo in {{Cite book | chapterurl = http://books.google.ca/books?id=CZmPet1s07AC&pg=PA109 | pages = 109–134 | editor = Whitfield CL; Silberg JL; Fink PJ | title = Misinformation concerning child sexual abuse and adult survivors | chapter = Science or Propaganda? An Examination of Rind, Tromovitch and Bauserman | author = Dallam SJ | isbn = 0789019019 | publisher = Routledge| year = 2001 }}</ref> signalava supponite errores in le methodologia utilisate e le generalisationes proponite e affirmava que le resultatos del studio esseva scientificamente invalides.<ref name=Tice>{{cite journal | title = The real controversy about child sexual abuse research: Contradictory findings and critical issues not addressed by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman in their 1998 outcomes meta-analysis |last=Tice |first= PP |coauthors=Whittenburg JA, Baker G, Lemmey DE. |journal=Journal of Child Sexual Abuse | publisher = [[Haworth Press]] |volume=9 |issue=3–4 |pages=157–82|year = 2000 |pmid=17521995 | doi = 10.1300/J070v09n03_08}} * Publicate como capitulo in {{Cite book | chapterurl = http://books.google.ca/books?id=CZmPet1s07AC&pg=PA157 | pages = 157–182 | editor = Whitfield CL; Silberg JL; Fink PJ | chapter = The real controversy about child sexual abuse research: Contradictory findings and critical issues not addressed by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman in their 1998 outcomes meta-analysis | title = Misinformation concerning child sexual abuse and adult survivors | last = Tice | first = PP | coauthors = Whittenburg JA; Baker G; Lemmey DE | isbn = 0789019019 | publisher = Routledge | year = 2001 }}</ref><ref name=Whittenburg>{{cite journal | title = A critical appraisal of the 1998 meta-analytic review of child sexual abuse outcomes reported by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman |last=Whittenburg | first= JA | coauthors = Tice PP; Baker G; Lemmey DE | journal = Journal of Child Sexual Abuse | publisher= Haworth Press |volume= 9 |issue=3–4 | pages = 135–55 | year = 2000 | pmid = 17521994 | doi = 10.1300/J070v09n03_07}} * Publicate como capitulo in {{Cite book | chapterurl = http://books.google.ca/books?id=CZmPet1s07AC&pg=PA157 | pages = 135–156 | editor = Whitfield CL; Silberg JL; Fink PJ | title = Misinformation concerning child sexual abuse and adult survivors | chapter = A critical appraisal of the 1998 meta-analytic review of child sexual abuse outcomes reported by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman | last = Whittenburg | first= JA | coauthors = Tice PP; Baker G; Lemmey DE | isbn = 0789019019 | publisher = Routledge | year = 2001 }}</ref> Le criticas esseva publicate in 2001 in le libro ''Misinformation concerning child sexual abuse and adult survivors'' [Disinformation super le abuso sexual infantil e le adultos qui ha supervivite].<ref>{{cite book | last = Whitfield | first = CL | coauthors = Silberg JL; Fink PJ | year = 2001 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 0789019019 | title = Misinformation concerning child sexual abuse and adult survivors }}</ref> Le studio ha essite citate sovente como referentia per le [[Activismo pedophile|movimento activista pedophile]]<ref>[http://www.ipce.info/ipceweb/Documentation/Documents/99-112_nambla_statement.htm The Good News About Man/Boy Love]. IPCE. (in anglese)</ref> e per alicun advocatos pro defender lor clientes in judicios super casos de supponite abusos sexual.<ref>Spiegel, J.. [http://books.google.com/books?id=pzbrOVj9kMkC&pg=PA9 ''Sexual Abuse of Males: The Sam Model of Theory and Practice'']. Routledge, 2003. {{ISBN|1-56032-403-1}}. (in anglese)</ref> == Referentias == {{Reflist}} == Vide etiam == * [[Censura del pedophilia]] == Ligamines externe == * Rind, Bruce ; Tromovitch, Phillip ; Bauserman, Robert. ''A Meta-Analytic Examination of Assumed Properties of Child Sexual Abuse Using College Samples''. ''Psychological Bulletin'', Contato de Arlington, Association American de Psychologia, Vol. CXXIV, nro 1 (julio 1998), pp. 22-53. [http://digilib.bc.edu/reserves/sc563/mcgu/sc56310.pdf Texto complete] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729211144/http://digilib.bc.edu/reserves/sc563/mcgu/sc56310.pdf |date=2016-07-29 }} (in anglese). [http://psycnet.apa.org/?&fa=main.doiLanding&doi=10.1037/0033-2909.124.1.22 Ligamine DOI]. {{Pedophilia}} [[Categoria:Movimento pedophile]] [[Categoria:Pedophilia]] [[Categoria:Sexualitate]] lkek06fmdaochq4iwiadwvly3zrgaye 0 31115 698196 673565 2026-08-03T22:16:18Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 15 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698196 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} Un '''fungo''' es un membro de un gruppo grande de organismos [[eucaryote|eucaryotic]] que include microorganismos tal como [[levatura]]s, [[mucor]]es, e le familiar [[champignon]]es. [[File:Amanita_muscaria_(fly_agaric).JPG|thumb|left|''Amanita muscaria'', un specie de champignon hallucinogenic]] Le fungos forma un [[Regno (biologia)|regno]], '''Fungi''', que es separate ab le [[planta]]s, [[animal]]es, e [[bacterio]]s. Un differentia major es que cellulas fungal ha [[pariete cellular|parietes cellular]] que contine [[chitina]], viste que le parietes cellular de plantas contine [[cellulosa]]. Istes e altere differentias monstra que fungos forma un gruppo singule de organismos cognate, appellate le ''Eumycota'' (''ver fungos'' o ''Eumycetos''), que possede un [[ancestre commun]] (un ''gruppo [[monophyletic]]''). Iste gruppo fungal es distincte ab le structuralmente similar [[myxomycetos]] (mucores limose) e [[oomycetos]] (mucores aquatic). Le disciplina de [[biologia]] devotate al studio de fungos es sapite como [[mycologia]]. Mycologia ha saepe essite reguardate como un branca de [[botania]], malgrado fungos esser un separate regno in [[taxonomia biologic]]. Studios genetic ha monstrate que le fungos es plus cognate al animales que al plantas (ambe fungos e animales es membros del gruppo [[Opisthokont|Opisthokonta]], ma plantas es classificate in le gruppo [[Bikont|Bikonta]]). Abundante mundialmente, le major parte de fungos es nonconspicue proque del dimensiones parve de su structuras e su [[Crypsis|cryptic]] stilos vital in solo, sur material morte, e como [[Symbiosis|symbiontes]] de plantas, animales, o altere fungos. Illos pote devenir observabile quando [[Sporocarpo (fungo)|fructar]], o como champignones o mucores. Fungos exeque un rolo essential in le decomposition de material organic e ha rolos fundamental in [[cyclo biogeochimic|cyclos e excambio de nutrientes]]. Illos ha longemente essite usate como un origine directe de alimento, tal como champignones e [[trufa]]s, como un agente [[levatura|levante]] pro pan, e in [[Fermentation (alimento)|fermentation]] de varie productos alimentari, tal como [[vino]], [[bira]], e [[sauce de soja]]. Post que le 1940s, fungo ha essite usate pro le production de [[antibiotico]]s, e plus recentemente variose [[enzyma]]s producite per fungos es usate industrialmente e in [[protease|detergente]]s. Fungos es anque usate como [[pesticidas biologic]] de controlar mal herbas, maladias de plantas, e [[insecto]]s nocue. Multe species produce compositos [[bioactive]] appellate [[mycotoxina]]s, tal como [[alcaloide]]s e [[polyketido]]s, que es toxic a animales includer humanos. Le corpores fructifere de un pauc species contine compositos [[psychotropic]]. Fungos pote decomponer materiales manufacturate e edificios, e illos pote devenir significante [[fungo pathogenic|pathogeno]]s de humanos e altere animales. Perditas de recoltas a causa de maladias fungal (pro exemplo, deterioration de alimento pote haber un impacto grande a provisiones de alimentos human e economias local). Le regno fungal include un enorme diversitate de [[taxon|taxones]] con ecologias variate, strategias de [[stilos vital (biologia)|stilo vital]], e [[morphologia (biologia)|morphologias]], extender ab unicellular aquatic [[chytrid]]es a [[champignon]]es grande. Tamen, pauc es sapite del actual [[biodiversitate]] de Regno Fungi, que ha essite estimate a 1,5 million a 5 million species, con circa 5% de los haber essite classificate formalmente. Jammais post que le pionerante obras [[taxonomia|taxonomic]] del 18e e 19e seculo de [[Carl von Linné|Carl Linnaeus]], [[Christian Hendrik Persoon]], e [[Elias Magnus Fries]], fungos ha essite [[classification biologic|classificate]] conforme a su morphologia (pro exemplo, characteristicas tal como color de sporas o characteres microscopic) o [[physiologia]]. Avantiamento in [[genetica molecular]] ha aperite le via pro [[sequentia del ADN|ADN analysis]] de esser incorporate a in taxonomia, que ha alicun vices defiate le gruppos historic basate sur morphologia e altere characteres. Studios [[phylogenetic]] publicava in le decennio ultime ha adjutate reformar le classification de Regno Fungi, que es divite a in un [[grado taxonomic|subregno]], septe [[phylo]]s, e dece [[subphylo]]s. == Characteristicas == [[Image:HYPHAE.png|thumb|360px|'''Cellulas de Fungal Hyphas'''<br /> 1- Pariete hyphal 2- Septo 3- Mitochondrio 4- Vacuola 5- crystallo de [[Ergosterol]] 6- Ribosoma 7- Nucleo 8- Reticulo endoplasmic 9- Corpore lipidic 10- Membrana plasmatic 11- [[Spitzenkörper]] 12- Apparato de Golgi]] Ante le introduction de [[phylogenetica molecular|methodos molecular]] pro analysis phylogenetic, [[taxonomia|taxonomistas]] considerava fungos de esser membros del [[Planta|Regno Planta]], proque de similaritates in stilo vital: ambe fungos e plantas es principalmente [[sessilitate (zoologia)|nonmobile]], e ha similar general morphologias e habitates de crescentia. Resimilante plantas, fungos saepe vegeta in solo, e [[champignon]]es particularmente forma [[corpore fructifere|corpores fructifere]] conspicue, que alicun vices ha resimilantia a plantas tal como [[muscos]]. Le fungos es nunc considerate un regno separate, distincte ab ambe plantas e animales, ab le qual illos appare de haber divergite ante circa un milliardo annos.<ref name=Bruns2006>{{cite journal |author=Bruns T. |year=2006 |title=Evolutionary biology: a kingdom revised |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-10-19_443_7113/page/758 |journal=Nature |volume=443 |issue=7113 |pages=758–761 |pmid=17051197 |doi=10.1038/443758a|bibcode = 2006Natur.443..758B }}</ref> Alicun morphologic, biochimic, e genetic characteres es possedite in commun con altere organismos, ma alteres es unic al fungos, clarmente separar los ab le altere regnos: Characteres commun: * Con altere [[eucaryote]]s: cellulas fungal contine [[membranal mente-ligate]] [[nucleo cellular|nucleos]] con [[chromosoma]]s continer ADN con [[ADN noncodante|regiones noncodante]] appellate [[intron]]es e regiones codante appellate [[exon]]es. Additionalmente, fungos possede membranalmente-ligate cytoplasmic [[organella]]s tal como [[mitochondrio]]s, [[sterol]]-continente membranas, e [[ribosoma]]s del typo [[80S]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Deacon J. |title=Fungal Biology |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2005 |isbn=1-4051-3066-0}}</ref> Illos ha un extension characteristic de solubile [[hydrato de carbon|hydratos de carbon]] e compositos immagazinal, includer [[sucric alcohol]]es (pro exemplo, [[mannitol]]), [[disaccharido]]s, (pro exemplo, [[trehalosa]]), e [[polysaccharido]]s (pro exemplo, [[glycogeno]], que es anque trovate in animales<ref>Deacon, pp. 128–29.</ref>). * Con animales: Fungos non ha [[chloroplasto]]s e es [[heterotroph]]ic organismos, necessitar preformate [[composito organic|compositos organic]] como un fonte energic.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M. |title=Introductory Mycology | year=1996 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=0-471-52229-5}}</ref> * Con plantas: Fungos possede un pariete cellular<ref>Alexopoulos ''et al''., pp. 31–32.</ref> e [[vacuola]]s. Illo reproduce se per methodos ambe sexual e asexual, e simile gruppos basal de plantas (tal como [[filice]]s e [[musco]]s) produce [[spora]]s. Similar a muscos e [[alga]]s, fungos typicalmente ha nucleos [[haploide]]<ref name=Deacon4>Deacon, p. 58.</ref> * Con [[euglenoide]]s e [[bacterio]]s: Plus alte fungos, euglenoides, e alicun bacterios produce le [[amino-acido]] <small>L</small>-lysina in specific passos [[biosynthesis|biosynthetic]], appellate le [[via &alpha;-aminoadipato]].<ref name=Zabriskie2000>>{{cite journal |author=Zabriskie TM, Jackson MD. |title=Lysine biosynthesis and metabolism in fungi |journal=Natural Product Reports |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=85–97 |year=2000 |pmid=10714900 |doi=10.1039/a801345d}}</ref> * Le cellulas del major parte de fungos cresce como tubular e filamentose structuras appellate [[hypha]]s, que pote continer multiple nucleos e extende a su apices. Cata apice contine un collection de aggregate [[vesicula (biologia)|vesiculas]]— structuras cellular consister de [[proteina]]s, [[lipido]]s, e altere moleculas organic — appellate [[Spitzenkörper]].<ref>Alexopoulos ''et al''., pp. 27–28.</ref> Ambe fungos e [[oomyceto]]s cresce como cellulas filamentose hyphal.<ref>Alexopoulos ''et al''., p. 685.</ref> Per contrasto, similar-apparante organismos, tal como filamentose [[algas verde]], cresce per repetite division cellular intra un catena de cellulas.<ref name=Deacon4/> * In commun con alicun species de plantas e animales, plus que 60 species fungal monstra le phenomenon de [[bioluminescentia]].<ref name=Desjardins2008>{{cite journal |author=Desjardin DE, Oliveira AG, Stevani CV. |year=2008 |title=Fungi bioluminescence revisited |journal=Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=170–182 |pmid=18264584|doi=10.1039/b713328f}}</ref> Characteres unic: * Alicun species cresce como unicellular [[levatura]]s que reproduce per [[gemmation]] o [[fission binari]]. [[Fungos dimorphic]] pote cambiar inter un phase levatural e un phase hyphal in responsa al conditiones ambiente.<ref name="Alexopoulos et al., p. 30">Alexopoulos ''et al''., p. 30.</ref> * Le parietes de cellulas fungal es composite de [[glucan]]es e [[chitina]]; durante que le prime compositos es anque trovate in plantas e le secunde in le [[exoskeleto]]s de [[arthropodo]]s,<ref>Alexopoulos ''et al''., pp. 32–33.</ref> fungos es le sol organismos que combina los due moleculas structural in su parietes cellular. In contrasto al plantas e al [[oomyceto]]s, parietes de cellulas fungal non contine cellulosa.<ref>Alexopoulos ''et al''., p. 33.</ref> [[Image:Omphalotus nidiformis Binnamittalong 2 email.jpg|thumb|''[[Omphalotus nidiformis]]'', un champignon bioluminescente]] Le major parte del fungos non ha un systema efficace pro transporto de aqua de nutrientes a longe distantias, tal como le [[xylema]] e [[phloema]] in multe plantas. Pro superar iste limitationes, alicun fungos, pro exemplo ''[[Armillaria]]'', forma [[rhizomorphe]]s,<ref name=Mikhail2005>{{cite journal |author=Mihail JD, Bruhn JN. |year=2005 |title=Foraging behaviour of ''Armillaria'' rhizomorph systems |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_fungal-biology_mycological-research_2005-11_109_11/page/1195 |journal=Mycological Research |volume=109 |issue=11 |pages=1195–1207 |pmid=16279413 |doi=10.1017/S0953756205003606 }}</ref> que resimila e exeque functiones similar al [[radice]]s de plantas. Un altere characteristica commun con plantas include un [[via biochimic|via biosynthetic]] pro producer [[terpeno]]s que usa [[acido mevalonic]] e [[pyrophosphato]] como [[Precursor (chimia)|componentes chimic]].<ref name=Keller2005>{{cite journal |author=Keller NP, Turner G, Bennett JW. |year=2005 |title=Fungal secondary metabolism–from biochemistry to genomics |journal=Nature Reviews in Microbiology |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=937–947 |pmid=16322742 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1286}}</ref> Totevia, plantas ha un additional via chimic pro terpeno in su [[chloroplasto]]s, un structura fungos non possede.<ref name=Wu2007>{{cite journal |author=Wu S, Schalk M, Clark A, Miles RB, Coates R, Chappell J. |year=2007 |title=Redirection of cytosolic or plastidic isoprenoid precursors elevates terpene production in plants |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=24 |pages=1441–1447 |pmid=17057703 |doi=10.1038/nbt1251 |issue=11}}</ref> Fungos produce plure [[secundari metabolito]]s que es similar o identical in structura a istos facite per plantas.<ref name=Keller2005/> Multe del enzymos de plantas e fungos que face istes compositos differe ab le alteres in [[sequentia de peptidos|sequentia]] e altere characteristicas, que indica separate origines e evolution de istes enzymas.<ref name=Keller2005/> == Diversitate == [[File:Fungus in a Wood.JPG|thumb|Fungo in un silva.]] Fungos ha un distribution mundial, e vegeta in multe habitates, includer ambientes extreme tal como [[deserto]]s o regiones con alte concentrationes de sal<ref name=Vaupotic2008>{{cite journal |author=Vaupotic T, Veranic P, Jenoe P, Plemenitas A. |title=Mitochondrial mediation of environmental osmolytes discrimination during osmoadaptation in the extremely halotolerant black yeast ''Hortaea werneckii'' |url=https://archive.org/details/fungal-genetics-and-biology_2008-06_45_6/page/994 |journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=994–1007 |year=2008 |pmid=18343697 |doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2008.01.006}}</ref> o [[radiation ionisante]],<ref name=Dadachova2007>{{cite journal |author=Dadachova E, Bryan RA, Huang X, Moadel T, Schweitzer AD, Aisen P, Nosanchuk JD, Casadevall A. |year=2007 |title=Ionizing radiation changes the electronic properties of melanin and enhances the growth of melanized fungi |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=e457 |pmid=17520016 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000457 |pmc=1866175|bibcode = 2007PLoSO...2..457D }}</ref> anque como in sedimentos del [[mar profunde]].<ref name=Raghukumar1998>{{cite journal |author=Raghukumar C, Raghukumar S. |title=Barotolerance of fungi isolated from deep-sea sediments of the Indian Ocean |journal=Aquatic Microbial Ecology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=153–163 |year=1998 |doi=10.3354/ame015153}}</ref> Circa 100.000 species de fungos ha essite formalmente describite per [[taxonomia|taxonomistas]], sed le biodiversitate mundial del Regno Fungi es non comprendite completemente.<ref name=Mueller2006>{{cite journal |author=Mueller GM, Schmit JP. |year=2006 |title=Fungal biodiversity: what do we know? What can we predict? |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=16 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1007/s10531-006-9117-7}}</ref> Basate sur le observationes del ration del numero de species fungal al numero del species plantal in seligite ambientes, le regno fungal ha essite estimate de continer circa 1,5 million species;<ref name=Hawksworth2006b>{{cite journal |author=Hawksworth DL. |year=2006 |title=The fungal dimension of biodiversity: magnitude, significance, and conservation |journal=Mycological Research |volume=95 |issue=6 |pages=641–655 |doi=10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80810-1}}</ref> un altere recente (2011) estimation suggere le possibilitate de plus 5 million species. == Morphologia == === Structuras microscopic === [[File:Penicillium labeled cropped.jpg|thumb|Un isolato ambiental de ''[[Penicillium]]''<br>1.&nbsp;[[hypha]] 2.&nbsp;[[conidiophoro]] 3.&nbsp;[[phialido]] 4.&nbsp;[[conidio|conidios]] 5.&nbsp;[[septo|septos]]]] Le major parte de fungos cresce como [[hypha]]s, que es cylindric, filamentose structuras 2–10&nbsp;[[micrometros|µm]] in diametro e usque a plure centimetros in longitude. Hyphas cresce a su extremitates (apices); nove hyphas es formate normalmente per emergentia de nove apices preter existente hyphas per un processo appellate ''ramification'', o rarmente crescer apices hyphal bifurca, conducer a duo parallel-crescente hyphas.<ref name=Harris2008>{{cite journal |author=Harris SD. |year=2008 |title=Branching of fungal hyphae: regulation, mechanisms and comparison with other branching systems |journal=Mycologia |volume=100 |issue=6 |pages=823–832 |pmid=19202837 |doi=10.3852/08-177 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0100/006/0823.htm}}</ref> Le combination de crescimento apical e bifurcar duce al disveloppamento de un [[mycelio]], un rete interconnectite de hyphas.<ref name="Alexopoulos et al., p. 30"/> Hyphas pote esser o [[septo|septate]] o [[coenocytic]]. Septate hyphas es dividite a in compartimentos separate per parietes transverse, le septos. In contrasto, coenocytic hyphas non ha cellulas separate; illos es essentialmente supercellulas [[multinucleate]]. Multe species ha disveloppate specialisate structuras hyphal pro entrata de nutrientes ab hospites vive; exemplos include [[haustorio|haustorios]] in species parasitic de plantas in alicun phylos fungal, e [[arbuscular mycorrhiza|arbusculas]] de plure [[mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungos, que penetra a in le cellulas del hospite de consumer nutrientes.<ref name=Parniske2008>{{cite journal |author=Parniske M. |title=Arbuscular mycorrhiza: the mother of plant root endosymbioses |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=763–775 |year=2008 |pmid=18794914 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1987}}</ref> === Structuras macroscopic === [[Image:Armillaria ostoyae MO.jpg|thumb|''[[Armillaria solidipes]]'']] Fungal mycelios pote devinite visibile al oculo nonadjutate, pro exemplo, sur varie superfices e substratos, tal como muros humide e supra guastate alimento, ubi illos es communmente appellate [[mucor]]es. Mycelios cresceva sur medios de solide [[agar]] in laboratorial [[placa de Petri|placas de Petri]] es usualmente referite a como [[colonia (biologia)|colonias]]. Istes colonias pote exhibir formas de crescimento e colores (a causa de [[spora]]s o [[pigmento|pigmentation]]) que pote esser usate como characteres diagnostic in le identification de species o gruppos.<ref>Hanson, pp. 127–41.</ref> Alicun individual fungal colonias pote attinger dimensiones e etates extraordinari, como in le caso de un colonia [[Clon (biologia cellular)|clonal]] de ''[[Armillaria solidipes]]'', que extende trans un area de plus que 900&nbsp;[[hectare|ha]] (3,5 millias quadrate), con un etate estimate de quasi 9.000&nbsp;annos.<ref name=Ferguson2003>{{cite journal |author=Ferguson BA, Dreisbach TA, Parks CG, Filip GM, Schmitt CL. |year=2003 |title=Coarse-scale population structure of pathogenic ''Armillaria'' species in a mixed-conifer forest in the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-forest-research_2003-04_33_4/page/612 |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Forest Research]] |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=612–623 |doi=10.1139/x03-065}}</ref> Le [[apothecio]]—un structura specialisate importante in [[reproduction sexual]] in le ascomycetos—es un cupular [[corpore fructifere]] que contine le [[hymenio]], un strato de texito continer le sporifere cellulas.<ref>Alexopoulos ''et al''., pp. 204–205.</ref> Le corpores fructifere del basidiomycetos ([[basidiocarpo]]s) e alicun ascomycetos pote alicun vices vegeta multo grande, e multe es familiar como [[champignon]]es. == Reproduction == [[File:Polyporus squamosus Molter.jpg|thumb|''[[Polyporus squamosus]]'']] Reproduction fungal es complexe, reflecter le differentias in stilos vital e composition genetic intra iste regno diverse de organismos.<ref>Alexopoulos ''et al''., pp. 48–56.</ref> Illo es estimate que un tertio de omne fungos reproducer se usar plus que un methodo de propagation; pro exemplo, reproduction pote occurer in duo ben differentiate stadios intra le [[cyclo vital (biologia)|cyclo vital]] de un species, le [[teleomorphe]] e le [[anamorphe]].<ref>Kirk ''et al''., p. 633.</ref> Conditiones ambiental causa geneticamente determinate stadios disveloppamental que duce al creation de structuras specialisate pro sexual o asexual reproduction. Istes structuras adjuta reproduction per efficacemente disperger sporas o sporifere [[propagulo]]s. === Dispersion del sporas === Ambe asexual e sexual sporas o sporangiosporas es saepe activemente dispergite per ejection per fortia ab su structuras reproductive. Iste ejection assecura le exito del sporas ab le structuras reproductive anque como propagar per le aer trans distantias longe. == Evolution == In contrasto a [[Evolution de plantas|plantas]] e [[Evolution de animales|animales]], le antique historia fossilic del fungos es magre. Factores que probabile contribue al subrepresentation de species fungal inter fossiles include le natura de fungal [[sporocarpo|corpores fructifere]], que es molle, carnesc, e facilemente degradabile texitos e le dimensiones microscopic del major parte de structuras fungal, que assi non es de bon grado evidente. == Classification == ===Supertaxones=== Ben que communmente includite in botanic curriculo e libros de texto, fungos es plus proximemente parente a [[animal]]es que plantas e es situate con le animales in le gruppo [[monophyletic]] de [[opisthokonto]]s.<ref name=ShalchianTabrizi2008>{{cite journal |author=Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, Jakobsen KS, Cavalier-Smith T. |title=Multigene phylogeny of choanozoa and the origin of animals |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=e2098 |year=2008 |pmid=18461162 |pmc=2346548 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002098|bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.2098S }}</ref> Analyses usar [[phylogenetica molecular]] supporta un [[gruppo monophyletic| origine monophyletic]] del fungos.<ref name=Hibbett2007>{{cite journal | author=Hibbett DS, Binder M, Bischoff JF, Blackwell M, Cannon PF, Eriksson OE, ''et al''. | year=2007 | title=A higher level phylogenetic classification of the ''Fungi'' | journal=Mycological Research | pmid=17572334 | volume=111 | issue=5 | pages=509–547 | doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004 | url=http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf | format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326135053/http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023%2C%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf |date=2009-03-26 }}</ref> Le [[taxonomia]] del fungos es cambiar rapidemente, specialmente a causa de recente recerca basate sur ADN comparationes. ===Subtaxones=== Le [[phylo (rango taxinomic)|phylos]] (alicun vices appellate divisiones) de fungos ha essite classificate principalmente super le base de characteres de su structuras [[reproduction|reproductive]]. Currentemente, septe phylos es proponite:<ref name=Hibbett2007/> * Phylo [[Ascomycota]] ** Subphylo [[Pezizomycotina]] ** Subphylo [[Saccharomycotina]] ** Subphylo [[Taphrinomycotina]] * Phylo [[Basidiomycota]] ** Subphylo [[Agaricomycotina]] ** Subphylo [[Pucciniomycotina]] ** Subphlyo [[Ustilaginomycotina]] * Phylo [[Chitridiomycota]] * Phylo [[Blastocladiomycota]] * Phlyo [[Glomeromycota]] * Phylo [[Microsporidia]] * Phylo [[Neocallimastigomycota]] Le [[Ascomycota]], communmente sapite as fungos saccic or ascomycetos, constitue le plus grande gruppo taxonomic intra le Eumycota.<ref name="Kirk et al., p. 489">Kirk ''et al''., p. 489.</ref> Istes fungos forma sporas meiotic appellate [[ascospora]]s, que es clausurate in un special structura saccoide appellate un [[asco]]. Iste phylo include [[morelo]]s, un pauc altere [[champignon]]es e [[trufa]]s, unicellular [[levatura]]s, e multe filamentose fungos viver como [[saprotropho]]s, [[parasito]]s, e [[symbionte]]s mutualista. Prominente e importante genera de filamentose ascomycetos include ''[[Aspergillus]]'', ''[[Penicillium]]'', ''[[Fusarium]]'', e ''[[Claviceps]]''. Membros del [[Basidiomycota]], communmente sapite como le fusteal fungos o basidiomycetos, produce meiosporas appellate [[basidiospora]]s sur fusteoide pedunculos appellate [[basidio|basidios]]. Le major parte de [[champignon]]es commun pertine a iste gruppo, e anque le [[rusto (fungo)|rustos]] e [[ustilago]]s, que es major pathogenos de cereales. Le [[Chytridiomycota]] es communmente appellate chytridios. Istes fungos es distribuite mundialmente. Chytridios produce [[zoospora]]s que es capabile de active movimento con un singule [[flagello]], ducer prime taxonomistas de classificar los como [[Protisto]]s. Le [[Blastocladiomycota]] esseva previe considerate un clado taxonomic intra le Chytridiomycota. Le blastocladiomycetos es [[nutrition saprotrophic|saprotrophos]], nutrir se de material organic decomponente, e illos anque es parasitos de omne gruppos eucaryotic. Membros del [[Glomeromycota]] forma [[mycorrhizas arbuscular]], un typo de [[symbiosis]] in le qual hyphas fungal invade cellulas radical de plantas e ambe species beneficia ab le resulante augmentate apporto de nutrientes. Omne sapite species de Glomeromycota reproduce asexualmente.<ref name=Redecker2006>{{cite journal |author=Redecker D, Raab P. |title=Phylogeny of the Glomeromycota (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi): recent developments and new gene markers |journal=Mycologia |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=885–895 |year=2006 |pmid=17486965 |doi=10.3852/mycologia.98.6.885 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0098/006/0885.htm}}</ref>Le association symbiotic inter le Glomeromycota e plantas es ancian, con evidentia datar de ante 400 million annos.<ref name=Remy1994>{{cite journal |author=Remy W, Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H. |year=1994 |title=4-hundred million year old vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1994-12-06_91_25/page/11841 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA |volume=91 |issue=25 |pages=11841–11843 |pmid=11607500 |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.25.11841 |pmc=45331 |bibcode=1994PNAS...9111841R}}</ref> Analysis phylogenetic ha demonstrate que le [[Microsporidia]], unicellular parasitos de animales e protistos, es quasi recente e multo derivate fungo [[endobiotic]] (viver intra le texito de un altere species).<ref name=James2006b>{{cite journal |author=James TY, Kauff F, Schoch CL, Matheny PB, Hofstetter V, Cox CJ, ''et al''. |year=2006 |title=Reconstructing the early evolution of Fungi using a six-gene phylogeny |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-10-19_443_7113/page/818 |journal=Nature |volume=443 |issue=7113 |pages=818–822 |pmid=17051209 |doi=10.1038/nature05110|bibcode = 2006Natur.443..818J }}</ref> Le [[Neocallimastigomycota]] esseva primo situate in le phylo Chytridomycota. Membros de iste parve phylo es [[organismo anaerobie| organismos anaerobie]], viver in le systemas digestive de plus grande mammiferos herbivore e possiblemente in altere ambientes terrestre e aquatic. === Organismos fungoide === Perque del similaritates in morphologia e stilo vital, le mucores limose ([[myxomycetos]]) e mucores aquatic ([[oomycetos]]) esseva previemente classificate in le regno Fungi. Dispare ver fungos, le parietes cellular de istes organismos contine cellulosa e no ha chitina. Myxomycetos es [[unikonto]]s como fungos, ma es gruppate in le [[Amoebozoos]]. Oomycetos es diploide [[bikonto]]s e es gruppate in le regno [[Chromalveolato]]. Ni mucores aquatic ni mucores limose es proximemente parente al ver fungos, e, ergo, taxonomistas non gruppa jam los in le regno Fungi. Totevia, studios del oomycetos e myxomycetos es ancora saepe include in [[mycologia|mycologic]] libros de texto e primari recercal literatura.<ref name=Blackwell2004>{{cite book |author=Blackwell M, Spatafora JW. |editor=Bills GF, Mueller GM, Foster MS |chapter=Fungi and their allies |title=Biodiversity of Fungi: Inventory and Monitoring Methods |publisher=Elsevier Academic Press |location=Amsterdam |year=2004 |pages=18–20 |isbn=0-12-509551-1}}</ref> == Ecologia == Ben que saepe nonconspicue, fungos occure in omne ambientes sur [[Terra]] e exeque multo importante rolos in [[ecosystema]]s. Conjunctemente con bacterios, fungos es le major [[decomponitor]]es in le major parte de terrestre (e alicun aquatic) ecosystemas, e assi exeque un rolo critic in [[cyclos biogeochimic]]<ref name=Gadd2007>{{cite journal |author=Gadd GM. |title=Geomycology: biogeochemical transformations of rocks, minerals, metals and radionuclides by fungi, bioweathering and bioremediation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_fungal-biology_mycological-research_2007-01_111_1/page/3 |journal=Mycological Research |volume=111 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=3–49 |year=2007 |pmid=17307120 |doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2006.12.001}}</ref> e in multe [[retes alimental]]. === Symbiosis === Multe fungos ha importante relationes [[symbiotic]] con organismos ab quasi omne [[Regno (biologia)|regnos]].<ref name=Aanen2006>{{cite journal |author=Aanen DK. |year=2006 |title=As you reap, so shall you sow: coupling of harvesting and inoculating stabilizes the mutualism between termites and fungi |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=209–212 |pmid=17148364 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2005.0424 |pmc=1618886}}</ref><ref name=Nikoh2000>{{cite journal |author=Nikoh N, Fukatsu T. |year=2000 |title=Interkingdom host jumping underground: phylogenetic analysis of entomoparasitic fungi of the genus ''Cordyceps'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2000-04_17_4/page/629 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=629–638 |pmid=10742053}}</ref><ref name=Perotto1997>{{cite journal |author=Perotto S, Bonfante P. |year=1997 |title=Bacterial associations with mycorrhizal fungi: close and distant friends in the rhizosphere |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-microbiology_1997-12_5_12/page/496 |journal=Trends in Microbiology |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=496–501 |pmid=9447662 |doi=10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01154-2}}</ref> Istes interactiones pote esser [[Mutualismo (biologia)|mutual]] o antagonista in character, o, in le caso de fungos [[Commensalismo (biologia)|commensal]], es de no apparente beneficio o detrimento al hospite.<ref name=Paszkowski2006>{{cite journal |author=Paszkowski U. |year=2006 |title=Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses |journal=Current Opinion in Plant Biology |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=364–370 |pmid=16713732 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2006.05.008}}</ref> ==== Con plantas ==== [[Mycorrhiza]]l symbiosis inter [[planta]]s e fungos es un del melio sapite planta–fungo associationes e es de significante importantia pro plantal crescimento e persistentia in multe ecosystemas; de plus de 90% de omne species de plantas ingagia in relationes mycorrhizal con fungos e es dependente sur istes relationes pro superviventia.<ref name=Bonfante2003>{{cite journal |author=Bonfante P. |year=2003 |title=Plants, mycorrhizal fungi and endobacteria: a dialog among cells and genomes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-bulletin_2003-04_204_2/page/215 |journal=[[The Biological Bulletin]] |volume=204 |issue=2|pages=215–220 |pmid=12700157 |doi=10.2307/1543562 |jstor=1543562}}</ref> ==== Con algas e cyanobacterios ==== [[Image:Lobaria pulmonaria 010108a.jpg|thumb|Le lichen ''[[Lobaria pulmonaria]]'', un symbiosis de species fungal, [[alga|algal]], e [[cyanbacterio|cyanobacterial]]]] [[Lichen]]es es formate per un relation symbiotic inter [[alga]]s o [[cyanobacterio]]s (referite a in terminologia lichenic como [[photobionte]]s) e fungos (principalmente varie species de [[ascomyceto]]s e un pauc [[basidiomyceto]]s), in le qual cellulas individual del photobionto es includite in un texito formava per le fungo.<ref name=Brodo2001>{{cite book |title=Lichens of North America |author=Brodo IM, Sharnoff SD. |year=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Connecticut |isbn=0-300-08249-5}}</ref> ==== Con insectos ==== Multe [[insecto]]s anque ingagia in [[Formica-fungo mutualismo|relationes mutual]] con fungos. Plure gruppos de [[formica]]s cultiva fungos in le ordine ''[[Agaricales]]'' como su primari fonte de alimento, e le [[ambrosial coleoptero]] cultiva varie species de fungos in le cortice de arbores que illos infesta.<ref name=Douglas1989>{{cite journal |author=Douglas AE. |title=Mycetocyte symbiosis in insects |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_1989-11_64_4/page/409 |journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=409–434 |year=1989 |pmid=2696562 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.1989.tb00682.x}}</ref> === Pathogenos e parasitos === [[Image:Aecidium magnellanicum.jpg|thumb|Le pathogeno de plantas ''Aecidium magellanicum'' causa [[calafate rusto]], vidite hic super un ''[[Berberis]]'' arbusto in Chile.]] Multe fungos es [[parasito]]s de plantas, animales (includer humanos), e altere fungos. ==Usos human== [[Image:S cerevisiae under DIC microscopy.jpg|thumb|''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' cellulas monstrate con [[Differential interferentia contrasto microscopia|DIC microscopia]]]] Le uso de fungos pro alimental preparation o preservation e altere objectos es extensive con un historia longe. [[Cultivation de champignones|Cultivation]] e [[colligation de champignones]] es industrias grande in multe paises. Perque del capacitate de iste gruppo de producer un enorme selection de [[productos natural]] con [[antimicrobial]] o altere activitates biologic, multe species longe ha essite usate o es in disveloppamento pro industrial [[production de antibiotices]], vitaminas, e anticanceric e cholesterol-reducente pharmacos. === Pharmacos === Multe species produce metabolitos que es fontes major de [[pharmacologia|pharmacologicamente]] active drogas. Particularmente importante es le antibiotices, includer le [[penicillina]]s, un structuralmente-relatite gruppo de [[&beta;-lactam antibiotic]]s que es synthesisate ab parve [[peptido]]s. Ben que naturalmente occurente penicillinas tal como [[penicillina G]] (producite per ''[[Penicillium chrysogenum]]'') ha un limitate spectro de activitate biologic, un grande selection de altere penicillinas pote esser producite per [[Synthesis chimic|modification chimic]] del penicillinas natural. === Alimentos culturate === [[Levatura de pan]] o ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'', un fungo unicellular, es usate de facer [[pan]] e altere frumental basate productos, tal como pasta de [[pizza]] e [[bolletta]]s.<ref name=Kulp2000>{{cite book |title=Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology |author=Kulp K. |year=2000 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=0-8247-8294-1}}</ref> Species levatural del genere ''[[Saccharomyces]]'' es anque usate de produces [[biberage alcoholic|biberages alcoholic]]s (tal como [[vino]] e [[bira]]) per fermentation.<ref name=Piskur2006>{{cite journal |author=Piskur J, Rozpedowska E, Polakova S, Merico A, Compagno C. |year=2006 |title=How did ''Saccharomyces'' evolve to become a good brewer? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-genetics_2006-04_22_4/page/n10 |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=183–186 |pmid=16499989 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2006.02.002}}</ref> Shoyu koji mucor (''[[Aspergillus oryzae]]'') es un essential ingrediente in fabricar [[Shoyu]] ([[sauce de soja]]) e [[sake]], e le preparation de [[miso]],<ref name=Abe2006>{{cite journal |author=Abe K, Gomi K, Hasegawa F, Machida M. |year=2006 |title=Impact of ''Aspergillus oryzae'' genomics on industrial production of metabolites |url=https://archive.org/details/mycopathologia_2006-09_162_3/page/143 |journal=Mycopathologia |volume=162 |issue=3 |pages=143–153 |pmid=16944282 |doi=10.1007/s11046-006-0049-2}}</ref> e ''[[Rhizopus]]'' species es usate de facer [[tempeh]].<ref name=Hachmeister1993>{{cite journal |author=Hachmeister KA, Fung DY. |year=1993 |title=Tempeh: a mold-modified indigenous fermented food made from soybeans and/or cereal grains|url=https://archive.org/details/critical-reviews-in-microbiology_1993_19_3/page/137 |journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=137–188 |pmid=8267862 |doi=10.3109/10408419309113527}}</ref> Alicun de istes fungos es species [[Domestication|domesticate]] que esseva seligite secundo su capacitate de fermentar alimento sin producer mycotoxinas malefic (vide infra), que es producite per presso cognate ''[[Aspergillus flavus|Aspergilli]]''.<ref name=Jorgensen2007>{{cite journal |author=Jørgensen TR. |year=2007 |title=Identification and toxigenic potential of the industrially important fungi, ''Aspergillus oryzae'' and ''Aspergillus sojae'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-food-protection_2007-12_70_12/page/2916 |journal=Journal of Food Protection |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=2916–2934 |pmid=18095455}}</ref> == Mycotoxinas == [[Image:Ergotamine3.png|thumb|306px|[[Ergotamina]], un major mycotoxina producite per ''[[Claviceps]]'' species, que si ingestite pote causar [[gangrena]], convulsiones, e [[hallucination]]es]] Multe fungos produce [[biologic activitate|biologicamente active]] compositos, multe de qual es [[toxina|toxic]] de animales o plantas e assi es appellate [[mycotoxina]]s. ==Vide etiam== * [[Infectiones fungal]] * [[Lichen]] * [[Mycologia]] ==Referentias== <references/> {{Traducite|en|Fungus}} [[Categoria:Fungi| ]] 3jbpdt9e6obt4sf9ker3urazvvsk36a 0 31219 698248 673563 2026-08-03T23:32:58Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698248 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Protistos''' es le gruppo [[paraphylia|paraphyletic]] del [[microorganismo]]s [[eucaryote]] [[Organismo unicellular|unicellular]] que non appartine al [[clado]]s del [[planta]]s, [[animal]]es o [[fungo]]s. Historicamente, protistos esseva tractate como un [[regno (biologia)|regno biologic]] formalmente appellate '''Protista'''. Iste gruppo resta utilisate per conveniantia. Alcun autores extende le notion de Protisto al omne eucaryotes unicellular.<ref name="Brock">{{cite book |last1=Madigan |first1=Michael T. |title=Brock biology of microorganisms |date=2019 |location=NY, NY |isbn=9781292235103 |page=594 |edition=Fifteenth, Global}}</ref> Information molecular ha essite usate de redefinir iste gruppo in moderne [[Taxonomia (biologia)|taxonomia]] como diverse e saepe distantemente cognate [[phylo]]s. Le gruppo de protistos es nunc considerate de significar diverse phylos que non es proximemente cognate per evolution e ha differente [[cyclo vital biologic|cyclos vital]], nivellos [[trophic]], [[motilitate|modos de locomotion]], e structuras cellular.<ref name=Simonite2005>{{cite journal |author=Simonite T |title=Protists push animals aside in rule revamp |journal=Nature |volume=438 |issue=7064 |pages=8–9 |year=2005 |month=November |pmid=16267517 |doi=10.1038/438008b |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-11-03_438_7064/page/n25}}</ref><ref name="isbn1-4051-4157-3">{{cite book |author=Harper, David; Benton, Michael |title=Introduction to Paleobiology and the Fossil Record |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location= |year=2009 |pages=207 |isbn=1-4051-4157-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Ultra su relativemente simple nivellos de organisation, le protistos non ha multo in commun.<ref name="urlSystematics of the Eukaryota">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/eukaryotasy.html |title=Systematics of the Eukaryota |work= |accessdate=2009-05-31}}</ref> Istes es unicellular, o istes es [[Organismo multicellular|multicellular]] sin [[texita (biologia)|texitas]] specialisate, e iste simple organisation cellular distingue le protistos ab altere eucaryotes, tal como [[fungo]]s, [[animal]]es e [[planta]]s. Protistos vive in quasi alicun ambiente que contine aqua liquide. Multe protistos es [[Photosynthese|photosynthetic]] e es vital [[productor primari|productores primari]] in ecosystemas, particularmente in le [[oceano]] como parte del [[plancton]]. Altere protistos, le [[protozoa]]rios, tal como le [[Kinetoplastidio]]s e [[Apicomplexo]]s, es responsibile pro un numero de maladias seriose de humanos, tal como [[malaria]] e [[African trypanosomiasis|maladia dormente]]. ==Disciplina== Le studio de protistos es appellate [[protistologia]].<ref name="Taylor pp. 1707–1714">{{cite journal | last=Taylor | first=F.J.R.M. | title=The collapse of the two-kingdom system, the rise of protistology and the founding of the International Society for Evolutionary Protistology (ISEP) | journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | publisher=Microbiology Society | volume=53 | issue=6 | date=2003-11-01 | issn=1466-5026 | doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02587-0 | pages=1707–1714| pmid=14657097 | doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Historia== Le termino ''protisto'' esseva prime usate per [[Ernst Haeckel]] in 1866. Protistos esseva traditionalmente subdividite a in plure gruppos basate sur similaritates al regnos plus alte: le unicellular "animaloide" [[protozoon]]es, le "plantoide" [[protophyto]]s (in le major parte unicellular [[algas]]) e le "fungoide" [[mucor limose|mucores limose]] e [[mucor aquatic|mucores aquatic]]. Istes subdivisiones traditional, basate grandemente sur communalitates superficial, ha essite reimplaciate per [[Classfication biologic |classificationes]] basate sur [[phylogenetica]] (cognatessa [[evolution]]ari intra organismos). Tamen, plus ancian terminos es usate ancora como nomines nonformal de describer le [[morphologia (biologia)|morphologia]] e [[ecologia]] de protistos varie. ==Evolution== Le prime protistos cognite viveva desde 2.1 [[milliardo]]s de annos in le {{Ill|en|deposito de Moulendé|Francevillian biota}} in [[Gabon]].<ref>[[Abderrazak El Albani|A. El Albani]], K.O. Konhauser, A. Somogyi, J. Ngwalghoubou Ikouanga, A. Lamboux, J. Blichert-Toft, E. Chi-Fru, C. Fontaine, A. Mazurier, A. Riboulleau, A.-C. Pierson-Wickmann, F. Albarède, "A search for life in Palaeoproterozoic marine sediments using Zn isotopes and geochemistry", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, volume 612 (2023) [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118169 DOI:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118169]</ref> ==Classification== ===Supertaxones=== * [[Eucaryote|Eukaryota]] ===Subtaxones=== *'''[[Chromalveolata]]''' ** [[Heterokontophyta]] ** [[Haptophyta]] ** [[Cryptophyta]] ([[cryptomonad]]es) ** '''[[Alveolata]]''' *** [[Dinoflagellata]] *** [[Apicomplexa]] *** [[Ciliophora]] ([[ciliate]]s) * '''[[Excavata]]''' ** [[Euglenozoa]] ** [[Percolozoa]] ** [[Metamonad]]a * '''[[Rhizaria]]''' ** phylo [[Radiolaria]] ** phylo [[Foraminifera]] ** phylo [[Cercozoa]] * '''[[Archaeplastida]] (in parte)''' ** [[Rhodophyta]] (algas rubie) ** [[Glaucophyta]] (basal archaeplastidos) * '''[[Unikonta]] (in parte)''' ** [[Amoebozoa]] ** [[Choanozoa]] ==Vide etiam== * [[Alga]] * [[Microorganismo]] * [[Organismo unicellular]] ==Referentias== <references/> {{traducite|en|Protist}} [[Categoria:Protista| ]] [[Categoria:Taxon obsolete]] [[Categoria:Gruppo paraphyletic]] j73cnzxr1adngtuvgurjnwx5di60bf3 0 31228 698260 672659 2026-08-03T23:48:23Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698260 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox |color = khaki |name = Archeo |fossil_range = [[Paleoarchean]] o forsan [[Eoarchean]] – Recente |image = Halobacteria.jpg |image_width = 200px |image_caption = ''[[Halobacteria]]'' sp. stirpe NRC-1,<br>cata cellula circa 5&nbsp;[[&mu;m]] longe |domain = '''Archaea''' |domain_authority = [[Carl Woese|Woese]], [[Otto Kandler|Kandler]] & [[Mark Wheelis|Wheelis]], 1990 |subdivision_ranks = Regnos e phylos |subdivision = [[Crenarchaeota]]<br /> [[Euryarchaeota]]<br /> [[Korarchaeota]]<br /> [[Nanoarchaeota]]<br /> [[Thaumarchaeota]] }} Le '''archeos''' constitue un [[Dominio (rango taxonomic)|dominio]] (nomine scientific: ''Archaea'') de [[microorganismo]]s [[Organismos unicellular|unicellular]]. Iste microbios ha nulle [[nucleo cellular]] e nulle altere [[organella]]s membrana-ligate intra su cellulas. In le passato, le archeos ha essite classificate con [[bacterio]]s como [[procaryote]]s (o [[Monera]]) e essite appellate '''archeobacterios''', ma iste classification es reguardate como obsolete.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pace NR |title=Time for a change |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-18_441_7091/page/289 |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7091 |page=289 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16710401 |doi=10.1038/441289a|bibcode = 2006Natur.441..289P }}</ref> Actualmente, le archeos ha un independente [[evolution|historia evolutionari]] e monstra multe differentias in su [[biochimia]] ab altere formas vital, e assi illos es nunc classificate como un dominio separate in le [[systema de tres dominios]]. In iste systema, le [[Phylogenetica|phylogeneticamente]] distincte brancas de descendentia evolutionari es le archeos, [[bacterio]]s, e [[eucaryote]]s. Le archeos nunc ha essite dividite plus a in quatro recognoscite [[phylo (rango taxonomic)|phylo]]s; plus phylos pote esser constatate per recerca in le futuro. De istes gruppos, le [[Crenarchaeota]] e le [[Euryarchaeota]] es le plus studiate intensivemente. Classification es ancora difficile, proque le majoritate grande ha nunquam essite studiate in le laboratorio e solmente ha essite detegite per analyse de lor [[acido nucleic|acidos nucleic]] in monstras ab le ambiente. Archeos e bacterios es multo similar in dimension e forma, ben que un pauc archeos ha formas estranie, tal como le cellulas platte e quadrate-formate de ''[[Haloquadratum|Haloquadratum walsbyi]]''. Malgrado iste similaritate visual de bacterios, archeos possede [[gen]]es e plure [[via metabolic|vias metabolic]] que es plus proximemente cognate a istos de eucaryotes, notabilemente le [[enzyma]]s involvite in [[transcription (genetica)|transcription]] e [[traduction (biologia)|traduction]]. Altere aspectos de [[biochimia]] archeal es unic, tal como su dependentia sur [[lipido etheric|lipidos etheric]] in su [[membrana cellullar|membranas cellular]]. Archeos usa un multo plus grande varietate de fontes de energia que eucaryotes: extendente ab familiar [[composito organic|compositos organic]] como [[sucro]]s, a [[ammonia]], [[ion|iones metallic]], o [[hydrogeno|gas hydrogenic]]. [[Sal]]-tolerante archeos (le ''[[Haloarchaea]]'') usa lumine solar como un fonte energic, e altere species de archeos [[fixation del carbon|fixe carbon]]; tamen, dispare [[planta]]s e [[cyanobacterio]]s, nulle species de archeos es sapite de exequer ambe. Archeos [[reproduction asexual|reproduce asexualmente]] per [[fission binari]], [[Fragmentation (reproduction)|fragmentation]], o [[gemmation]]; dispare bacterios e eucaryotes, no specie cogoscite forma [[spora]]s. A prime, archeos esseva vidite como [[extremophile]]s que viveva in ambientes sever, tal como [[fontana calide|fontanas calide]] e [[laco salin|lacos salin]], sed illos ha perque essite trovate in un selection large de [[habitat]]es, includente [[solo]]s, [[oceano]]s, [[palude]]s, e le human [[Colon (anatomia)|colon]] e [[umbilico]].<ref name=Dunn>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Rob|title=After 2 Years Scientists Still Can't Solve Belly Button Mystery, Continue Navel-Gazing|url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2012/11/07/after-two-years-scientists-still-cant-solve-belly-button-mystery-continue-navel-gazing/|work=Guest Blog|publisher=Scientific American|accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref> Archeos es particularmente numerose in le oceanos, e le archeos in [[plancton]] pote esser un del plus abundante gruppos de organismos supra [[Terra]]. Archeos es nunc recognoscite como un major parte de vita del Terra, con rolos e in le [[cyclo carbonic]] e in le [[cyclo nitrogenic]]. Nulle clar exemplos de archeal [[pathogeno]]s o [[parasito]]s es cognoscite, ma illos es saepe [[Mutualismo (biologia)|mutualistas]] o [[commensalismo|commensales]]. Un exemplo es le [[methanogeno]]s que habita le [[intestino human]] e le de [[ruminante]]s, ubi su numeros grande adjuta [[digestion]]. Methanogenos es usate in le production de [[biogas]] e in le [[tractamento de aquas cloacal]], e enzymas ab extremophile archeos que pote indura alte temperaturas e [[solventes organic]] es exploitate in [[biotechnologia]]. ==Phylogenia== Secundo Tom A. Williams ''et al.'', 2017<ref name=WT2017>{{en}} Tom A. Williams ''et al.'', ''Integrative modeling of gene and genome evolution roots the archaeal tree of life'', 2017 {{doi|10.1073/pnas.1618463114}}</ref>, Castelle & Banfield, 2018<ref name=CCBJ2018>{{Cite journal|language=en| author = Castelle, C.J., Banfield, J.F. | title = Major New Microbial Groups Expand Diversity and Alter our Understanding of the Tree of Life | journal = Cell | date = 2018 | pages = 1181-1197 | doi= 10.1016/j.cell.2018.02.016 | url = | volume = 172 | numéro = 6 | pmid = 29522741 }}</ref> (DPANN) et Eva F. Caceres, 2019 (Asgard=Eukaryomorpha)<ref name=Caceres2019/> : {{Clade |style=font-size:80%; line-height:80%|label1=[[Neomura]] |{{Clade | label1=[[DPANN]] | 1={{Clade | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Altiarchaeales]] | 2={{Clade | 1=''[[Diapherotrites]]'' | 2=[[Micrarchaeota]] }} }} | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Aenigmarchaeota]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Nanohaloarchaeota]] | 2={{Clade | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Nanoarchaeota]] | 2=[[Pavarchaeota]] }} | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Mamarchaeota]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Woesarchaeota]] | 2=[[Pacearchaeota]] }} }} }} }} }} }} | 2={{Clade | label1=[[Euryarchaeota]] | 1={{Clade | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Thermococci]] | 2=[[Pyrococcus|Pyrococci]] }} | 2={{Clade | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Methanococci]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Methanobacteria]] | 2=[[Methanopyri]] }} }} | 2={{Clade | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Archaeoglobi]] | 2={{Clade | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Methanocellales]] | 2=[[Methanosarcinales]] }} | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Methanomicrobiales]] | 2=[[Halobacteria]] }} }} }} | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Thermoplasmatales]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Methanomassiliicoccales]] | 2={{Clade | 1=''[[Aciduliprofundum boonei]]'' | 2=''[[Thermoplasma]] volcanium'' }} }} }} }} }} }} | label2=[[Proteoarchaeota]] | 2={{Clade | label1=[[TACK]] | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Korarchaeota]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Crenarchaeota]] | 2={{Clade | 1={{Clade |1=[[Aigarchaeota]]|2=[[Geoarchaeota]]}} | 2={{Clade |1=[[Thaumarchaeota]] |2=[[Bathyarchaeota]]}} }} }} }} | label2=[[Eukaryomorpha]] | 2={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=[[Borrarchaeota]] |2={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=[[Helarchaeota]] |2=[[Lokiarchaeota]] }} |2={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=[[Baldrarchaeota]] |2=[[Odinarchaeota]] }} |2={{Clade |1=[[Hermodarchaeota]] |2=[[Thorarchaeota]] }} }} }} }} |2={{Clade |1=[[Wukongarchaeota]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Hodarchaeota]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Gerdarchaeota]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Kariarchaeota]] |2={{Clade |1=[[Heimdallarchaeota]] |2=[[Idunnarchaeota]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} Se pensa que [[Eucaryote|Eukaryota]] se forma de un archeo con {{Ill|fr|endosymbiose}} de un [[Alphaproteobacteria|α─Proteobacteria]] (devenite su [[mitochondrio]]) ma le position precise del branchamente intra iste duo [[Dominio (rango taxonomic)|dominios]] remane discutate ([[Heimdallarchaeota]]<ref name=Caceres2019>{{Cite journal |language=en |author=Eva F. Caceres |title=Genomic and evolutionary exploration of Asgard archaea |journal=Doctoral thesis, Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Biology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, ORCID iD:0000-0003-2890-2631 |date=2019-10-24 |isbn=978-91-513-0761-9 |url=http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1355107/FULLTEXT01.pdf }}</ref> o ancestre commun<ref name=Brocks2023>{{Cite journal |language=en |author=Liu ''et al.'' |title=Expanding diversity of Asgard archaea and the elusive ancestry of eucaryotes |journal=biorxiv.org |date=2020-10-19 |doi=10.1101/2020.10.19.343400 }}</ref>). ==Vide etiam== * [[Bacterio]] * [[Procaryote]] * [[Microorganismo]] * [[Organismo unicellular]] ==Referentias== <references/> {{traduction|en|Archaea|555450581}} [[Categoria:Archaea| ]] mmecq939kszvva0sszv4wo6ldrfqp4g 0 31252 698281 673560 2026-08-04T00:16:58Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698281 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/biota}} ==Classification== Traditionalmente, le reptiles es un del tres classes de [[Amniota|amniotes]], le alteres es le mammiferos e le aves. Per le medio del 20e seculo, illo deveniva commun de divider le reptiles a in quatro gruppos basate sur lor [[Skull#Temporal fenestrae|aperturas cranial]]. Totevia, como reptiles in le senso traditional es le ancestres de ambe aves e mammiferos, multe taxonomistas ha plus recentemente adoptate un accostamento [[Nomenclatura phylogenetic|cladistic]], preferer de gruppar animales basate exclusivemente sur ancestria commun in loco de characteres commun; iste orientation ha ducite alicun de abandonar reptiles como un unitate systematic o de redefiner le reptiles in un maniera que include aves. ===Supertaxones=== Traditionalmente, '''reptiles''' es membros del [[classe (rango taxinomic)|classe]] '''Reptilia''' comprendente le [[Amniota|amniote]]s que es ni [[Aves|ave]]s ni [[Mammalia|mammifero]]s. Le amniotes es le [[vertebrato]]s con ovos habente un [[amnion]], un duple membrana que permitte le [[embryon]] de respirar effectivemente sur terra. Reptiles vivente, in isto senso, pote esser distinguite ab altere [[Tetrapoda|tetrapodes]] perque illos ha [[ectotherm|sanguine frigide]] e ha [[scute]]s o [[squama (anatomia)|squamas]]. Le prime sapite reptiles originava ante circa 320–310 million annos durante le [[Carbonifero]], e evolveva ab [[Reptiliomorpha|amphibios reptiloide]] avantiate que deviniva accrescemente adaptate de vita super terra sic. Multe gruppos es nunc extincte, includer [[dinosauro]]s, [[pterosauro]]s, e gruppos aquatic tal como le [[ichthyosauro]]s. Reptiles moderne habita omne continentes con le exception de [[Antarctica]]. ===Subtaxones=== * [[Testudines]] ([[tortuca]]s e [[tortuca aquatic|tortucas aquatic]]): circa 330 species * [[Rhynchocephalia]] ([[tuatara]]s de [[Nove Zelanda]]): 2 species * [[Squamata]] ([[lacerta]]s, [[serpente]]s, e [[amphisbaenia|lacertas vermic]]): plus que 9.400 species * [[Crocodilia]] ([[crocodilo]]s, [[Gharial|gaviales]], [[caimaninae|caimanes]], e [[alligator]]es): 25 species Ben que illos ha scutes sur lor pedes e pone ovos, [[ave]]s ha historicamente esseva excludite ab le reptiles. Illos ergo non appara in le lista supra. Tamen, como alicun reptiles es plus proxime cognate al aves que illos es al altere reptiles — pro exemplo, crocodilos es plus proxime al aves que al lacertas — scriptores [[cladistic]] qui prefere un plus unificate gruppo [[Monophylia|monophyletic]] usualmente anque include le aves (plus que 10.000 species).<ref name=GKT88>{{cite book |last=Gauthier |first=J.A. |coauthors=Kluge, A.G.; and Rowe, T. |year=1988 |chapter=The early evolution of the Amniota |title=The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods |volume=1 |editors=Benton, M.J. (ed.) |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0198577052 |pages=103–155}}</ref><ref name=LR95>{{Cite journal|last=Laurin |first=M. |coauthors=and Reisz, R.R. |year=1995 |title=A reevaluation of early amniote phylogeny |journal= Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=113 |issue=2 |pages=165–223 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1995.tb00932.x |url=http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3reisz/pdf/laurin_reisz1995.pdf}}</ref><ref name=MSP99>{{cite journal |last=Modesto |first=S.P. |year=1999 |title=Observations of the structure of the Early Permian reptile ''Stereosternum tumidum'' Cope |journal=Palaeontologia Africana |volume=35 |pages=7–19 }}</ref> (Vide [[Sauropsido]].) Reptiles es vertabratos [[tetrapod]]ic, o con quatro membros o, como serpentes, essente descendite ab ancestres con quatro membros. Dispare [[amphibio]]s, reptiles non ha un stadio larval aquatic. Le major parte de reptiles es [[ovo (biologia)|ovipare]] (ovo-ponente), ben que plure species de squamates e de clados extincte aquatic es [[vivipare]]<ref name=S12>{{cite journal |last=Sander |first=P. Martin. |year=2012 |title=Reproduction in early amniotes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2012-08-17_337_6096/page/806 |journal=Science |volume=337|issue=6096 |pages=806–808 |doi=10.1126/science.1224301}}</ref>&mdash;le feto disveloppata intra le matre, continite in un [[placenta]] in loco de un [[scalia de ovo]]. Como amniotes, le ovos de reptiles es ambite per membranas pro protection e transportation que adapta los a reproduction sur terra sic. Multe del species viviparose nutri lor [[feto]]s per formas varie de placenta analoge a illos de [[mammifero]]s, e alicun reptiles provide attention initial pro lor pullos. Reptiles [[Taxon existente|existente]] extende in grandor ab le multo parve [[gekko]], ''{{Ill|en|Sphaerodactylus ariasae}}'', con un distantia muso-orificio inferior a 18 mm, al [[crocodilo marin]], ''Crocodylus porosus'', que pote attinge 6 metros in longor e pesa plus que 1'000 kg. ==Scientia== Le historicalmente combinate studio de reptiles e amphibios es appellate [[herpetologia]]. ==Vide etiam== * [[Vertebrata]] * [[Tetrapoda]] * [[Amniota]] * [[Sauropsida]] ==Referentias== <references/> {{traducite|en|Reptile}} [[Categoria:Reptilia| ]] dlbp4cxqf0kezry319ljvydodz9agab 0 32059 698239 689550 2026-08-03T23:20:01Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698239 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} [[File:De architectura.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Un edition italian de 1521 de {{lang|la|De architectura}}, traducite e illustrate per [[Cesare Cesariano]]]] [[File:De Architectura027.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Manuscripto de Vitruvio; pergamino datante ab circa 1390]] '''''De architectura''''' ("Re architectura", publicate como '''''Dece Libros super Architectura''''') es un tractato de [[architectura]] scribite per le [[Roma antique|roman]] [[architecto]] e ingeniero militar [[Vitruvio|Marcus Vitruvius Pollio]] e dedicate a su patrono, le imperator [[Cesare Augusto]], como guida pro le projectos de construction. Como le sol tractato de architectura que ha supervivate ab le antiquitate, illo ha essite considerate desde le Renascentia como le prime libro cognite super le theorica architectonic, assi como un fonte major pro le canone del [[architectura classical]]. Illo contine un varietate de informationes re edificios grec e roman, assi como prescriptiones pro le planification e designo de campos militar, citates, e structuras tanto grande (aqueductos, edificios, thermas, portos) como parve (machinas, apparatos de mesuration, instrumentos). Desde que Vitruvio scribeva in le initio del [[Revolution architectonic roman]] que videva le pleno sviluppo del volta cruciate, cupolas, [[beton roman|beton]], e altere innovationes associate con le architectura imperial roman, su dece libros offere pauc information super iste innovationes distinctiv del [[architectura roman|designo e technologia de construction roman]]. Ab referencias a illos in le texto, on sape que il habeva al minus alcun illustrationes in le copias original (forsan octo o dece), ma forsan solmente un de istos superviveva in alcun copia medieval. Iste deficicentia esseva remediate in le editiones imprimite del seculo 16, que deveniva illustrate con multe grandes tabulas. Copias esseva producite durante le [[Renascentia carolingian]], ma illos esseva paucemente usate usque al seculo 15, quando le obra comenciava a devenir de grande interesse e influentia, initialmente in Italia e postea in le resto de Europa. ==Origine e contentos== Probabilemente scribite inter 30–20 a.C., illo combina le cognoscentia e opiniones de multe autores antique, grec e roman, super architectura, le artes, historia natural e technologia de construction. Vitruvio cita multe autoridades per tote le texto, sovente laudante le architectos grec pro lor disveloppamento del construction de templos e del ordines ([[ordine doric|doric]], [[ordine ionic|ionic]] e [[ordine corinthie|corinthie]]), e forni conto essencial del origines del construction in le [[cabana primitive]]. Le autor roman da consilios super le qualificationes de un architecto (Libro I) e super le typos de designos architectonic. Ben que Vitruvio es sovente citate pro su famose “triade” de characteristicas associate con architectura — ''{{lang|la|utilitas, firmitas, venustas}}'' (utilitate, fortia e belleza) — le principios aesthetic que influentiava plus tarde le autores de tractatos esseva delineate in Libro III. Derivate partialmente del [[rhetorica]] latin (per [[Cicerone]] e [[Marco Terentio Varro|Varro]]), le terminos vitruvian pro ordine, disposition, proportion e adaptation al finalitate del obra ha guidate architectos durante seculos, e continua a facer lo. Le dece libros o volumenes es organisate como seque: ''De architectura (''Re architectura'') # [[Planification urban|Planification urban]], [[architectura]] o [[ingenieria civil]] in general, e le qualificationes necessari de un [[architecto]] o un [[ingeniero civil]] # [[Materiales de construction]] # [[Templos roman|Templos]] e le [[ordines de architectura]] (inclue le section super le proportiones del corpore que inspirava le designo de da Vinci) # ''continuation del libro III'' # [[Architectura roman|Edificios civil]] # [[Villa roman|Edificios domestic]] # [[Pavimentos (solamento)|Pavimentos]] e obras decorative in [[plastro]] # Reservas de aqua e [[aqueducto roman|aqueductos]] # Scientias que influe le architectura – [[geometria]], [[mesuration]], [[astronomia]], [[Historia del quadrantes solari|horologio solar]] # Uso e construction de [[machinas]] – [[machinas de assedio roman]], [[molinas de aqua]], machinas de drenage, [[technologia roman]], [[grua (apparato)|gruassas]], [[pneumatica]] Le architectos roman esseva experte in ingenieria, arte e artesania combinate. Vitruvio esseva de iste typo, un facto reflectite in {{lang|la|De architectura}}. Ille tractava un large varietate de subjectos que ille considerava pertinente al architectura. Isto include multe aspectos que pote parer irrelevante a oculos moderne, desde mathematica usque astronomia, meteorologia e medicina. In le conception roman, architectura debeva prender in conto tote le aspectos del vita intellectual e physic del human e de su ambiente. Ergo Vitruvio tracta multe questiones theoretic concernente architectura. Per exemplo, in Libro {{roman|2}} de {{lang|la|De architectura}}, ille consilia le architectos que labora con brick a familiarisar se con le philosophos pre-socratic super le natura del materia pro comprender como lor materiales se comportara. Libro {{roman|9}} relatia le geometria abstracte de [[Plato]] con le labor quotidian del [[topografo (mesuration)|topografo]]. [[Astrologia]] es citate pro su perceptiones del organisation del vita human, durante que [[astronomia]] es necessari pro comprender le [[horologio solar]]. Similemente, Vitruvio cita [[Ctesibio|Ctesibio de Alexandria]] e [[Archimedes]] pro lor invention, [[Aristoxeno]] (disciple de [[Aristoteles]]) pro le musica, [[Agatharco]] pro le theatro, e [[Marco Terentio Varro|Varro]] pro architectura. [[File:Greekhse1.jpg|thumb|Plan de un casa grec secundo Vitruvio]] ===Edificios=== Vitruvio cercava a exprimer le ethica de architectura, declarando que le qualitate depende del pertinentia social del obra del artista, non del forma o artesania del obra mesme. Forsan le citation plus famose de {{lang|la|De architectura}} es ancora citate per architectos: “Ben edification ha tres conditiones: [[firmessa, utilitate e delectation]]”. Iste citation proveni del version de 1624 de Sir [[Henry Wotton]], e rende fidelmente le passage del obra, ma le anglese ha cambiate desde alora, specialmente le parola “commodity”, que pote esser mal comprendite in le presente. In anglese moderne illo significarea: “Le edificio ideal ha tres elementos: illo es solide, utile e belle.” Vitruvio studiava etiam le proportiones human (Libro {{roman|3}}), e iste partes de su [[canon (principio fundamental)|''canones'']] esseva adoptate e adaptate in le famose disegno {{lang|la|Homo Vitruvianus}} ("[[Homo vitruvian]]") per [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. === Architectura domestic === Ben que Vitruvio es abundante in su descriptiones de edificios religiose, infrastructura e machinas, ille da un message mixtura super architectura domestic. Similar a Aristoteles, Vitruvio exprime admiration pro proprietarios que construyeva lor proprie domos sin le intervention de un architecto. Su ambivalentia super le architectura domestic es clarissime in le paragraph initial del Introduction al Libro 6. Libro 6 se concentra exclusivemente super architectura residential, ma como le theorico architectonic Simon Weir ha explicate, in vice de scriber un introduction super le virtutes del residentias o super le familia o super un thema ligate directemente al vita domestic, Vitruvio narra un anecdotta super le principio ethic grec del [[Xenia (grec)|xenia]]: monstrar hospitalitate al estranieros. ==Technologia roman== [[File:ballista.gif|thumb|left|Un [[ballista]] roman]] [[File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg|left|thumb|Le [[Pont du Gard]] [[aqueducto roman]] in le Francia meridional]] {{lang|la|De architectura}} es importante pro su descriptiones de multe differente machinas usate pro structuras de ingenieria, tal como levatores, [[grua (apparato)|gruas]], e [[puleas]], assi como machinas de guerra tal como [[catapulta]]s, [[ballistas]], e [[machinas de assedio]]. Vitruvio describeva etiam le construction de horologios solar e de [[horologio a aqua]], e le uso de un [[aeolipile]] (le prime [[machina a vapor]]) como experimento pro demonstrar le natura del movimento del aere atmospheric (vento). ===Aqueductos e molinas=== Libros {{roman|8}}, {{roman|9}} e {{roman|10}} de {{lang|la|De architectura}} forma le base de multe de lo que es cognoscite hodie super technologia roman, ora augmentate per studios archaeologic del restos supervivente, tal como le [[Pont du Gard]] in le Francia meridional. Numerose tal massive structuras se trova trans le anterior imperio, un testimonio del potentia del [[ingenieria roman]]. Le description de Vitruvio del construction del aqueductos roman es brevi, ma mentiona detalles clave, specialmente concernente como illos esseva mesurate e le selection cautelose del materiales necessari. Su libro haberea essite de assistentia pro [[Frontino]], un general que esseva nominate in le fin del prime seculo p.C. pro administrar le numerose [[aqueductos de Roma]]. Frontino scribeva {{lang|la|[[De aquaeductu]]}}, le tractato definitiv super le aqueductos roman del prime seculo, e ille discoperiva un discrepantia inter le entrada e le fornimento de aqua causate per tubos illegal inserite in le canales pro diverter le aqua. Le Imperio Roman arrivava longe in le exploitation del potentia del aqua, como demonstra le insimul de non minus que 16 [[molinas de aqua]] a [[Barbegal]] in Francia. Le molinas mactava grano in un operation multo efficiente, e multe altere molinas es ora cognoscite, como le multo plus tarde [[Molina de Hierapolis]]. ===Materiales=== Vitruvio describeva multe differente materiales de construction usate pro un large varietate de structuras, assi como detalles tal como le pictura de [[stuc]]. [[Cemento]], [[beton roman|beton]] e [[calce]] recipeva descriptiones detaliate, e le longevitates de multe structuras roman es un testimonio silenciose de lor habilitate in le uso del materiales e del designo. [[File:VitruviusTenBooksMHMorgan1914p295.gif|thumb|right|Designo pro un [[vitis de Archimedes|vitis de Archimedes]]]] Ille consiliava que [[plumbo]] non debe esser usate pro conducer aqua potabile, preferente tubos de argilla. Ille arriveva a iste conclusion in Libro {{roman|8}} de {{lang|la|De architectura}} post observation empiric del apparent maladies del laboratores in le funderias de {{lang|la|plumbum}} (tubos de plumb). Tamen, multe del aqua usate per Roma e multe altere citates esseva multo calcari, e le minerales recoperiva rapidemente le interior del tubos, assi que le [[intoxication per plumb]] esseva reducite. Vitruvio relata tamben le famose historia super [[Archimedes]] e su detection de auro adulterate in un corona regal. Quando Archimedes comprendeva que le volumine del corona poteva esser mesurate exacte per le displaciamento create in un balneo de aqua, ille curriva nude in le strada con le grito “[[Eureka (parola)|Eureka]]!”, e le descubrimento permitteva de comparar le densitate del corona con auro pur. Ille monstrava que le corona habeva essite alligite con argento, e le rege esseva fraudate. ===Machinas de extraher aqua=== [[File:Archscrew2.jpg|left|thumb|Rota de drenage del minas de Rio Tinto]] [[File:WaterwheelsSp.jpg|right|thumb|Sequencia de rotas de drenage trovate in [[Rio Tinto (fluvio)|Rio Tinto]]]] Vitruvio describeva le construction del [[vitis de Archimedes]] in Capitulo 10, ben que ille non mentiona Archimedes per nomine. Illo esseva un dispositivo multo usate pro elevar aqua pro irrigar campos e extraer aqua de minas. Alteres machinas de elevation mentionate in {{lang|la|De architectura}} includeva le catena sin fin de situlas e le [[rota hydraulic inverse]]. Restos del rotas de aqua usate pro elevar aqua ha essite discoperite in vetule minas tal como illas de [[Rio Tinto (fluvio)|Rio Tinto]] in Hispania e [[Dolaucothi]] in Galles occidental. Un del rotas de Rio Tinto es ora in le [[Museo Britannic]], e un del rotas gallese es in le [[Museo National de Galles]]. Le restos esseva discoperite quando iste minas esseva reaperte in tentativas moderne de extraction. Illos esseva usate in un sequencia vertical, con 16 tal molinas capace de elevar aqua al minus {{convert|96|ft|abbr=out}} supra le tabula aquifer. Cata rota habeva un miner que pedalava le dispositivo al summitate, usante tacche super le margine externe. Le uso de tal dispositivos in minas implica clarmente que illos era completemente capace de usar los etiam como [[rotas de aqua]] pro disveloppar potentia pro multe activitates, non sol pro moler grano, ma etiam probabilemente pro scinder ligno, franger mineralia, [[fullonica|fullar]], e assi via. ===Pompa de fortia=== [[Ctesibius]] es creditate como le inventore del [[pompa de fortia]], que Vitruvio describeva como essente construite in [[bronze]] con valvulas pro permetter le formation de un capite de aqua super le machina. Le dispositivo es etiam describe per [[Hero de Alexandria]] in su {{lang|la|Pneumatica}}. Le machina es operate a mano per mover un leve super e infra. Ille mencionava su uso pro fornecer fontes super un reservoir, quamvis un uso plus mundane poteva esser como un simplici machina de incendio. Un esseva trovate a [[Calleva Atrebatum]] ([[Silchester Romano]]) in Anglia, e un altere es in exposition al [[Museo Britannico]]. Lor functiones non es describe, ma ambes es facite in bronze, sicut Vitruvio specificava. Vitruvio etiam mencionava le plurales [[automaton]] inventate per [[Ctesibio]], destinate al delectamento e al placer in loco de servir un function utile. ===Calefaction central=== [[File:Hypocaustum.jpg|thumb|right|Ruinas del hypocausto sub le pavimento de un villa roman: Le parte sub le {{lang|la|[[exedra]]}} es coperite.]] Vitruvio describeva le multe innovationes facite in le designo de edificios pro meliorar le conditiones de vita del habitantes. Le plus importante inter illas es le disveloppamento del [[hypocaustum|hypocausto]], un tipo de [[calefaction central|calefaction central]] ubi aer calide generate per un foco esseva ducte sub le pavimento e intra le parietes de [[thermae|thermas public]] e [[villa|villas]]. Ille dava instructiones explicite super como designar tal edificios pro maximisar le [[efficentia de combustible|efficentia del combustible]]; per exemplo, le {{lang|la|[[caldarium]]}} es proxime al {{lang|la|[[tepidarium]]}} sequite per le {{lang|la|[[frigidarium]]}}. Ille tamben consiliava usar un tipo de regulatore pro controlar le calor in le salas calide, un disco de bronze installate in le techo sub un apertura circular, que poteva esser levate o abassate per un puleio pro ajustar le ventilation. Ben que ille mesme non suggeriva isto, su apparatos de drainage, tal como le [[rota de aqua inversa|reverse overshot water-wheel]], probabilmente esseva usate in le thermas plus grande pro levar aqua a reservoirs al summo del {{lang|la|thermae}} plus grande, tal como le [[Thermae de Diocletian]] e le [[Thermae de Caracalla]]. ===Instrumentos de mensura=== Que Vitruvio debeva esser ben practicate in mensura es monstrate per su description de instrumentos de mensura, specialmente le nivel de aqua o {{lang|la|[[chorobates]]}}, que ille comparava favorablemente con le {{lang|la|[[groma surveying|groma]]}}, un instrumento que usa [[plumb line|filo a plombo]]. Illos esseva essential in tote operationes de construction, ma specialmente in le construction de aqueductos, ubi un gradient uniform esseva importante pro provisionar un approvisionamento regular de aqua sin damnos al parietes del canal. Ille describeva le {{lang|la|[[Surveyor's wheel|hodometro]]}}, in essencia un instrumento pro mesurar automaticamente distancias super vias, un machina essential pro elaborar itinerarios precise, tal como le [[Tabula Peutinger]]. ===Mutation del nivo del mar=== In Libro {{roman|4}} Capitulo 1 Subsection 4 del {{lang|la|De architectura}} existe un description de 13 [[Athenian|civitas athenienses]] in [[Asia Minor|Asia Minore]], "le terra de [[Caria]]", in le odierna Turquia. Iste civitates es: [[Ephesus|Efeso]], [[Miletus|Mileto]], [[Myus]], [[Priene]], [[Samos]], [[Teos]], [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]], [[Chius]], [[Erythrae]], [[Phocaea]], [[Clazomenae]], [[Lebedos]], [[Mytilene]], e postea un 14me, [[Smyrna]]eans. Myus, le tertie civitate, es describe como "lange ante engulfate per le aqua, e su ritos sacre e suffragio". Iste phrase indica que, al tempore del scribentia de Vitruvio, era cognoscite que mutation del nivo del mar e/ab subsidencia del terra occurreva. Le disposition de iste civitates es in general ab sud a nord, tal que appare que ubi Myus debeva esser locate es interior terra. Si isto es le caso, desde le scribentia de {{lang|la|De architectura}}, le regione ha experimentate o [[rebounding del solo|rebound del solo]] o un caduta del nivo del mar. Ben que isto non indica un cambio precise del nivel del mar, o speculation super isto, durante le imperio tarde multe portos romanes sufferiva de quel que scribitores contemporanee describeva como 'silting'. Le necessitate constante de dragar le portos deveniva un grave onere pro le fisc, e alcunos speculate que iste expensa contribueva significativamente al eventual collapsamento del imperio. Le officinas de sal roman in [[Essex]], Anglia, hodie es locate al contour de cinque metros, implicante que isto esseva le linea costal.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gilman, Paul |title="Securing a Future for Essex's Past" Heritage Conservation Planning Division, Essex County Council England|publisher=Esri.com|url=http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/1099/essex.html|access-date=2008-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilkinson | first1 = T. J. | last2 = Murphy | first2 = P | title = Archaeological Survey of an Intertidal Zone: The Submerged Landscape of the Essex Coast, England | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-field-archaeology_summer-1986_13_2/page/177 | journal = Journal of Field Archaeology | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 177–194 | publisher = Boston University | date = Summer 1986 | jstor = 530219 | doi=10.1179/009346986791535735}}</ref> Iste observationes indica solmente le extent del silting e del rebound del solo que afficte le mutation del linea costal desde le scribentia de {{lang|la|De architectura}}. ==Superviventia e redescoperte== ===Manuscriptos=== Le opera de Vitruvio es un del multe exemplos de textos latine que debe lor superviventia al palatio {{lang|la|[[scriptorium]]}} de [[Carlo Magno]] in le initio del 9me seculo. Iste activitate de trovar e recopiar manuscriptos classic es parte de lo que on appelva le [[Renascimento Carolingian]]. Le [[Vitruvio de Londra]] ([[Bibliotheca Britannica, Harley]] 2767), le manuscripto plus vetule que ha supervivite, include solmente un del illustrationes originale, un [[rosa del vento]] octogonal esquisse de maniera abbastanza rudimentale in le margine. Iste esseva scribite in Germania circa 800–825, probabilmente al abbatia de [[San Pantaleone, Colonia]], e ha essite demonstrate como un del manuscripto plus importante pro le ulteriore transmission del texto.<ref>[https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8557 Detailed record for Harley 2767] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106065013/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8557 |date=2018-11-06 }}, [[Bibliotheca Britannica]]; le diagramma es figura 3:1 a p.47 in [[Andrew Wallace-Hadrill|Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew]] in ''Roma e le Citate Colonial: Repensar le Grille'', 2022, editores Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Sofia Greaves, Oxbow Books, {{ISBN|9781789257823}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PtBkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 google books]</ref> Iste textos non esseva solmente copiate, ma etiam cognoscite al corte de Carlo Magno, pois su historico, le episcopo [[Einhard]], petiva al ecclesiastic inglese [[Alcuino]] explicaciones super alcun terminos technic. Adicionalmente, un numero de personas es cognoscite haber legite le texto o haber essite indirectemente influence de illo, includente: [[Vussin]], [[Hrabanus Maurus]], [[Hermann de Reichenau]], [[Hugo de Sancto Victor]], [[Gervasio de Melkley]], [[Guilielmo de Malmesbury]], [[Theodoric de Sint-Truiden]], [[Petrus Diaconus]], [[Albertus Magnus]], [[Filippo Villani]], [[Jean de Montreuil]], [[Petrarca]], [[Boccaccio]], [[Giovanni de Dondi]], [[Domenico Bandini]], [[Niccolò Acciaioli]] qui legava un copia al [[Basilica de San Lorenzo, Florentia]], [[Bernward de Hildesheim]], e [[Thomas Aquinas]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Krinsky | first1 = Carol Herselle | title = Septuaginta-octo Manuscriptos de Vitruvio | journal = Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes | volume = 30 | pages = 36–70 | publisher = Le Instituto Warburg | year = 1967 | doi = 10.2307/750736 | jstor = 750736| s2cid = 195019013 }}</ref> In 1244 le fratre Dominican [[Vincent de Beauvais]] faceva un grande numero de referencias a {{lang|la|De architectura}} in su compendium de tote le cognoscentia del Medievo {{lang|la|[[Speculum Maius]]}}. Multes copias de {{lang|la|De architectura}}, datante del 8me al 15me seculo, realmente existette in forma de manuscripto durante le [[Medievo]] e 92 ancora es disponibile in collectiones public, ma illes pare haber recipite poc attention, possibilmente pro le obsolescentia de multe terminos specialisate latine usate per Vitruvio {{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} e le perte de la major parte del 10 illustrationes original que alcunos credeva esser utile pro comprender partes del texto. [[File:De Architectura030.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Homo Vitruvianus]]'', illustratio in le edition de {{lang|la|De architectura}} per Vitruvio; edition illustrate per Cesare Cesariano (1521)]] Le opera de Vitruvio esseva "redescoperite" in 1416 per le [[Florentia|florentin]] [[Humanismo|humanista]] [[Poggio Bracciolini]], qui la trovava in le [[Bibliotheca Abbatial de Sancto Gallo]], [[Suisse]]. Ille publicava le manuscripto a un audientia receptive de pensatores del [[Renascimento]], juste durante le interesse in le patrimonio cultural e scientifico classic se reviviva. ===Editiones impressite=== Le prime edition impressite ({{lang|la|editio princeps}}), un version {{lang|la|[[incunabulum]]}}, esseva publicate per le scholar [[Verona|veronese]] [[Fra Giovanni Sulpitius]] in 1486 (con un secunde edition in 1495 o 1496), ma nulle esseva illustrate. Le [[fratre Dominican]] [[Fra Giovanni Giocondo]] produceva le prime version illustrate con [[xylographia|incisiones in ligno]] in [[Venetia]] in 1511. Illa habeva un approccio philosophic complete e illustrationes excellent.{{cn|date=October 2020}} Le traductiones in italiano circulava ja in le 1520s, le prime in impression essente le traduction con nove illustrationes per [[Cesare Cesariano]], un amico milanese del architecto [[Bramante]], publicate in [[Como]] in 1521. Illa esseva rapidemente traducite in altere linguas europese{{spaced ndash}}le prime version francese esseva publicate in 1547{{spaced ndash}}e le prime version germane sequiva in 1548. Le prime traduction espaniol esseva publicate in 1582 per Miguel de Urrea e Juan Gracian. Le edition plus autoritative e influente esseva publicate in francese in 1673 per [[Claude Perrault]], commissionate per [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]] in 1664. [[John Shute (architect)|John Shute]] habeva usate le texto ja in 1563 pro su libro ''Le Prime e Principal Fundamentos del Architectura''. Le opera de Sir [[Henry Wotton]] de 1624 ''Le Elementos del Architectura'' es un adaptation fortemente influence, durante que un traduction de 1692 esseva multo abbreviate. Le parlatores anglese debeva esperar usque 1771 pro un traduction complete del prime cinque volumenes e 1791 pro tote le obra. Grazie al arte de impression, le opera de Vitruvio deveniva un subjecto popular de [[hermeneutica]], con illustrationes altamente detaliate e interpretative, e deveniva ampliamente disperse. Inter le multe editiones posterior, le 1914 ''Decem Libros de Architectura'' traducite per [[Morris H. Morgan]], Ph.D, LL.D. Tardive Professor de Philologia Classica in [[Universitate Harvard]], es completamente disponibile a ''[[Project Gutenberg]]'' e in le Internet Archive.<ref name="Vitruvius">{{cite book |last1=Vitruvius |first1=Pollio |title=Le Decem Libros de Architectura |date=1914 |translator-last=Morgan |translator-first=Morris Hicky |others=Illustrationes prepare per Herbert Langford Warren |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge |url=https://archive.org/details/vitruviustenbook00vitr_0}}</ref> ==Impacto== [[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|''[[Homo Vitruvianus]]'', Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1485–1490)]] Le redescoperte del opera de Vitruvio habeva un profunde influentia super le architectos del [[Renascimento]], impulsante le renascentia del architectura Classic in le seculos subsequente. Architectos del Renascimento, tal como [[Niccoli]], [[Filippo Brunelleschi|Brunelleschi]] e [[Leon Battista Alberti]], trovava in {{lang|la|De architectura}} lor ration pro elevar lor ramo de cognoscentia a un [[disciplina scientifica]] e al mesme tempore emphasizante le habilitates del [[artesano]]. Un del disegnos plus cognoscite de [[Leonardo da Vinci]], le ''[[Homo Vitruvianus]]'', se basa super le principes de [[proportiones del corpore]] developpate per Vitruvio in le prime capitulo del Libro III, ''Super Symmetria: In Templos e in le Corpore Humano''. Le architecto anglese [[Inigo Jones]] e le francese [[Salomon de Caus]] esseva inter le prime a re-evaluar e implementar ille disciplinas que Vitruvio considerava un elemento necessari de architectura: artes e [[scientia]] basate super numero e [[proportio (architectura)|proportione]]. Le architecto del 16me seculo [[Palladio]] considerava Vitruvio como su magistro e guida, e faceva alcun disegnos basate sur su opera ante de conceper su proprie preceptos architectural. ===Astrolabio=== [[File:1 Fragment écliptique.png|thumb|Fragmento de un [[horologio anaphoric]] trovate in Salzburg e correspondiente al description de Vitruvio]] Le prime evidentia de uso del [[projection stereographic]] in un machina se trova in {{lang|la|De architectura}}, que describe un [[horologio anaphoric]] (se presume, un {{lang|grc|clepsydra}} o [[horologio de aqua]]) in Alexandria. Le horologio habeva un campo rotative de stellas retro un schematismo de filamentos indicante le horas del die. Le schematismo de filamentos (le arane) e le position de stellas esseva constructe usando le projection stereographic. Constructiones simile datante del 1me al 3me seculo ha essite trovate in Salzburg e le nord-este de Francia, ergo tal mechanismos esseva, se presume, {{by whom|date=October 2020}} bastante diffuse inter le Romanos.{{cn|date=October 2020}} ==Bibliographia== * [[Giovanni Giocondo]] (1511). ''M. Vitruvii Pollionis De architectura libri decem''. Venentia. * [[Cesare Cesariano]] (1521). ''Di Lucio Vitruvio Pollione de architectura libri dece''. Como. * [[Daniele Barbaro]] & [[Andrea Palladio]] (1556). ''I diece libri dell’architettura di M. Vitruvio''. Venentia. * Morris Hicky Morgan (1914). ''Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture''. Harvard University Press. {{Referentias}} ==Ligamines externe== * [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html Texto in latino] {{DEFAULTSORT:De Architectura}} [[Categoria:Architectura roman]] [[Categoria:Vitruvio]] [[Categoria:Libros del seculo 1 a.C.]] [[Categoria:Tractatos]] [[Categoria:Libros]] [[Categoria:Litteratura roman]] [[Categoria:Architectura]] 9cy7p91t6jmghjmfouxhtcagsu1vskh 0 32793 698240 587074 2026-08-03T23:21:36Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698240 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Lokiarchaeota''' o '''lokiarcheotes''' es un [[phylo (rango taxinomic)|phylo]] proponite del [[archeo]]s. Illo esseva introducite in 2015 post le identification de un [[genoma]] candidate in un analyse [[metagenomica|metagenomic]] de un mostra de sedimento oceanic. Isto suggere le existentia de un [[genere (rango taxinomic)|genere]] de vita unicellular appellate '''''Lokiarchaeum'''''. Le mostra esseva colligite proximo a un [[fonte hydrothermal]] in un sito cognoscite como [[Castello de Loki]] in le [[Dorsal de Gakkel]] in le [[Oceano Atlantic]].<ref name="SpangSaw2015">{{cite journal |last1=Spang |first1=Anja |last2=Saw |first2=Jimmy H. |last3=Jørgensen |first3=Steffen L. |last4=Zaremba-Niedzwiedzka |first4=Katarzyna |last5=Martijn |first5=Joran |last6=Lind |first6=Anders E.|last7=van Eijk |first7=Roel|last8=Schleper|first8=Christa|last9=Guy|first9=Lionel|last10=Ettema|first10=Thijs J. G.|title=Complex archaea that bridge the gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes |journal=Nature|year=2015|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/nature14447}}</ref> Su significantia deriva de un analyse [[phylogenetic]] que monstrava un gruppo [[monophyletic]] composite de lokiarcheotes e [[eucaryote]]s, e del presentia de plure [[gen]]es con functiones relationate al [[membrana cellular]], appoiante le [[hypothese del eocyto]] o del hospite [[archeo]] pro le emergentia del eucaryotes. ==Discoperta== Monstras sedimentari esseva colligite in 2010 in le [[fossa tectonic]] del cresta Knipovich in le Oceano Mesoatlantic Arctic, proximo al sito del fonte hydrothermal Castello de Loki. Horizontes sedimentari specific, que previemente se monstrava continer un abundantia de nove lineages de archeos<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jørgensen|first1=Steffen Leth|last2=Hannisdal|first2=Bjarte|last3=Lanzen|first3=Anders|last4=Baumberger|first4=Tamara|last5=Flesland|first5=Kristin|last6=Fonseca|first6=Rita|last7=Øvreås|first7=Lise|last8=Steen|first8=Ida H|last9=Thorseth|first9=Ingunn H|last10=Pedersen|first10=Rolf B|last11=Schleper|first11=Christa|title=Correlating microbial community profiles with geochemical data in highly stratified sediments from the Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge|journal=PNAS|date=September 5, 2012|volume=109|issue=42|page=E2846–E2855|doi=10.1073/pnas.1207574109|url=http:www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1207574109}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jørgensen|first1=Steffen Leth|last2=Thorseth|first2=Ingunn H|last3=Pedersen|first3=Rolf B|last4=Baumberger|first4=Tamara|last5=Schleper|first5=Christa|title=Quantitative and phylogenetic study of the Deep Sea Archaeal Group in sediments of the Arctic mid-ocean spreading ridge|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|date=October 4, 2013|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2013.00299|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2013.00299}}</ref> esseva submittite a un analyse metagenomic. Debite al basse densitate de cellulas in le sedimento, le sequentia genetic resultante non veni de un cellula individual, como esserea le caso in un analyse conventional, mais in vice es un combination de fragmentos genetic.<ref name=BBC /> Le resultato es un genoma composite 92% complete, 1.4 vices redundante, etiquettate ''Lokiarchaeum''.<ref name="SpangSaw2015" /> Le analyse metagenomic determinava le presentia del genoma de un organismo in le mostra. Totevia, le organismo mesme non ha essite identificate o submittite a cultura.<ref name="SpangSaw2015"/> Le phylo Lokiarchaeota esseva proponite con base in analyses [[phylogenetic]] usante un collection de genes codificator de [[proteina]]<nowiki/>s altemente conservate.<ref name="SpangSaw2015" /> Per referentia al complexo de fontes hydrothermal del qual le prime genoma se originava, le nomine appropriatemente remonta a [[Loki]], le deo metamorphe nordic.<ref name=BBC /> Le Loki del litteratura ha essite describite como “un figura disconcertantemente complexe, confuse e ambivalente qui ha essite le catalysator de incontabile controversias academic non resolvite”<ref>{{cite journal|last1=von Schnurbein |first1=Stefanie |title=The Function of Loki in Snorri Sturluson's "Edda" |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-religions_2000-11_40_2/page/109 |journal=History of Religions |date=November 2000|volume=40|issue=2|pages=109–124}}</ref> in analogia con le debattos currente super le origine del eucaryotes. ==Description== Le genoma composite del ''Lokiarchaeum'' consiste de 5.381 [[gen]]es codificatores de proteinas. De istes, circa 32% non corresponde a alcun proteina cognite, 26% resimila multo proteinas del archeos, e 29% corresponde a proteinas bacterial. Isto es coherente con (i) le facto que proteinas de nove phylos con pauc o necun parentes proxime es difficile de attribuer al [[dominio (rango taxinomic)|dominio]] correcte, e (ii) recercas anterior que suggere un [[transferentia genetic]] significative inter dominios (bacterios e archeos). Un micre mais significative portion del proteinas (175, o 3,3%) es plus similar a proteinas eucaryotic. Un numero de factores excludeva le contamination del monstra como un explication pro le proteinas inusual, includente: le genes sempre esseva flancate per genes procaryotic; necun gen de origine eucaryotic cognoscite esseva detectate in le metagenoma del qual le genoma composite esseva extrahite; e un analyse phylogenetic previe suggereva que le genes in question habeva lor origine in le base del [[clado]]s eucaryotic.<ref name="SpangSaw2015"/> In eucaryotes, le function de iste proteinas commun include: deformation del [[membrana cellular]], formation del forma del cellula, e un [[cytoskeleto]] proteic dynamic.<ref name="SpangSaw2015"/><ref name=LAT>{{Cite news|title=Meet Loki, your closest-known prokaryote relative| first = Amina | last = Khan|date=May 6, 2015|url=http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-eukaryote-prokaryote-archaea-bacteria-evolution-20150506-story.html|accessdate=May 9, 2015|work=[[LA Times]]}}</ref> Un altere proteina commun, le [[actina]], es essential pro le [[phagocytosis]] in eucaryotes.<ref name=BBC /> Le phagocytosis es le capacitate de inglutir e consumer un altere particula. Iste capacitate es necessari pro le [[theoria endosymbiotic|origine endosymbiotic]] del [[mitochondrio]]s, que es un del differentias essential inter procaryotes e eucaryotes, e [[chloroplasto]]s.<ref name=BBC /><ref name=LAT /> Consequentemente se suggere que le ''Lokiarchaeum'' pote haber alcun de iste capacitates.<ref name="SpangSaw2015"/> ==Significantia evolutionari== Un analyse comparative del genoma del ''Lokiarchaeum'' contra genomas cognoscite resultava in un [[arbore phylogenetic]] que monstra un gruppo [[monophyletic]] composite del lokiarcheotes e le eucaryotes, appoiante le [[hypothese del eocyto]] o del hospite [[archeo]] pro le emergentia del eucaryotes.<ref name="EmbleyMartin2006">{{cite journal|last1=Embley|first1=T. Martin|last2=Martin|first2=William|title=Eukaryotic evolution, changes and challenges|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-03-30_440_7084/page/623|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=440 |issue=7084 |year=2006 |pages=623–630 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/nature04546}}</ref><ref name="Lake1988">{{cite journal|last1=Lake|first1=James A.|title=Origin of the eukaryotic nucleus determined by rate-invariant analysis of rRNA sequences|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1988-01-14_331_6152/page/184|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=331 |issue=6152 |year=1988 |pages=184–186 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/331184a0}}</ref><ref name="GuyEttema2011">{{cite journal |last1=Guy |first1=Lionel |last2=Ettema |first2=Thijs J.G. |title=The archaeal 'TACK' superphylum and the origin of eukaryotes |journal=[[Trends in Microbiology]] |volume=19 |issue=12|year=2011 |pages=580–587 |issn=0966842X |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2011.09.002}}</ref> Le repertoire de functiones relationate al membrana del ''Lokiarchaeum'' suggere que le [[ancestre commun]] del eucaryotes poterea esser un passo intermediari inter le cellulas procaryotic, disproviste de structuras subcellular, e le cellulas eucaryotic, que alberga multe [[organellas]].<ref name="SpangSaw2015"/> Le [[systema de tres dominios]] de [[Carl Woese]] classifica le vita cellular in tres dominios: archeos, bacterios e eucaryotes; le ultime del quales es characterisate per cellulas grande, altemente evolvite, continente mitochondrios que adjuta le cellulas a producer ATP ([[triphosphato de adenosina]], le numerario energetic del cellula), e un [[nucleo (cellula)|nucleo]] inveloppate per membrana continente [[acido nucleic|acidos nucleic]]. Le [[protozoa]] e tote le organismos multicellular tal como le animales, le fungos, e le plantas es eucaryotes. Le bacterios e archeos es considerate le plus antique del lineages,<ref name=Wang>{{cite journal | last1 = Wang | first1 = Minglei | last2 = Yafremava | first2 = Liudmila S. | last3 = Caetano-Anollés | first3 = Derek | last4 = Mittenthal | first4 = Jay E. | last5 = Caetano-Anollés | first5 = Gustavo |title=Reductive evolution of architectural repertoires in proteomes and the birth of the tripartite world |journal=[[Genome Research]] |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1572–1585 |year=2007 |pmid=17908824 |doi=10.1101/gr.6454307 |pmc=2045140 }}</ref> proque stratos fossile portante le signatura chimic de [[lipido]]s archeal ha essite datate in 3,8 milliardos de annos retro.<ref name="Hahn et al 1986">{{cite journal |last=Hahn |first=Jürgen |first2 = Pat | last2 = Haug |year=1986 |title=Traces of Archaebacteria in ancient sediments |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=7 |issue=Archaebacteria '85 Proceedings |pages=178–83 |doi=10.1016/S0723-2020(86)80002-9}}</ref> Le eucaryotes include tote le cellulas complexe e quasi tote le organismos multicellular. Uno considera que illes ha evolvite inter 1,6 e 2,1 milliardos de annos retro.<ref name="Knoll et al 2006">{{cite journal |first1= Andrew H. |last1= Knoll |last2 = Javaux | first2 = E. J. | last3 = Hewitt | first3 = D. | last4 = Cohen | first4 = P. |title= Eukaryotic organisms in Proterozoic oceans |journal= [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] | date = 29 June 2006 |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=1023–38 |pmc=1578724 |doi= 10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 |pmid= 16754612}}</ref> Ben que que le evolution del eucaryotes es considerate un evento de grande significantia evolutionari, necun forma intermediari o "[[anello mancante]]" habeva essite discoperite previemente. In iste contexto, le discoperta del ''Lokiarchaeum'', con alcunes, mais non tote le characteristicas del eucaryotes, forni evidentia pro le transition de archeos a eucaryotes.<ref name="Zimmer06May15">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/science/under-the-sea-a-missing-link-in-the-evolution-of-complex-cells.html |title=Under the Sea, a Missing Link in the Evolution of Complex Cells | last = Zimmer | first = Carl |date=6 May 2015 | website=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=8 May 2015}}</ref> Le recercatores qui discoperiva le lokiarcheotes lancea le hypothese que le lokiarcheotes e le eucaryotes divide un ancestre commun, e divergeva circa duo milliardos de annos retro. Iste ancestre theoric possedeva genes "initiatores" crucial que faceva possibile un augmento de complexitate cellular que conduceva in fin al creation del eucaryotes. Le equipa cerca organismos similar in areas plus accessibile tal como [[fonte thermal|fontes thermal]]<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|title=Newly found microbe is close relative of complex life|first=Paul |last=Rincon|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=May 6, 2015|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-32610177|accessdate=May 9, 2015}}</ref> ==Referentias== <references/> {{traduction|en|Lokiarchaeota|661991402}} [[Categoria:Archaea]] 46d33hj0nhtf255jcf8budxcqezb2t1 0 32794 698185 663694 2026-08-03T21:50:50Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 4 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698185 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} Un '''fossile transitional''' o '''fossile de transition''' es qualcunque restos [[fossile|fossilisate]] de un forma de vita que exhibi tractos commun a un gruppo ancestral e a un gruppo descendente derivate de illo.<ref name=Herron>{{cite book|last=Herron|first=Scott Freeman, Jon C.|title=Evolutionary analysis|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Education|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn=978-0-13-101859-4|page=816|edition=3rd}}</ref> Isto es specialmente importante ubi le gruppo descendente es acutemente differentiate del gruppo ancestral per anatomia brute e modo de vita. Iste fossiles servi como un rememorativo que le divisiones taxonomic es constructos human que ha essite imponite retrospectivemente super un continuo de variation. A causa del incompletitude del [[registro fossile]], usualmente non existe maniera de saper exactemente quanto proxime un fossile transitional es al puncto de divergentia. Consequentemente, nos non pote assumer que fossiles transitional es ancestres directe de gruppos plus recente, ben que illos frequentemente es usate como modellos pro tal ancestres. In 1859, quando ''[[Le origine del species]]'' esseva publicate per [[Charles Darwin]], le registro fossile esseva mal cognoscite. Darwin describeva le manco percipite de fossiles transitional como “…le plus obvie e grave objection que pote esser instate contra mi theoria”, mais lo explicava per relationar lo al extreme imperfection del registro geologic.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp = [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=297 279–280]}}</ref> Ille notava que le collectiones disponibile in ille epocha esseva limitate, mais equalmente que le information disponibile monstrava patronos decurrente de su theoria de [[evolution|descendentia con modification]] per via de [[selection natural]].<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp = [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=359 341–343]}}</ref> De facto, le ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' esseva discoperite solo duo annos postea, in 1861, e representa un forma transitional classic inter dinosauros e aves. [[Lista de fossiles transitional|Multe altere fossiles transitional]] ha essite discoperite desde ille epocha, e in le presente il ha evidentia abundante de como tote le [[Classe (biologia)|classes]] de [[vertebrato]]s es relationate, multe de illo in le forma de fossiles transitional.<ref name = "NS2645">{{Cite journal|work = [[New Scientist]]|date = 27 February 2008|issue = 2645|pages = 35–40|url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19726451.700-evolution-what-missing-link.html?full=true|title = Evolution: What missing link?|first = D|last = Prothero|ref = harv}}</ref> Exemplos specific include le [[Homo sapiens|humano]]s e altere [[primate]]s, [[Tetrapoda|tetrapodes]] e [[pisce]]s, e [[ave]]s e [[dinosauro]]s. Le locution "anello mancante" ha essite extensivemente usate in scriptos popular super le evolution human pro facer referentia a un lacuna percipite in le registro evolutionari hominide. Illo es multo commumente usate pro facer referentia a qualcunque discoperta de nove fossiles transitional. Le scientistas, totevia, non usa le termino, proque illo se refere a un vision preevolutionari del natura. ==Taxonomia evolutionari e phylogenetic== ===Transitiones in le nomenclatura phylogenetic=== [[File:Spindle diagram.jpg|thumb|left|Diagramma de fuso traditional monstrante le classes de vertebratos "gemmante" le unes del alteres. Fossiles transitional typicamente representa animales de proximo al punctos de ramification]] In [[taxonomia evolutionari]], le forma prevalente de [[Taxonomia (biologia)|taxonomia]] durante grande parte del seculo XX e ancora usate in libros de texto non specialisate, le [[taxa]] basate super similaritate morphologic frequentemente es designate como "bullas" o "fusos" ramificante le unes del alteres, formante arbores evolutionari.<ref>Per exemplo, vide Benton, ''[[Vertebrate Palaeontology (Benton)|Vertebrate Palaeontology]]'', 2de edition, 1997</ref> Le formas transitional es viste como cadente inter le varie gruppos in terminos de anatomia, habente un mixtura de characteristicas de intra e extra le clado novemente ramificate.{{sfn|Prothero|2007|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=QeKWpRX77JgC&lpg=PA84&dq=fossil%20%22transitional%20form%22&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q=fossil%20%22transitional%20form%22&f=false 84]}} Con le stabilimento del [[cladistica]] in le decennio 1990, le relationes commumente veniva a esser exprimite in [[cladogramma]]s que illustra le ramification del lineages evolutionari in figuras linear. Le differente gruppos assi-nominate "natural" o "[[monophyletic]]" forma unitates annidate, e solo istes recipe [[nomenclatura philogenetic|nomines phylogenetic]]. Durante que in le classification traditional [[tetrapode]]s e pisces es vidite como duo gruppos differente, phylogeneticamente le tetrapodes es considerate un ramo del pisces. Assi, con le cladistica non existe plus un transition inter gruppos stabilite, e le termino "fossiles transitional" es un denomination improprie. Le differentiation occurre intra gruppos, representate como ramos in le cladogramma.<ref name=Palaeos>{{cite web|last=Kazlev, M.A. and White, T.|title=Amphibians, Systematics, and Cladistics|url=http://palaeos.com/vertebrates/tetrapoda/amphibians.html|publisher=[[Palaeos]] website|accessdate=9 May 2012}}</ref> In un contexto cladistic, le organismos transitional pote esser vidite como representante exemplares initial de un ramo, ubi non tote le tractos typic del descendentes previemente cognoscite le ille ramo ha evolvite ancora.{{sfn|Prothero|2007|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=QeKWpRX77JgC&lpg=PA84&dq=fossil%20%22transitional%20form%22&pg=PA127#v=onepage&q=fossil%20%22transitional%20form%22&f=false 127]}} Tal representantes initial de un gruppo es usualmente denominate "taxa basal" o "taxa sorores",{{sfn|Prothero|2007|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=QeKWpRX77JgC&lpg=PA84&dq=fossil%20%22transitional%20form%22&pg=PA263#v=onepage&q=fossil%20%22transitional%20form%22&f=false 263]}} dependente de si le organismo fossile pertine al clado filio o non.<ref name=Palaeos/> ===Transitional versus ancestral=== Un fonte de confusion es le notion que un forma transitional inter duo gruppos taxonomic debe esser un ancestre directe de un del gruppos, o de ambes. Le difficultate es exacerbate per le facto que un del objectivos del taxonomia evolutionari es identificar taxa que esseva ancestres de altere taxa. Totevia, es quasi impossibile assecurar que qualcunque forma representate in le registro fossile esseva un ancestre directe de qualcunque altere. De facto, proque le evolution es un processo de ramification que produce un complexe patrono in forma de arbusto de species apparentate in vice de un processo linear que produce un progression in forma de scala, e a causa del incompletitude del registro fossile, es improbabile que qualcunque forma particular representate in le registro fossile es un ancestre directe de qualcunque altere. Le cladistica retira le emphase del concepto que un gruppo taxonomic es ancestre de un altere, e emphatisa in vice le identification de [[Gruppo soror|taxa sorores]] que divide un ancestre commun plus recente le unes con le alteres que con altere gruppos. Il ha alcun casos exceptional, tal como alcun microfossiles de [[plancton]] marin, ubi le registro fossile es sufficientemente complete pro suggerer con confidentia que certe fossiles representa un population que de facto esseva ancestre de un population posterior de un specie differente.<ref>[http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/2/119.short Summario] de {{cite journal |last1=Prothero |first1=D. R. |last2=Lazarus |first2=D. B. |year=1980 |title=Planktonic Microfossils and the Recognition of Ancestors |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_1980-06_29_2/page/119 |journal=Systematic Biology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=119–129 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/29.2.119 | separator=, |ref=harv}}</ref> Mais, in general, uno considera que fossiles transitional ha characteristicas que illustra le characteristicas anatomic transitional de ver ancestres commun de taxa differente, in vice de ''esser'' ver ancestres.<ref>{{harvnb|Prothero|2007|pp=133–135}}</ref> ==Exemplos prominente== [[File:Archaeopteryx lithographica (Berlin specimen).jpg|thumb|right|Le ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' es un del plus famose fossiles transitional e da evidentia pro le evolution de aves desde [[dinosauros theropode]].]] ===''Archaeopteryx''=== ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' es un [[Genere (rango taxinomic)|genere]] de [[dinosauro]]s [[theropode]] proximemente apparentate al aves. Desde le fin del seculo XIX, illo ha essite acceptate per paleontologos, e celebrate in obras de referentia laic, como le plus antique ave cognoscite, ben que un studio in 2011 ha lanceate dubitas super iste affirmation, suggerente in vice que illo es un dinossauro non [[Avialae|avialan]] proximemente apparentate al origine del aves.<ref name=Xiaotingia>{{cite journal |title=An ''Archaeopteryx''-like theropod from China and the origin of Avialae |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v475/n7357/full/nature10288.html |date=28 July 2011 |journal=Nature |volume=475 |pages=465–470 |doi=10.1038/nature10288 |issue=7357 |author=Xing Xu, Hailu You, Kai Du and Fenglu Han |pmid=21796204 |ref=harv}}</ref> Illo viveva in lo que ora es le sud de Germania in le [[Jurassico posterior]] circa 150 milliones de annos retro. Similar in forma a un [[pica europee]], con le major individuos possibilemente attingente le dimension de un [[corvo]],<ref name="Erickson etal 2009">{{cite journal|last=Erickson|first=Gregory M.|coauthors=Rauhut, Oliver W. M., Zhou, Zhonghe, Turner, Alan H, Inouye, Brian D. Hu, Dongyu, Norell, Mark A.|year=2009|title=Was Dinosaurian Physiology Inherited by Birds? Reconciling Slow Growth in ''Archaeopteryx''|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=4|issue=10|page= e7390|url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0007390;jsessionid=F7E462DE00439EEA45BCC1AF96012EE0|accessdate=2009-10-25|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007390|pmid=19816582|bibcode = 2009PLoSO...4.7390E|editor1-last=Desalle|editor1-first=Robert|pmc=2756958|ref=harv }}</ref> le ''Archaeopteryx'' poteva crescer a circa 0,5 metros in longitude. In despecto de su dimension reducite, alas large, e capacitate inferite de volar o planar, le ''Archaeopteryx'' ha plus in commun con altere micre dinosauros [[Mesozoico|mesozoic]] que con le aves moderne. In particular, illo divide le sequente characteristicas commun con le [[dinonychosauro]]s ([[dromeosauro]]s e [[troodontide]]s): mandibulas con dentes acute, tres digitos ungulate, un longe causa ossee, secunde digitos hyperextensibile, plumage (lo que suggere [[homeothermia]]), e varie characteristicas skeletic.<ref name="Yalden 1">{{cite journal |author=Yalden D.W. |title=What size was ''Archaeopteryx''? |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=82 |issue=1–2|pages=177–188 |year=1984 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120801944/abstract |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1984.tb00541.x |ref=harv}}</ref> Iste characteristicas face le ''Archaeopteryx'' un clar candidate pro un fossile transitional inter dinosauros e aves,<ref name="UCal MoP">[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/archaeopteryx.html ''Archaeopteryx'': An Early Bird]. [[University of California, Berkeley]] Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 2006-10-18</ref> faciente lo importante in le studio del dinosauros e del [[origine del aves]]. Le prime exemplar complete esseva annunciate in 1861, e dece altere fossiles de ''Archaeopteryx'' ha essite discoperite desde alora. Le majoritate del dece-un fossiles cognoscite include impressiones de plumas — inter le plus antique evidentia directe de tal structuras. In ultra, proque iste plumas assume le forma avantiate de plumas de volo, le fossiles de ''Archaeopteryx'' es evidentia que le plumas comenciava evolver ante le fin del Jurassico.<ref name="weln 04">{{cite book|title=Feathered Dragons|year=2004|chapter=The Plumage of ''Archaeopteryx''|editor=Currie PJ, Koppelhus EB, Shugar MA, Wright JL|author=Wellnhofer, P.|pages=282–300|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-34373-9}}</ref> ===''Australopithecus afarensis''=== [[File:Lucy Skeleton cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|80px|''A. afarensis'' monstrante postura ambulante erecte]] Le hominide ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' representa un transition evolutionari inter le humanos bipede moderne e lor ancestres simiesc quadrupede. Un numero de tractos del skeleto del ''A. afarensis'' reflecte fortemente le bipedalismo, in tal mesura que alcun recercatores ha suggerite que le bipedalitate evolveva multe tempore ante le ''A. afarensis''.<ref name=Lovejoy1988>{{cite journal |author=Lovejoy, C. Owen |authorlink=Owen Lovejoy (anthropologist) |title=Evolution of Human walking |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=259 |issue=5 |pages=82–89 |year=1988 |url=http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Lovejoy_1988_SA.pdf |ref=harv |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1188-118 |pmid=3212438}}</ref> In anatomia general, le pelve es multo plus hominesc que simiesc. Le [[ilio|laminas iliac]] es curte e large, le sacro es large e positionate directemente post le junctura del coxa, e il ha clar evidentia de un forte attaccamento pro le ''rectus femoris'', implicante un postura erecte.<ref name=Lovejoy1988/>{{rp|122}} Ben que le [[pelve]] non es integralmente como illo de un humano (essente marcatemente large, o allargate, con laminas iliac orientate lateralmente), iste characteristicas puncta a un structura radicalmente remodellate pro accommodar un grado significative de [[bipedalismo]]. Le [[femore]] face un angulo al interior verso le geniculo desde le [[coxa]]. Iste tracto permitte que le pede cade plus proxime al linea medie del corpore, e indica fortemente locomotion bipede habitual. Le humanos, [[orangutan]]es e [[atele]]s del presente possede iste mesme characteristica. Le pedes presenta grande digitos adducite, faciente difficile, si non impossibile, caper ramos con le membros posterior. Ultra le locomotion, le ''A. afarensis'' habeva in plus un cerebro legiermente major que un [[chimpanze]] moderne<ref name="SmithsonianHuman">{{cite web | url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-afarensis | title=Australopithecus afarensis | publisher=Smithsonian Institution | accessdate=6 May 2012}}</ref> (le plus proxime parente vivente del humanos) e habeva dentes que esseva plus human que simiesc.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Jaws and teeth of Australopithecus afarensis from Maka, Middle Awash, Ethiopia | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-physical-anthropology_2000-01_111_1/page/45 | author=White, T.D. , Suwa, G., Simpson, S., Asfaw, B. | journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=January 2000 | volume=111 | issue=1 | pages=45–68 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200001)111:1<45::AID-AJPA4>3.0.CO;2-I | pmid=10618588}}</ref> ===Pakicetides, ''Ambulocetus''=== {{multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | width = 220 | image1 =Pakicetus BW.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 =Reconstruction del ''[[Pakicetus]]'' | image2 =Ambulocetus natans.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 =Skeleto del ''[[Ambulocetus natans]]'' }} The [[cetaceo]]s ([[balena]]s, [[delphino]]s e [[phocena]]s) es mammales marin descendente de mammales terrestre. Le [[pakicetide]]s es un familia extincte de mammales ungulate que es le prime balenas, cuje gruppo soror plus proxime es le ''[[Indohyus]]'' del familia [[Raoellidae]].<ref name=science_news_2>{{cite web | url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071220220241.htm | title = Whales Descended From Tiny Deer-like Ancestors | accessdate = 2007-12-21 | author = Northeastern Ohio Universities Colleges of Medicine and Pharmacy (21 December 2007) | publisher = ScienceDaily}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = [[Philip D. Gingerich]], D. E. Russell|year = 1981| title = ''Pakicetus inachus'', a new archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the early-middle Eocene Kuldana Formation of Kohat (Pakistan)| journal = Univ. Mich. Contr. Mus. Paleont|volume = 25|pages = 235–246 | ref = harv}}</ref> Illos viveva in le initio del [[Eoceno]], circa 53 milliones de annos retro. Lor fossiles esseva discoperite in le nord de [[Pakistan]] in 1979, in un fluvio non distante del litoral del antique [[Mar de Tethys]].<ref name=marine>{{cite book|last=Castro, E. Huber|first=Peter, Michael|title=Marine Biology (4 ed)|year=2003|publisher=McGraw-Hill}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2012}} Le pakicetides poteva audir sub le aqua, usante conduction ossee meliorate, in vice de depender del [[cassa del tympano]] como le majoritate del mammales terrestre. Iste arrangiamento non confere audition directional sub le aqua.<ref name=hearing>{{cite journal|last=Nummela|first=Sirpa|coauthors=Thewissen, J. G. M., Bajpai, Sunil, Hussain, S. Taseer, Kumar, Kishor|title=Eocene evolution of whale hearing|journal=Nature|date=11 August 2004|volume=430|issue=7001|pages=776–778|doi=10.1038/nature02720|pmid=15306808|bibcode = 2004Natur.430..776N|ref=harv }}</ref> Le ''[[Ambulocetus natans]]'', qui viveva circa 49 milliones de annos retro, esseva discoperite in Pakistan in 1994. Illo esseva probabilemente amphibie, e resimilava le [[crocodilo]] in apparentia.<ref name=skeleton>{{cite journal | author = J. G. M. Thewissen, E. M. Williams, L. J. Roe and S. T. Hussain| title = Skeletons of terrestrial cetaceans and the relationship of whales to artiodactyls| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-09-20_413_6853/page/277|journal = Nature|volume = 413| pages = 277–281| year = 2001| doi = 10.1038/35095005| pmid = 11565023| issue = 6853 | ref = harv}}</ref> In le Eoceno, le ambulocetides habitava le baias e estuarios del Oceano Tethys in le nord de Pakistan.<ref name=radiations>{{cite journal | last=Thewissen | first=J. G. M.|coauthors=Williams, E. M. | title=The Early Radiations of Cetacea (Mammalia): Evolutionary Pattern and Developmental Correlations | journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics | date=1 November 2002 | volume=33 | issue=1 | pages=73–90 | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.020602.095426 | ref=harv}}</ref> Le fossiles de ambulocetides es sempre trovate in depositos marin pauc profunde proxime al litoral associate con abundante fossiles de plantas marin e molluscos del litoral.<ref name=radiations/> Ben que illos es trovate solmente in depositos marin, lor valores de isotopos de oxygeno indica que illes consumeva aqua con un gamma de grados de salinitate, alcun exemplares monstrante necun evidentia de consumption de aqua marin e alteres necun evidentia de consumption de aqua dulce in le epocha quando lor dentes se fossilisava. Es clar que le ambulocetides tolerava un ample gamma de concentrationes de sal.<ref name=poster>{{cite journal| last=Thewissen| first=J. G. M.| coauthors=Bajpai, Sunil| title=Whale Origins as a Poster Child for Macroevolution| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bioscience_2001-12_51_12/page/1037| journal=BioScience| date=1 January 2001| volume=51| issue=12| pages=1037| doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[1037:WOAAPC]2.0.CO;2|issn=0006-3568| ref=harv}}</ref> Lor dieta probabilemente includeva animales terrestre que se approximava del aqua pro biber, o organismos aquatic de aqua dulce que viveva in le fluvio.<ref name=radiations/> Consequentemente, le ambulocetides representa le phase de transition de ancestres cetacee inter habitats de aqua dulce e aqua marin. {{DEFAULTSORT:Fossile transitional}} [[Categoria:Zoologia]] [[Categoria:Genetica]] [[Categoria:Evolution]] c9uy9t5kwvxr5zv8ac6z8kgihdlzntz 0 32928 698255 672923 2026-08-03T23:44:30Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698255 wikitext text/x-wiki {{revision}} {{infobox/articulo/generic}} [[File:Hurricane Isabel from ISS.jpg|right|300px|thumb|[[Hurican Isabel]] (2003) como vidite ab spatio durante [[Expedition 7]] del [[Station Spatial International]]. Le [[oculo (cyclon)|oculo]], muro del oculo, e ambiente [[banda pluvial|bandas pluvial]], characteristicas de [[cyclones]] tropic, es visibile clarmente in iste vista ab spatio.]] Un '''cyclon tropic o tropical'''{{linfo}} es un rapidemente rotante [[tempesta|systema tempestuose]] characterisate per un [[systema de pression basse|centro de pression basse]], [[scala Beaufort|ventos forte]], e un arrangiamento spiral de [[Tempesta de tonitro|tempestas de tonitro]] que produce forte [[pluvia]]. Dependente sur location e fortia, un cyclon tropic es appellate nomines tal como huracan, typhon, tempesta tropic, tempesta cyclonic, depression tropic, o, simplemente, cyclon. Cyclones tropic typicamente se forma supra corpores grande de aqua calide o quasi-calide. Illos deriva lor [[energia]] a causa del evaporation de [[aqua]] ab le superficie [[oceano|oceanic]], le qual ultimemente [[condensation|recondensava]] in [[nube|nubes]] e pluvia quando aere humide se leva e frigida a [[Fluido saturate|saturation]]. Iste [[fonte energic]] differe ab illo del [[cyclon extratropic|tempestas cyclonic del medie-latitudes]], tal como [[nor'easter]]es e [[tempestas ventose Europee|tempestas de vento europee]], que es date energia primemente per [[Instabilitate baroclinic|contrastos horizontal de temperatura]]. Le forte ventos rotante del cyclon tropic es un resultato del conservation del momento angular causate per le rotation del Terra como aere flue verso le interior al axe de rotation. Assi, illos forma rarmente intra 5° del [[equator]]. Cyclones tropic ha typicamente inter 100 e 4000 km in diametro. ''Tropic'' refere se al origine geographic de istes systemas, que se forma quasi exclusivemente supra mares [[tropicos|tropic]]. ''Cyclon'' refere se a lor natura cyclonic, con vento a sufflar [[In senso horologic e antihorologic|in senso antihorologic]] in le [[Hemispherio del Nord]] e in senso horologic in le [[Hemispherio del Sud]]. Le direction opposite de circulation es a causa del [[effecto Coriolis]]. Preter ventos e pluvia forte, cyclones tropic pote generar undas alte [[affluxo]] tempestuose damnificante, e [[tornado]]s. Illos typicamente debilita rapidemente supra terra ubi illos es isolate de lor principal fonte energic. Pro iste ration, regiones litoral es particularmente vulnerabile a damnos ab un cyclon tropic in comparation con le regiones interior. Pluvias forte, tamen, pote causar inundationes significante verso le interior, e affluxos tempestuose pote producer extensive [[inundation|inundationes]] litoral usque a 40 km ab le costa. Ben que lor effectos sur human populationes es sovente devastante, cyclones tropic pote relevar [[siccate]]s. Illos anque porta energia caloric foras del tropicos e transporta lo verso [[latitude]]s [[temperate]], que pote moderar [[climate]] regional e global. ==Structura physic== [[File:Typhooon Nabi as seen from the ISS.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Typhon Nabi]] como vidite ab le [[Station Spatial International]], Septembre 3, 2005. ]] Cyclones tropic es areas de relativemente [[Area de pression basse|pression basse]] in le [[troposphera]], con le plus grande pression perturbationes a occurrer al altitudes basse proxime le superficie. Sur Terra, le pressiones (registrate) al centros de cyclones tropic es intra le plus basse ancora observate a [[nivello del mar]]. <ref name="ABC pressures">{{cite news|author=Symonds, Steve|title=Highs and Lows|work=Wild Weather|url=http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s989385.htm|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=November 17, 2003|accessdate=March 23, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011194541/http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s989385.htm|archivedate=October 11, 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Le partes juxta le centro de cyclones tropic es plus calide que le ambiente a omne elevationes, assi illos es characterisate como systemas de "centro calide".<ref name="AOML FAQ A7">{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions: What is an extra-tropical cyclone?|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|accessdate=March 23, 2007|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A7.html|author1 = Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory|author2 = Hurricane Research Division|authorlink1=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory}}</ref> ===Campo de vento=== Le quasi-superficial campo de vento de un cyclon tropic es characterisate per le rapide rotation del aere circa un [[Oculo (cyclon)|centro de circulation]] dum anque fluer radialmente verso le interior. Al bordo exterior del tempesta, le aere pote esser quasi calme; totevia, a causa del rotation del [[Terra]], le aere ha non-zero [[absolute momento angular]]. Como le aere flue radialmente verso le interior, illo comencia [[rotation cyclonic|rotar cyclonicamente]] (in senso antihorologic in le Hemispherio del Nord, e in senso horologic in le Hemispherio del Sud) pro [[conservation de momento angular|conservar le momento angular]]. A un radio interior, le aere comencia elevar se al [[tropopausa|alto del troposphera]]. Iste radio es typicamente coincidente con le radio interior del [[ocular]], e ha le plus forte ventos quasi-superficial del tempesta; consequentemente, illo es appellate le ''[[radio de vento maxime]]''. ===Oculo e centro=== [[File:Hurricane-en.svg|thumb|left|300px|Diagramma de un cyclon tropic in le Hemisphera del Nord]] [[File:HurrArthur720p.webm|right|300px|NASA animation de Huracan Arthur in 2014 monstrar ratas pluvial e structura interne ab datos de [[Global Precipitation Mesuration|GPM]]]] Al centro de un cyclon tropic matur, le aere clina in loco de levar se. Pro un tempesta forte sufficientemente, le aere pote clinar supra un strato profunde satis de supprimer le formation de nubes, assi causar un clar "[[Oculo (cyclon)|oculo]]". Tempore in le oculo de un tempesta es normalmente calme e vacue de nubes, ben que le mar pote esser extrememente violente .<ref name="JetStream structure">{{cite web|url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/tropics/tc_structure.htm|author=[[National Weather Service]]|work=JetStream&nbsp;— An Online School for Weather|publisher=[[National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration]]|title=Tropical Cyclone Structure|accessdate=May 7, 2009|date=October 19, 2005|archivedate=December 7, 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207193757/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/tropics/tc_structure.htm}}</ref> ===Intensitate=== Le intensitate es definite como le rapiditate maxime de vento del tempesta. ===Dimension=== Sur Terra, cyclones tropic ha un grande rango de dimensiones, de 100–2000&nbsp;km como mesurate per le radio de vento evanescente. Illos es le plus grande, mediemente, in le [[Oceano Pacific]] del nord-west e le minus grande in le Oceano Pacific del est. Si le radio de [[isobara|isobara]] le plus externe es minus que duo [[latitude|grados de latitude]] (222 km), alora le cyclon es "multo parve". Un radio de 3–6&nbsp;grados de latitude (333–670 km) es considerate "dimensional medie". "Multo grande" cyclones tropic ha un radio de plus grande que 8&nbsp;grados (888 km). Observationes indica que grandor es solmente debilemente correlationate con le parametros tal que intensitate tempestuose (rapiditate maxime del vento), radio de vento maxime, latitude, e [[intensitate potential maxime]].<ref name="Merrill">{{Cite journal|title=A comparison of Large and Small Tropical cyclones|url=https://archive.org/details/monthly-weather-review_1984-07_112_7/page/1408|journal=Monthly Weather Review|volume=112|issue=7|pages=1408|last=Merrill|first=Robert T|date=1984|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1984)112<1408:ACOLAS>2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 1984MWRv..112.1408M }}</ref> ==Physica e energetica== [[File:Hurricane profile.svg|thumb|250px|right|Cyclones tropic exhibi un circulation invertente ubi aer influe a nivellos basse proxime le superficie, leva in nubes tonitruante, e efflue a nivellos alte proxime le tropopausa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wind.mit.edu/~emanuel/anthro2.htm|title=Anthropogenic Effects on Tropical Cyclone Activity.|author=Emanuel, Kerry |date=February 8, 2006|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology|accessdate=May 7, 2009}}</ref>]] Le [[tridimensional]] campo de vento in un cyclon tropic pote esser separate in duo componentes: un "circulation primari" e un "[[circulation secundari]]". Le circulation primari es le parte rotational del fluxo; illo es purmente circular. Le circulation secundari es le parte invertite (in-a alte-ex-a basse) del fluxo; illo es in le directiones radial e vertical. Le circulation primari ha le ventos le plus forte e es responsabile pro le majoritate del damnos que un tempesta causa, dum le circulation secundari es plus lente ma governa le [[energetica]] del tempesta. ===Circulation secundari: un motor caloric de Carnot=== Le principal [[fonte energic]] de un cyclon tropic es le evaporation de [[aqua]] ab le superfacie del [[oceano]], que ultimemente se [[condensation|recondensava]] in nubes e pluvia quando le aere humide e calide se leva e frigida a [[Fluido saturate|saturation]]. Le energetica del systema pote esser idealisate como un atmospheric [[motor caloric de Carnot]]. ===Circulation primari: le ventos rotante=== Le primari fluxo rotante in un cyclon tropic resulta del [[conservation de momento angular|conservation del momento angular]] per le circulation secundari. [[Absolute momento angular]] sur un planeta rotante <math>M</math> es date per :<math>M = \frac{1}{2}fr^2 + vr</math> ubi <math>f</math> es le [[parametro Coriolis]], <math>v</math> es le rapiditate azimutal del vento (que es, rotante), e <math>r</math> es le radio del axe de rotation. ==Formation== [[File:Global tropical cyclone tracks-edit2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mappa del tracias cumulative de omne cyclones tropic durante le periodo 1985–2005.]] Globalmente, activitate de cyclones tropic culmina in le fin del estate, quando le differentia inter temperaturas del aere e temperaturas del superfacie marin es le plus grande. Tamen, cata bassino ha su particular patronos saisonal. Sur un scala mundial, maio es le mense le minus active, e septembre es le plus active. Novembre es le sol mense in le qual tote le [[bassinos de cyclones tropic]] es active. <ref name="AOML FAQ G1">{{cite web|author=[[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory]], Hurricane Research Division|title=Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season?|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|accessdate=July 25, 2006|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html}}</ref> ==Effectos== [[File:Hurricane katrina damage gulfport mississippi.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Le resultos de [[Hurican Katrina]] in [[Gulfport (Mississippi)]].]] Cyclones tropic supra le mar causa grande undas, [[pluvia|pluvia forte]], [[inundation]], e ventos forte, disrumpente international imbarcamento e aliquando causante naufragios.<ref name="18cva">{{cite web|author=Roth, David and Cobb, Hugh |year=2001|title=Eighteenth Century Virginia Hurricanes|publisher=NOAA|accessdate=February 24, 2007|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/va18hur.htm}}</ref> Cyclones tropic agita le aqua, relinquer un sulco frigide, que causa le region de esser minus favorabile pro cyclones tropic subsequente. Sur terra, [[vento]]s forte pote damnificar o destruer vehiculos, edificios, pontes, e altere structuras, transformar fragmentos in mortifere volante projectiles. Le [[affluxo tempestic]], o le levation del nivello del mar causate per le cyclon, es typicamente le plus nocive effecto de abbordante cyclones tropic, historicamente resultava in 90% de mortes in cyclones tropic.<ref name="Shultz Epid Reviews 2005">{{cite doi|10.1093/epirev/mxi011}}</ref> Le rotation large de un abbordante cyclon tropic, e le cisorios de vento vertical a su peripheria, genera [[tornado]]s. Tornados anque pote esser generate como un resultato de mesovortices in le oculamuro, que persiste a abbordo.<ref name="AOML FAQ L6">{{cite web|author=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division|title=Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|accessdate=July 25, 2006|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/L6.html}}</ref> ==Notabile cyclones tropic== Cyclones tropic que causa extreme destruction es rar, ben que quando illos occurre, illos pote causar immense damnos o milles de fatalitates. Le [[1970 cyclon Bhola]] era le plus mortifere cyclon tropic notate, occideva plus que 300.000&nbsp;personas<ref name="faqe9">{{cite web|author=Landsea, Chris |year=1993|title=Which tropical cyclones have caused the most deaths and most damage?|publisher=Hurricane Research Division|accessdate=February 23, 2007|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E9.html}}</ref> e possibilemente tante como 1&nbsp;million<ref name="1970death">{{cite news|author=Lawson, A.|title=South Asia: A history of destruction|publisher=[[BBC]]|accessdate=February 23, 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/503139.stm | date=November 2, 1999}}</ref> post colpar le densemente populate [[Delta del Ganges]] in [[Bangladesh]] le 13 de novembre 1970. Su potente affluxo tempestuose era responsabile pro le grande numero de mortes.<ref name="faqe9"/> Le bassino cyclonic de [[Oceano Indian]] del nord ha historicamente essite le plus mortifere bassino.<ref name="Shultz Epid Reviews 2005">{{cite doi|10.1093/epirev/mxi011}}</ref><ref name="Deadliest cyclone">{{cite doi|10.1175/1520-0477(1971)052<0438:TDTCIH>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In altere partes, [[Typhon Nina (1975)|Typhon Nina]] occideva quasi 100.000 in China in 1975 a causa de un [[inundation 100-annal]] que causava 62&nbsp;barrages, includente le [[Barrage Banqiao]], de faller.<ref>Anderson-Berry, Linda J. [http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/iwtc/AndersonBerry5-1.html Fifth International Workshop on Tropycal Cyclones: Topic 5.1: Societal Impacts of Tropical Cyclones.]. Retrieved February 26, 2008.</ref> Le [[Grande Huracan de 1780]] era le plus mortifere [[hurican del Atlantic del Nord|huracan del Atlantic del Nord]] notate, occidente circa 22.personas in le [[Antillas Minor]].<ref name=NHCPastDeadly>{{cite web | author = [[National Hurricane Center]] | url = http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml? | title = The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996 | accessdate = March 31, 2006|date =April 22, 1997|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]}}</ref> Un cyclon tropic non ha necessitate de esser forte specialmente pro causar damnos memorabile, si le mortes resulta de inundationes pluvial o caditas de fango. [[Tempesta Tropic Thelma]] in novembre 1991 occideva milles in le [[Philippinas]],<ref name="JTWCThelma">{{cite web|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1991atcr.pdf|title=Typhoon Thelma (27W)|accessdate=March 31, 2006|author=[[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]]|work=1991 Annual Tropical Cyclone Report|format=PDF|archivedate=August 13, 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813232009/https://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1991atcr.pdf}}</ref> e in 1982, le innominate depression tropic que post deveniva le [[Hurican Paul (1982)|Hurican Paul]] occideva circa 1.personas in [[America Central]].<ref name="MWR Paul 1982">{{cite doi|10.1175/1520-0493(1983)111<1080:ENPTCO>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> [[Hurican Katrina]] es estimate como le plus costose cyclon tropical del mundo,<ref name="epi">{{cite web|publisher=Earth Policy Institute|year=2006|title=Hurricane Damages Sour to New Levels|accessdate=February 23, 2007|url=http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update58_data.htm|archivedate=December 13, 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061213084826/http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update58_data.htm}}</ref> causante $81,2&nbsp;milliardos in damnos a proprietate (2008&nbsp;USD)<ref name="KatrinaTCR">{{cite web|author=Knabb, Richard D., Rhome, Jamie R. and Brown, Daniel P. |url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/TCR-AL122005_Katrina.pdf|format=PDF|title=Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina: 23–30 August 2005|publisher=[[National Hurricane Center]]|date=December 20, 2005|accessdate=May 30, 2006}}</ref> con damnos total estimate in plus que $100&nbsp;milliardos (2005&nbsp;USD).<ref name="epi"/> Katrina occideva al minus 1.836&nbsp;personas post colpar [[Louisiana]] e [[Mississippi]] como un [[scalas de cyclones tropic|huracan major]] in augusto 2005.<ref name="KatrinaTCR"/> [[Hurican Sandy]] es le secunde plus costose cyclon tropic in le historia del S.U.A., con damnos de $68&nbsp;milliardos (2012&nbsp;USD), e con costos de $37,5&nbsp;milliardos (2012&nbsp;USD), [[Hurican Ike]] es le tertie plus costose huracan in le S.U. Ma le [[Hurican de Galveston de 1900]] era le plus mortifere [[disastro natural]] del Statos Unite, occidente un estimate 6.000 a 12.000&nbsp;personas in [[Galveston (Texas)]].<ref>[[National Hurricane Center]]. [http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/history.shtml#galveston Galveston Hurricane 1900.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709200046/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/history.shtml#galveston |date=2006-07-09 }}. Retrieved February 24, 2008.</ref> [[Hurican Mitch]] causava plus que 10.000 fatalitates in America Latin. ==Vide etiam== * [[Meteorologia]] * [[Tempesta]] * [[Tornado]] ==Referentias== <references/> {{traduction|en|Tropical cyclone}} [[Categoria:Cyclon tropic| ]] [[Categoria:Meteorologia]] [[Categoria:Tempore (meteorologia)]] [[Categoria:Disastro natural]] i0b0efldz5x49ji47gbyg0tjs3r52su 0 33732 698188 663646 2026-08-03T21:54:39Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698188 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''''Canis''''' es un [[genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] de [[canides]], [[mammifero]]s [[carnivore]] que include le [[can]]es, [[lupo]]s, [[chacal]]es, [[coyote]]s e [[dingo]]s. ==Phylogenia== Secundo Lindblad-Toh {{etal}} (2005), Koepfli {{etal}} (2015) e Wilson {{etal}} (2011):<ref name=LindbladToh2005>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature04338 |pmid=16341006 |title=Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-12-08_438_7069/page/n110 |journal=Nature |volume=438 |issue=7069 |pages=803–819 |year=2005 |last1= Lindblad-Toh |first1= Kerstin |last2=Wade |first2= Claire M. |last3=Mikkelsen |first3=Tarjei S. |last4=Karlsson |first4= Elinor K. |last5=Jaffe |first5=David B. |last6=Kamal |first6=Michael |last7=Clamp |first7=Michele |last8=Chang |first8=Jean L. |last9=Kulbokas |first9=Edward J. |last10=Zody |first10=Michael C. |last11=Mauceli |first11=Evan |last12=Xie |first12=Xiaohui |last13=Breen |first13=Matthew |last14=Wayne |first14=Robert K. |last15=Ostrander |first15=Elaine A. |last16=Ponting |first16=Chris P. |last17=Galibert |first17=Francis |last18=Smith |first18= Douglas R. |last19=Dejong |first19=Pieter J. |last20=Kirkness |first20=Ewen |last21=Alvarez |first21=Pablo |last22=Biagi |first22=Tara |last23=Brockmann |first23=William |last24=Butler |first24=Jonathan |last25=Chin |first25=Chee-Wye |last26=Cook |first26=April |last27=Cuff |first27=James |last28=Daly |first28=Mark J. |last29=Decaprio |first29=David |last30=Gnerre |first30= Sante |display-authors=6 |bibcode=2005Natur.438..803L|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Koepfli2015>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060 |pmid=26234211 |title=Genome-wide evidence reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals are distinct species |journal=Current Biology |volume=25 |issue=16 |pages=2158–2165 |year=2015 |last1=Koepfli |first1=Klaus-Peter |last2=Pollinger |first2=John |last3=Godinho |first3=Raquel |last4=Robinson |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Lea |first5=Amanda |last6=Hendricks |first6=Sarah |last7=Schweizer |first7=Rena M. |last8=Thalmann |first8=Olaf |last9=Silva |first9=Pedro |last10=Fan |first10=Zhenxin |last11=Yurchenko |first11=Andrey A. |last12=Dobrynin |first12=Pavel |last13=Makunin |first13=Alexey |last14=Cahill |first14=James A. |last15=Shapiro |first15=Beth |last16=Álvares |first16=Francisco |last17=Brito |first17=José C. |last18=Geffen |first18=Eli |last19=Leonard |first19=Jennifer A. |last20=Helgen |first20=Kristofer M. |last21=Johnson |first21=Warren E. |last22=o'Brien |first22=Stephen J. |last23=Van Valkenburgh |first23=Blaire |last24=Wayne |first24=Robert K. |display-authors=6|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Paul J. |last2=Grewal |first2=Sonya |last3=Lawford |first3=Ian D. |last4=Heal |first4=Jennifer NM |last5=Granacki |first5=Angela G. |last6=Pennock |first6=David |last7=Theberge |first7=John B. |last8=Theberge |first8=Mary T. |last9=Voigt |first9=Dennis R. |last10=Waddell |first10=Will |last11=Chambers |first11=Robert E. |date=2011-02-15 |title=DNA profiles of the eastern Canadian wolf and the red wolf provide evidence for a common evolutionary history independent of the gray wolf |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z00-158 |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=78 |issue=12 |pages=2156–2166 |language=en |doi=10.1139/z00-158}}</ref> {{Clade |style=font-size:85%; line-height:85% |label1=''[[Canis (taxon)|Canis]]'' |1={{Clade |1={{Clade |1={{Clade |1={{Clade |1={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=''[[Canis latrans]]'' (coyote) [[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate IX).png|50 px]] |2={{Clade |1=''[[Canis rufus]]'' (lupo rubie) [[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate V) C. l. rufus mod.jpg|50 px]] |2=''[[Canis lycaon]]'' (Algonquin lupo) [[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate V).jpg|50 px]] }} }} |2={{Clade |1=''[[Canis lupus]]'' (lupo gris) [[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate I).png|50 px]] |2=''[[Canis familiaris]]'' ([[can]]) [[File:Tibetan mastiff (transparent background).png|50 px]] }} }} |2=''[[Canis lupaster]]'' ([[African lupo aurate]]) [[File:Dogs,_jackals,_wolves,_and_foxes_(Plate_XI).png|50px]] }} |2=''[[Canis simensis]]'' ([[Ethiopian lupo]]) [[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate VI).png|50 px]] }} |2=''[[Canis aureus]]'' ([[chacal aurate]]) [[File:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate X).png|50 px]] }} }} }} {{Refer}} {{Pecietta|biologia}} [[Categoria:Canidae]] 4l2l1v5zarj7mdev2nhu121n7g40hks 0 33900 698237 663410 2026-08-03T23:17:07Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698237 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Scrotifera |fossil_range = [[Paleoceno]] - recente<br>{{fossil range|66|0|earliest=85.5}} | image_width = 250px | image = Scrotifera.jpg | image_caption = | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | superlegio = [[Boreoeutheria]] | legio = [[Laurasiatheria]] |taxon = Scrotifera |taxon_rank = [[Sublegion]] |authority = Waddell et al., 1999<ref name="Waddell1999">{{Cite journal |last1=Waddell |first1=Peter J. |last2=Cao |first2=Ying |last3=Hauf |first3=Jöerg |last4=Hasegawa |first4=Masami |date=1999-03-01 |editor-last=Olmstead |editor-first=R. |title=Using Novel Phylogenetic Methods to Evaluate Mammalian mtDNA, Including Amino Acid-Invariant Sites-LogDet plus Site Stripping, to Detect Internal Conflicts in the Data, with Special Reference to the Positions of Hedgehog, Armadillo, and Elephant |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_1999-03_48_1/page/31 |journal=Systematic Biology |language=en |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=31–53 |doi=10.1080/106351599260427 |pmid=12078643 |issn=1076-836X |doi-access=free}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = |subdivision = * [[Chiroptera]] * [[Fereuungulata]] |synonyms = * Variamana {{small|(Springer, 2005)}}<ref>Springer M. S., Murphy W. J., Eizirik E., O'Brien S. J. In: "Placental Mammals: Origins and Relationships of the Major Clades." Rose K. D., Archibald J., editor. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins; (2005.) "Molecular evidence for major placental clades"; pp. 37–49</ref> }} '''Scrotifera''' es un [[sublegion]] de [[mammiferos]] [[Placentarios|placentari]]. ==Classification== ===Supertaxones=== * [[Placentalia]], classe [[Mammalia]]. ==Phylogenia== {{Cladogramma Laurasiatheria}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Mammalia]] 1cet1jye8d48s07kc41ii93hw88ihyj 0 33910 698234 663522 2026-08-03T23:13:56Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698234 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Laurasiatheria | fossil_range = [[Paleoceno]]-[[Holoceno]] {{fossil range|66|0|earliest=95}} forsan [[Cretaceo]] tardive | image_width = 250px | image = Laurasiatheria.jpg | image_caption = De alto ad dextera: [[Eulipotyphla]], [[Chiroptera]], [[Carnivora]], [[Pholidota (taxon de animalia)|Pholidota]], [[Artiodactyla]] & [[Perissodactyla]]. | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | superlegio = [[Boreoeutheria]] |taxon = Laurasiatheria |taxon_rank = [[Legion (rango taxonomic)|Legion]] |authority = Waddell {{etal}}, 1999<ref name="Waddell1999">{{Cite journal |last1=Waddell |first1=Peter J. |last2=Okada |first2=Norihiro |last3=Hasegawa |first3=Masami |doi=10.1093/sysbio/48.1.1 |title=Towards Resolving the Interordinal Relationships of Placental Mammals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_1999-03_48_1/page/n2 |journal=[[Systematic Biology]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |year=1999 |pmid=12078634 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = |subdivision = * ordine [[Eulipotyphla]] * sublegion [[Scrotifera]] |synonyms = * Hoplopoda {{small|(Goldfuss, 1820)}} * Laurasiaplacentalia {{small|(Arnason, 2008)}}<ref>Arnason U., Adegoke J. A., Gullberg A., Harley E. H., Janke A., Kullberg M. (2008.) "Mitogenomic relationships of placental mammals and molecular estimates of their divergences." Gene.; 421(1–2):37–51</ref> }} '''Laurasiatheria''' es un [[Legion (rango taxonomic)|legion]]<ref>Classification con legion.</ref> o [[Superordine (rango taxonomic)|superordine]]<ref>Classification con mirordine.</ref> del [[Classe (rango taxonomic)|classe]] [[Mammalia]]. ==Phylogenia== [[File:OrthoMaM v10b 2019 116genera circular tree.svg|thumb|right|[[Cladistica|Position phylogenetic]] del Laurasiatheria (in verde) inter actual [[mammiferos]].<ref name=Scornavacca2019>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scornavacca C, Belkhir K, Lopez J, Dernat R, Delsuc F, Douzery EJ, Ranwez V | title = OrthoMaM v10: Scaling-up orthologous coding sequence and exon alignments with more than one hundred mammalian genomes | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 861–862 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30698751 | pmc = 6445298 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msz015 }}</ref>]] {{Cladogramma Laurasiatheria}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Laurasiatheria| ]] bko2iwbv6qwefr81ohf0kivs7cay1ha 0 34093 698183 678761 2026-08-03T21:46:20Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox |name = Eukaryota |fossil_range = [[Rhyacian]] – [[Holocene|Presente]] {{Long fossil range|2100|0 |earliest=2300}} |image = Eukaryota diversity 2.jpg |color = Eukaryota |taxon = Eukaryota |taxon_rank = [[Dominio (rango taxonomic)|Dominio]] |authority = ([[Édouard Chatton|Chatton]], 1925) [[Robert Whittaker (ecologist)|Whittaker]] & [[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]], 1978 |subdivision_ranks = Supergruppo e [[Regno (rango taxonomic)|regnos]]<ref name="AdlBass2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Adl SM, Bass D, Lane CE, Lukeš J, Schoch CL, Smirnov A, Agatha S, Berney C, Brown MW, Burki F, Cárdenas P, Čepička I, Chistyakova L, Del Campo J, Dunthorn M, Edvardsen B, Eglit Y, Guillou L, Hampl V, Heiss AA, Hoppenrath M, James TY, Karnkowska A, Karpov S, Kim E, Kolisko M, Kudryavtsev A, Lahr DJ, Lara E, Le Gall L, Lynn DH, Mann DG, Massana R, Mitchell EA, Morrow C, Park JS, Pawlowski JW, Powell MJ, Richter DJ, Rueckert S, Shadwick L, Shimano S, Spiegel FW, Torruella G, Youssef N, Zlatogursky V, Zhang Q |display-authors=3 |title=Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes |journal=The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=4–119 |date=January 2019 |pmid=30257078 |pmc=6492006 |doi=10.1111/jeu.12691 }}</ref> |subdivision = *[[Diaphoretickes]] **[[Sar (taxon)|SAR]] **[[Haptista]] **[[Cryptista]] **[[Archaeplastida]] ([[Planta]]e) **[[Provora]]<ref name="Provora">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tikhonenkov DV, Mikhailov KV, Gawryluk RM, Belyaev AO, Mathur V, Karpov SA, Zagumyonnyi DG, Borodina AS, Prokina KI, Mylnikov AP, Aleoshin VV, Keeling PJ |display-authors=3 |title=Microbial predators form a new supergroup of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |date=December 2022 |volume=612 |issue=7941 |pages=714–719 |pmid=36477531 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05511-5 |s2cid=254436650 }}</ref> *[[Hemimastigophora]] *[[Metamonada]] *[[Malawimonadida]] *[[Ancyromonadida]] *[[CRuMs]] *[[Amorphea]] **[[Amoebozoa]] **[[Breviatea]] **[[Apusomonadida]] **[[Opisthokonta]] ***[[Holomycota]]<br>(incl. [[Fungi]]) ***[[Holozoa]]<br>(incl. [[Animal]]es) {{!}}- style="background:#e0d0b0;" {{!}} |synonyms = * Eucarya {{small|[[Carl Woese|Woese]] et al. 1990}}<ref name="w1990">{{cite journal |vauthors=Woese CR, Kandler O, Wheelis ML |author1-link=Carl Woese |author2-link=Otto Kandler |author3-link=Mark Wheelis |title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1990-06_87_12/page/4576 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=87 |issue=12 |pages=4576–4579 |date=June 1990 |pmid=2112744 |pmc=54159 |doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 |bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W |doi-access=free }}</ref> * Eukarya {{small|[[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]] 1996}}<ref name="Margulis 1996">{{cite journal |last=Margulis |first=Lynn |author-link=Lynn Margulis |name-list-style=vanc |title=Archaeal-eubacterial mergers in the origin of Eukarya: phylogenetic classification of life |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1996-02-06_93_3/page/1071 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=93 |issue=3 |date=6 February 1996 |doi=10.1073/pnas.93.3.1071 |pages=1071–1076}}</ref> }} '''Eucaryotes''' es organismos vivente cuje [[cellula (biologia)|cellula]]s ha [[nucleo (biologia)|nucleo]]s e altere organellos delimitate per membranas. Illos forma un [[dominio (rango taxonomic)|dominio]] (nomine scientific '''''Eukaryota''''' del [[greco ancian|greco]]: ευ/eu, ''bene'' o ''vere'' + κάρυον/karyon, ''nuce'' o ''nucleo'' con suffixo -ώτης (-ṓtēs)), un del tres in que tote le vita cellular es dividite. Illos include [[animal]]es, [[planta]]s, [[fungo]]s e alcun altere organismos unicellular ([[Protista|protistos]]) o multicellular. == Supertaxones == * [[Biota (taxon)|Biota]] == Phylogenia == Se pensa que le prime eucaryotes se formava de un [[archeo]] con {{Ill|fr|endosymbiose}} de al minus un [[Alphaproteobacteria|α─Proteobacteria]] (devenite su [[mitochondrio]]). Le prime [[Protista|protistos]] cognite haberea vivite desde 2.1 [[milliardo]]s de annos in le {{Ill|en|deposito de Moulendé|Francevillian biota}} in [[Gabon]].<ref>[[Abderrazak El Albani|A. El Albani]], K.O. Konhauser, A. Somogyi, J. Ngwalghoubou Ikouanga, A. Lamboux, J. Blichert-Toft, E. Chi-Fru, C. Fontaine, A. Mazurier, A. Riboulleau, A.-C. Pierson-Wickmann, F. Albarède, "A search for life in Palaeoproterozoic marine sediments using Zn isotopes and geochemistry", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, volume 612 (2023) [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118169 DOI:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118169]</ref> Le {{Ill|en|horologio molecular|molecular clock}} indica un edade del ultime eukaryotic commun ancestre ({{Ill|en|LECA|Eukaryogenesis}}) inter 1.2 e 1.8 [[Gigaanno|Ga]] (milliardos de annos).<ref name=Brocks2023>{{Cite journal |language=en |author=Brocks, J.J., Nettersheim, B.J., Adam, P. ''et al.'' |title=Lost world of complex life and the late rise of the eukaryotic crown |journal=Nature |date=2023-06-07 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06170-w }}</ref> Se pensa que le prime eucaryotas moderne (characterisate per lor membrana [[sterol]]es) serea apparite desde 1000 Ma e le [[Rodophyta|Rodophytos]] 800 Ma retro, ma formas anterior, usante protosteroles serea apparite ante.<ref>{{Cite Q|Q134350159}}</ref> Lor apparition haberea essite favorisate per le [[Grande Oxydation]] evento (2.4 Ga - 2.0 Ga).<ref>{{Doi|10.1111/gbi.12576}}</ref> {{Clade | style= font-size:85%; line-height:85% | label1=[[Eukaryota]]&nbsp; |label1='''Eukaryotes''' |sublabel1=2200 Ma? |{{clade |label1=[[Diphoda]] |sublabel1=Bikonts |1={{clade |label1=[[Diaphoretickes]] |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Cryptista]] [[File:Rhodomonas salina CCMP 322.jpg|70px]] |label2=[[Archaeplastida]] |sublabel2= 1600 Ma |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=[[Rhodophyta]] (red algae) |sublabel1= 1600 Ma |1=[[File:Bangia.jpg|40 px]] |label2=[[Picozoa]] |2=[[File:Picomonas judraskeda (SEM).png|30px]] }} |2={{clade |label1=[[Glaucophyta]] |sublabel1= 1100 Ma |1=[[File:Glaucocystis sp.jpg|60 px]] |label2=[[Viridiplantae]] (plants) |sublabel2= 1000 Ma |2=[[File:Pediastrum (cropped).jpg|60 px]] }} }} }} |2={{clade |3=[[Hemimastigophora]] [[File:Hemimastix amphikineta.png|40 px]] |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Haptista]] [[File:Acanthocystis labeled Picture1.1.png|60 px]] |label2=[[TSAR]] |2={{clade |1=[[Telonemia]] [[File:Telonema rivulare (electron micrography).jpg|60px]] |label2=[[SAR supergroup|SAR]] |2={{clade |label1=[[Halvaria]] |1={{clade |1=[[Stramenopiles]] [[File:Ochromonas.png|40 px]] [[File:Gemeiner Blasentang.jpg|40 px]] |2=[[Alveolata]] [[File:Ceratium furca.jpg|80 px]] }} |label2=[[Rhizaria]] |sublabel2= 550 Ma |2=[[File:Ammonia tepida.jpg|60 px]] }} }} }} |2=[[Provora]] [[File:Outline drawing of Ubysseya fretuma.svg|50px]] }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=[[Discoba]] (Excavata) [[File:Euglena mutabilis - 400x - 1 (10388739803) (cropped).jpg|55px]] |2=? [[Metamonada]] [[File:Giardia lamblia.jpg|60px]] }} }} |label2=[[Opimoda]] |2={{clade |1=[[Ancyromonadida]] [[File:Ancyromonas.png|40px]] |2={{clade |1=[[Malawimonad]]a [[File:Malawimonas.jpg|40px]] |2={{clade |label1=[[CRuMs]] |1= [[File:Collodictyon pseudopodoa (extracted).jpg|40px]] |label2=[[Amorphea]] |sublabel2=1500 Ma |2={{clade |label1=[[Amoebozoa]] |1= [[File:Chaos carolinensis Wilson 1900.jpg|45 px]] |label2=[[Obazoa]] |2={{clade |1=[[Breviatea]] [[File:Mastigamoeba invertens (extracted).jpg|75px]] |2={{clade |1=[[Apusomonadida]] [[File:Podomonas kaiyoae C.jpg|60 px]] |label2=[[Opisthokonta]] |sublabel2=1300 Ma |2={{clade |label1=[[Holomycota]] |1={{clade |1=[[Cristidiscoidea|Nucleariae]] [[File:Nuclearia_sp_Nikko.jpg|54px]] |2='''[[Fungi]]''' [[File:2006-10-25_Amanita_muscaria_crop.jpg|70px]] }} |label2=[[Holozoa]] |sublabel2=1100 Ma |2={{clade |1=[[Mesomycetozoa]] [[File:Sphaeroforma_arctica.jpg|60px]] |2={{clade |1=[[Pluriformea]] [[File:Corallochytrium_limacisporum.png|70px]] |label2 =[[Filozoa]] |2={{clade |1=[[Filasterea]] [[File:Ministeria_vibrans.jpeg|70px]] |label2=[[Apoikozoa]] |2={{clade |1=[[Choanoflagellatea]] [[File:Protero-7.png|70px]] |2='''[[Animalia]]''' [[File:Bonobo.jpg|60px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} [[Categoria:Eukaryota| ]] {{pecietta|biologia}} 63x2f442vqfb7zy28wl5hqmdxagp40p 0 34233 698274 659911 2026-08-04T00:11:55Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698274 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = ''Homo habilis'' | fossil_range = {{fossil range|2.3|1.65}} | image = KNM ER 1813 (H. habilis).png | image_caption = Reconstruction de [[KNM-ER 1813]]<br>al {{Ill|en|Naturmuseum Senckenberg}}. | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia <!--| infraregnum = [[Bilateria]]--> | phylum = [[Chordata]] | superclassis = [[Tetrapoda]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia <!--| subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | magnordo = [[Boreoeutheria]] | superordo = [[Euarchontoglires]]--> | ordo = [[Primate]]s | familia = [[Hominide|Hominidae]] | subfamilia = [[Homininae]] | tribus = [[Hominini]] | subtribus = [[Hominina]] | genus = ''[[Homo (taxon)|Homo]]'' | binomial = ''Homo habilis'' † | binomial_authority = [[Louis Leakey|Leakey]] ''et al.'', 1964 | synonyms = * ''Australopithecus habilis''<br/><small>Wood and Collard, 1999</small> * ''[[Homo microcranous]]''<br/><small>[[Walter Ferguson|Ferguson]], 1995</small> * ''[[Homo gautengensis]]'' ?<br/><small>Curnoe, 2010</small> * ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]'' ?<br/><small>Alexeev, 1986</small> | synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite journal|last=Antón|first=S. C.|year=2012|title=Early ''Homo'': Who, When, and Where|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=53|issue=6|page=279|doi=10.1086/667695|s2cid=84830570}}</ref> }} '''Homo habilis''' es un [[specie]] del [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] ''[[Homo (taxon)|Homo]]'', qui viveva in Africa del Est intra 2.3 e 1.5 milliones de anno. Es le plus ancian specie classicamente attribuate al genere ''Homo'' (con ''{{Ill|en|Homo rudolfensis}}'' qui poterea esser un synonymo). Le specie es qualificate de "habile" proque se pensava que esseva le prime [[hominin]] utilisante instrumentos. Depois, nos sape que ''[[Australopithecus]]'' o ''[[Paranthropus]]'' utilisava instrumentos un million de annos antea.<ref name=Dikika>{{cite journal |last1=McPherron |first1=S.P. |last2=Alemseged |first2=Z. |last3=Marean |first3=C.W. |last4=Wynn |first4=J.G. |last5=Reed |first5=D. |last6=Geraads |first6=D. |last7=Bobe |first7=R. |last8=Béarat |first8=H.A. |display-authors=6 |title=Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2010-08-12_466_7308/page/857 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=466 |issue=7308 |pages=857–860 |date=August 2010 |pmid=20703305 |doi=10.1038/nature09248 |s2cid=4356816 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..857M |quote=The oldest direct evidence of stone tool manufacture comes from [[Gona, Ethiopia|Gona]] (Ethiopia) and dates to between 2.6 and 2.5 million years (Myr) ago. [...] Here we report stone-tool-inflicted marks on bones found during recent survey work in Dikika, Ethiopia [... showing] unambiguous stone-tool cut marks for flesh removal [..., dated] to between 3.42 and 3.24 Myr ago [...] Our discovery extends by approximately 800,000 years the antiquity of stone tools and of stone-tool-assisted consumption of ungulates by hominins; furthermore, this behaviour can now be attributed to Australopithecus afarensis.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ces outils ont 3 millions d’années et n’auraient pas été fabriqués par nos ancêtres|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.fr/histoire/2023/02/ces-outils-ont-3-millions-dannees-et-nauraient-pas-ete-fabriques-par-nos-ancetres||publisher=Geo}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Thomas W. Plummer ''et al.''|title=Expanded geographic distribution and dietary strategies of the earliest Oldowan hominins and Paranthropus |journal=[[Science]] |volume=379|pages=561-566|date=2023-02-09 |doi=10.1126/science.abo7452}}</ref> Iste specie es describite in 1964 per Louis Leakey, Phillip Tobias e John Napier, post le discoperta in 1960 de prime fossiles in le sitio de Olduvai in [[Tanzania]]. Del facto de su longevitate, Homo habilis cohabitava in Africa con species de ''[[Australopithecus]]'' e ''[[Paranthropus]]'', plus primitive, e con su descendente plus evoluate: ''[[Homo ergaster]]''. {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Hominidae]] 8hchz0fk2v6bnppu2ou5wp807oq9gwi 0 34543 698279 660475 2026-08-04T00:15:53Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698279 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox |name = Holomycota <!--|fossil_range = {{long fossil range|736|0|earliest=1577|ref=<ref name="Parfrey2011">{{cite Q|Q24614721|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>}}--> | image = Nuclearia sp Nikko.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Nuclearia]]'' |domain = [[Eukaryota]] |subdomain = [[Opimoda]] |infradomain = [[Amorphea]] |unranked_regnum = [[Opisthokonta]] |taxon = Holomycota |taxon_rank = [[Superregno(rango taxonomic)|Superregno]] |authority = Liu ''et al.'', 2009 | synonyms= * Nucletmycea <small>Brown et al. 2009</small><ref name="pmid19692665">{{cite journal |author=Brown MW, Spiegel FW, Silberman JD |title=Phylogeny of the "forgotten" cellular slime mold, Fonticula alba, reveals a key evolutionary branch within Opisthokonta |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2009-12_26_12/page/2699 |journal=Mol. Biol. Evol. |volume=26 |issue=12 |pages=2699–709 |date=December 2009 |pmid=19692665 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp185 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * Holofungi * Fungida |subdivision_ranks = [[Regno (rango taxonomic)|Regnos]] |subdivision = * [[Nucleariae]] * [[Fungo|Fungi]] }} '''Holomycota''' es un superregno de [[Eucaryote|Eukaryotes]] heterotrophe. [[Categoria:Opisthokonta]] qostdyy9iy06la1uujzxdvkryoeshm6 0 34555 698277 672182 2026-08-04T00:14:20Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Marchantiophyta | fossil_range = {{fossil range|472|0}}<br>[[Ordovician]] medie<ref name="Walker 2010">Walker, Matt. "Fossils of earliest land plants discovered in Argentina" [http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9079000/9079963.stm]. (BBC, Earth News, 2010).</ref> - [[Holoceno|presente]] | image = A mikxture of liverworts from Kunstformen der Natur (1904), plate 82.jpg | image_caption = Diverse hepaticos in ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'', 1904 | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Planta]]e | infraregnum = [[Streptophyta]] | superdivisio = [[Embryophyta]] | taxon = Marchantiophyta | taxon_rank = [[Division (rango taxonomic)|Division]] | authority = Stotler & Stotl.-Crand., 1977<ref name="Stotlers 1977">{{cite journal | author = Raymond E. Stotler, Barbara J. Candall-Stotler | year = 1977 | title = A checklist of the liverworts and hornworts of North America | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_bryologist_fall-1977_80_3/page/405 | journal = The Bryologist | volume=80 | pages=405–428 | doi = 10.2307/3242017 | jstor = 3242017 | issue = 3 | publisher = American Bryological and Lichenological Society }}</ref> emend. 2000<ref name="Stotlers 2000">{{cite book | last1=Crandall-Stotler | first1=Barbara | last2=Stotler | first2=Raymond E. | year=2000 | chapter=Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta | page=21 |editor=A. Jonathan Shaw |editor2=Bernard Goffinet | title=Bryophyte Biology | location=Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-66097-1 }}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = [[Classe (rango taxonomic)|Classes]] e [[Ordine (rango taxonomic)|ordines]] | subdivision = * [[Haplomitriopsida]] ** [[Calobryales]] ** [[Treubiales]] * [[Marchantiopsida]] ** [[Blasiales]] ** [[Lunulariales]] ** [[Marchantiales]] ** [[Neohodgsoniales]] ** [[Sphaerocarpales]] * [[Jungermanniopsida]] ** [[Fossombroniales]] ** [[Jungermanniales]] ** [[Metzgeriales]] ** [[Pallaviciniales]] ** [[Pelliales]] ** [[Pleuroziales]] ** [[Porellales]] ** [[Ptilidiales]] }} '''Marchantiophyta''' o '''hepaticos''' es un [[Division (rango taxonomic)|division]] de [[planta]]s [[Embryophyta|terrestre]] non [[Tracheophyta|vascular]]. Es le [[kingruppo]] del [[Bryophyta|muscos]]. Lor divergentia es datate de 485 [[Megaanno|Ma]].<ref name=Hu2023>{{cite journal | author=Ruoyang Hu, Xuedong Li, Yong Hu (...) Stefan A. Rensing, Ralf Reski & Yikun He |date=2023-08-09|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2023.07.003| title=Adaptive evolution of the enigmatic ''Takakia'' now facing climate change in Tibet | journal=Cell | volume=186 |issue=17 | pages=3558-3576 }}</ref> ==Phylogenia== {{Cladogramma Embryophyta}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Marchantiophyta| ]] 75f5a1x71zn8t0cvp408noe4q6u323x 0 34574 698192 663682 2026-08-03T21:59:09Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698192 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Tetrapoda | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|350|0|earliest=Eifelian|[[Tournaisian]] - [[Holoceno|Presente]]}}<ref name="NiedźwiedzkiSzrek2010">{{cite journal |last1=Niedźwiedzki|first1=Grzegorz |last2=Szrek|first2=Piotr |last3=Narkiewicz|first3=Katarzyna |last4=Narkiewicz|first4=Marek|last5=Ahlberg|first5=Per E. |title=Tetrapod trackways from the early Middle Devonian period of Poland |journal=Nature|volume=463|issue=7277 |date=7 January 2010|pages=43–48|issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/nature08623|pmid=20054388|bibcode=2010Natur.463...43N|s2cid=4428903}}</ref> | image = Tetrapoda.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = In senso de lectura: ''[[Mercurana|Mercurana myristicapaulstris]]'', ''[[Dermophis mexicanus]]'';<br>''[[Tachyglossus aculeatus]]'', ''[[Equus quagga]]''; ''[[Pseudotrapelus sinaitus]]'', ''[[Sterna maxima]]''. | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia <!--| subregnum = [[Bilateria]]--> | phylum = [[Chordata]] | subphylum = [[Vertebrata]] | infraphylum = [[Gnathostomata]] | unranked_classis1= [[Teleostomi]] | unranked_classis = [[Sarcopterygii]] |taxon = Tetrapoda |taxon_rank = [[Superclasse (rango taxonomic)|Superclasse]] |authority = [[Berthold Hatschek|Hatschek]] & Cori, 1896<br>[''[[Michel Laurin|Laurin]]'']<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hatschek|first1=B.|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15974|title=Elementarcus der Zootomie in fünfzen Vorlesungen|last2=Cori|first2=C. J.|publisher=Gustav Fischer|year=1896|location=Jena|language=de|trans-title=Elementary Zootomy in Fifteen Lectures}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Phylonyms: A Companion to the PhyloCode|publisher=CRC Press|year=2020|isbn=978-1-138-33293-5|editor-last=de Queiroz|editor-first=K.|location=Boca Raton|pages=759–764|language=|chapter=''Tetrapoda'' B. Hatschek and C. J. Cori 1896 [M. Laurin], converted clade name|editor-last2=Cantino|editor-first2=P. D.|editor-last3=Gauthier|editor-first3=J. A.}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = Subgruppos |subdivision = * [[Batrachomorpha]] / [[Amphibia]] ** diverse extincte clados ** [[Lissamphibia]] * [[Reptiliomorpha]] / [[Panamniota]] ** diverse extincte clados ** [[Amniota]] ([[acrogruppo]]) *** [[Synapsida]] *** [[Sauropsida]] }} '''Tetrapodes'''<ref>{{LinfoXL2|es=tetrápodos|it=tetrapodi|fr=tétrapodes}}<br>cf. [[octopode]], del latin ''octōpūs'', [[accusativo|acc.]] ''octōpodem''.</ref> es un [[superclasse (rango taxonomic)|superclasse]] (nomine scientific '''Tetrapoda'''<ref>del grec τετρᾰ- 'quatro' e πους 'pede' (neutre plural ποδᾰ)</ref>) que contine le [[vertebratos]] con quatro membros (a un momento de su evolution). A istos pertine [[amphibio]]s, [[Sauropsida]] ("[[Reptilia|reptiles]]" — iste [[taxon]] es [[Paraphylia|paraphyletic]] — e [[aves]]) e [[mammiferos]] includente [[human]]es. Hodie, tetrapodes tine circa 33'000 [[specie]]s. ==Phylogenia== Secundo Schoch & Frobisch (2009):<ref name="FrobischSchoch2009">{{cite journal |last1=Frobisch |first1=N. B. |last2=Schoch |first2=R.R. |title=Testing the Impact of Miniaturization on Phylogeny: Paleozoic Dissorophoid Amphibians |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_2009-06_58_3/page/312 |journal=Systematic Biology |volume=58 |issue=3 |year=2009 |pages=312–327 |issn=1063-5157 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/syp029 |pmid=20525586 |doi-access=free}}</ref> {{clade| style=width:auto;font-size:85%;line-height:100% |label1=&nbsp;'''Tetrapoda'''&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;basal Tetrapoda&nbsp; |state1=double |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Temnospondyli]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;basal Temnospondyli&nbsp; |state1=double |label2=&nbsp;[[Dissorophoidea]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Amphibamidae]] † &nbsp; |2=&nbsp;'''[[Anura]]''' [[File:The tailless batrachians of Europe (Page 194) (Pelobates fuscus).jpg|45 px]] }} |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Branchiosauridae]] † [[File:Branchiosaurus_BW.jpg|70 px]] |2=&nbsp;'''[[Urodela]]''' [[File:Salamandra salamandra (white background).jpg|70 px]] }} }} }} |2={{clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Lepospondyli]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Lysorophia]] † [[File:Lysorophus.jpg|70 px]] |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;'''[[Gymnophiona]]''' [[File:Syphonops annulatus cropped.jpg|70 px]] |2=&nbsp;[[Microsauria]] † [[File:Hyloplesion.jpg|70 px]] }} }} }} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Seymouriamorpha]] † [[File:Karpinskiosaurus1DB.jpg|70 px]] |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Diadectomorpha]] † [[File:Diadectes1DB (flipped).jpg|70 px]] |2=&nbsp;'''[[Amniota]]''' [[File:British reptiles, amphibians, and fresh-water fishes (1920) (Lacerta agilis).jpg|70 px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Tetrapoda| ]] 4todrcn96uh0sstqb0lids8ql11kyaz 0 34623 698210 663421 2026-08-03T22:38:59Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Euarchontoglires | fossil_range = [[Paleoceno]]-[[Holoceno|Presente]] {{fossil range|66|0|earliest=96}} forsan [[Cretaceo]] tardive | image_width = 250px | image = Euarchontoglires 1.jpg | image_caption = De alto ad basso (sinistre): [[ratto]], [[tupaia|tupaia]], [[colugo]]; (dextera) [[lepore]], [[macaco]] con [[human]]. | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | superlegio = [[Boreoeutheria]] |taxon = Euarchontoglires |taxon_rank = [[Legion (rango taxonomic)|Legion]] |authority = Murphy ''et al.'', 2001<ref name=Murphy2001>{{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=William J. |last2=Eizirik |first2=Eduardo |last3=O'Brien |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Madsen |first4=Ole |last5=Scally |first5=Mark |last6=Douady |first6=Christophe J. |last7=Teeling |first7=Emma |last8=Ryder |first8=Oliver A. |last9=Stanhope |first9=Michael J. |last10=de&nbsp;Jong |first10=Wilfried W. |last11=Springer |first11=Mark S. |title=Resolution of the early placental mammal radiation using Bayesian phylogenetics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2001-12-14_294_5550/page/2348 |doi=10.1126/science.1067179 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=294 |issue=5550 |pages=2348–2351 |year=2001 |pmid=11743200|s2cid=34367609 }}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = Sublegiones e ordines |subdivision = * [[Euarchonta]] ** [[Primatomorpha]] ** [[Scandentia]] * [[Glires]] ** [[Lagomorpha]] ** [[Rodentia]] }} '''Euarchontoglires''' es un [[Legion (rango taxonomic)|legion]]<ref>Classification con legion.</ref> o [[Superordine (rango taxonomic)|superordine]]<ref>Classification con mirordine.</ref> de [[mammiferos]] [[Placentarios|placentari]]. ==Phylogenia== [[File:OrthoMaM v10b 2019 116genera circular tree.svg|thumb|right|[[Cladistica|Position phylogenetic]] del Euarchontoglires (in [[blau]]) inter actual [[mammiferos]].<ref name=Scornavacca2019>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scornavacca C, Belkhir K, Lopez J, Dernat R, Delsuc F, Douzery EJ, Ranwez V | title = OrthoMaM v10: Scaling-up orthologous coding sequence and exon alignments with more than one hundred mammalian genomes | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 861–862 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30698751 | pmc = 6445298 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msz015 }}</ref>]] {{Cladogramma Euarchontoglires}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Mammalia]] [[Categoria:Euarchontoglires| ]] nl9nww8nkcrli0hfqbu0sy3xy23o1m4 0 34796 698203 663441 2026-08-03T22:33:03Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698203 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Cetartiodactyla | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|55.4|0}} [[Eoceno]] precoce – [[Holoceno|Presente]] | image = The Cetartiodactyla.jpg | image_caption = | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | superlegio = [[Boreoeutheria]] | legio = [[Laurasiatheria]] | sublegio = [[Scrotifera]] | infralegio = [[Fereuungulata]] |taxon = [[Cetartiodactyla]] |taxon_rank = [[Ordine (rango taxonomic)|Ordine]] | authority = Montgelard {{etal}}, 1997 | subdivision_ranks = Infraordines | subdivision = *[[Tylopoda]] *[[Artiofabula]] **[[Suina]] **[[Cetruminantia]] ***[[Ruminantia]] ***[[Whippomorpha]] ****[[Ancodonta]] ****[[Cetacea]] }} '''Cetartiodactyla''' es un [[Ordine (rango taxonomic)|ordine]] de [[Mammiferos]] [[Placentarios|placentari]]. Definite in 1997,<ref>{{Cite journal|lingua=en|author=C. Montgelard, F.M. Catzeflis et E. Douzery|date=1997|title=Phylogenetic Relationships of Artiodactyls and Cetaceans as Deduced from the Comparison of Cytochrome b and 12s rRNA Mitochondrial Sequences|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_1997-05_14_5/page/550|journal=Mol. Biol. Evol.|volume=14|issue=5|pages=550-559}}.</ref> illo integra le previe ordines [[Artiodactyla]] e [[Cetacea]], conformemente a lor [[phylogenia]]. ===Subtaxones=== *subordine [[Tylopoda]] *subordine [[Suina]] *subordine [[Cetancodonta]] (= [[Cetancodonta|Whippomorpha]]) **infraordine [[Hippopotamidae|Ancodonta]] **infraordine [[Cetacea]] ***parvordine [[Mysticeti]] ***parvordine [[Odontoceti]] *subordine [[Ruminantia]] ==Phylogenia== {{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100% |label1= &nbsp;[[Cetartiodactyla]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1= &nbsp;[[Tylopoda]] (camelos) [[File:Cladogram of Cetacea within Artiodactyla (Camelus bactrianus).png|50 px]] |label2=&nbsp;[[Artiofabula]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |1= &nbsp;[[Suina]] (porcos) [[File:Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des mammifères (Pl. 80) (white background).jpg|50 px]] |label2= &nbsp;[[Cetruminantia]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |label1= &nbsp;[[Ruminantia]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1= &nbsp;[[Tragulidae]] [[File:Tragulus napu - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).jpg|50 px]] |2= &nbsp;[[Pecora]] [[File:Walia ibex illustration white background.png|50 px]] }} |label2= &nbsp;[[Cetancodonta]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |1= &nbsp;[[Hippopotamidae]] [[File:Voyage en Abyssinie Plate 2 (white background).jpg|50 px]] |2= &nbsp;[[Cetacea]] [[File:Bowhead-Whale1 (16273933365).jpg|50 px]] }} }} }} }} }} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Placentalia]] [[Categoria:Cetartiodactyla| ]] ofpe1shnyvuyxf7uvyyz43olp6an76b 102 39816 698288 698063 2026-08-04T10:30:46Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 698288 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P105 wd:Q36602 } |wdq= |columns=item,label,P225,P171,P18,description |thumb=32 |links=red |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! nomine del taxon ! taxon superior immediate ! imagine ! description |- | [[:d:Q1357|Q1357]] | [[Aranea]] | Araneae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Tetrapulmonata]]<br/>[[Araneida]]<ref name="ref_28849539e5ecf3322721ce7ab671ac2332ebfbfaefd7b7a465aecd99e96353c6">https://joergwunderlich.de/Downloads/Beitr._Araneol._Band_12_(2019).pdf</ref> | [[File:Spiders Diversity.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3689|Q3689]] | [[Pedunculata]] | Pedunculata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Thoracica]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Gooseneckbarnacles.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4610|Q4610]] | [[Decapoda]] | Decapoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ee8537fe54ade0dcdc4fbfa63340b3c335371f7829b3e40edc08a503500cf708">''[[:d:Q104204003|Uptaded checklist, historical overview and illustrated guide to the stygobiont Malacostraca (Arthropoda: Crustacea) species of Yucatan (Mexico)]]''</ref> | [[Eucarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Decapoda.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4758|Q4758]] | [[Gymnophiona]] | Gymnophiona<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_4edc7d9c77b0f50e3e2fe5e6bbf730c7d1c38e44387336ff61d30ae5641cb114">''[[:d:Q19978589|Class Amphibia Gray, 1825]]''</ref> | [[Lissamphibia]]<br/>[[amphibio]]<ref 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2013 v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb05d964c30a45fef07328fb0f9fc143725f04c72f1ebf9d3684c09fab1ed17c">''[[:d:Q24716610|ICTV Master Species List 2014 v4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14768e152946c11f036e10c2a6237af5f4ef8201b49bc4d154dcb9b5bc43504e">''[[:d:Q24571893|ICTV Master Species List 2015 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_340ce0d1fe54d6ea21cccd266d1800d30938dc28d8254ab31e91911ec8d21145">''[[:d:Q29000566|ICTV Master Species List 2016 v1.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3a1938395f14813c837ce1783f840d59a65323c465dcd06b4d1af160cdeff86f">''[[:d:Q69578243|ICTV Master Species List 2009]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5ea60a2f5237ff289cab894c54f4a7214ec821f4eca82f4a18015312f162d390">''[[:d:Q69577927|ICTV Master Species List 2011]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c5fbb4da26a55eb297e419b424ed5260340fdabc7bf32cded8c95ee5d79c42ce">''[[:d:Q69577800|ICTV Master Species List 2013]]''</ref> | [[File:Hepatitis A virus 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7380|Q7380]] | [[primate]] | Primates<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5bdbf8eee19b105ff04d66d13ee4f654eec1e2e0dd7692808ebb15629415fb16">''[[:d:Q21608408|Systema Naturae. 10th edition, Volume 1]]''</ref> | [[Primatomorpha]] | [[File:Primates - some families.jpg|center|32px]] | mammifero del ordine Primates |- | [[:d:Q10850|Q10850]] | [[Rodentia]] | Rodentia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref><ref name="ref_887215f3b5fdc9eddac9227c0336721c56eeace94c6e1af797038c9a5a71373b">''[[:d:Q27044125|Handbook of the Mammals of the World. 6. Lagomorphs and Rodents I]]''</ref> | [[Glires]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref><br/>[[Simplicidentata]] | [[File:Tamias striatus CT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13676|Q13676]] | [[Dermaptera]] | Dermaptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]]<br/>[[Haplocercata]]<ref name="ref_bfb68a78f1f6fe9ff6cf88c875b7263373ffd7ad24a431ecbbe1de9be5260767">''[[:d:Q54311073|Mantophasmatodea and phylogeny of the lower neopterous insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Cadeladefrade 045eue.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14272|Q14272]] | [[Geraniales]] | Geraniales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:GeraniumPalustre2.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17160|Q17160]] | [[Ascaridida]] | Ascaridida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Secernentea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Anisakids.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17162|Q17162]] | [[Diplogasterida]] | Diplogasterida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Chromadorea]]<br/>[[Secernentea]] | [[File:Roundworm.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17164|Q17164]] | [[Rhabditida]] | Rhabditida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhabditia]]<ref name="ref_1a2d60ebf70a4e62cc9a7ae6753dd6c6a96900fb525c591016e68fc251ca4e35">''[[:d:Q82494|National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | [[File:Dictyocaulus-viviparus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17165|Q17165]] | [[Spirurida]] | Spirurida | [[Spiruria]] | [[File:Microfilaria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17166|Q17166]] | [[Strongylida]] | Strongylida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhabditida]] | [[File:Dictyocaulus-viviparus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19107|Q19107]] | [[Trigonotarbida]] | Trigonotarbida | [[arachnido]] | [[File:20201208 Trigonotarbida trigonotarbid.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19111|Q19111]] | [[Amblypygi]] | Amblypygi<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_44c908ef3fc03589ed8162f2cd1efe5232458ee4eabfbfa9cee1d6707068b2d4">''[[:d:Q20020125|Order Amblypygi Thorell, 1883]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Amblypigid.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19114|Q19114]] | [[Phalangiotarbida]] | Phalangiotarbida | [[arachnido]] | [[File:20200828 Phalangiotarbi.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19116|Q19116]] | [[Opiliones]] | Opiliones<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bcb4b14908eb5417abdb5f3e8ba40fe21f44f419b77ed3746837b5a283108fbc">''[[:d:Q21060990|Order Opiliones Sundevall, 1833]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Opiliones harvestman.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19117|Q19117]] | [[Palpigradi]] | Palpigradi<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fb63d626e7b491c05376d97dc7f71f3bb94f044b1e6bf6942dafd1f70816fb2f">''[[:d:Q21056554|Order Palpigradi Thorell, 1888]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Live Eukoenenia spelaea in its cave habitat.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19119|Q19119]] | [[pseudoscorpion]] | Pseudoscorpiones<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e50b7b5ec00612475af5798a338ecf984fd830ea2b7e28780dc625bfe73cc1ed">''[[:d:Q21044758|Order Pseudoscorpiones de Geer, 1778]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<br/>[[Dromopoda]] | [[File:Neopseudogarypus scutellatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19120|Q19120]] | [[Ricinulei]] | Ricinulei<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_561a93aaaa11706eb7120df522f6a25a4017f35bfada3168c209af44e3c6161b">''[[:d:Q21055647|Order Ricinulei Thorell, 1876]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Cryptocellus goodnighti.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19123|Q19123]] | [[Schizomida]] | Schizomida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6fad576fe5d4d4e849b33171e945b315346eaa42e05bbfc16ec4002ca5597c46">''[[:d:Q21055535|Order Schizomida Petrunkevitch, 1945]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Hubbardia pentapeltis female.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19125|Q19125]] | [[Scorpiones]] | Scorpiones<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0e0ee91e0efe4aca4ead1c725a604be8804ff6486a7bf18f3e904f97ac14d5b6">''[[:d:Q20015114|Order Scorpiones C.L. Koch, 1850]]''</ref> | [[Arachnopulmonata]] | [[File:Asian forest scorpion in Khao Yai National Park.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19126|Q19126]] | [[Solifugae]] | Solifugae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a27d76ccef4ba1d8f8eef002861356893599be501408cf4a5aeb96481fac6029">''[[:d:Q21045193|Order Solifugae Sundevall, 1833]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<br/>[[Dromopoda]] | [[File:Solifugae collage.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19135|Q19135]] | [[Uropygi]] | Uropygi<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Whipscorpion.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19173|Q19173]] | [[Casuariiformes]] | 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[[:d:Q21021|Q21021]] | [[Ranunculales]] | Ranunculales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Eudicotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of 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System]]''</ref><br/>[[Pangalliformes]] | [[File:Meleagris ocellata1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21685|Q21685]] | [[Procellariiformes]] | Procellariiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 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name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Aequornithes]] | [[File:Saddle-Billed Stork.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21723|Q21723]] | [[Solanales]] | Solanales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Solanum melongena ja02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21728|Q21728]] | [[Suliformes]] | Suliformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Aequornithes]] | [[File:Northern Gannet 2006 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21730|Q21730]] | [[Asterales]] | Asterales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[campanulids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:A sunflower.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21736|Q21736]] | [[Accipitriformes]] | Accipitriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Accipitrimorphae]] | [[File:Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis Full Body 1880px.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21737|Q21737]] | [[Ericales]] | Ericales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Asterids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:RhododendronSimsiiFlowers2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21742|Q21742]] | [[Lamiales]] | Lamiales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Lamium album4 ies.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21754|Q21754]] | [[Gentianales]] | Gentianales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Gentiana cruciata 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21761|Q21761]] | [[Garryales]] | Garryales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Aucuba1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21769|Q21769]] | [[Cornales]] | Cornales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Asterids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Davidia1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21774|Q21774]] | [[Dipsacales]] | Dipsacales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[campanulids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Dipsacus fullonum (5006018895).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21779|Q21779]] | [[Aquifoliales]] | Aquifoliales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[campanulids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Ilex paraguariensis - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-074.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21788|Q21788]] | [[Austrobaileyales]] | Austrobaileyales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Angiospermae|angiosperms]]<ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Schisandra rubriflora.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21790|Q21790]] | [[Monotremas|Monotremata]] | Monotremata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Australosphenida]]<br/>[[Monotremaformes]] | [[File:Tachyglossus aculeatus side on.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21801|Q21801]] | [[Laurales]] | Laurales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[magnoliids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Laurus nobilis - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-086.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21808|Q21808]] | [[Caryophyllales]] | Caryophyllales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Core eudicots]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref> | [[File:Dianthus caryophyllus L (Clove pink).JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21838|Q21838]] | [[Proteales]] | Proteales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Eudicotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Pincushion hakea03.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21846|Q21846]] | [[Gunnerales]] | Gunnerales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Core eudicots]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Gunnera tinctoria0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21851|Q21851]] | [[Santalales]] | Santalales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Core eudicots]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref> | [[File:Starr 041006-0222 Santalum haleakalae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21855|Q21855]] | [[Saxifragales]] | Saxifragales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Core eudicots]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref> | [[File:Corylopsis pauciflora0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21860|Q21860]] | [[Crossosomatales]] | Crossosomatales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Staphylea colchica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21866|Q21866]] | [[Myrtales]] | Myrtales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Lumnitzera littorea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21870|Q21870]] | [[Celastrales]] | Celastrales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Euonymus europaeus Sturm20.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21875|Q21875]] | [[Cucurbitales]] | Cucurbitales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:2006-10-18Cucurbita pepo02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21878|Q21878]] | [[Fabales]] | Fabales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Senna occidentalis(Flower).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21881|Q21881]] | [[Fagales]] | Fagales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Buchenwald 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21887|Q21887]] | [[Malpighiales]] | Malpighiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Starr 010309-0546 Calophyllum inophyllum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21891|Q21891]] | [[Oxalidales]] | Oxalidales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Ceratopetalum apetalum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21895|Q21895]] | [[Rosales]] | Rosales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Illustration Rosa majalis0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21899|Q21899]] | [[Zygophyllales]] | Zygophyllales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Fabidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Guaiacum officinale - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-069.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21904|Q21904]] | [[Brassicales]] | Brassicales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:(MHNT) Alliaria petiolata - flowers.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21908|Q21908]] | [[Malvales]] | Malvales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Alcea setosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22651|Q22651]] | [[Hymenoptera]] | Hymenoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b45db12340ef56a39564b11feb35b5d29cf9043198725202edef4667253be57b">''[[:d:Q21073958|Order Hymenoptera]]''</ref> | [[Endopterygota]]<br/>[[Holometabola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Hymenopterida]] | [[File:Hymenoptere(s).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22671|Q22671]] | [[Coleoptero|Coleoptera]] | Coleoptera<ref 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history of insect phylogenetics]]''</ref><br/>[[Coleopteroidea]]<ref name="ref_3b041b8940889283b7736a24e58f8ce0d692c5bfdf22bdf581a157ca99478b5d">''[[:d:Q110445386|Taxonomic Review of Fossil Coleopterous Families (Insecta, Coleoptera). Suborder Archostemata: Superfamilies Coleopseoidea and Cupedoidea]]''</ref> | [[File:Lucanus cervus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25222|Q25222]] | [[Strigiformes]] | Strigiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Afroaves]] | [[File:Northern Spotted Owl.USFWS.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25306|Q25306]] | [[carnivoros]] | Carnivora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c6218d0a50fceb63b21474b8c40d640575950a9bcf95ae437a38e98c3858bad5">''[[:d:Q21682704|Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 1: Carnivores.]]''</ref> | [[Carnivoraformes]]<br/>[[Placentarios]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Laurasiatheria]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | [[File:Carnivora.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25309|Q25309]] | [[Blattodea]] | Blattodea<ref name="ref_28ed610376f49021ac98ca9938899486a906ce28c9d6f875ad22c75eff232cb7">''[[:d:Q21062128|Order Blattodea Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1882]]''</ref> | [[Dictyoptera]]<br/>[[Polyneoptera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Blaberus giganteus MHNT dos.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25312|Q25312]] | [[Diptera]] | Diptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Holometabola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Antliophora]]<ref name="ref_02af895060b425d12c2753dbdea43a4b501bb7cc8f8f27e68e4380571e63d14f">''[[:d:Q28072935|Progress, pitfalls and parallel universes: a history of insect phylogenetics]]''</ref> | [[File:Bessenbandzweefvlieg Vrouwtje (2).JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25329|Q25329]] | [[artiodactylos]] | Artiodactyla<ref 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7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Perissodactylamorpha]] | [[File:00296 zebra.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25375|Q25375]] | [[Odonata]] | Odonata<ref name="ref_ddeebe9b26413d6948a561218a6a1fbce14b2eda9936ef1c4a6d6377b3044226">''[[:d:Q13561342|World Odonata List]]''</ref><ref name="ref_87cd2e1b9094f34eaf134a55c538845e8e3fa5f4689b11cf5f4d88766f3855ef">''[[:d:Q21076592|The classification and diversity of dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata)]]''</ref> | [[Odonatoptera]]<br/>[[Panodonata]]<ref name="ref_8230028630b8eb0936c830f674dcb646f6069ce02b9baa345dcc2a8665c5d3f6">https://bechly.lima-city.de/system.htm</ref><br/>[[Holodonata]] | [[File:Orthetrum cancellatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25401|Q25401]] | [[Lagomorpha]] | Lagomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Glires]] | [[File:Oryctolagus cuniculus Tasmania 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25431|Q25431]] | [[Sirenia]] | Sirenia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Placentarios]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Tethytheria]] | [[File:FL fig04.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25557|Q25557]] | [[Gruiformes]] | Gruiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Cypselomorphae]] | [[File:Caprimulgus macrurus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26229|Q26229]] | [[Asparagales]] | Asparagales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Asperge in bloei Asparagus officinalis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26308|Q26308]] | [[Proboscidea]] | Proboscidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Tethytheria]] | [[File:AfricanElephant.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26316|Q26316]] | [[Sapindales]] | Sapindales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Acer-negundo-total.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26332|Q26332]] | [[Diprotodontia]] | Diprotodontia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[File:Macropus agilis - 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26371|Q26371]] | [[Hemiptera]] | Hemiptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Paraneoptera]] | [[File:Aphis-nerii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q27187|Q27187]] | [[Magnoliales]] | Magnoliales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[magnoliids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Magnolia wieseneri.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q27287|Q27287]] | [[Piperales]] | Piperales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[magnoliids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Piper aduncum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q27341|Q27341]] | [[Alismatales]] | Alismatales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:AlismaPlant1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q27421|Q27421]] | [[Nymphaeales]] | Nymphaeales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Angiospermae|angiosperms]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Victoria amazonica full view.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1700838|Q1700838]] | [[Mesogastropoda]] | Mesogastropoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Prosobranchia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Aporrhais pespelecani 01.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1725165|Q1725165]] | [[Rhodobacterales]] | Rhodobacterales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Roseobacter strain HIMB11.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1725897|Q1725897]] | [[Textulariida]] | Textulariida | [[Textulariia]] | [[File:Textularia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1743193|Q1743193]] | [[Psamminida]] | Psamminida | [[Monothalamea]]<br/>[[Xenophyophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1744606|Q1744606]] | [[Anabantiformes]] | Anabantiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Percomorphaceae]] | [[File:Anabas testudineus.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1753162|Q1753162]] | [[Mononegavirales]] | Mononegavirales<ref name="ref_a5fd26998257214762eeb54d0cd502570b81d9abaf031014396ebb01a0e9b2e6">''[[:d:Q18810383|ICTV Master Species List 2013 v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb05d964c30a45fef07328fb0f9fc143725f04c72f1ebf9d3684c09fab1ed17c">''[[:d:Q24716610|ICTV Master Species List 2014 v4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14768e152946c11f036e10c2a6237af5f4ef8201b49bc4d154dcb9b5bc43504e">''[[:d:Q24571893|ICTV Master Species List 2015 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_340ce0d1fe54d6ea21cccd266d1800d30938dc28d8254ab31e91911ec8d21145">''[[:d:Q29000566|ICTV Master Species List 2016 v1.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_28ddf84f5adc8d599ea8e3fb39f748b891ac2aaae581fb618204c828bea24486">''[[:d:Q69579583|ICTV Master Species List 2005]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3a1938395f14813c837ce1783f840d59a65323c465dcd06b4d1af160cdeff86f">''[[:d:Q69578243|ICTV Master Species List 2009]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5ea60a2f5237ff289cab894c54f4a7214ec821f4eca82f4a18015312f162d390">''[[:d:Q69577927|ICTV Master Species List 2011]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c5fbb4da26a55eb297e419b424ed5260340fdabc7bf32cded8c95ee5d79c42ce">''[[:d:Q69577800|ICTV Master Species List 2013]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Monjiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref><br/>[[Virus]]<ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Ebola virus em.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1771937|Q1771937]] | [[Orchidales]] | Orchidales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Liliidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Ophrys fusca 12 maig 2006 040.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1787823|Q1787823]] | [[Pycnodontiformes]] | Pycnodontiformes | [[Neopterygii]] | [[File:Gyrodus hexagonus 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1808297|Q1808297]] | [[Primulales]] | Primulales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Heteromerae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Primulanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Primula-vulgaris-flower.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1810556|Q1810556]] | [[Branchiobdellida]] | Branchiobdellida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Clitellata]] | [[File:Signal crayfish branchiobdellid crop 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1820066|Q1820066]] | [[Lepidoziales]] | Lepidoziales | [[Jungermanniidae]] | [[File:Lepidozia reptans 150308.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1826165|Q1826165]] | [[Rafflesiales]] | Rafflesiales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rafflesianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Rafflesia kerrii Khao Sok.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1837596|Q1837596]] | [[Craciformes]] | Craciformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[ave]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Penelope jacquacu - Spix-Guan - Spix's Guan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1848923|Q1848923]] | [[Conophoralia]] | Conophoralia | [[Bursovaginoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1860104|Q1860104]] | [[Cyperales]] | Cyperales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Commelinidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Juncanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Cyperaceae spp Sturm2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1864811|Q1864811]] | [[Strigeatida]] | Strigeatida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Digenea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Schistosoma mansoni trematodes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1865934|Q1865934]] | [[Lituolida]] | Lituolida | [[Textulariia]] | [[File:Benthic foraminifera.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1869778|Q1869778]] | [[Lophosteiformes]] | Lophosteiformes | [[Osteichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1869783|Q1869783]] | [[Lophoziales]] | Lophoziales | [[Jungermanniidae]] | [[File:Lophozia ventricosa (b, 144808-474632) 6131.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1876138|Q1876138]] | [[Aistopoda]] | Aistopoda | [[Lepospondyli]] | [[File:Ophiderpeton BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1890041|Q1890041]] | [[Acanthobdellida]] | Acanthobdellida | [[Acanthobdellea]] | [[File:Dark-sharply-declinate-seta-on-anterior-end-of-body-of-the-A.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1915748|Q1915748]] | [[Entomotaeniata]] | Entomotaeniata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Prosobranchia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Pyramidella dolabrata 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1921355|Q1921355]] | [[Pachydermata]] | Pachydermata | [[Mammiferos]] | [[File:Tête d'hippopotame.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1929949|Q1929949]] | [[Echinorhynchida]] | Echinorhynchida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Palaeacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Acanthocephala Rhadinorhynchus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1932463|Q1932463]] | [[Captorhinida]] | Captorhinida | [[Amniota]] | [[File:Captorhinus aguti p.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1933082|Q1933082]] | [[Clathrinida]] | Clathrinida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Calcinea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Clathrina clathrus Scarpone 055.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1933705|Q1933705]] | [[Polycarpicae]] | Polycarpicae | [[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Illicium anisatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-075.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1933995|Q1933995]] | [[Tylenchida]] | Tylenchida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Secernentea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Soybean cyst nematode and egg SEM.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1934211|Q1934211]] | [[Proetida]] | Proetida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Librostoma]]<br/>[[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Aulacopleura konincki.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1935420|Q1935420]] | [[Poduromorpha]] | Poduromorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[Collembola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[File:Springbeestjes.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1935871|Q1935871]] | [[Filobasidiales]] | Filobasidiales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | [[File:Cryptococcus neoformans using a light India ink staining preparation PHIL 3771 lores.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1935915|Q1935915]] | [[Psilotales]] | Psilotales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Ophioglossidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><br/>[[Psilotopsida]]<ref name="ref_638b1feaccb1f617ca21a7b1ab7fc84edc66250f9ade0e635c314ba333c678f7">http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p054.pdf</ref><br/>[[Psilotidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Psilotum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1935922|Q1935922]] | [[Lahmiales]] | Lahmiales | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1938798|Q1938798]] | [[Symmetrodonta]] | Symmetrodonta | [[Trechnotheria]] | [[File:Zhangheotherium quinquecuspidens.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1939335|Q1939335]] | [[Dorylaimida]] | Dorylaimida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Adenophorea]] | [[File:Roundworm.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1939823|Q1939823]] | [[Calosphaeriales]] | Calosphaeriales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | [[File:2008-04-27 Pleurostoma vibratilis 53100.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1939830|Q1939830]] | [[Boliniales]] | Boliniales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | [[File:Unidentified myxomycete 2005-08-07.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1940074|Q1940074]] | [[Neelipleona]] | Neelipleona<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[Collembola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[File:Neelus murinus (14048834018).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1941269|Q1941269]] | [[Murrayonida]] | Murrayonida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Calcinea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1943355|Q1943355]] | [[Cystofilobasidiales]] | Cystofilobasidiales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1943519|Q1943519]] | [[Palaeonemertea]] | Palaeonemertea | [[Anopla]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Cephalothrix linearis.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1943543|Q1943543]] | [[Heteronemertea]] | Heteronemertea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pilidiophora]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Proboscis worm.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1945948|Q1945948]] | [[Bivalvulida]] | Bivalvulida | [[Myxosporea]] | [[File:Myxobolus spinacurvatura.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1947754|Q1947754]] | [[Medeolariales]] | Medeolariales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1949507|Q1949507]] | [[Megasecoptera]] | Megasecoptera | [[Palaeodictyopteroidea]] | [[File:Larvae and adults of Mischoptera.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1952081|Q1952081]] | [[Archodonata]] | Archodonata | [[Palaeodictyopteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1956526|Q1956526]] | [[Mycocaliciales]] | Mycocaliciales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43744c9fd886c7a8ff9136cedead73792ef171b2d2864c210485d69ad00e4111">''[[:d:Q59876635|Mycocaliciales, a New Order for Nonlichenized Calicioid Fungi]]''</ref> | [[Mycocaliciomycetidae]] | [[File:Phaeocalicium curtisii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1968304|Q1968304]] | [[Lithistida]] | Lithistida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Demospongiae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Lithistida - Cupulina elata.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1973300|Q1973300]] | [[Aristolochiales]] | Aristolochiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Magnoliidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Lactoridanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Aristolochia paucinervis FlowersCloseup3 12April2009 DehesaBoyaldePuertollano.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1983748|Q1983748]] | [[Aulacocerida]] | Aulacocerida | [[Belemnoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1985258|Q1985258]] | [[Hydatellales]] | Hydatellales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Commelinidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Hydatellanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1990870|Q1990870]] | [[Euphorbiales]] | Euphorbiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Euphorbianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Podostemanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Euphorbia cyparissias-04 (xndr).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1992632|Q1992632]] | [[Thecideida]] | Thecideida | [[Rhynchonellata]] | [[File:ThecideanZalas.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1993675|Q1993675]] | [[Amoebida]] | Amoebida<ref name="ref_0ddb104a7fca4a28eeafc2c5197ec05d38be0d46b41abb635b28e3113cdfa524">''[[:d:Q2574835|MycoBank]]''</ref> | [[Tubulinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2008481|Q2008481]] | [[Thermozodia]] | Thermozodia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | [[Mesotardigrada]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2017638|Q2017638]] | [[Echinostomida]] | Echinostomida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Digenea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Fasciola hepatica.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2017895|Q2017895]] | [[Ligustrales]] | Ligustrales | [[Sympetalae]] | [[File:216 Ligustrum vulgare L.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2022298|Q2022298]] | [[Restionales]] | Restionales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Juncanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Poanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Restio tetraphyllus1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2022672|Q2022672]] | [[Acorales]] | Acorales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Acorus calamus.spadix.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2025672|Q2025672]] | [[Orchocladina]] | Orchocladina<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Lithistida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2030484|Q2030484]] | [[Rhinobatiformes]] | Rhinobatiformes<ref name="ref_9b85c5db39b7f179117e545650fc5c1814bb09da188f980b441a1cd24931ac59">https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=649687</ref> | [[Batoidea]] | [[File:Shovelnose guitarfish.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2031431|Q2031431]] | [[Pyrenomonadales]] | Pyrenomonadales<ref name="ref_1907a50b98982e87a6eaa507087f391deebe5f7e2c9948c6f45e27be273cf03c">''[[:d:Q104115715|Some proposals for a new classification system of the Cryptophyceae]]''</ref> | [[Cryptophyceae]] | [[File:Rhodomonas salina CCMP 322.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2031798|Q2031798]] | [[Tubiflorae]] | Tubiflorae | [[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Convolvulus scammonia - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-046.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2032066|Q2032066]] | [[Upupae]] | Upupae | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2035198|Q2035198]] | [[Capparales]] | Capparales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Myrtanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Capparis sandwichiana Flowering & Fruiting (5209429101).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2036668|Q2036668]] | [[Arctostylopida]] | Arctostylopida | [[Gliriformes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2051732|Q2051732]] | [[Paramyxida]] | Paramyxida<ref name="ref_41331ce19cb3f5454307d6e35930c0bdb0a7078cc5dedc38ea5695f07df7bb00">''[[:d:Q56014853|Sur une Cnidosporidie sans cnidoblaste (Paramyxa paradoxa n. g., n. sp.)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_05b76844e293ed05b5e8d83c431f65580cf714a96e7fafa867717d1a6ed1c182">''[[:d:Q108899521|Classification of the Haplosporidia]]''</ref> | [[Ascetosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2052904|Q2052904]] | [[Phascolosomatida]] | Phascolosomatida | [[Phascolosomatidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2052913|Q2052913]] | [[Acoela]] | Acoela<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Xenacoela]] | [[File:Acoela.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2059792|Q2059792]] | [[Plumbaginales]] | Plumbaginales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Caryophyllidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Plumbaginanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Polygonanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Illustration Limonium vulgare0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2064321|Q2064321]] | [[Vitales]] | Vitales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Vitis vinifera - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-145.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2066105|Q2066105]] | [[Pectinoida]] | Pectinoida | [[Pteriomorphia]] | [[File:Anomia ephippium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2072138|Q2072138]] | [[Myxiniformes]] | Myxiniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Myxini]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Pacific hagfish Myxine.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2080567|Q2080567]] | [[Petriellales]] | Petriellales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2081696|Q2081696]] | [[Podostemales]] | Podostemales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Podostemanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Mourera fluviatilis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2088620|Q2088620]] | [[Pholidophoriformes]] | Pholidophoriformes | [[Teleostei]] | [[File:Pholidophorus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2096174|Q2096174]] | [[Rhiniformes]] | Rhiniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Euselachii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Rhynchobatus djiddensis durban.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2102991|Q2102991]] | [[Rubiales]] | Rubiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Asteridae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Inferae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Gentiananae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Lamianae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Rubia tinctorum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-123.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2106238|Q2106238]] | [[Myricales]] | Myricales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Juglandanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Illustration Myrica gale0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2108781|Q2108781]] | [[Eriocaulales]] | Eriocaulales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Commelinidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Eriocaulon decangulare (1832).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2109510|Q2109510]] | [[Kathablepharida]] | Kathablepharida<ref name="ref_97d730424f429b7ebed82d634aeec05ee7578ea9f1559b2e5d0efd63158d9b2b">''[[:d:Q54518300|The Protozoan Phylum Opalozoa]]''</ref> | [[Leucocryptea]] | [[File:Roombia truncata cells.TIF|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2113703|Q2113703]] | [[Protolepidodendrales]] | Protolepidodendrales | [[Lycopodiopsida]] | [[File:Leclercqia complexa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2115786|Q2115786]] | [[Pseudosporochnales]] | Pseudosporochnales | [[Cladoxylopsida]] | [[File:Eospermatopteris erianus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2116552|Q2116552]] | [[Goniatitida]] | Goniatitida | [[Ammonoidea]] | [[File:Fossile J 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2118061|Q2118061]] | [[Theales]] | Theales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Theanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Tea flower.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2118512|Q2118512]] | [[Rhamnales]] | Rhamnales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Rhamnanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Malvanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Rhamnus cathartica - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-255.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2127292|Q2127292]] | [[Enantioblastae]] | Enantioblastae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:CommelinaHanging.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2152438|Q2152438]] | [[Sphaerotheriida]] | Sphaerotheriida<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[pill millipede]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Pill millipede.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2155063|Q2155063]] | [[Dictyotales]] | Dictyotales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Dictyotophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Capo Gallo Dicotoma.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2159380|Q2159380]] | [[Robertinida]] | Robertinida | [[Globothalamea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2160533|Q2160533]] | [[Priapulomorpha]] | Priapulomorpha | [[Priapulida]] | [[File:Priapulus caudatus FZ.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2160746|Q2160746]] | [[Lithonida]] | Lithonida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Calcaronea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2166570|Q2166570]] | [[Chondrosida]] | Chondrosida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Tetractinomorpha]]<br/>[[Demospongiae]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Chondrosia reniformis01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2170695|Q2170695]] | [[Mormonilloida]] | Mormonilloida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Podoplea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Mormonilla phasma.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2176477|Q2176477]] | [[Rhytismatales]] | Rhytismatales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | [[File:Rhytisma acerinum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2186022|Q2186022]] | [[Salicales]] | Salicales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Violanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Salix caprea Male.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2189522|Q2189522]] | [[Calycerales]] | Calycerales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Asteridae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Asteranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Boopis bupleuroides.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2191516|Q2191516]] | [[Pholidota (taxon de animalia)|Pholidota]] | Pholidota<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Laurasiatheria]]<ref name="ref_1a2d60ebf70a4e62cc9a7ae6753dd6c6a96900fb525c591016e68fc251ca4e35">''[[:d:Q82494|National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | [[File:Eupholidota.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2199372|Q2199372]] | [[Polygalales]] | Polygalales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Thalamiflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Geranianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Fabanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Polygala vulgaris bluete.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2206636|Q2206636]] | [[Rhoeadales]] | Rhoeadales | [[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Papaver rhoeas - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-101.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2712199|Q2712199]] | [[Agyriales]] | Agyriales<ref name="ref_06b100a91d5cb5291b6a52503a56fc955e9c9414b13093f60fc8ec38fe29d5ea">http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90523</ref> | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Trapelia involuta-1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2713052|Q2713052]] | [[Alteromonadales]] | Alteromonadales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Shewanella oneidensis.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2714640|Q2714640]] | [[Cutleriales]] | Cutleriales | [[Phaeophyceae]] | [[File:Cutleria cylindrica - National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo - DSC07656.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2714646|Q2714646]] | [[Ascoseirales]] | Ascoseirales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2714662|Q2714662]] | [[Desmarestiales]] | Desmarestiales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Desmerestia aculeata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2715035|Q2715035]] | [[Bangiales]] | Bangiales | [[Bangiophyceae]] | [[File:Bangia fuscopurpurea (formerly Bangia lutea).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2716692|Q2716692]] | [[Chloranthales]] | Chloranthales<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Angiospermae|angiosperms]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref> | [[File:Sarcandra glabra3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2720030|Q2720030]] | [[Sabiales]] | Sabiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Proteanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Meliosma veitchorum1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2720158|Q2720158]] | [[Gynandrae]] | Gynandrae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Orchis italica a.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2726247|Q2726247]] | [[Trichosphaeriales]] | Trichosphaeriales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2733041|Q2733041]] | [[Notomyotida]] | Notomyotida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Asteroidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Benthopecten sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2740581|Q2740581]] | [[Salpida]] | Salpida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Thaliacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Salp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2745541|Q2745541]] | [[Echiuroidea]] | Echiuroidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Echiura]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Echiura in Korea1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2748371|Q2748371]] | [[Harpetida]] | Harpetida | [[Trilobita]] | [[File:Harpetidae species trilobite.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2748622|Q2748622]] | [[Tetralithistida]] | Tetralithistida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Lithistida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2751861|Q2751861]] | [[Pantolesta]] | Pantolesta | [[Ferae]] | [[File:Palaeosinopa NT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2760783|Q2760783]] | [[Plagiorchiida]] | Plagiorchiida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Digenea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Paragonimus westermanii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2782692|Q2782692]] | [[Apororhynchida]] | Apororhynchida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Archiacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Apororhynchus hemignathi.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2783152|Q2783152]] | [[Oligacanthorhynchida]] | Oligacanthorhynchida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Archiacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus adult BAM1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2800290|Q2800290]] | [[Leptomyxida]] | Leptomyxida<ref name="ref_c960b6892623db19bed454c38e9327b25dcaa3d5467c8284b99b4ed532c4f384">''[[:d:Q109920691|Étude des genres Leptomyxa et Gephyramoeba (Protozoa, Sarcodina). I. Leptomyxa reticulata Goodey, 1915]]''</ref> | [[Tubulinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2800411|Q2800411]] | [[Verticillatae]] | Verticillatae | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Casuarina cunninghamiana fruit01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2804202|Q2804202]] | [[Centramoebida]] | Centramoebida | [[Longamoebia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref> | [[File:Acanthamoeba polyphaga cyst.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2808654|Q2808654]] | [[Macrodasyida]] | Macrodasyida | [[Gastrotricha]]<ref name="ref_0e21d2f391eca5f2f3be713442cd269e6faf987853d7d220a83e592a345f2dad">''[[:d:Q18642824|Phylum Gastrotricha]]''</ref> | [[File:Thaumastoderma ramuliferum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2814783|Q2814783]] | [[Gaviiformes]] | Gaviiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Aequornithes]] | [[File:Common Loon.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2822646|Q2822646]] | [[Acarosporales]] | Acarosporales<ref name="ref_14c8ebff95c98e6cdb132798a90db6de38c19e3f00a6f3dd821fad69ace7024f">http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=501289</ref> | [[Acarosporomycetidae]] | [[File:Acarospora glaucocarpa-1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2823177|Q2823177]] | [[Aciculata]] | Aciculata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polychaeta]] | [[File:Nerr0328.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2823511|Q2823511]] | [[Acrosiphoniales]] | Acrosiphoniales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Acrosiphonia arcta.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2823518|Q2823518]] | [[Acrosymphytales]] | Acrosymphytales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Acrosymphyton firmum M.W.Hawkes (AM AK295823).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2827708|Q2827708]] | [[Ahnfeltiales]] | Ahnfeltiales | [[Florideophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Ahnfeltia plicata Helgoland.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2839447|Q2839447]] | [[Miomoptera]] | Miomoptera | [[Eumetabola]]<br/>[[Clareocercaria]]<ref name="ref_12d8242f541e593f9344feec40c683610d38c47d96be32b3f2ebb4e3e83a1c5d">''[[:d:Q38367978|Redefining the extinct orders Miomoptera and Hypoperlida as stem acercarian insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Wing of Metropator pusillus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2839918|Q2839918]] | [[Blastodiniales]] | Blastodiniales | [[Blastodiniophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2843210|Q2843210]] | [[Acrasiales]] | Acrasiales | [[Acrasiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2846441|Q2846441]] | [[Andreaeales]] | Andreaeales | [[Andreaeidae]] | [[File:Bryophyta 14.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2846443|Q2846443]] | [[Andreaeobryales]] | Andreaeobryales | [[Andreaeidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2854356|Q2854356]] | [[Scitamineae]] | Scitamineae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Curcuma longa - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-199.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2858227|Q2858227]] | [[Aphelenchida]] | Aphelenchida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Secernentea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2868413|Q2868413]] | [[Asterocladales]] | Asterocladales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2868420|Q2868420]] | [[Asterolamprales]] | Asterolamprales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2878861|Q2878861]] | [[Baerida]] | Baerida<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[Calcaronea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2880595|Q2880595]] | [[Balbianiales]] | Balbianiales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | [[File:British fresh-water algae, exclusive of Desmidieae and Diatomaceae (1882-1884) (20424452691).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2881290|Q2881290]] | [[Balliales]] | Balliales<ref name="ref_4846bcfdfe0233c8fbb1b02db3e7ee919bf25d43f2aa3e72b590434f0ae8d99a">''[[:d:Q54778015|Nuclear small-subunit rDNA sequences from Ballia spp. (Rhodophyta): proposal of the Balliales ord. nov., Balliaceae fam. nov., Ballia nana sp. nov. and Inkyuleea gen. nov. (Ceramiales)]]''</ref> | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | [[File:Album général des Cryptogames, Pl. 264.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2883250|Q2883250]] | [[Apochela]] | Apochela<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eutardigrada]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2885825|Q2885825]] | [[Rhynchonellida]] | Rhynchonellida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhynchonellata]]<ref name="ref_f37f24b656cb23a9ca38b6885309672e3c7e8327e0dab838e55c494857e0a97e">''[[:d:Q18674784|Phylum Brachiopoda]]''</ref> | [[File:Ladogia Nalivkin, 1941 Devonian Western Russia.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2891619|Q2891619]] | [[Batrachospermales]] | Batrachospermales | [[Florideophyceae]] | [[File:Batrachospermum moniliforme.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2899203|Q2899203]] | [[Sphenophyllales]] | Sphenophyllales | [[Equisetopsida]] | [[File:Sphenophyllum.gif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2906812|Q2906812]] | [[Trepostomatida]] | Trepostomatida | [[Stenolaemata]] | [[File:Prasopora.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2910261|Q2910261]] | [[Bonnemaisoniales]] | Bonnemaisoniales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Bonnemaisonia asparagoides Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2925661|Q2925661]] | [[Brisingida]] | Brisingida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_4d33af8f3d071b5941d99d5f295d3d4930b7252c73530171c298d1623fdf5d92">http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=123085</ref><ref name="ref_a702847b45c1ffae927851330be73b307976b9be8514be3f611f4258abec4835">''[[:d:Q64230413|Asteroidea of the North Pacific and Adjacent Waters. Part 2. Forcipulata (part)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c545d87fd1e94848ac8a91b6c745f052277bb86702663bcccbc2948f305d3c1a">''[[:d:Q124051613|Systematics of deep-sea starfish order Brisingida (Echinodermata: Asteroidea), with a revised classification and assessments of morphological characters]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c33684dba0d1835c09cb47aa7c21dc218b8a5027956d146b583f507578fbdf6a">''[[:d:Q66412284|The marine fauna of New Zealand: Asteroidea (sea-stars). 3. Orders Velatida, Spinulosida, Forcipulatida, Brisingida with addenda to Paxillosida, Valvatida]]''</ref> | [[Asteroidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Manningstar 600.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2935521|Q2935521]] | [[Terebinthales]] | Terebinthales | [[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Pistacia lentiscus - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-110.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2937672|Q2937672]] | [[Pristiformes]] | Pristiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[Batoidea]] | [[File:Pristis pristis - Georgia Aquarium Jan 2006.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2941195|Q2941195]] | [[Halosphaeriales]] | Halosphaeriales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2941748|Q2941748]] | [[Catenulida]] | Catenulida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Plathelminthes|Platyhelminthes]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Catenula lemnae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2946347|Q2946347]] | [[Ceramiales]] | Ceramiales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Phycologia Britannica, or, A history of British sea-weeds - containing coloured figures, generic and specific characters, synonymes, and descriptions of all the species of algae inhabiting the shores (14577735350).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2946383|Q2946383]] | [[Ceratophyllales]] | Ceratophyllales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Angiospermae|angiosperms]]<ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref> | [[File:CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2947529|Q2947529]] | [[Chaetocerotales]] | Chaetocerotales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Chaetoceros didymus by Line1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2963928|Q2963928]] | [[Chirodropida]] | Chirodropida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Cubozoa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Avispa marina.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2964097|Q2964097]] | [[Chlorobiales]] | Chlorobiales | [[Chlorobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2964512|Q2964512]] | [[Choriplacina]] | Choriplacina<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Neoloricata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2982331|Q2982331]] | [[Colaconematales]] | Colaconematales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | [[File:Colaconema daviesii Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2982568|Q2982568]] | [[Coliiformes]] | Coliiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Coraciimorphae]] | [[File:Speckled mousebird.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2984609|Q2984609]] | [[Colymbiformes]] | Colymbiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2990799|Q2990799]] | [[Compsopogonales]] | Compsopogonales | [[Compsopogonophyceae]] | [[File:Compsopogon 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2998105|Q2998105]] | [[Corticiales]] | Corticiales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Erythricium laetum 40560.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3008039|Q3008039]] | [[Cyanidiales]] | Cyanidiales | [[Cyanidiophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Cyanidium O5A.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3008080|Q3008080]] | [[Diapensiales]] | Diapensiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Nordens flora Diapensia lapponica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3008243|Q3008243]] | [[Cyclanthales]] | Cyclanthales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Arecidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Cyclanthanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Pandananae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Carludovica palmata1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3010751|Q3010751]] | [[Goniotrichales]] | Goniotrichales | [[Bangiophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3012834|Q3012834]] | [[Isochrysidales]] | Isochrysidales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | [[File:Gephyrocapsa oceanica color.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3015063|Q3015063]] | [[Scytothamnales]] | Scytothamnales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Flora Antarctica Plate CLXXIV.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3015572|Q3015572]] | [[Sphacelariales]] | Sphacelariales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Dictyotophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Halopteris filicina herbarium item.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3017955|Q3017955]] | [[Tilopteridales]] | Tilopteridales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Cutleria multifida 1 Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3019478|Q3019478]] | [[Nemaliales]] | Nemaliales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | [[File:Liagora viscida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3021311|Q3021311]] | [[Deinococcales]] | Deinococcales | [[Deinococci]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3022160|Q3022160]] | [[Gelidiales]] | Gelidiales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:NdP Gelidium corneum.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3022189|Q3022189]] | [[Erythropeltidales]] | Erythropeltidales | [[Compsopogonophyceae]] | [[File:Erythrotrichia carnea Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3022196|Q3022196]] | [[Gracilariales]] | Gracilariales<ref name="ref_9f47392924d39f9978abc73c67a12d64b55abd6a79deca7b33953847759030f2">''[[:d:Q54669924|PROPOSAL OF THE GRACILARIALES ORD. NOV. (RHODOPHYTA) BASED ON AN ANALYSIS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT OF GRACILARIA VERRUCOSA]]''</ref> | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Gracilaria2.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3023297|Q3023297]] | [[Nemastomatales]] | Nemastomatales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Schizymenia duby Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3026516|Q3026516]] | [[Dicellurata]] | Dicellurata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Diplura]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:JapyxLefroy.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3026780|Q3026780]] | [[Dictyoceratida]] | Dictyoceratida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Keratosa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Filograna implexa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3027372|Q3027372]] | [[Polemoniales]] | Polemoniales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Bicarpellatae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Icone botanique01.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3028592|Q3028592]] | [[Macrostomida]] | Macrostomida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Macrostomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Dolichomacrostomum uniporum.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3028843|Q3028843]] | [[Prolecithophora]] | Prolecithophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Turbellarios|Turbellaria]] | [[File:Plagiostomum vittatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3029061|Q3029061]] | [[Lecithoepitheliata]] | Lecithoepitheliata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Turbellarios|Turbellaria]] | [[File:Geocentrophora baltica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3032638|Q3032638]] | [[Dixoniellales]] | Dixoniellales<ref name="ref_57ea55ccf2f83bbcf634d9dc62a7d4af8f73f13f8cd9cf433ef0732edbf781e4">''[[:d:Q54666193|Corynoplastis japonica gen. et sp. nov. and Dixoniellales ord. nov. (Rhodellophyceae, Rhodophyta) based on morphological and molecular evidence]]''</ref> | [[Rhodellophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3034565|Q3034565]] | [[Aspidosiphonida]] | Aspidosiphonida | [[Phascolosomatidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3037286|Q3037286]] | [[Dorypteryx longipennis]] | Dorypteryx longipennis | [[Dorypteryx]] | [[File:Dorypteryx longipennis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3046983|Q3046983]] | [[Echinosteliales]] | Echinosteliales<br/>Echinosteliida | [[Myxogastria]]<br/>[[Columellidia]] | [[File:Rabenhorst Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland p.411.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3055640|Q3055640]] | [[Eosentomata]] | Eosentomata | [[Protura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3060371|Q3060371]] | [[Eunicida]] | Eunicida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Errantia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Eunice aphroditois.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3060459|Q3060459]] | [[Eupriapulida]] | Eupriapulida | [[Priapulida]] | [[File:Priapulus caudatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3079028|Q3079028]] | [[Galbuliformes]] | Galbuliformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[ave]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Nystalus-radiatus-001.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3082155|Q3082155]] | [[Coccolithales]] | Coccolithales | [[Coccolithophyceae]] | [[File:Coccolithus pelagicus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3087256|Q3087256]] | [[Procolophonomorpha]] | Procolophonomorpha | [[Parareptilia]] | [[File:Anning plesiosaur.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3087946|Q3087946]] | [[Soleolifera]] | Soleolifera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Opisthobranchia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3108574|Q3108574]] | [[Glaucocystales]] | Glaucocystales | [[Glaucophyceae]] | [[File:Glaucocystis sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3108594|Q3108594]] | [[Glaucosphaerales]] | Glaucosphaerales | [[Rhodellophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3108659|Q3108659]] | [[Lichida]] | Lichida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Terataspis grandis e.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3110501|Q3110501]] | [[Goniactinida]] | Goniactinida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Somasteroidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3111386|Q3111386]] | [[Sarcoptiformes]] | Sarcoptiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Acariformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Tectodamaeus wulongensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3115171|Q3115171]] | [[Trechisporales]] | Trechisporales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Trechispora.mollusca.-.lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2208121|Q2208121]] | [[Stygiomysida]] | Stygiomysida<ref name="ref_ee8537fe54ade0dcdc4fbfa63340b3c335371f7829b3e40edc08a503500cf708">''[[:d:Q104204003|Uptaded checklist, historical overview and illustrated guide to the stygobiont Malacostraca (Arthropoda: Crustacea) species of Yucatan (Mexico)]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]] | [[File:Spelaeomysis quinterensis (10.3897-subtbiol.26.27097) Figure 1 (cropped).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2210443|Q2210443]] | [[Didymelales]] | Didymelales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Daphniphyllanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Didymeles.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2213076|Q2213076]] | [[Haloragales]] | Haloragales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Podostemanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Cleaned-Illustration Myriophyllum spicatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2215633|Q2215633]] | [[Spirophorida]] | Spirophorida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Demospongiae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Craniella arb.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2220924|Q2220924]] | [[Sporidiales]] | Sporidiales | [[Exobasidiomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2223193|Q2223193]] | [[Filospermoidea]] | Filospermoidea | [[Gnathostomulida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2224427|Q2224427]] | [[Dicyemida]] | Dicyemida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhombozoa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Dicyema macrocephalum.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2225586|Q2225586]] | [[Diospyrales]] | Diospyrales | [[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Diospyros lotus Bra36.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2226964|Q2226964]] | [[Siphonostomatoida]] | Siphonostomatoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Podoplea]] | [[File:Lernaeocera branchialis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2231525|Q2231525]] | [[Daphniphyllales]] | Daphniphyllales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Daphniphyllanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Hamamelidanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Daphniphyllum teijsmannii5.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2235465|Q2235465]] | [[Eucommiales]] | Eucommiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Eucommianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Cornanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Eucommia-ulmoides.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2237321|Q2237321]] | [[Juncales]] | Juncales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Juncanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:JuncusEffusus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2241173|Q2241173]] | [[Camallanida]] | Camallanida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Secernentea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Dracunculus medinensis larvae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2244421|Q2244421]] | [[Poecilosclerida]] | Poecilosclerida<ref name="ref_de8f5cd21a33200f2a1d763f84cc6ea64f62f614b8d9290d431897e6413f0e65">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=167285</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Hemimycale columella 1 (Bowerbank, 1874).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2257233|Q2257233]] | [[Istiophoriformes]] | Istiophoriformes | [[Carangaria]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.ART.194 - Istiophorus platypterus (Shaw and Nodder) - Kawahara Keiga - 1823 - 1829 - Siebold Collection - new version.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2257322|Q2257322]] | [[Himatismenida]] | Himatismenida<ref name="ref_45ce8e90acdfa5c39b7fac1e4433a29bacd49a6a139fa35c4c9bcd394341be70">''[[:d:Q104049131|The Classification of ‘Naked’ Amoebae (Phylum Rhizopoda)]]''</ref> | [[Flabellinia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref><br/>[[Centramoebia]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | [[File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 110-1-2 Cochliopodium granulatum.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2261023|Q2261023]] | [[Misophrioida]] | Misophrioida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Podoplea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Benthomisophria palliata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2261590|Q2261590]] | [[Casuarinales]] | Casuarinales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Hamamelidanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Casuarinanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Casuarina equisetifolia GS298.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2262552|Q2262552]] | [[Golfingiiformes]] | Golfingiiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Sipunculidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Golfingia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2263843|Q2263843]] | [[Balanopales]] | Balanopales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Daphniphyllanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Hamamelidanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2264154|Q2264154]] | [[Thelephorales]] | Thelephorales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Sarcodon imbricatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2269593|Q2269593]] | [[Neotaenioglossa]] | Neotaenioglossa<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gastropodos]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Phalium bandatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2270217|Q2270217]] | [[Eosuchia]] | Eosuchia | [[Neodiaspida]] | [[File:Hovasaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2274399|Q2274399]] | [[Escalloniales]] | Escalloniales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[campanulids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Escallonia macrantha.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2279424|Q2279424]] | [[Guttiferales]] | Guttiferales | [[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Thalamiflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | [[File:Fruta de Habana.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2304326|Q2304326]] | [[Parietales]] | Parietales | [[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Thalamiflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:(MHNT) Geranium sanguineum - Flower and leaf - Les Martels, Giroussens Tarn.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2307653|Q2307653]] | [[Microthyriales]] | Microthyriales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Microthyrium gramineum 1312181.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2309550|Q2309550]] | [[Cheilostomata]] | Cheilostomata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref> | [[Gymnolaemata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref> | [[File:Eurystomellabilabiata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2309617|Q2309617]] | [[Sphingomonadales]] | Sphingomonadales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Sphingobium chlorophenolicum L1.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2311052|Q2311052]] | [[Spirillinida]] | Spirillinida | [[Tubothalamea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2312069|Q2312069]] | [[Spongomonadida]] | Spongomonadida | [[Silicofilosea]] | [[File:Rhipidodendron splendidum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2314540|Q2314540]] | [[Asioryctitheria]] | Asioryctitheria | [[Placentarios]] | [[File:Asioryctes nemegtensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2319545|Q2319545]] | [[Osmundales]] | Osmundales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Osmunda regalis nf.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2319705|Q2319705]] | [[Halichondrida]] | Halichondrida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Demospongiae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Sponge.noaa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2325800|Q2325800]] | [[Orthocerida]] | Orthocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | [[File:Orthoceras BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2325801|Q2325801]] | [[Centrospermae]] | Centrospermae | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Amaranthus crispus BB-1913.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2333121|Q2333121]] | [[Nepenthales]] | Nepenthales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Nepenthanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Caryophyllanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Nepenthes ovata2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2334660|Q2334660]] | [[Stauropteridales]] | Stauropteridales | [[Pteridophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2342793|Q2342793]] | [[Spinulosida]] | Spinulosida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e4d07856bacf3074afeadf174e5899cb73264a0585b33b7cb846612d51c9d300">''[[:d:Q29997700|A reassessment of the sea-star orders Valvatida and Spinulosida]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c33684dba0d1835c09cb47aa7c21dc218b8a5027956d146b583f507578fbdf6a">''[[:d:Q66412284|The marine fauna of New Zealand: Asteroidea (sea-stars). 3. Orders Velatida, Spinulosida, Forcipulatida, Brisingida with addenda to Paxillosida, Valvatida]]''</ref> | [[Spinulosacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Zeester.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2344380|Q2344380]] | [[Anthomedusae]] | Anthomedusae | [[Leptolinae]] | [[File:Haeckel Anthomedusae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2344407|Q2344407]] | [[Poecilostomatoida]] | Poecilostomatoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[copepod]] | [[File:Haeckel Copepoda Sapphirina darwinii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2344415|Q2344415]] | [[Bromeliales]] | Bromeliales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Zingiberidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Bromelianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Bromelia humillis 20080901.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2363186|Q2363186]] | [[Hydroida]] | Hydroida | [[Hydrozoa]] | [[File:Haeckel Anthomedusae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2370701|Q2370701]] | [[Geastrales]] | Geastrales | [[Phallomycetidae]] | [[File:Geastrum triplex.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2376279|Q2376279]] | [[Syntrophobacterales]] | Syntrophobacterales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Syntrophobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2380967|Q2380967]] | [[Arbacioida]] | Arbacioida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Echinacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Arbacia lixula.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2389349|Q2389349]] | [[Euglenales]] | Euglenales | [[Euglenophyceae]] | [[File:Trachelomonas sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2395079|Q2395079]] | [[Typhales]] | Typhales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Typhanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Poanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Svendras001.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2403403|Q2403403]] | [[Halicryptomorpha]] | Halicryptomorpha | [[Priapulida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2409274|Q2409274]] | [[Thaumatomonadida]] | Thaumatomonadida | [[Silicofilosea]] | [[File:Algen I. (Schizophyceen, Flagellaten, Peridineen) (1910) (17762314958).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2410167|Q2410167]] | [[Cavibelonia]] | Cavibelonia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pachytegmentaria]] | [[File:Rhopalomenia aglaopheniae-1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2410715|Q2410715]] | [[Phyllachorales]] | Phyllachorales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | [[File:Phyllachora pomigena.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2415127|Q2415127]] | [[Selkirkiomorpha]] | Selkirkiomorpha | [[Priapulida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2416418|Q2416418]] | [[Thecamoebida]] | Thecamoebida<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref> | [[Longamoebia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref><br/>[[Centramoebia]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | [[File:Zellteilung Thekamöbe.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2423214|Q2423214]] | [[Scrophulariales]] | Scrophulariales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Asteridae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Illustration Crocus vernus0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2424400|Q2424400]] | [[Rhabdura]] | Rhabdura<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Diplura]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Diplura.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2430829|Q2430829]] | [[Glumaceae]] | Glumaceae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | [[File:370 Panicum miliaceum L.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2439812|Q2439812]] | [[Spadiciflorae]] | Spadiciflorae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Aronbluete3683.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2443153|Q2443153]] | [[Cycloneritimorpha]] | Cycloneritimorpha | [[Neritimorpha]]<br/>[[Neritopsina]] | [[File:Nerita plicata 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2450405|Q2450405]] | [[Gruinales]] | Gruinales | [[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Erythroxylum coca - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-204.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2452647|Q2452647]] | [[Trichocoleales]] | Trichocoleales | [[Jungermanniidae]] | [[File:Trichocolea tomentella 130108.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2463087|Q2463087]] | [[Confuciusornithiformes]] | Confuciusornithiformes | [[Pygostylia]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Eoconfuciusornis zhengi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2466563|Q2466563]] | [[Epipolasida]] | Epipolasida | [[Tetractinomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2490505|Q2490505]] | [[Dactylochirotida]] | Dactylochirotida | [[Dendrochirotacea]] | [[File:Rhopalodina.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2492802|Q2492802]] | [[Molpadiida]] | Molpadida<ref name="ref_b43b3a9bf65ceeee7f336c58c6fb45851465d8d0557d1e2b4342129d91b30b4e">''[[:d:Q108699297|Holothuries provenant des campagnes des yachts Princesse-Alice et Hirondelle II (1898-1915)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3029277187966f86364b0bc2544a1c7cdf6ae5b0bdf3cd043c75cb6eed26e03e">''[[:d:Q56035144|The paracaudinid sea cucumbers of Australia and New Zealand (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea: Molpadida: Caudinidae)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_9015352e83bd8343ff8c71c0c8dcad42eb44a959346650a70c258a8963f9b52e">''[[:d:Q91345754|Sea cucumbers of the Kerguelen Plateau, with descriptions of new genus and species (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_74e031573bdba5450912104f761e0cc4ad9c3599875851aee7a87f5e0f71800e">''[[:d:Q131405017|A report of sea cucumbers collected on the first dedicated deep-sea biological survey of Australia’s Indian Ocean Territories around Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_23b80758ad1389c3f4fc571aa8731c18bcf8be1f285aad66f1fda148e11b60c7">''[[:d:Q97515613|A taxonomic guide to the Echinodermata of the South Atlantic Bight, USA: 1. Sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Apodacea]]<br/>[[Holothuroidea]] | [[File:Sweet Potato Sea Cucumber (Molpadia arenicola) 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2506423|Q2506423]] | [[Archaeopulmonata]] | Archaeopulmonata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gastropodos]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Carychium tridentatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2519639|Q2519639]] | [[Golfingiida]] | Golfingiida | [[Sipunculidea]] | [[File:Golfingia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2524330|Q2524330]] | [[coralline algae]] | Corallinales | [[Corallinophycidae]] | [[File:Corallina elongata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2534329|Q2534329]] | [[Callitrichales]] | Callitrichales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Asteridae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Callitriche spp Sturm38.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2538910|Q2538910]] | [[Boraginales]] | Boraginales<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c897800e976629473a3c76e9817de559f8015d04bacc29b950be816b9d1f1a8b">''[[:d:Q28948146|Familial classification of the Boraginales]]''</ref> | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Echium vulgare 190605.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2542655|Q2542655]] | [[Rhodopemorpha]] | Rhodopemorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gastropodos]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Helminthope psammobionta dorsal schematic.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2544965|Q2544965]] | [[Polymorphida]] | Polymorphida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Palaeacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:C wegeneri.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2546461|Q2546461]] | [[Polytrichales]] | Polytrichales | [[Polytrichopsida]] | [[File:LeafMoss0225.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2567014|Q2567014]] | [[Lobosea]] | Lobosea | [[Lobosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2574497|Q2574497]] | [[Cubomedusae]] | Cubomedusae | [[Cubozoa]] | [[File:Irukandji-jellyfish-queensland-australia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2577942|Q2577942]] | [[Lycopodiales]] | Lycopodiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lycopodiopsida]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><br/>[[Lycopodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Lycopodium annotinum1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2578322|Q2578322]] | [[Umbelliflorae]] | Umbelliflorae | [[Dialypetaleae]]<br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Conium maculatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-191.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2588755|Q2588755]] | [[Tricoccae]] | Tricoccae | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Hevea brasiliensis - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-071.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2592664|Q2592664]] | [[Ebenales]] | Ebenales | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Heteromerae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Diospyros lotus Bra36.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2596656|Q2596656]] | [[Vestibuliferida]] | Vestibuliferida | [[Trichostomatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Isotricha intestinalis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2610298|Q2610298]] | [[Atheliales]] | Atheliales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Athelia neuhoffii - Lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2618487|Q2618487]] | [[Rhynchobdellida]] | Rhynchobdellida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Clitellata]] | [[File:CystobranchusRespiransRutilusRutilus.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2621831|Q2621831]] | [[Upupiformes]] | Upupiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[ave]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Upupa epops 2 Luc Viatour.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2627561|Q2627561]] | [[Synandrae]] | Synandrae | [[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Lobelia cardinalis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2632283|Q2632283]] | [[Scleroperalia]] | Scleroperalia | [[Bursovaginoidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q2640994|Q2640994]] | [[Alepocephaliformes]] | Alepocephaliformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Alepocephali]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Bathylaco nigricans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2645464|Q2645464]] | [[Pseudoborniales]] | Pseudoborniales | [[Equisetopsida]] | [[File:Pseudobornia ursina.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2645684|Q2645684]] | [[Mermithida]] | Mermithida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Enoplia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Mermis nigrescens on tettigonia viridissima beentree.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2663101|Q2663101]] | [[Julida]] | Julida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Juliformia]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Tachypodoiulus niger 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2664614|Q2664614]] | [[Geophilomorpha]] | Geophilomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[Pleurostigmophora]]<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[File:Geophilus fg01.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2668398|Q2668398]] | [[Olacales]] | Olacales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Disciflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | [[File:Olax imbricata Blanco2.311-cropped.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2687138|Q2687138]] | [[Neoechinorhynchida]] | Neoechinorhynchida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eoacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Parasite140083-fig1 Figs 1-7 Neoechinorhynchus (Hebesoma) spiramuscularis.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2695729|Q2695729]] | [[Hydrocharitales]] | Hydrocharitales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Alismatidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Alismatanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Hydrocharis morsus ranae L ag1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2696900|Q2696900]] | [[Hamamelidales]] | Hamamelidales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Hamamelidanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Saxifraganae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Hamamelis virginiana - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-070.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2697385|Q2697385]] | [[Juglandales]] | Juglandales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Juglandanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Hamamelidanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Juglans regia - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-081.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2697797|Q2697797]] | [[Taxales]] | Taxales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pinopsida]]<br/>[[Taxidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Cis001 kpjas.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2704173|Q2704173]] | [[Trochodendrales]] | Trochodendrales<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Eudicotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Trochodendron-aralioides-flowers.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2705106|Q2705106]] | [[Chaetophorales]] | Chaetophorales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | [[File:Stigeoclonium sp zugespitzte seitenzweige.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2705562|Q2705562]] | [[Gnetales]] | Gnetales<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Coniferopsida]]<br/>[[Gymnospermae]]<br/>[[Gnetophyta]]<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Gnetopsida]] | [[File:Gnetum gnemon BotGardBln1105C.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2710512|Q2710512]] | [[Acrochaetiales]] | Acrochaetiales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | [[File:Audouinella.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3819952|Q3819952]] | [[Gordioidea]] | Gordioidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Nematomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Paragordius tricuspidatus.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3869074|Q3869074]] | [[Mycoplasmatales]] | Mycoplasmatales | [[Mollicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Mycopl.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3870511|Q3870511]] | [[Nassellaria]] | Nassellaria | [[Polycystinea]] | [[File:Mikrofoto.de-Radiolarien-3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3873278|Q3873278]] | [[Natranaerobiales]] | Natranaerobiales<ref name="ref_53e39bb97d0c22e2204f8178fb93e736bec9977a76c432a159ade711dad23bf3">''[[:d:Q31135107|Natranaerobius thermophilus gen. nov., sp. nov., a halophilic, alkalithermophilic bacterium from soda lakes of the Wadi An Natrun, Egypt, and proposal of Natranaerobiaceae fam. nov. and Natranaerobiales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3877690|Q3877690]] | [[Noeggerathiales]] | Noeggerathiales | [[Progymnosperm]] | [[File:Noeggerathia expansa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3882417|Q3882417]] | [[Oncocerida]] | Oncocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | [[File:Gomphoceras characters.PNG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3889294|Q3889294]] | [[Palaeanodonta]] | Palaeanodonta<ref name="ref_c256cee71ddd787c9ec4345dcd56e8263c6f63b60ccba90c1dd0f4493c4d1652">https://archive.org/details/bulletin-american-museum-natural-history-38-565-657/page/620</ref> | [[Pholidotamorpha]] | [[File:Palaeanodonta 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3899690|Q3899690]] | [[Percopsiformes]] | Percopsiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Paracanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Amblyopsis rosae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3906621|Q3906621]] | [[Plectronocerida]] | Plectronocerida | [[Plectronoceratoidea]] | [[File:Plectronoceras cambria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3907757|Q3907757]] | [[Polymixiiformes]] | Polymixiiformes<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Polymixia nobilis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3912920|Q3912920]] | [[Priapulimorphida]] | Priapulimorphida | [[Priapulimorpha]] | [[File:Priapulus caudatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3918541|Q3918541]] | [[Amphinomida]] | Amphinomida | [[Polychaeta]] | [[File:Notopygos caribea holotype ZooKeys-223-069-g005-top.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3922864|Q3922864]] | [[Prolecanitida]] | Prolecanitida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3924915|Q3924915]] | [[Pseudopetalichthyida]] | Pseudopetalichthyida | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Pseudopetalichthys problematica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3934109|Q3934109]] | [[Rhizodontiformes]] | Rhizodontiformes | [[Rhizodontida]] | [[File:Sauripteris taylori.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3967296|Q3967296]] | [[Spumellaria]] | Spumellaria | [[Polycystinea]] | [[File:Haeckel Spumellaria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3981158|Q3981158]] | [[Tarphycerida]] | Tarphycerida | [[Multiceratoidea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Estonioceras decheni 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4002588|Q4002588]] | [[Actinulida]] | Actinulida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Trachylinae]] | [[File:Lasse01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4010085|Q4010085]] | [[Verongiida]] | Verongiida<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[Verongimorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Aplysina archeri (Stove-pipe Sponge-pink variation).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4022247|Q4022247]] | [[Nectiopoda]] | Nectiopoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Remipedia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Speleonectes tanumekes unlabeled.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4037243|Q4037243]] | [[Desmodorida]] | Desmodorida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Chromadoria]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4037244|Q4037244]] | [[Desmoscolecida]] | Desmoscolecida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Chromadoria]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4037382|Q4037382]] | [[Dioctophymatida]] | Dioctophymatida | [[Enoplea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4040884|Q4040884]] | [[Hypoperlida]] | Hypoperlida | [[Neoptera]]<br/>[[Clareocercaria]]<ref name="ref_12d8242f541e593f9344feec40c683610d38c47d96be32b3f2ebb4e3e83a1c5d">''[[:d:Q38367978|Redefining the extinct orders Miomoptera and Hypoperlida as stem acercarian insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Hypoperlida fossils.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4043718|Q4043718]] | [[Marimermithida]] | Marimermithida | [[Enoplia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4044103|Q4044103]] | [[Methanocellales]] | Methanocellales | [[Methanosarcinia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4044107|Q4044107]] | [[Methanococcales]] | Methanococcales | [[Methanococci]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4044130|Q4044130]] | [[Methanomicrobiales]] | Methanomicrobiales | [[Methanomicrobia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4044143|Q4044143]] | [[Methanosarcinales]] | Methanosarcinales | [[Methanosarcinia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Methanosarcina barkeri fusaro.gif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4045034|Q4045034]] | [[Nakridletia]] | Nakridletia | [[Endopterygota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4046435|Q4046435]] | [[Glumiflorae]] | Glumiflorae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Pennisetum villosum 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4047049|Q4047049]] | [[Platydesmida]] | Platydesmida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Colobognatha]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Brachycybe lecontii (Platydesmida) millipede (3680001399).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4047470|Q4047470]] | [[Protelytroptera]] | Protelytroptera<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[Dermapterida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4051744|Q4051744]] | [[Trichocephalida]] | Trichocephalida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Dorylaimia]] | [[File:Trichosomoides crassicauda drawing in Hall 1916.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4072257|Q4072257]] | [[Atrypida]] | Atrypida | [[Rhynchonellata]] | [[File:Atrypa.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4129502|Q4129502]] | [[Araeolaimida]] | Araeolaimida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Chromadoria]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4129904|Q4129904]] | [[Arthrotardigrada]] | Arthrotardigrada<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | [[Heterotardigrada]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | [[File:USNM 1616673 - Florarctus (cropped).jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4132489|Q4132489]] | [[Mononchida]] | Mononchida | [[Adenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4135179|Q4135179]] | [[Haemospororida]] | Haemospororida | [[Aconoidasida]] | [[File:Plasmodium vivax 01.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4135194|Q4135194]] | [[Triblidiales]] | Triblidiales | [[Pezizomycotina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4135955|Q4135955]] | [[Geraridea]] | Geraridea | [[Pterygota]] | [[File:Gerarus collaris 1er Congrès international d'entomologie, Bruxelles, 1-6 août, 1910 (1911-12) (16477916279).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4139046|Q4139046]] | [[Hyphomycetales]] | Hyphomycetales | [[Hyphomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4140318|Q4140318]] | [[Lyssacinosida]] | Lyssacinosida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Hexasterophora]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Venus Flower Basket.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4142897|Q4142897]] | [[Hexactinosida]] | Hexactinosida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Hexasterophora]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Cribrospongia clathrata 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4143365|Q4143365]] | [[Lychniscosida]] | Lychniscosida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Hexasterophora]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4148273|Q4148273]] | [[Fieldingida]] | Fieldingida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Hexasterophora]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4168545|Q4168545]] | [[Cystoporida]] | Cystoporida | [[Stenolaemata]] | [[File:Sulcoretepora deissi - National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo - DSC07728.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4170502|Q4170502]] | [[Cryptostomida]] | Cryptostomida | [[Stenolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4175985|Q4175985]] | [[Flosculariaceae]] | Flosculariaceae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eurotatoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4178975|Q4178975]] | [[Collothecacea]] | Collothecacea | [[Eurotatoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4187312|Q4187312]] | [[Fenestrida]] | Fenestrida | [[Stenolaemata]] | [[File:Fenestella from Couvin Belgium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4193710|Q4193710]] | [[Ctenostomatida]] | Ctenostomatida | [[Gymnolaemata]] | [[File:Alcyonidium gelatinosum 0001.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4300405|Q4300405]] | [[Callipodida]] | Callipodida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Nematophora]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Tetracion jonesi 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4300743|Q4300743]] | [[Chordeumatida]] | Chordeumatida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Diplopoda]]<br/>[[Nematophora]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Chordeumatida New Zealand.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4303297|Q4303297]] | [[Pygophora]] | Pygophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Maxillopoda]]<br/>[[Acrothoracica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4309075|Q4309075]] | [[Porocephalida]] | Porocephalida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pentastomida]] | [[File:Porocephalus crotali.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4344585|Q4344585]] | [[Paoliida]] | Paoliida | [[Neoptera]]<br/>[[Polyneoptera]]<ref name="ref_0f99a492d7288fb6da109e1ad4dd9c05d3c22d83666fc45a2e73c3918e30b90f">''[[:d:Q59387388|Late Palaeozoic Paoliida is the sister group of Dictyoptera (Insecta: Neoptera)]]''</ref> | [[File:Paoliida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4358594|Q4358594]] | [[Chytridiales]] | Chytridiales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Chytridiomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Synchytridium endobioticum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4389641|Q4389641]] | [[Heterocyemida]] | Heterocyemida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhombozoa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4394614|Q4394614]] | [[Rhizophydiales]] | Rhizophydiales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_46c03d8ad233a85afe83c0d00f4cde864d4c4bdf5b89b51e4f2c0163d1ccae45">''[[:d:Q28258797|Ultrastructural and molecular phylogenetic delineation of a new order, the Rhizophydiales (Chytridiomycota)]]''</ref> | [[Rhizophydiomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:WJD126 on agar.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4416540|Q4416540]] | [[Septobasidiales]] | Septobasidiales | [[Pucciniomycetes]] | [[File:Septobasidium pseudopedicellatum Burt.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4458210|Q4458210]] | [[Titanoptera]] | Titanoptera | [[Polyneoptera]]<br/>[[Panorthoptera]]<ref name="ref_c8dae2d19519e7ebc19b71e5f14220b6a8ef8aebfd931f8c6322beb01fed68bc">''[[:d:Q28938232|Venation pattern and revision of Orthoptera sensu nov. and sister groups. Phylogeny of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Orthoptera sensu nov.]]''</ref> | [[File:Gigatitan vulgaris.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4499108|Q4499108]] | [[Naviculales]] | Naviculales | [[Bacillariophycanae]] | [[File:Navicula oblonga 115647672.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4614869|Q4614869]] | [[Contortae]] | Contortae | [[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Plumeria-1-KayEss-1.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4670447|Q4670447]] | [[Acholeplasmatales]] | Acholeplasmatales | [[Mollicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4672008|Q4672008]] | [[Acanthophractida]] | Acanthophractida | [[Acantharia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4673905|Q4673905]] | [[Achromatorida]] | Achromatorida | [[Haemosporidiasina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4674492|Q4674492]] | [[Aconchulinida]] | Aconchulinida | [[Proteomyxidea]] | [[File:Vampyrella lateritia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4688535|Q4688535]] | [[Aeschronectida]] | Aeschronectida | [[Hoplocarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4691177|Q4691177]] | [[Agamococcidiorida]] | Agamococcidiorida<ref name="ref_d21cbeb4111220f92550bb287e895d65026ac8a14842137a8c6865e685ddbfd6">''[[:d:Q60363006|Agamococcidiorida ord. n. and Rhytidocystidae fam. n. for the Coccidian Genus Rhytidocystis Henneguy, 1907]]''</ref> | [[Coccidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4716179|Q4716179]] | [[Alepisauriformes]] | Alepisauriformes | [[Teleostei]] | [[File:Synodus intermedius.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4748249|Q4748249]] | [[Amphidiscosa]] | Amphidiscosa<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Amphidiscophora]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Purple Cup Sponges.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4770223|Q4770223]] | [[Trichosida]] | Trichosida<ref name="ref_f51f9c133ba1404def0c26a609568b5f4f7d20c1d1c61aa7aa7cc1517e8f1a75">''[[:d:Q109882701|Bruchstücke einer Rhizopodenfauna der Kieler Bucht]]''</ref> | [[Lobosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4782334|Q4782334]] | [[Apusomonadida]] | Apusomonadida<ref name="ref_c2d88d42efd797a8374f595c656de996fefd1d080e60a773c1f2ee52e47afc81">''[[:d:Q109995956|Biology and ultrastructure of colorless flagellates Apuromonadida ord. n.]]''</ref> | [[Thecomonadea]] | [[File:Apusomonas.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4785362|Q4785362]] | [[Archaeoglobales]] | Archaeoglobales | [[Archaeoglobi]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:40793 2015 2030327 Fig2.webp|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4786846|Q4786846]] | [[Archigregarinorida]] | Archigregarinorida<ref name="ref_01b02c448de67f8c4dba767ce1863e9147b1a55392ef0bd2407b736adafd0bfd">''[[:d:Q109353526|Protozoaires : Rhizopodes, Actinopodes, Sporozoaires, Cnidosporidies]]''</ref> | [[Gregarinasina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4786993|Q4786993]] | [[Architectibranchia]] | Architectibranchia | [[Opisthobranchia]] | [[File:Acteonella gigantea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4797630|Q4797630]] | [[Arthracanthida]] | Arthracanthida | [[Acantharia]] | [[File:Radiolaria (Challenger) Plate 130.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4808082|Q4808082]] | [[Aspiraculata]] | Aspiraculata<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[Sorberacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4810926|Q4810926]] | [[Astomatida]] | Astomatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Astomatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4815733|Q4815733]] | [[Athyridida]] | Athyridida | [[Rhynchonellata]] | [[File:Uncitidae - Uncites gryphus.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4868172|Q4868172]] | [[Basslerocerida]] | Basslerocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4889790|Q4889790]] | [[Benneviaspidida]] | Benneviaspidida | [[Osteostraci]] | [[File:Boreaspis.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4893793|Q4893793]] | [[Protodiptera]] | Protodiptera | [[Mecoptera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4897078|Q4897078]] | [[Bestiae]] | Bestiae<ref name="ref_5bdbf8eee19b105ff04d66d13ee4f654eec1e2e0dd7692808ebb15629415fb16">''[[:d:Q21608408|Systema Naturae. 10th edition, Volume 1]]''</ref> | [[Theriiformes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4925531|Q4925531]] | [[Blattoptera]] | Blattoptera | [[insecto]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4934578|Q4934578]] | [[Bobasatraniiformes]] | Bobasatraniiformes | [[Osteichthyes]] | [[File:Bobasatrania.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4936724|Q4936724]] | [[Bodonida]] | Bodonida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Metakinetoplastina]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Bodo saltans - 400x (13895749563).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4939378|Q4939378]] | [[Boletzkyida]] | Boletzkyida | [[Palaeoteuthomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4950171|Q4950171]] | [[Bourgueticrinida]] | Bourgueticrinida | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Haeckel Crinoidea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4961607|Q4961607]] | [[Graptoloidea]] | Graptoloidea | [[Graptolithina]] | [[File:Graptoliitargilliit.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4982410|Q4982410]] | [[Microbotryales]] | Microbotryales | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | [[File:Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae on Red Campion - Silene dioica (30012536987).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4991587|Q4991587]] | [[Neorhabdocoela]] | Neorhabdocoela<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Turbellarios|Turbellaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4995524|Q4995524]] | [[Helobiae]] | Helobiae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:AlismaPlant1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5018126|Q5018126]] | [[Azygiida]] | Azygiida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Digenea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q5018227|Q5018227]] | [[Proseriata]] | Proseriata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhabditophora]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Parotoplana renatae.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5035193|Q5035193]] | [[Strigeata]] | Strigeata | [[Trematoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5047380|Q5047380]] | [[Mazocraeidea]] | Mazocraeidea | [[Polyopisthocotylea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Heteromicrocotyloides megaspinosus Body.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5047736|Q5047736]] | [[Caryophyllidea]] | Caryophyllidea | [[Eucestoda]] | [[File:03 Caryophyllidea.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5058787|Q5058787]] | [[Cenarchaeales]] | Cenarchaeales | [[Nitrososphaeria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q5063285|Q5063285]] | [[Cephalodiscida]] | Cephalodiscida | [[Pterobranchia]] | [[File:Cephalodiscus dodecalophus McIntosh.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5063598|Q5063598]] | [[Ceraceosorales]] | Ceraceosorales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5066683|Q5066683]] | [[Chaetopeltidales]] | Chaetopeltidales<ref name="ref_23894194af27f36f8eac6e8532b4d493427773e95c5eef0f044efab4ea2d3f54">''[[:d:Q110444808|Ultrastructure and phylogenetic relationships of Chaetopeltidales ord. nov. (Chlorophyta, Chlorophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Chlorophyceae]] | [[File:Chaetopeltis orbicularis in Berthold 1878.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5090001|Q5090001]] | [[Cheloniellida]] | Cheloniellida | [[Vicissicaudata]]<ref name="ref_176e52aedf8ba2b919cfd14ec073e5d6e0a8bf102769e9acaf6acc3e0ed71557">''[[:d:Q56430757|The phylogeny of aglaspidid arthropods and the internal relationships within Artiopoda]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fa22ac1efe899ab0b30e4c6ba5da69d7987e9aae106f8fbf53f391b976b105e8">''[[:d:Q41327881|The Vicissicaudata revisited - insights from a new aglaspidid arthropod with caudal appendages from the Furongian of China]]''</ref> | [[File:20200415 Cheloniellon calmani.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5100442|Q5100442]] | [[Enchytraeida]] | Enchytraeida | [[Clitellata]] | [[File:Enchytraeus albidus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5102273|Q5102273]] | [[Chitonida]] | Chitonida | [[Neoloricata]] | [[File:Cryptoconchus porosus (butterfly chiton).JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5102716|Q5102716]] | [[Chlamydiales]] | Chlamydiales | [[Chlamydiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlusskörperchen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5103175|Q5103175]] | [[Chlorosarcinales]] | Chlorosarcinales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5104710|Q5104710]] | [[Chonotrichida]] | Chonotrichida | [[Hypostomata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5113752|Q5113752]] | [[Chromatorida]] | Chromatorida | [[Aconoidasida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5113933|Q5113933]] | [[Chromulinales]] | Chromulinales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | [[File:Alger, Botydium granulatum, Nordisk familjebok.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5114940|Q5114940]] | [[Chrysosphaerales]] | Chrysosphaerales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5122184|Q5122184]] | [[Leptothecata]] | Leptothecata | [[Hydroidolina]] | [[File:Aequorea2.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5147886|Q5147886]] | [[Saccharomycetales]] | Saccharomycetales | [[Saccharomycetes]] | [[File:S cerevisiae under DIC microscopy.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5149302|Q5149302]] | [[Colpodellida]] | Colpodellida<ref name="ref_6a3224ed9e9612f3b161f90deafb215ffecae36153e66735b907fd7bacda7748">''[[:d:Q24634634|Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla]]''</ref> | [[Alveolata]] | [[File:Colpodella vorax.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5154131|Q5154131]] | [[Crassiclitellata]] | Crassiclitellata | [[Clitellata]]<br/>[[Opisthopora]] | [[File:Earthworm 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5161023|Q5161023]] | [[Conica]] | Conica | [[Hydrozoa]]<br/>[[Leptothecata]]<ref name="ref_e5a81d1b48ca66c3c8f61aa87f1b82d0fb0b5e1bac384261d084c21d921f2dea">''[[:d:Q2745977|Fauna Europaea]]''</ref> | [[File:Aequorea coerulescens1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5171922|Q5171922]] | [[Cornulitida]] | Cornulitida | [[Tentaculata]] | [[File:CornulitidOrdovician.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5190992|Q5190992]] | [[Cryptomonadales]] | Cryptomonadales | [[Cryptophyceae]] | [[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 6743 SEM Cryptophyte.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5191006|Q5191006]] | [[Cryptonemiales]] | Cryptonemiales | [[Florideae]]<br/>[[Rhodophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5191068|Q5191068]] | [[Cryptostomata]] | Cryptostomata | [[Gymnolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5191645|Q5191645]] | [[Ctenocladales]] | Ctenocladales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5191729|Q5191729]] | [[Ctenostomata]] | Ctenostomata<ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref> | [[Gymnolaemata]]<ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref> | [[File:Ropalonaria large 010213.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5198245|Q5198245]] | [[Cyclida]] | Cyclida | [[Branchiura]] | [[File:Cyclus americanus 34.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5199428|Q5199428]] | [[Cymbellales]] | Cymbellales | [[Bacillariophycidae]] | [[File:Cymbella.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5201030|Q5201030]] | [[Cyrtonellida]] | Cyrtonellida | [[Tergomya]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5201031|Q5201031]] | [[Cyrtoneritimorpha]] | Cyrtoneritida | [[Neritopsina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5207801|Q5207801]] | [[Dactylopteriformes]] | Dactylopteriformes | [[Percomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5221204|Q5221204]] | [[Tertiates]] | Tertiates | [[Mammiferos]] | [[File:Mammiferes.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5259140|Q5259140]] | [[Dennstaedtiales]] | Dennstaedtiales | [[Polypodiopsida]] | [[File:Starr 041221-1891 Microlepia strigosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5262729|Q5262729]] | [[Dermocystida]] | Dermocystida<ref name="ref_c033a9e634a29b6e57249cffd6636bd260a569be6db02d176f2e0abb8e439574">''[[:d:Q109996913|Neomonada and the origin of animals and fungi]]''</ref> | [[Ichthyosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5270652|Q5270652]] | [[Triplonchida]] | Triplonchida | [[Adenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5274016|Q5274016]] | [[Dictyosiphonales]] | Dictyosiphonales | [[Phaeophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5282776|Q5282776]] | [[Dissidocerida]] | Dissidocerida | [[Orthoceratoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5290058|Q5290058]] | [[Chimaeriformes]] | Chimaeriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Holocephali]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Hydrolagus colliei.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5291566|Q5291566]] | [[Equisetales]] | Equisetales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiopsida]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref> | [[File:Equisetum fluviatile Oulu, Finland 01.06.2013.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5332313|Q5332313]] | [[Eccrinales]] | Eccrinales | [[Trichomycetes]] | [[File:Amoebidiales (10.3897-mycokeys.67.52055) Figure 26.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5332473|Q5332473]] | [[Echinocystitoida]] | Echinocystitoida | [[Perischoechinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5357568|Q5357568]] | [[Sphaeropleales]] | Sphaeropleales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | [[File:British fresh-water algae, exclusive of Desmidieae and Diatomaceae (1882-1884) (20424304451).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5361282|Q5361282]] | [[Bifidobacteriales]] | Bifidobacteriales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bifidobacterium adolescentis Gram.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5375292|Q5375292]] | [[Encalyptales]] | Encalyptales | [[Funariidae]] | [[File:Encalypta vulgaris (c, 153151-482334) 3332.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5409856|Q5409856]] | [[Euonychophora]] | Euonychophora | [[Udeonychophora]] | [[File:Eoperipatus totoro.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5455225|Q5455225]] | [[Fissidentales]] | Fissidentales | [[Bryopsida]] | [[File:Fissidens cristatus0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5458148|Q5458148]] | [[Flavobacteriales]] | Flavobacteriales<ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Bacteroidia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bergeyella zoohelcum 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5460846|Q5460846]] | [[Florenciellales]] | Florenciellales | [[Dictyochophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5571905|Q5571905]] | [[Glosselytrodea]] | Glosselytrodea | [[insecto]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5623940|Q5623940]] | [[Gyalectales]] | Gyalectales | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Gyalecta jenensis, Apothecien.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5643349|Q5643349]] | [[Halobacteriales]] | Halobacteriales | [[Halobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Halobacteria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5655961|Q5655961]] | [[Acanthoecida]] | Acanthoecida<ref name="ref_34bc0fc69a97bf32d851c4d078a9fedc41953d88ade5871200aaf529fc6f017e">''[[:d:Q62085705|Amoeboflagellates and mitochondrial cristae in eukaryote evolution: megasystematics of the new protozoan subkingdoms Eozoa and Neozoa]]''</ref> | [[Choanoflagellatea]] | [[File:Diaphanoeca x100 phase.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5655970|Q5655970]] | [[Acanthopodida]] | Acanthopodida<ref name="ref_d90a54f5b429095b0c6971e19146eb4158d6cbb3b9bae1bef0821a57c05ad9b7">''[[:d:Q109918225|An illustrated key to freshwater and soil amoebae]]''</ref> | [[Gymnamoebia]]<br/>[[Centramoebia]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q5696912|Q5696912]] | [[Anthocerotales]] | Anthocerotales | [[Anthocerotidae]] | [[File:Anthoceros agrestis 060910d.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5701568|Q5701568]] | [[Helcionellid]] | Helcionelliformes | [[Archaeobranchia]] | [[File:Latouchella costata.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5705752|Q5705752]] | [[Heliomonadida]] | Heliomonadida | [[Granofilosea]] | [[File:Algen I. (Schizophyceen, Flagellaten, Peridineen) (1910) (17950796051).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5747196|Q5747196]] | [[Heterogastridiales]] | Heterogastridiales<ref name="ref_2df8dece4abad44561a7f64447c4ddcf31746a828b52a82a192321dfd8b2d82c">''[[:d:Q99886899|Heterogastridiales: A New Order of Basidiomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5766992|Q5766992]] | [[Choanoflagellida]] | Choanoflagellida | [[Choanoflagellatea]] | [[File:Cronoflagelado2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5768626|Q5768626]] | [[Chytriodiniales]] | Chytriodiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5789310|Q5789310]] | [[Thoracosphaerales]] | Thoracosphaerales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Thoracosphaera-heimi2 hg.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5794838|Q5794838]] | [[Cupressales]] | Cupressales<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pinidae]]<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Taxus baccata MHNT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5799721|Q5799721]] | [[Davalliales]] | Davalliales | [[Polypodiopsida]] | [[File:Davallia bullata 2 ies.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5804281|Q5804281]] | [[Desmocapsales]] | Desmocapsales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5807308|Q5807308]] | [[Dinamoebales]] | Dinamoebales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5807451|Q5807451]] | [[Dinocloniales]] | Dinocloniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5807459|Q5807459]] | [[Dinophysiales]] | Dinophysiales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Dinophysis acuminata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5807486|Q5807486]] | [[Dinotrichales]] | Dinotrichales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5882696|Q5882696]] | [[Gonyaulacales]] | Gonyaulacales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Ceratium furca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5890243|Q5890243]] | [[Gymnodiniales]] | Gymnodiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Karenia brevis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5903782|Q5903782]] | [[Hormogonales]] | Hormogonales | [[Cyanobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5934749|Q5934749]] | [[Paleoloricata]] | Paleoloricata | [[Polyplacophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5957091|Q5957091]] | [[Hyolithida]] | Hyolithida | [[Hyolitha]] | [[File:Hyoliths02.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5962356|Q5962356]] | [[Hysteriales]] | Hysteriales | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | [[File:2014-03-15 Hysterium pulicare Pers. - Fr 556475.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5986427|Q5986427]] | [[Ichthyophonida]] | Ichthyophonida | [[Ichthyosporea]] | [[File:Creolimax fragrantissima.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6034931|Q6034931]] | [[Enterobacterales]] | Enterobacterales<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Citrobacter freundii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6067622|Q6067622]] | [[Pavlovales]] | Pavlovales<ref name="ref_d54ce69531a3e798c038d81d9e367eb63ef2bca68d191b33b542e09022010cf5">''[[:d:Q110221186|Notes on the flagellar apparatus and taxonomy of Pavlova mesolychnon Van der Veer, and on the status of Pavlova Butcher and related genera within the Haptophyceae]]''</ref> | [[Pavlovophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6074759|Q6074759]] | [[Phytodinales]] | Phytodinales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Duel life stages.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6090614|Q6090614]] | [[Ptychodiscales]] | Ptychodiscales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6101142|Q6101142]] | [[Ixorheorida]] | Ixorheorida<ref name="ref_433b66c9b4dc02a72a151247100a70f2133dddb3c14b028431f254c2f11b39ce">''[[:d:Q99669219|Nomenclatural Corrections and New Taxa in the Apicomplexan Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[Coccidiasina]]<ref name="ref_433b66c9b4dc02a72a151247100a70f2133dddb3c14b028431f254c2f11b39ce">''[[:d:Q99669219|Nomenclatural Corrections and New Taxa in the Apicomplexan Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q6123295|Q6123295]] | [[Jahnulales]] | Jahnulales<ref name="ref_373e961078d233c6ec393ef75a1f2f67796db04925e0953ec04b7e927ba2fac0">''[[:d:Q54552092|Jahnulales (Dothideomycetes, Ascomycota): a new order of lignicolous freshwater ascomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Pleosporomycetidae]] | [[File:Jahnula purpurea (10.3897-mycokeys.9.4440) Figure 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6145848|Q6145848]] | [[Thermotogales]] | Thermotogales | [[Thermotogae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Thermotoga sketch.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6241223|Q6241223]] | [[Erinaceomorpha]] | Erinaceomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Laurasiatheria]]<br/>[[Placentarios]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Insectivora]] | [[File:Seba herisson.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6449719|Q6449719]] | [[Polyxenida]] | Polyxenida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Penicillata]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Polyxenus.lagurus.1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6452293|Q6452293]] | [[Siphonophorida]] | Siphonophorida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Colobognatha]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Female Illacme plenipes (MIL0020) with 618 legs - ZooKeys-241-077-SP-6-left.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6452523|Q6452523]] | [[Bryopsidales]] | Bryopsidales | [[Ulvophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Bryopsis plumosa herbarium item.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6453302|Q6453302]] | [[Polyzoniida]] | Polyzoniida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Colobognatha]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Octoglena bivirgata Santa Cruz county.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6467359|Q6467359]] | [[Laboulbeniales]] | Laboulbeniales | [[Laboulbeniomycetes]] | [[File:Harmonia.axyridis.with.Laboulbeniales.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6496983|Q6496983]] | [[Rajiformes]] | Rajiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Batoidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[elasmobranchio]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Leucoraja erinacea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6502027|Q6502027]] | [[Tetramerocerata]] | Tetramerocerata<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[Pauropoda]]<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q6507823|Q6507823]] | [[Scutigeromorpha]] | Scutigeromorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[Notostigmophora]]<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[File:Scutigera coleoptrata.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6511474|Q6511474]] | [[Lecanicephaloidea]] | Lecanicephaloidea | [[Eucestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6527251|Q6527251]] | [[Leotiales]] | Leotiales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | [[File:Leotia viscosa 15412.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6528185|Q6528185]] | [[Leptomitales]] | Leptomitales | [[Oomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6534012|Q6534012]] | [[Leucettida]] | Leucettida | [[Calcinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6534425|Q6534425]] | [[Amphidiscosida]] | Amphidiscosida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Amphidiscophora]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Pheronema carpenteri - Naturmuseum Senckenberg - DSC02149.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6543292|Q6543292]] | [[Lichinales]] | Lichinales | [[Lichinomycetes]] | [[File:Lichina pygmaea Î aux Vaches 2008-11-26.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6545850|Q6545850]] | [[Ligamenvirales]] | Ligamenvirales<ref name="ref_a5fd26998257214762eeb54d0cd502570b81d9abaf031014396ebb01a0e9b2e6">''[[:d:Q18810383|ICTV Master Species List 2013 v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb05d964c30a45fef07328fb0f9fc143725f04c72f1ebf9d3684c09fab1ed17c">''[[:d:Q24716610|ICTV Master Species List 2014 v4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14768e152946c11f036e10c2a6237af5f4ef8201b49bc4d154dcb9b5bc43504e">''[[:d:Q24571893|ICTV Master Species List 2015 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_340ce0d1fe54d6ea21cccd266d1800d30938dc28d8254ab31e91911ec8d21145">''[[:d:Q29000566|ICTV Master Species List 2016 v1.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c5fbb4da26a55eb297e419b424ed5260340fdabc7bf32cded8c95ee5d79c42ce">''[[:d:Q69577800|ICTV Master Species List 2013]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Virus]]<ref name="ref_a5fd26998257214762eeb54d0cd502570b81d9abaf031014396ebb01a0e9b2e6">''[[:d:Q18810383|ICTV Master Species List 2013 v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb05d964c30a45fef07328fb0f9fc143725f04c72f1ebf9d3684c09fab1ed17c">''[[:d:Q24716610|ICTV Master Species List 2014 v4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14768e152946c11f036e10c2a6237af5f4ef8201b49bc4d154dcb9b5bc43504e">''[[:d:Q24571893|ICTV Master Species List 2015 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_340ce0d1fe54d6ea21cccd266d1800d30938dc28d8254ab31e91911ec8d21145">''[[:d:Q29000566|ICTV Master Species List 2016 v1.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c5fbb4da26a55eb297e419b424ed5260340fdabc7bf32cded8c95ee5d79c42ce">''[[:d:Q69577800|ICTV Master Species List 2013]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><br/>[[Tokiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Betalipothrixvirus virion.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6549373|Q6549373]] | [[Akentrogonida]] | Akentrogonida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhizocephala]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6554014|Q6554014]] | [[Cephalobaenida]] | Cephalobaenida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pentastomida]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q6555979|Q6555979]] | [[Dendrogastrida]] | Dendrogastrida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ascothoracida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6566609|Q6566609]] | [[Kentrogonida]] | Kentrogonida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Maxillopoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Sacculina.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6566619|Q6566619]] | [[Laurida]] | Laurida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ascothoracida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6584653|Q6584653]] | [[Didelphimorphia]] | Didelphimorphia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Marsupiales|Marsupialia]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Ameridelphia]] | [[File:Marmosops incanus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q581782|Q581782]] | [[Myctophiformes]] | Myctophiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Myctophata]] | [[File:Messina Straits Myctophum punctatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q584651|Q584651]] | [[Gigartinales]] | Gigartinales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Callophyllis japonica.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q587355|Q587355]] | [[Basommatophora]] | Basommatophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pulmonata]] | [[File:Spitzschlammschnecke.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q590261|Q590261]] | [[Noctilucales]] | Noctilucales | [[Dinoflagellata]] | [[File:Noctiluca scintillans unica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q594740|Q594740]] | [[Ustilaginales]] | Ustilaginales | [[Ustilaginomycetes]] | [[File:Huitlacoche.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q596196|Q596196]] | [[Glomerales]] | Glomerales | [[Glomeromycetes]] | [[File:Glomus mosseae.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q600229|Q600229]] | [[Triuridales]] | Triuridales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Alismatidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Triuridanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Pandananae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Lacandonia.PNG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q603568|Q603568]] | [[Linales]] | Linales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Geranianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Linum usitatissimum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-088.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q604064|Q604064]] | [[Gomphales]] | Gomphales | [[Phallomycetidae]] | [[File:Clavariadelphus ligula 060922b.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q604358|Q604358]] | [[Trichiida]] | Trichiida | [[Myxogastria]] | [[File:Hemitrichia serpula 57955.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q604373|Q604373]] | [[Liceida]] | Liceales<ref name="ref_d2c68a5c6d873e987bc8e56d7ac35416cfc37e39bd6d5c281a522efe25929266">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/datasets/taxonomy/211104/names/</ref> | [[Lucisporidia]] | [[File:Lycogala epidendrum - Pink and brown slime molds.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q604856|Q604856]] | [[Anagalida]] | Anagaloidea | [[Preptotheria]]<br/>[[Anagalida]] | [[File:Anagale gobiensis NT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q605509|Q605509]] | [[Protosteliales]] | Protosteliales<ref name="ref_d8891ef4702fd6bb4cb9a06ca9fb4d4a8c928be365ce4b2f530119dfec3b667b">''[[:d:Q34244710|The Protostelida--a new order of the Mycetozoa.]]''</ref> | [[Variosea]] | [[File:Ceratiomyxa tunohokori01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q606885|Q606885]] | [[Bellerophontida]] | Bellerophontida | [[Prosobranchia]] | [[File:Bucanopsis leda.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q610217|Q610217]] | [[Hymenochaetales]] | Hymenochaetales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Inonotus tamaricis 01.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q618825|Q618825]] | [[Apodida]] | Apodida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_23b80758ad1389c3f4fc571aa8731c18bcf8be1f285aad66f1fda148e11b60c7">''[[:d:Q97515613|A taxonomic guide to the Echinodermata of the South Atlantic Bight, USA: 1. Sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Paractinopoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Synaptula lamberti.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q618894|Q618894]] | [[Oxymonadida]] | Oxymonadida<ref name="ref_21e2e578e1dc61c794ecc1152f97f05b0ab4af6e42119e157a98c432d71e684a">''[[:d:Q109353487|Phylogénie. Protozoaires : Généralités. Flagellés.]]''</ref> | [[Metamonada]] | [[File:Monocermonoides melolanthae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q621519|Q621519]] | [[Stephanoberyciformes]] | Stephanoberyciformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[File:Scopelogadus mizolepis mizolepis.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q621582|Q621582]] | [[Saccopharyngiformes]] | Saccopharyngiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Elopomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Eurypharynx.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q621829|Q621829]] | [[Peronosporales]] | Peronosporales<ref name="ref_5f6d6752998ee4b92da9182b2e6ed0620f64bf0068f51eefebcaa1f7a6fd6c34">''[[:d:Q51409324|Dr. L. Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz]]''</ref> | [[Peronosporea]]<br/>[[Peronosporidae]]<br/>[[Oomycota]] | [[File:Albugo candida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q623232|Q623232]] | [[Cyatheales]] | Cyatheales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Dicksonia antarctica in Nunniong, Australia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q628915|Q628915]] | [[Pennales]] | Pennales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q631141|Q631141]] | [[Spatangoida]] | Spatangoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Atelostomata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Echinocardium cordatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q636042|Q636042]] | [[Desulfuromonadales]] | Desulfuromonadales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Desulfuromonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q636577|Q636577]] | [[Baeomycetales]] | Baeomycetales | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Baeomyces rufus 280208a.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q637179|Q637179]] | [[Archaeognatha]] | Archaeognatha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Monocondylia]] | [[File:Petrobius maritimus 2010-06-02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q638722|Q638722]] | [[Pholidoskepia]] | Pholidoskepia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Solenogastres]] | | |- | [[:d:Q650692|Q650692]] | [[Syngnathiformes]] | Syngnathiformes<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Syngnatharia]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Ornate Ghost Pipefish (6997593631).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q653782|Q653782]] | [[Petrosaviales]] | Petrosaviales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Japonolirion osense 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q654053|Q654053]] | [[Agelasida]] | Agelasida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Agelas oroides Capo Gallo 025.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q655731|Q655731]] | [[Batrachoidiformes]] | Batrachoidiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Batrachoidaria]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Opsanus beta 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q655831|Q655831]] | [[Condylarthra]] | Condylarthra | [[Mammiferos]] | [[File:The age of mammals in Europe, Asia and North America (1910) (17918467786).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q657570|Q657570]] | [[Stomiiformes]] | Stomiiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Stenopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Stomiati]] | [[File:Fish4104 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q659629|Q659629]] | [[Boletales]] | Boletales | [[Agaricomycetidae]] | [[File:AD2009Sep13 Boletus edulis 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q660555|Q660555]] | [[Pezizales]] | Pezizales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Pezizomycetes]] | [[File:Truffle.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q665771|Q665771]] | [[Spelaeogriphacea]] | Spelaeogriphacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Spelaeogriphus lepidops (10.3897-subtbiol.36.60162) Figure 1 (cropped).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q670109|Q670109]] | [[Urticales]] | Urticales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Urticanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Malvanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Brennnessel 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q676427|Q676427]] | [[Entomoplasmatales]] | Entomoplasmatales | [[Mollicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Spiro.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q682200|Q682200]] | [[Paxillosida]] | Paxillosida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c23210f9ce477857dd7bf2302d3eaec6938db3a157f88953b76cba160306b5e5">''[[:d:Q94305626|New species, occurrence records and observations of predation by deep-sea Asteroidea (Echinodermata) from the North Atlantic by NOAA ship Okeanos Explorer]]''</ref> | [[Asteroidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Valvatacea]] | [[File:Luidia magnifica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q682437|Q682437]] | [[Limoida]] | Limoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pteriomorphia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Limidae species.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q685518|Q685518]] | [[Leucosolenida]] | Leucosolenida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Calcaronea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Calcispongiae Grantia compressa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q686325|Q686325]] | [[Trombidiformes]] | Trombidiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff5fb1c85d7998e2a387c27ecf5d619e45ee3d5a566bf6659af4b067dbc0bafd">''[[:d:Q21074253|Order Trombidiformes Reuter, 1909]]''</ref> | [[Acariformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Trombidium holosericeum (aka).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q689001|Q689001]] | [[Amborellales]] | Amborellales<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Angiospermae|angiosperms]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Amborella trichopoda 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q691406|Q691406]] | [[Creodonta]] | Creodonta | [[Ferae]] | [[File:Hyaenodon Heinrich Harder.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q698425|Q698425]] | [[Anaeroplasmatales]] | Anaeroplasmatales | [[Mollicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q721247|Q721247]] | [[Notacanthiformes]] | Notacanthiformes<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Elopomorpha]]<br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Notacanthus chemnitzii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q722052|Q722052]] | [[Halocyprida]] | Halocyprida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Myodocopa]] | [[File:Conchoecilla daphnoides (YPM IZ 104961).jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q722760|Q722760]] | [[Myodocopida]] | Myodocopida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Myodocopa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Copepod (unknown species).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q724194|Q724194]] | [[Cercomonadida]] | Cercomonadida | [[Cercozoa]] | [[File:Cercomonas sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q724556|Q724556]] | [[Ebriid]] | Ebriacea | [[Cercozoa]] | [[File:Ebria tripartita.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q726880|Q726880]] | [[Deltatheroida]] | Deltatheroida | [[Metatheria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q728681|Q728681]] | [[Pygocephalomorpha]] | Pygocephalomorpha | [[Peracarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q729975|Q729975]] | [[Diadematoida]] | Diadematoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Acroechinoidea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Diademseeigel.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q733080|Q733080]] | [[Phyllodocida]] | Phyllodocida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Errantia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Tomopteriskils.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q733595|Q733595]] | [[Nudibranchia]] | Nudibranchia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Nudipleura]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Berghia coerulescens (Laurillard, 1830).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q735595|Q735595]] | [[Myllokunmingiiformes]] | Myllokunmingiiformes | [[Agnatha]] | [[File:Myllokunmingia.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q742437|Q742437]] | [[Thermoplasmatales]] | Thermoplasmatales | [[Thermoplasmata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q745931|Q745931]] | [[Huerteales]] | Huerteales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref> | [[File:Starr 020925-0042 Perrottetia sandwicensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q746237|Q746237]] | [[Leitneriales]] | Leitneriales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelididae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Leitneria floridana 4zz.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q747698|Q747698]] | [[Dioscoreales]] | Dioscoreales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Tamus communis02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q749596|Q749596]] | [[Beryciformes]] | Beryciformes<ref name="ref_df08f77c23ba11f255d58501169d8805cafad9ea5641307d0a21d6cbd08dfd36">http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree.aspx?id=44721</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Berycimorphaceae]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Expl7075 (9734691415).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q752154|Q752154]] | [[Astrorhizida]] | Astrorhizida | [[Monothalamea]] | [[File:Brady1884Tafel019Alimicola.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q752264|Q752264]] | [[Gymnotiformes]] | Gymnotiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Ostariophysi]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Electrophorus electricus 3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q754029|Q754029]] | [[Mantophasmatodea]] | Mantophasmatodea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Neonotoptera]]<ref name="ref_ecb66eadcdaa06363d14d2557733b4f48ac72a7f6664a76707513fb15253e781">''[[:d:Q97683524|Rock Crawlers in Baltic Amber (Notoptera: Mantophasmatodea)]]''</ref><br/>[[Xenonomia]]<ref name="ref_287384ef9ab7e7dc64f38827ad349a24fa7880c9ed74b1a6e11fb1213e91b99c">''[[:d:Q64118504|Evolutionary history of Polyneoptera and its implications for our understanding of early winged insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Mantophasma zephyra Zompro et al 2002.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q755004|Q755004]] | [[Elopiformes]] | Elopiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Elopomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Tarpon.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q755012|Q755012]] | [[Gonorynchiformes]] | Gonorynchiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Anotophysa]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Chanos chanos Day.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q763989|Q763989]] | [[Cidaroida]] | Cidaroida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Cidaroidea]] | [[File:Cidaris cidaris MHNT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q767431|Q767431]] | [[Ophioglossales]] | Ophioglossales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Ophioglossidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Psilotopsida]]<ref name="ref_638b1feaccb1f617ca21a7b1ab7fc84edc66250f9ade0e635c314ba333c678f7">http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p054.pdf</ref> | [[File:Botrychium-4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q768012|Q768012]] | [[Diplostraca]] | Diplostraca<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Phyllopoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Daphnia pulex.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q768334|Q768334]] | [[Zeiformes]] | Zeiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Zeiariae]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Mirror dory.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q769054|Q769054]] | [[Moniliformida]] | Moniliformida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Archiacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Moniliformis moniliformis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q772011|Q772011]] | [[Thecosomata]] | Thecosomata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Opisthobranchia]] | [[File:Sea butterfly.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q773378|Q773378]] | [[Arales]] | Arales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Arecidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Aranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Arum maculatum Sturm63.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q774014|Q774014]] | [[Triconodonta]] | Triconodonta | [[Allotheria]]<br/>[[Theriiformes]]<ref name="ref_85389bbf9ce1fd42c331781b0d7acd017219cfa898bf842b81ec5387cb1d8643">''[[:d:Q22814967|Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level]]''</ref><br/>[[Acrotheria]]<ref name="ref_0db14c3d3952a5a4d97b341cf4e1767f41d4646cfc8013537c81e294ca9fc20b">''[[:d:Q22819896|Phylogeny of triconodonts and symmetrodonts and the origin of extant mammals]]''</ref> | [[File:Gobiconodon.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q777229|Q777229]] | [[Batales]] | Batales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Batis maritima male.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q781440|Q781440]] | [[Aulopiformes]] | Aulopiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Eurypterygii]]<br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Cyclosquamata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Chlorophthalmus agassizi Sardinia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q782159|Q782159]] | [[Sabellida]] | Sabellida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Canalipalpata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Bispira sp. (Tubeworm).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q788492|Q788492]] | [[Ctenothrissiformes]] | Ctenothrissiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Acanthomorpha]] | [[File:Ctenothrissa vexillifer.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q793205|Q793205]] | [[Berberidopsidales]] | Berberidopsidales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Superasterids]]<ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Aetoxicon8.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q796196|Q796196]] | [[Ctenacanthiformes]] | Ctenacanthiformes | [[elasmobranchio]] | [[File:Dracopristis hoffmanorum.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q796209|Q796209]] | [[Clymeniida]] | Clymeniida | [[Ammonoidea]] | [[File:Clymenia laevigata.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q796470|Q796470]] | [[Grylloblattodea]] | Grylloblattodea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Neonotoptera]]<ref name="ref_ecb66eadcdaa06363d14d2557733b4f48ac72a7f6664a76707513fb15253e781">''[[:d:Q97683524|Rock Crawlers in Baltic Amber (Notoptera: Mantophasmatodea)]]''</ref><br/>[[Xenonomia]]<ref name="ref_287384ef9ab7e7dc64f38827ad349a24fa7880c9ed74b1a6e11fb1213e91b99c">''[[:d:Q64118504|Evolutionary history of Polyneoptera and its implications for our understanding of early winged insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Galloisiana nipponensis 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q796580|Q796580]] | [[Myliobatiformes]] | Myliobatiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Batoidea]] | [[File:Dasyatis brevicaudata 4x3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q826514|Q826514]] | [[Ostropales]] | Ostropales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | [[File:Conotrema urceolatum-2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q834805|Q834805]] | [[Polypodiales]] | Polypodiales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:California Arena Point fern.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q834919|Q834919]] | [[Soricomorpha]] | Soricomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Placentarios]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref> | [[File:Southern short-tailed shrew.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q835097|Q835097]] | [[Ginkgoales]] | Ginkgoales<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Ginkgoidae]]<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Ginkgo huttoni fossile-jurassique 0.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q838519|Q838519]] | [[Rhizostomeae]] | Rhizostomeae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Discomedusae]] | [[File:Mediterranean Jellyfish 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q840453|Q840453]] | [[Pulmonata]] | Pulmonata | [[Heterobranchia]] | [[File:Grapevinesnail 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q840849|Q840849]] | [[Struthioniformes]] | Struthioniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_4deb45b4f8433f47fece5a9fd9f37b56ee2eb8625e1ebc2497c594a087913f27">''[[:d:Q56474728|Index ornithologicus, sive, Systema ornithologiae : complectens avium divisionem in classes, ordines, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates : adjectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibus, &c]]''</ref> | [[Palaeognathae]] | [[File:Avestruz de cuello azul (Struthio camelus australis), cabo de Buena Esparanza, Sudáfrica, 2018-07-23, DD 87.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q853383|Q853383]] | [[Anostraca]] | Anostraca<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Sarsostraca]] | [[File:Artemia salina 4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q854988|Q854988]] | [[Tetrasporales]] | Tetrasporales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q855871|Q855871]] | [[Prorocentrales]] | Prorocentrales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Prorocentrum micans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q855962|Q855962]] | [[Ulotrichales]] | Ulotrichales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Ulothrix carmichaelii Crouan (cropped).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q856867|Q856867]] | [[Bicosoecea]] | Bicosoecea | [[Bicosoecophyceae]]<br/>[[Bicoecea]] | [[File:CafeteriaRoenbergensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q859840|Q859840]] | [[Cetomimiformes]] | Cetomimiformes<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[File:Flabby whalefish.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q867388|Q867388]] | [[Cimolesta]] | Cimolesta | [[Eutheria]] | [[File:Palaeosinopa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q868430|Q868430]] | [[Lactobacillales]] | Lactobacillales | [[Bacilli]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:O. oeni.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q870328|Q870328]] | [[Spizellomycetales]] | Spizellomycetales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Spizellomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:Spizellomycete.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q871759|Q871759]] | [[Thermoanaerobacterales]] | Thermoanaerobacterales | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:T. thermohydrosulfuricus BSB-33.webp|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1137485|Q1137485]] | [[Argentiniformes]] | Argentiniformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Protacanthopterygii]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Alepocephalus tenebrosus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1138058|Q1138058]] | [[Doliolida]] | Doliolida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Thaliacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Doliolum sp.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1138502|Q1138502]] | [[Heterostropha]] | Heterostropha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gastropodos]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Heterobranchia]] | [[File:Pyramidella maculosa - D'Orbigny.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1138673|Q1138673]] | [[Sphagnales]] | Sphagnales | [[Sphagnidae]] | [[File:SphagnumFallax.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1139223|Q1139223]] | [[Anaspidacea]] | Anaspidacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Syncarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Koonunga cursor.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1139306|Q1139306]] | [[Bathynellacea]] | Bathynellacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Syncarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Bathynella chappuisi – Delachaux, 1918.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1139385|Q1139385]] | [[Desmostylia]] | Desmostylia | [[Paenungulata]] | [[File:Desmostylus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1139948|Q1139948]] | [[Holothyrida]] | Holothyrida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Parasitiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Allothyridae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1141517|Q1141517]] | [[Crossognathiformes]] | Crossognathiformes | [[Clupeocephala]] | [[File:Rhacolepis Vienna.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1142230|Q1142230]] | [[Cryomonadida]] | Cryomonadida | [[Cercozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1146840|Q1146840]] | [[Verrucomicrobiales]] | Verrucomicrobiales | [[Verrucomicrobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1147933|Q1147933]] | [[Didelphodonta]] | Didelphodonta | [[Placentarios]] | [[File:Didelphodon Clean.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1150786|Q1150786]] | [[Illiciales]] | Illiciales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Magnoliidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Magnolianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Nymphaeanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Illicium anisatum SZ1.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1156226|Q1156226]] | [[Amphioxiformes]] | Amphioxiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Cephalochordata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Branchiostoma lanceolatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1185781|Q1185781]] | [[Notoptera]] | Notoptera | [[Polyneoptera]]<br/>[[Notopterodea]]<ref name="ref_ecb66eadcdaa06363d14d2557733b4f48ac72a7f6664a76707513fb15253e781">''[[:d:Q97683524|Rock Crawlers in Baltic Amber (Notoptera: Mantophasmatodea)]]''</ref> | [[File:Mantophasma zephyra Zompro et al 2002.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1185812|Q1185812]] | [[Centrohelid]] | Centrohelida | [[Haptista]] | [[File:Raphidiophrys contractilis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1186117|Q1186117]] | [[Lecythidales]] | Lecythidales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Lecythidanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Brazilnut1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1186640|Q1186640]] | [[Enterogona]] | Enterogona<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ascidiacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Chelyosoma macleayanum 001.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1187122|Q1187122]] | [[Littorinimorpha]] | Littorinimorpha | [[Caenogastropoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Different cowries.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1188550|Q1188550]] | [[Nautilida]] | Nautilida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Nautiloid]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Nautilus pompilius.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1188664|Q1188664]] | [[Cladophorales]] | Cladophorales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Cladophora.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1188910|Q1188910]] | [[Oedogoniales]] | Oedogoniales<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Chlorophyceae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Oedogonium species.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1189104|Q1189104]] | [[Hadromerida]] | Hadromerida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Tetractinomorpha]]<br/>[[Demospongiae]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Tethya aurantia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1194372|Q1194372]] | [[Picramniales]] | Picramniales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Malvids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Alvaradoa amorphoides-leaves-fruit.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1201017|Q1201017]] | [[Desulfobacterales]] | Desulfobacterales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Desulfobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Stromatolites Volcanic Lake.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1201093|Q1201093]] | [[Scolopendromorpha]] | Scolopendromorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[Pleurostigmophora]]<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[File:Scolopendra cingulata - D7-08-2259.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1207101|Q1207101]] | [[Cariamiformes]] | Cariamiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Australavis]] | [[File:Andalgalornis jconway.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1207949|Q1207949]] | [[Astrophorida]] | Astrophorida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Demospongiae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Geodia barretti.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1209668|Q1209668]] | [[Gleicheniales]] | Gleicheniales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Dipteris conjugata 破傘蕨 001 (天問).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1227671|Q1227671]] | [[Pachycormiformes]] | Pachycormiformes | [[Teleostei]] | [[File:Hypsocormus2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1231177|Q1231177]] | [[Ungulata]] | Ungulata | [[Placentarios]]<br/>[[Epitheria]]<ref name="ref_85389bbf9ce1fd42c331781b0d7acd017219cfa898bf842b81ec5387cb1d8643">''[[:d:Q22814967|Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level]]''</ref><br/>[[Fereuungulata]]<ref name="ref_edd8d62b56ca5d5166e56dcc51217b10e66f30ceed5e8c575d971c1e06c32214">''[[:d:Q21093600|A higher-level MRP supertree of placental mammals]]''</ref> | [[File:Donkey in Clovelly, North Devon, England.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1240844|Q1240844]] | [[Mesostigmata]] | Mesostigmata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Parasitiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Varroa Mite.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1242326|Q1242326]] | [[Cingulata]] | Cingulata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Xenarthra]] | [[File:Cingulata2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1257561|Q1257561]] | [[Entomophthorales]] | Entomophthorales | [[Entomophthoromycetes]]<ref name="ref_b8c256ef49f76a6773946589846ce8cc2fc176141191f08a0f5375fe804cab79">''[[:d:Q117487849|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021]]''</ref> | [[File:Entomophthora muscae on Scathophaga stercoraria (lateral view).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1269779|Q1269779]] | [[Legionellales]] | Legionellales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Legionella Plate 01.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1275749|Q1275749]] | [[Onychura]] | Onychura | [[Branchiopoda]] | [[File:Daphnia spec.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1280344|Q1280344]] | [[Echiniscoidea]] | Echiniscoidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | [[Heterotardigrada]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | [[File:Isoechiniscoides higginsi 002.tiff|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1280547|Q1280547]] | [[Physarida]] | Physarida | [[Myxogastria]] | [[File:Physarum rubiginosum (7432380576).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1280686|Q1280686]] | [[Echinosteliida]] | Echinosteliida | [[Myxogastria]] | [[File:Rabenhorst Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland p.411.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1282192|Q1282192]] | [[Ectocarpales]] | Ectocarpales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Leathesia difformis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1289434|Q1289434]] | [[Strophomenida]] | Strophomenida | [[Strophomenata]] | [[File:EncrustedStroph.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1291522|Q1291522]] | [[Rhacophytales]] | Rhacophytales | [[Pteridophyta]] | [[File:Rhacophyton1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1319200|Q1319200]] | [[Systellommatophora]] | Systellommatophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eupulmonata]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Laevecaulis-2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1328838|Q1328838]] | [[Ceratodontiformes]] | Ceratodontiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Dipnoi]]<br/>[[Sarcopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Dipneusti]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Australian-Lungfish.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1343309|Q1343309]] | [[Polyporales]] | Polyporales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Ganoderma applanatum02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1362080|Q1362080]] | [[Zoanthidea]] | Zoantharia | [[Hexacorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref><br/>[[Zoanthidea]] | [[File:Parazoanth2.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1365073|Q1365073]] | [[Gorgonacea]] | Gorgonacea | [[Octocorallia]] | [[File:Iciligorgia schrammi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1365864|Q1365864]] | [[Pill millipede]] | Glomerida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Pentazonia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[pill millipede]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Glomeris marginata 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1367727|Q1367727]] | [[Ulvales]] | Ulvales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Ulva linza Helgoland.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1370442|Q1370442]] | [[Spirulida]] | Spirulida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Decapodiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Spiruladraw.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1371035|Q1371035]] | [[Cephalaspidea]] | Cephalaspidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Tectipleura]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Chelidonura varians.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1372052|Q1372052]] | [[Euamoebida]] | Euamoebida<ref name="ref_d510bb06b4116d667059f80b18bce9ea6c8e63194f66b80f7ad4249d9f600aac">''[[:d:Q109920412|Rhizopoda: Euamoebidea]]''</ref> | [[Tubulinea]] | [[File:Chaos carolinense.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1374037|Q1374037]] | [[Eupantotheria]] | Eupantotheria | [[Pantotheria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1378754|Q1378754]] | [[Eustigmatales]] | Eustigmatales | [[Eustigmatophyceae]] | [[File:15 3klein2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1387882|Q1387882]] | [[Oribatida]] | Oribatida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Sarcoptiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Phthiracarid.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1392215|Q1392215]] | [[Mortierellales]] | Mortierellales | [[Mortierellomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:Mortierella.Yosemite.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1393249|Q1393249]] | [[Arhynchobdellida]] | Arhynchobdellida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Euhirudinea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Americobdella.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1399107|Q1399107]] | [[Carangiformes]] | Carangiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Carangaria]] | [[File:Trevally Nick Hobgood.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1408337|Q1408337]] | [[Phrynophiurida]] | Phrynophiurida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a077257c597e33dddebdb0857a145de5cb762b8682eb2e745884762bc0cece9c">''[[:d:Q59329990|A new classification of the Ophiuroidea: with descriptions of new genera and species]]''</ref> | [[Ophiuroidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Ophiodea 70 Gorgonocephalidae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1410606|Q1410606]] | [[Symphyacanthida]] | Symphyacanthida | [[Acantharia]] | [[File:Haeckel Amphibelone cultellata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1417417|Q1417417]] | [[Iridopteridales]] | Iridopteridales | [[Cladoxylopsida]] | [[File:Ibyka reconstrucción.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1417536|Q1417536]] | [[Septibranchia]] | Septibranchia | [[Anomalodesmata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1420789|Q1420789]] | [[Ricciales]] | Ricciales | [[Marchantiidae]] | [[File:Riccia glauca 050910a.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1423451|Q1423451]] | [[Thecodontia]] | Thecodontia | [[Archosauromorpha]] | [[File:Paleorhinus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1424338|Q1424338]] | [[Cantharellales]] | Cantharellales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Chanterelle Cantharellus cibarius.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1440794|Q1440794]] | [[Mytiloida]] | Mytiloida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pteriomorphia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Anodonta anatina1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1450771|Q1450771]] | [[Dendroceratida]] | Dendroceratida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Keratosa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Chelonaplysilla violacea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1465692|Q1465692]] | [[Thiotrichales]] | Thiotrichales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Sulphide bacteria crop.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1475440|Q1475440]] | [[Spinicaudata]] | Spinicaudata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Diplostraca]] | [[File:Limnadia lenticularis detail (2877683685).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1479472|Q1479472]] | [[Antipatharia]] | Antipatharia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[Hexacorallia]]<ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Blackcoral colony 600.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1482506|Q1482506]] | [[Sawdoniales]] | Sawdoniales | [[Zosterophyllophyta]] | [[File:Sawdonia ornata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1493402|Q1493402]] | [[Ganeshida]] | Ganeshida | [[Tentaculata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1499582|Q1499582]] | [[Corallimorpharia]] | Corallimorpharia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[Hexacorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Mushroom Coral Morning.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1509529|Q1509529]] | [[Spiriferida]] | Spiriferida | [[Rhynchonellata]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Paraspirifer bownockeri.fond.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1523170|Q1523170]] | [[Neckerales]] | Neckerales | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1535943|Q1535943]] | [[Ochromonadales]] | Ochromonadales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | [[File:Ochromonas (Chrysophyceae).png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1536417|Q1536417]] | [[Peltaspermales]] | Peltaspermales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | [[File:Lepidopteris stuttgartiensis.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1538279|Q1538279]] | [[Exobasidiales]] | Exobasidiales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | [[File:Exobasidium.vaccinii.-.lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1541069|Q1541069]] | [[Hippuritoida]] | Hippuritoida | [[Heterodonta]] | [[File:RudistCretaceousUAE.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1550973|Q1550973]] | [[Pinguiochrysidales]] | Pinguiochrysidales | [[Stramenopiles]]<br/>[[Pinguiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1552021|Q1552021]] | [[Lagenida]] | Lagenida | [[Foraminifera]] | [[File:FMIB 50020 Dentalina commonis.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1569989|Q1569989]] | [[Nothosauria]] | Nothosauria | [[Nothosauroidea]] | [[File:Nothosaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1587376|Q1587376]] | [[Stolidobranchia]] | Stolidobranchia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ascidiacea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:29017702 95d79d4124 o d.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1592598|Q1592598]] | [[Tselfatiiformes]] | Tselfatiiformes | [[Clupeocephala]] | [[File:Tselfatia formosa cretaceo djebel tselfat.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1624249|Q1624249]] | [[Holacanthida]] | Holacanthida | [[Acantharia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1625604|Q1625604]] | [[Xylariales]] | Xylariales | [[Xylariomycetidae]] | [[File:Xylaria hypoxylon.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1627435|Q1627435]] | [[Hookeriales]] | Hookeriales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Hookeria lucens (c, 144712-474717) 5581.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1634023|Q1634023]] | [[Dryolestida]] | Dryolestida | [[Dryolestoidea]] | [[File:Dryolestes priscus lower jaw.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1647990|Q1647990]] | [[Coccosphaerales]] | Coccosphaerales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | [[File:Gephyrocapsa oceanica color.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1650384|Q1650384]] | [[Ammonitida]] | Ammonitida | [[Ammonoidea]] | [[File:202002 ammonite.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1653094|Q1653094]] | [[Trichomonadida]] | Trichomonadida<ref name="ref_69a1cf911ff93c9e7f188f5d32176ab6ff83d01de0873fceb3fcb37097808fd6">''[[:d:Q56803828|Flagellate and Host Relationships of Trichomonad Flagellates]]''</ref> | [[Trichomonadea]]<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | [[File:Trichomonas Giemsa DPDx.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1656407|Q1656407]] | [[Ichthyodectiformes]] | Ichthyodectiformes | [[Teleostei]] | [[File:Thrissops cf formosus 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1656634|Q1656634]] | [[Piroplasmida]] | Piroplasmida<ref name="ref_c067a03c5df967f0bdccbbaad02e009446750ca8443cdba348de126900640fe6">''[[:d:Q51523213|Protozoology : a manual for medical men, veterinarians and zoologists]]''</ref> | [[Aconoidasida]] | [[File:Babiesa spp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1659888|Q1659888]] | [[Perleidiformes]] | Perleidiformes | [[Chondrostei]] | [[File:Aetheodontus besanensis.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1660570|Q1660570]] | [[Schizopyrenida]] | Schizopyrenida | [[Heterolobosea]] | [[File:Naegleria (formes).png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1671134|Q1671134]] | [[Trochamminida]] | Trochamminida | [[Textulariia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1671821|Q1671821]] | [[Involutinida]] | Involutinida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1672085|Q1672085]] | [[Ionoscopiformes]] | Ionoscopiformes | [[Halecomorphi]] | [[File:Ionoscopus analibrevis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1675433|Q1675433]] | [[Desulfovibrionales]] | Desulfovibrionales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Desulfovibrionia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Dvulgaris micrograph.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1685680|Q1685680]] | [[Osteolepiformes]] | Osteolepiformes | [[Tetrapodomorpha]] | [[File:Osteolepis BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3122720|Q3122720]] | [[Gyracanthocephala]] | Gyracanthocephala<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eoacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3126286|Q3126286]] | [[Halymeniales]] | Halymeniales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Grateloupia turuturu Jymm.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3135619|Q3135619]] | [[Hildenbrandiales]] | Hildenbrandiales | [[Hildenbrandiophycidae]] | [[File:Hildenbrandia rivularis 02 by-dpc.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3139571|Q3139571]] | [[Homalorhagida]] | Homalorhagida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b2443bdb8eb065e0d3e88ce0d3b6b6fc0fba0b6a252f6528d420213f2db3c710">''[[:d:Q19317420|Phylum Kinorhyncha]]''</ref> | [[Kinorhyncha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b2443bdb8eb065e0d3e88ce0d3b6b6fc0fba0b6a252f6528d420213f2db3c710">''[[:d:Q19317420|Phylum Kinorhyncha]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3141838|Q3141838]] | [[Pseudophyllidea]] | Pseudophyllidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eucestoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Diphyl proglottidE.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3143734|Q3143734]] | [[Hydrogenophilales]] | Hydrogenophilales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Hydrogenophilia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3175015|Q3175015]] | [[Sessilia]] | Sessilia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Thoracica]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Barnacles.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3199468|Q3199468]] | [[Cassiduloida]] | Cassiduloida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b4e97428ed3532e51edc0912c91c1597fc173611c46b24baf5c2621fa27aab96">''[[:d:Q104454728|Homoplasy and extinction: the phylogeny of cassidulid echinoids (Echinodermata)]]''</ref> | [[Atelostomata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Echinolampas hemisphaerica MHNT Burdigalien Bollene 84.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3204672|Q3204672]] | [[Temnopleuroida]] | Temnopleuroida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Echinacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Flower urchin by Vincent C Chen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3205725|Q3205725]] | [[Patellariales]] | Patellariales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Patellaria atrata 47974.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3240372|Q3240372]] | [[Columniferae]] | Columniferae | [[Dialypetaleae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Alcea rosea - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-009.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3266272|Q3266272]] | [[Liliiflorae]] | Liliiflorae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref> | [[File:Lilium michiganense 3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3268477|Q3268477]] | [[Lycoperdales]] | Lycoperdales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Riesenbovist.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3268929|Q3268929]] | [[Lingulida]] | Lingulida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Lingulata]]<ref name="ref_f37f24b656cb23a9ca38b6885309672e3c7e8327e0dab838e55c494857e0a97e">''[[:d:Q18674784|Phylum Brachiopoda]]''</ref> | [[File:Botsfordia caelata 1.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3273708|Q3273708]] | [[Terebratulida]] | Terebratulida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhynchonellata]] | [[File:Terebratella sanguinea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3277156|Q3277156]] | [[Velatida]] | Velatida<ref name="ref_c33684dba0d1835c09cb47aa7c21dc218b8a5027956d146b583f507578fbdf6a">''[[:d:Q66412284|The marine fauna of New Zealand: Asteroidea (sea-stars). 3. Orders Velatida, Spinulosida, Forcipulatida, Brisingida with addenda to Paxillosida, Valvatida]]''</ref> | [[Asteroidea]] | [[File:Solaster endeca 001.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3291852|Q3291852]] | [[Radiodonta]] | Radiodonta | [[Dinocarida]] | [[File:20191201 Radiodonta Amplectobelua Anomalocaris Aegirocassis Lyrarapax Peytoia Laggania Hurdia.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3295418|Q3295418]] | [[Tetraphyllidea]] | Tetraphyllidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eucestoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Anthobothrium cornucopia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3306459|Q3306459]] | [[Pteridales]] | Pteridales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiopsida]] | [[File:Adiantum lunulatum W2 IMG 2337.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3312216|Q3312216]] | [[Stigonematales]] | Stigonematales | [[Cyanophyceae]] | [[File:Microcystis aeruginosa.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3314611|Q3314611]] | [[Amiiformes]] | Amiiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Neopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Amia calva1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3316454|Q3316454]] | [[Methanobacteriales]] | Methanobacteriales | [[Methanobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3327483|Q3327483]] | [[Mugiliformes]] | Mugiliformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7cc870d4a7280a340235a051f6521b358e5a79c3b805a7f6acecd7a93deb6039">''[[:d:Q51454312|Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Mugilomorphae]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Liza ramada.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3329309|Q3329309]] | [[Amphilinidea]] | Amphilinidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Cestodaria]]<br/>[[Nephroposticophora]] | [[File:Gigantolina.elongata.in.vivo.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3337678|Q3337678]] | [[Nektaspida]] | Nektaspida | [[Trilobitomorpha]] | [[File:Naraoia spinosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3338025|Q3338025]] | [[Nemodermatales]] | Nemodermatales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Album général des Cryptogames, Pl. 179.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3338196|Q3338196]] | [[Neomeniamorpha]] | Neomeniamorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Solenogastres]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3344541|Q3344541]] | [[Notostraca]] | Notostraca<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Phyllopoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:LepidurusApus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3349461|Q3349461]] | [[Oegophiurida]] | Oegophiurida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ophiuroidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3354233|Q3354233]] | [[Opisthorchiida]] | Opisthorchiida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Digenea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Clonorchis sinensis 2.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3361562|Q3361562]] | [[Palmariales]] | Palmariales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | [[File:Palmaria palmata 1 Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3361632|Q3361632]] | [[Palmipedes]] | Palmipedes | [[ave]] | [[File:Anas platyrhynchos (Male) in Locarno.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3364269|Q3364269]] | [[Ichthyostegalia]] | Ichthyostegalia | [[Labyrinthodontia]] | [[File:Ichthyostega BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3377527|Q3377527]] | [[Polyopisthocotylea]] | Polyopisthocotylea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Monogenea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Journal.pone.0079155.g004 Only silhouettes of bodies.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3377871|Q3377871]] | [[Peyssonneliales]] | Peyssonneliales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Peyssonnelia sp 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3381981|Q3381981]] | [[Phymosomatoida]] | Phymosomatoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Echinacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Phymosoma.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3381996|Q3381996]] | [[Physarales]] | Physarales | [[Myxogastria]]<br/>[[Columellidia]] | [[File:Physarum psittacinum124.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3388246|Q3388246]] | [[Trypanorhyncha]] | Trypanorhyncha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eucestoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Parasite140092-fig3 - FIG11 Nybelinia basimegacantha body.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3388332|Q3388332]] | [[Pihiellales]] | Pihiellales | [[Ahnfeltiophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3392494|Q3392494]] | [[Plocamiales]] | Plocamiales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Plocamium cartilagineum Miller.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3398229|Q3398229]] | [[Porphyridiales]] | Porphyridiales | [[Porphyridiophyceae]] | [[File:Porphyridium purpureum1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3409994|Q3409994]] | [[Psocodea]] | Psocodea | [[Paraneoptera]] | [[File:PsocopteraWynaad.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3410254|Q3410254]] | [[Pteraspidomorphes]] | Pteraspidomorphes | [[Pteraspidomorphi]] | [[File:Heterostraci.gif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3418122|Q3418122]] | [[Ralfsiales]] | Ralfsiales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Analipus japonica (10106970715).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3429559|Q3429559]] | [[Rhizophorales]] | Rhizophorales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Rosidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rhizophoranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Bruguiera gymnorrhiza.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3429571|Q3429571]] | [[Rhodachlyales]] | Rhodachlyales<ref name="ref_6fc7e45cb3c61fd1871d642d298e13cd0191427d1f1011224ff54db0e811aaf7">''[[:d:Q54794295|Rhodachlya madagascarensis gen. et sp. nov.: a distinct acrochaetioid represents a new order and family (Rhodachlyales ord. Nov., Rhodachlyaceae fam. Nov.) of the Florideophyceae (Rhodophyta)]]''</ref> | [[Florideophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3429598|Q3429598]] | [[Rhodellales]] | Rhodellales | [[Rhodellophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3429626|Q3429626]] | [[Rhodochaetales]] | Rhodochaetales | [[Compsopogonophyceae]] | [[File:Album général des Cryptogames, Pl. 198.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3429637|Q3429637]] | [[Rhodogorgonales]] | Rhodogorgonales | [[Corallinophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3429668|Q3429668]] | [[Rhodymeniales]] | Rhodymeniales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | [[File:Rhodymenia pseudopalmata 2 Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3452805|Q3452805]] | [[Rufusiales]] | Rufusiales | [[Stylonematophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3461430|Q3461430]] | [[Haplosclerida]] | Haplosclerida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Callyspongia crassa 3 at Shaab Claudia.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3469707|Q3469707]] | [[Salenioida]] | Salenioida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Echinacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Salenia (Salenia) petalifera MHNT Cénomanien La Heve Ste Adresse 76.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3474939|Q3474939]] | [[Scalpellomorpha]] | Scalpellomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Thoracicalcarea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Pollicipes pollicipes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3476932|Q3476932]] | [[Sebdeniales]] | Sebdeniales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3480154|Q3480154]] | [[Monstrilloida]] | Monstrilloida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Podoplea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Monstrilla longiremis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3484911|Q3484911]] | [[Sinentomata]] | Sinentomata | [[Protura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3485192|Q3485192]] | [[Siphonocladales]] | Siphonocladales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Typhlatya Rogersi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3488765|Q3488765]] | [[Chroococcales]] | Chroococcales | [[Chroococcophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Microcystis aeruginosa.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3492534|Q3492534]] | [[Oscillatoriales]] | Oscillatoriales | [[Oscillatoriophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Oscillatoria filaments.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3493791|Q3493791]] | [[Sporolithales]] | Sporolithales | [[Corallinophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3498809|Q3498809]] | [[Sterrofustia]] | Sterrofustia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Solenogastres]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3501338|Q3501338]] | [[Stylonematales]] | Stylonematales | [[Stylonematophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Stylonemaalsidii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3504739|Q3504739]] | [[Trentepohliales]] | Trentepohliales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Trentepohlia aurea 130408.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3509022|Q3509022]] | [[Syringodermatales]] | Syringodermatales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Dictyotophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3517344|Q3517344]] | [[Telestacea]] | Telestacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Octocorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3517459|Q3517459]] | [[Temnocephalida]] | Temnocephalida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Neorhabdocoela]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Symbiotic flatworm (10.1590-2358-2936e2016026) Figure 6.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3519447|Q3519447]] | [[Thalassocalycida]] | Thalassocalycida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Tentaculata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Ctneophore - Flickr - NOAA Ocean Exploration ^ Research.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3524131|Q3524131]] | [[Ploima]] | Ploima<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pseudotrocha]]<ref name="ref_c6231a1cba5a31be54bcd7e77ad91c3f46069dba01c5b69000f3c893f8261b93">''[[:d:Q18644400|Phylum Rotifera Cuvier, 1817]]''</ref> | [[File:The Rotifer Notholca sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3525803|Q3525803]] | [[Thoreales]] | Thoreales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3538983|Q3538983]] | [[Tricholomatales]] | Tricholomatales | [[Basidiomycota]] | [[File:Gąska zielonka 4163586757.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3539809|Q3539809]] | [[Trochiliformes]] | Trochiliformes | [[ave]] | [[File:Rubythroathummer65.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3552134|Q3552134]] | [[Uraraneida]] | Uraraneida | [[arachnido]]<br/>[[Serikodiastida]] | [[File:Attercopus fimbriunguis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3558384|Q3558384]] | [[Terebellida]] | Terebellida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_177e40379680f855e177cf9f244a595ca3c96771d6d93634615ab91f3e6fe6e5">''[[:d:Q110692895|The “Spaghetti Project”: the final identification guide to European Terebellidae (sensu lato) (Annelida, Terebelliformia)]]''</ref> | [[Canalipalpata]] | [[File:Cirratulus cirratus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3603904|Q3603904]] | [[Acanthothoraci]] | Acanthothoraci | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Murrindalaspis wallacei.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3604801|Q3604801]] | [[Actinocerida]] | Actinocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3605955|Q3605955]] | [[Aepyornithiformes]] | Aepyornithiformes | [[Palaeognathae]] | [[File:Aepyornis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3615298|Q3615298]] | [[Spionida]] | Spionida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Canalipalpata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Magelona johnstoni.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3620572|Q3620572]] | [[Apatotheria]] | Apatotheria | [[Cimolesta]] | [[File:Heterohyus nanus (TMP 2009.003.0057), Royal Tyrrell Museum, Drumheller, Alberta, 2025-07-13.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3624873|Q3624873]] | [[Ascocerida]] | Ascocerida | [[Neocephalopoda]] | [[File:Ascoceras ontogeny.gif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3635160|Q3635160]] | [[Barrandeocerida]] | Barrandeocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3648039|Q3648039]] | [[Saprolegniales]] | Saprolegniales | [[Saprolegniidae]]<br/>[[Saprolegniomycetes]] | [[File:Seatrout UDN saprolegnia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3675396|Q3675396]] | [[Chondrophora]] | Chondrophora | [[Hydrozoa]] | [[File:Velelle.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3694990|Q3694990]] | [[Myxosporida]] | Myxosporida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Myxosporea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q3696002|Q3696002]] | [[Cotylosauria]] | Cotylosauria | [[Anapsida]] | [[File:Diadectes BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3709951|Q3709951]] | [[Discosorida]] | Discosorida | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3719223|Q3719223]] | [[Monhysterida]] | Monhysterida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Adenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3719570|Q3719570]] | [[Oxyurida]] | Oxyurida | [[Spiruria]] | [[File:Oxyuris vermicularis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3720278|Q3720278]] | [[Spirobolida]] | Spirobolida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Helminthomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Juliformia]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:NarceusAmericanusMillipede.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3723510|Q3723510]] | [[Ellesmerocerida]] | Ellesmerocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | [[File:Cameroceras trentonese.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3730785|Q3730785]] | [[Chlorodendrales]] | Chlorodendrales | [[Chlorodendrophyceae]] | [[File:Bacillario008.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3730806|Q3730806]] | [[Mamiellales]] | Mamiellales<ref name="ref_f6ebfeed49566ebbbfc3cdcc475367a56d0c7a6a497c3cf3d163e06f6a11f197">''[[:d:Q100722073|Further studies on Nephroselmis and its allies (Prasinophyceae). II. Mamiella gen. nov., Mamiellaceae fam. nov., Mamiellales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Mamiellophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Esquema Micromonas pusilla.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3730815|Q3730815]] | [[Pyramimonadales]] | Pyramimonadales | [[Pyramimonadophyceae]] | [[File:Pyramimonas sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3734141|Q3734141]] | [[Eucoccidiorida]] | Eucoccidiorida<ref name="ref_482b1afc773fdb8673c3a9d2bf5b723661e4792369fa3621a45a9c4d9cfa9c67">''[[:d:Q109567037|Selenococcidium intermedium Lég. et Dub. et la systématique des sporozoaires]]''</ref> | [[Coccidia]] | [[File:Toxoplasma gondii tachy.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3734548|Q3734548]] | [[Euomphalida]] | Euomphalida | [[Eogastropoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3781035|Q3781035]] | [[Syndiniales]] | Syndiniales | [[Syndiniophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3799302|Q3799302]] | [[Intejocerida]] | Intejocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3805917|Q3805917]] | [[Polydolopimorphia]] | Polydolopimorphia | [[Marsupiales|Marsupialia]] | [[File:Argyrolagus NT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3814101|Q3814101]] | [[Kazacharthra]] | Kazacharthra | [[Branchiopoda]] | [[File:Kazacharthra.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3816293|Q3816293]] | [[Bacteroidales]] | Bacteroidales<ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Bacteroidia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bacteroides biacutis 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q872277|Q872277]] | [[Neoloricata]] | Neoloricata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polyplacophora]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Acanthopleura granulata with Nerita tessellata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q872431|Q872431]] | [[Gadilida]] | Gadilida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Scaphopoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.MOL.310676 - Cadulus spec. - Gadilidae - Mollusc shell.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q873826|Q873826]] | [[Acidimicrobiales]] | Acidimicrobiales | [[Acidimicrobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Acidimicrobium ferrooxidans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q874117|Q874117]] | [[Paraglomerales]] | Paraglomerales | [[Paraglomeromycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q874164|Q874164]] | [[Dimargaritales]] | Dimargaritales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Dimargaritomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b8c256ef49f76a6773946589846ce8cc2fc176141191f08a0f5375fe804cab79">''[[:d:Q117487849|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021]]''</ref> | [[File:Dimargaris bacillispora 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q874483|Q874483]] | [[Kickxellales]] | Kickxellales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Kickxellomycotina]]<br/>[[Kickxellomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Coemansia spsono1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q874792|Q874792]] | [[Pantopoda]] | Pantopoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | [[Pycnogonida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | [[File:Pantopoda collage.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q874793|Q874793]] | [[Tryblidiida]] | Tryblidiida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Monoplacophora]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Tryblidium reticulatum 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q876064|Q876064]] | [[Clostridiales]] | Clostridiales | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary b80 819-2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q876770|Q876770]] | [[Blasiales]] | Blasiales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Blasiidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Blasia pusilla 231011.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q877888|Q877888]] | [[Metzgeriales]] | Metzgeriales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Metzgeriidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Riccardia multifida (Vielspaltiges Riccardimoos) IMG 0162.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q882055|Q882055]] | [[Blastocladiales]] | Blastocladiales | [[Blastocladiomycetes]] | [[File:EB1911 Potato Figure 4.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q892462|Q892462]] | [[Auriculariales]] | Auriculariales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Auricularia auricula-judae (xndr).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q899782|Q899782]] | [[Cyclopoida]] | Cyclopoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Podoplea]] | [[File:Cyclops.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q900771|Q900771]] | [[Lophogastrida]] | Lophogastrida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Gnathophausia zoea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q902665|Q902665]] | [[Violales]] | Violales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Violanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Viola hirta1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q905458|Q905458]] | [[Dilleniales]] | Dilleniales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Core eudicots]]<ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Dillenia philippinensis Blanco1.199.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q908486|Q908486]] | [[Semaeostomeae]] | Semaeostomeae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Discomedusae]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Discomedusae 18.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q909605|Q909605]] | [[Dendrochirotida]] | Dendrochirotida<ref name="ref_23b80758ad1389c3f4fc571aa8731c18bcf8be1f285aad66f1fda148e11b60c7">''[[:d:Q97515613|A taxonomic guide to the Echinodermata of the South Atlantic Bight, USA: 1. Sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_73af0e6a353be8e6abf163d35c7cea41fd8f43fa2c042cf818f02dbe220aafaa">''[[:d:Q61027799|Four new species and a new genus of Antarctic sea cucumbers with taxonomic reviews of Cladodactyla, Pseudocnus, Paracucumidae and Parathyonidium (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea: Dendrochirotida)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_74e031573bdba5450912104f761e0cc4ad9c3599875851aee7a87f5e0f71800e">''[[:d:Q131405017|A report of sea cucumbers collected on the first dedicated deep-sea biological survey of Australia’s Indian Ocean Territories around Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Actinopoda]] | [[File:Pseudocolochirus axiologus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q915691|Q915691]] | [[Symphypleona]] | Symphypleona<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[Collembola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[File:Dark.round.springtail.1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q918188|Q918188]] | [[Ptyctodontida]] | Ptyctodontida | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Kimbryanodus williamburyensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q923240|Q923240]] | [[Polygonales]] | Polygonales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Caryophyllidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_e0b845b20d33dc4b553bc73285ce7e0af838cbb399719d6b24af5734aaa4abdf">''[[:d:Q14823899|Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Polygonanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Caryophyllanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Muehlenbeckia adpressa - Curtis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q933834|Q933834]] | [[Thermoproteales]] | Thermoproteales | [[Thermoprotei]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q934008|Q934008]] | [[Erysiphales]] | Erysiphales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | [[File:UncinulaTulasneiDetail.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q942023|Q942023]] | [[Enoplida]] | Enoplida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Enoplia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Enoploides koreanus (10.7717-peerj.9037) Figure 4.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q946193|Q946193]] | [[Semionotiformes]] | Semionotiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ginglymodi]] | [[File:Lepidotes maximus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q948998|Q948998]] | [[Synurid]] | Synurales | [[Synurophyceae]]<br/>[[Chrysophyceae]] | [[File:Synura.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q955280|Q955280]] | [[Plantaginales]] | Plantaginales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Asteridae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Plantago lanceolata Sturm61.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q959143|Q959143]] | [[Nostocales]] | Nostocales | [[Nostocophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Anabaenaflosaquae EPA.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q963408|Q963408]] | [[Nidovirales]] | Nidovirales<ref name="ref_a5fd26998257214762eeb54d0cd502570b81d9abaf031014396ebb01a0e9b2e6">''[[:d:Q18810383|ICTV Master Species List 2013 v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb05d964c30a45fef07328fb0f9fc143725f04c72f1ebf9d3684c09fab1ed17c">''[[:d:Q24716610|ICTV Master Species List 2014 v4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14768e152946c11f036e10c2a6237af5f4ef8201b49bc4d154dcb9b5bc43504e">''[[:d:Q24571893|ICTV Master Species List 2015 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_340ce0d1fe54d6ea21cccd266d1800d30938dc28d8254ab31e91911ec8d21145">''[[:d:Q29000566|ICTV Master Species List 2016 v1.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_28ddf84f5adc8d599ea8e3fb39f748b891ac2aaae581fb618204c828bea24486">''[[:d:Q69579583|ICTV Master Species List 2005]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3a1938395f14813c837ce1783f840d59a65323c465dcd06b4d1af160cdeff86f">''[[:d:Q69578243|ICTV Master Species List 2009]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5ea60a2f5237ff289cab894c54f4a7214ec821f4eca82f4a18015312f162d390">''[[:d:Q69577927|ICTV Master Species List 2011]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c5fbb4da26a55eb297e419b424ed5260340fdabc7bf32cded8c95ee5d79c42ce">''[[:d:Q69577800|ICTV Master Species List 2013]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Pisoniviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q963722|Q963722]] | [[Podocopida]] | Podocopida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Podocopa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q963767|Q963767]] | [[Diaphanopterodea]] | Diaphanopterodea | [[Palaeodictyopteroidea]] | [[File:Prochoroptera calopteryx.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q965468|Q965468]] | [[Haplotaxida]] | Haplotaxida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Oligochaeta]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Clitellata]] | [[File:Regenworm1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q965648|Q965648]] | [[Ptolemaiida]] | Ptolemaiida<ref name="ref_70307f4d54ed1747ede74d895ea35e9021021d944717c58b74a935ae60e80b0b">''[[:d:Q24564740|Ptolemaiida, a new order of Mammalia—with description of the cranium of Ptolemaia grangeri]]''</ref> | [[Afrotheria]] | [[File:Ptolemaia lyonsi jaw (cropped).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q968825|Q968825]] | [[Gigantorhynchida]] | Gigantorhynchida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Archiacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Gigantorhynchus ortizi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q972302|Q972302]] | [[Stylommatophora]] | Stylommatophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eupulmonata]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Cornusalat.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q978608|Q978608]] | [[Medullosales]] | Medullosales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | [[File:Macroneuropteris and Reconstruction of Medullosales.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q980146|Q980146]] | [[Neogastropoda]] | Neogastropoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Caenogastropoda]] | [[File:Chicoreus palmarosae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q987502|Q987502]] | [[Echinoida]] | Echinoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Echinacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Riccio Melone a Capo Caccia adventurediving.it.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q987705|Q987705]] | [[Ptychopariida]] | Ptychopariida | [[Librostoma]] | [[File:ElrathiakingiUtahWheelerCambrian.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q987740|Q987740]] | [[Corynexochida]] | Corynexochida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Holyoakia simpsoni.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q999198|Q999198]] | [[Protorthoptera]] | Protorthoptera | [[Polyneoptera]] | [[File:Protophasma woodwardi.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1000370|Q1000370]] | [[Pinales]] | Pinales<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pinopsida]] | [[File:Araucaria araucana by Scott Zona - 002.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1002824|Q1002824]] | [[Forcipulatida]] | Forcipulatida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_396163d932de6f91bcb37480f1c3df353f2121b115d65e5cf075f8cba3b26561">''[[:d:Q56035104|A new fissiparous micro-asteriid from southern Australia (Echinodermata: Asteroidea: Asteriidae)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c33684dba0d1835c09cb47aa7c21dc218b8a5027956d146b583f507578fbdf6a">''[[:d:Q66412284|The marine fauna of New Zealand: Asteroidea (sea-stars). 3. Orders Velatida, Spinulosida, Forcipulatida, Brisingida with addenda to Paxillosida, Valvatida]]''</ref> | [[Asteroidea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Asterias rubens.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1004076|Q1004076]] | [[Buliminida]] | Buliminida | [[Globothalamea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1017886|Q1017886]] | [[Buteoxylonales]] | Buteoxylonales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1026226|Q1026226]] | [[Calamopityales]] | Calamopityales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1027330|Q1027330]] | [[Callistophytales]] | Callistophytales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | [[File:Callospermarion pusillum reconstruction.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1027450|Q1027450]] | [[Calpionellida]] | Calpionellida | [[Ciliophora]] | [[File:Calpionellen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1028507|Q1028507]] | [[Comatulida]] | Comatulida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Articulata]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Feather Star (Lamprometra palmata).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1029534|Q1029534]] | [[Gastornithiformes]] | Gastornithiformes | [[Galloanserae]] | [[File:Gastornis skeleton.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1031983|Q1031983]] | [[Pteropoda]] | Pteropoda | [[Tectipleura]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Sea butterfly.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1037576|Q1037576]] | [[Holectypoida]] | Holectypoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gnathostomata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Irregularia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Echinoneus cyclostomus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1045208|Q1045208]] | [[Entomobryomorpha]] | Entomobryomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[Collembola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0b42a1cdceda15b720f15c5359d88138b9476890d02a6c4a27fa424b79e04fb">''[[:d:Q21061337|Class Collembola Lubbock, 1870]]''</ref> | [[File:Tomocerus.vulgaris.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1046935|Q1046935]] | [[Desulfurococcales]] | Desulfurococcales | [[Thermoprotei]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1046953|Q1046953]] | [[Acidilobales]] | Acidilobales | [[Thermoprotei]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1046960|Q1046960]] | [[Sulfolobales]] | Sulfolobales | [[Thermoprotei]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:RT8-4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1048747|Q1048747]] | [[Nucleariida]] | Nucleariida<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6a3224ed9e9612f3b161f90deafb215ffecae36153e66735b907fd7bacda7748">''[[:d:Q24634634|Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla]]''</ref> | [[Opisthokonta]]<br/>[[Nuclearidea]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Nuclearia sp Nikko.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1052979|Q1052979]] | [[Halanaerobiales]] | Halanaerobiales | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1053308|Q1053308]] | [[Araliales]] | Araliales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Aralianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Aralia californica flower.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1053909|Q1053909]] | [[Asellariales]] | Asellariales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Asellariomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1054661|Q1054661]] | [[Ceratitida]] | Ceratitida | [[Ammonoidea]] | [[File:Ceratites nodosus MHNT.PAL.CEP.2001.105.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1054947|Q1054947]] | [[Acochlidiacea]] | Acochlidiacea | [[Opisthobranchia]] | [[File:Acochlidium fijiiensis.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1055179|Q1055179]] | [[Diversisporales]] | Diversisporales | [[Glomeromycetes]] | [[File:Gigaspora margarita.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1055276|Q1055276]] | [[Harpellales]] | Harpellales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Harpellomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Harpellales (10.3897-mycokeys.67.52055) Figures 11–16.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1055316|Q1055316]] | [[kelp]] | Laminariales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Kelp In Freycinet Tasmania.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1055410|Q1055410]] | [[Archaeosporales]] | Archaeosporales | [[Archaeosporomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1055411|Q1055411]] | [[Funariales]] | Funariales | [[Funariidae]] | [[File:Funaria hygrometrica1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1055431|Q1055431]] | [[Grimmiales]] | Grimmiales | [[Dicranidae]] | [[File:Polster-Kissenmoos Grimmia pulvinata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1055721|Q1055721]] | [[Haplomitriales]] | Haplomitriales | [[Haplomitriopsida]] | [[File:Untersuchungen über Haplomitrium Hookeri (1843) plate XIII.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1055814|Q1055814]] | [[Pottiales]] | Pottiales | [[Dicranidae]] | [[File:Tortella inclinata (a, 144651-474729) 1088.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1058217|Q1058217]] | [[Chlorellales]] | Chlorellales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | [[File:Chlorella with light microscopy.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1058220|Q1058220]] | [[Mictacea]] | Mictacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Mictocaris halope.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1058577|Q1058577]] | [[Dasycladales]] | Dasycladales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Acetabularia sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1058758|Q1058758]] | [[Chaetothyriales]] | Chaetothyriales | [[Chaetothyriomycetidae]] | [[File:Fonsecaea pedrosoi PHIL 2920 lores.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1060589|Q1060589]] | [[Stauromedusae]] | Stauromedusae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Staurozoa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Stauromedusae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1061944|Q1061944]] | [[Thermosbaenacea]] | Thermosbaenacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ee8537fe54ade0dcdc4fbfa63340b3c335371f7829b3e40edc08a503500cf708">''[[:d:Q104204003|Uptaded checklist, historical overview and illustrated guide to the stygobiont Malacostraca (Arthropoda: Crustacea) species of Yucatan (Mexico)]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Tethysbaena ophelicola, sub-adults.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1067225|Q1067225]] | [[Volvocales]] | Volvocales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | [[File:Volvocales.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1068066|Q1068066]] | [[Chasmataspidida]] | Chasmataspidida | [[Merostomata]] | [[File:20200919 Chasmataspidida dorsal.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1068400|Q1068400]] | [[Chaunacanthida]] | Chaunacanthida | [[Acantharia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1068698|Q1068698]] | [[Myxococcales]] | Myxococcales | [[Deltaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Myxococcus xanthus.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1069200|Q1069200]] | [[Rauisuchia]] | Rauisuchia | [[Suchia]] | [[File:Batrachotomus1DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1071303|Q1071303]] | [[Campanulales]] | Campanulales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Asteridae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Inferae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Sympetalae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref><br/>[[Campanulanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Asteranae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Arenaria procera glabra0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1071960|Q1071960]] | [[Clypeasteroida]] | Clypeasteroida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gnathostomata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Clypeaster reticulatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1072243|Q1072243]] | [[Haplodrili]] | Archiannelida | [[Polychaeta]] | [[File:Polygordius appendiculatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1073158|Q1073158]] | [[Coxoplectoptera]] | Coxoplectoptera<ref name="ref_060e91764ac49f3414cb8d658d3ff1dfa1f44364762c55d102439366084f6e71">''[[:d:Q54506024|Coxoplectoptera, a new fossil order of Palaeoptera (Arthropoda: Insecta), with comments on the phylogeny of the stem group of mayflies (Ephemeroptera)]]''</ref> | [[Heptabranchia]]<ref name="ref_060e91764ac49f3414cb8d658d3ff1dfa1f44364762c55d102439366084f6e71">''[[:d:Q54506024|Coxoplectoptera, a new fossil order of Palaeoptera (Arthropoda: Insecta), with comments on the phylogeny of the stem group of mayflies (Ephemeroptera)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_18fc2a99f68c76b2c0c277b7532af049a6ff8e684ad72a4e0d7b5a4bff719d1b">''[[:d:Q56940988|Revision of the giant pterygote insect Bojophlebia prokopi Kukalová-Peck, 1985 (Hydropalaeoptera: Bojophlebiidae) from the Carboniferous of the Czech Republic, with the first cladistic analysis of fossil palaeopterous insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Mickoleitia longimanus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1075122|Q1075122]] | [[Chlamydodontida]] | Chlamydodontida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Cyrtophoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1082523|Q1082523]] | [[Tubulidentata]] | Tubulidentata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Afrotheria]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Afroinsectiphilia]] | [[File:Orycteropus afer00.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1096533|Q1096533]] | [[Arecales]] | Arecales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Beetle palm with nut bunch.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1105144|Q1105144]] | [[Cochliodontiformes]] | Cochliodontiformes | [[Holocephalimorpha]] | [[File:FOS173.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1112837|Q1112837]] | [[Najadales]] | Najadales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Alismatidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Alismatanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Algue épiphytesur zostèret.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1113470|Q1113470]] | [[Rheiformes]] | Rheiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Notopalaeognathae]] | [[File:Lesser Rhea Pterocnemia pennata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1122081|Q1122081]] | [[Pennatulacea]] | Pennatulacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[Octocorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Pennatulida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1123322|Q1123322]] | [[Thalattosauria]] | Thalattosauria | [[Sauropterygia]] | [[File:Miodentosaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1130206|Q1130206]] | [[Dentaliida]] | Dentaliida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Scaphopoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Paradentalium disparile 01.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1130524|Q1130524]] | [[Pucciniales]] | Pucciniales | [[Pucciniomycetes]] | [[File:Bruine roest op tarwe (Puccinia recondita f.sp. tritici on Triticum aestivum).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1133070|Q1133070]] | [[Neritopsina]] | Neritopsina<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gastropodos]]<br/>[[Neritimorpha]] | [[File:Neritimorpha composite 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1134438|Q1134438]] | [[Siphonophorae]] | Siphonophorae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Hydroidolina]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Portuguese Man-O-War (Physalia physalis).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1135938|Q1135938]] | [[Corystospermales]] | Corystospermales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1136812|Q1136812]] | [[Voltziales]] | Voltziales | [[Pinopsida]] | [[File:Voltzia heterophylla.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6653366|Q6653366]] | [[Lituitida]] | Lituitida | [[Nautiloid]] | [[File:Lituites lituus - Naturmuseum Senckenberg - DSC02241.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6725643|Q6725643]] | [[Macrosemiiformes]] | Macrosemiiformes | [[Actinopterygii]]<br/>[[Holostei]] | [[File:Ophiopsiella procera.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6811546|Q6811546]] | [[Melanosporales]] | Melanosporales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6812146|Q6812146]] | [[Hymenomycete]] | Hymenomycetales | [[Basidiomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6823597|Q6823597]] | [[Methanopyrales]] | Methanopyrales | [[Methanopyri]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q6839384|Q6839384]] | [[Microconchida]] | Microconchida | [[Tentaculita]] | [[File:MicroconchidDevonianPotterFarm082111.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6840309|Q6840309]] | [[Microspermae]] | Microspermae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | [[File:Convallaria-oliv-r2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6901978|Q6901978]] | [[Monostilifera]] | Monostilifera | [[Hoplonemertea]] | [[File:Terrestrial ribbon worm.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q6992927|Q6992927]] | [[Neogregarinorida]] | Neogregarinorida<ref name="ref_01b02c448de67f8c4dba767ce1863e9147b1a55392ef0bd2407b736adafd0bfd">''[[:d:Q109353526|Protozoaires : Rhizopodes, Actinopodes, Sporozoaires, Cnidosporidies]]''</ref> | [[Gregarinasina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7041510|Q7041510]] | [[Nitrosopumilales]] | Nitrosopumilales | [[Nitrososphaeria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7062996|Q7062996]] | [[Selaginellales]] | Selaginellales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lycopodiopsida]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><br/>[[Isoetopsida]]<br/>[[Selaginellidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Selaginella flabellata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7075263|Q7075263]] | [[Obolellida]] | Obolellida | [[Obolellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7077157|Q7077157]] | [[Oculosida]] | Oculosida | [[Radiolaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7078006|Q7078006]] | [[Odontopleurida]] | Odontopleurida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Radiaspis sp., Middle Devonian, El Otfal Formation, Morocco - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01607.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7078015|Q7078015]] | [[Odontostomatida]] | Odontostomatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Heterotrichea]]<br/>[[Plagiopylea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7086849|Q7086849]] | [[Oligopygoida]] | Oligopygoida | [[Irregularia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7088769|Q7088769]] | [[Oltmansiellopsidales]] | Oltmansiellopsidales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7092024|Q7092024]] | [[Oncholaimida]] | Oncholaimida | [[Enoplia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7104939|Q7104939]] | [[Orthothecida]] | Orthothecida | [[Hyolitha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7128424|Q7128424]] | [[Palmophyllales]] | Palmophyllales<ref name="ref_de81c9a0ddca4c831468cb7e860b98f443ccb579e088638c6c0719ff80bbdbab">''[[:d:Q56461917|AN UNRECOGNIZED ANCIENT LINEAGE OF GREEN PLANTS PERSISTS IN DEEP MARINE WATERS1]]''</ref> | [[Palmophyllophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7144165|Q7144165]] | [[Patagopterygiformes]] | Patagopterygiformes | [[Ornithuromorpha]] | [[File:Patagopteryx skeleton.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7159272|Q7159272]] | [[Pedinellales]] | Pedinellales | [[Actinochrysia]] | [[File:Algen I. (Schizophyceen, Flagellaten, Peridineen) (1910) (17950796051).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7159277|Q7159277]] | [[Pedinoida]] | Pedinoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Diadematacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Diademopsis crinifera.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7161156|Q7161156]] | [[Pelagiellida]] | Pelagiellida | [[Monoplacophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7161767|Q7161767]] | [[Peltopleuriformes]] | Peltopleuriformes | [[Neopterygii]] | [[File:Italopterus magnificus 3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7162878|Q7162878]] | [[Peniculid]] | Peniculida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligohymenophorea]]<br/>[[Peniculia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Paramecium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7165023|Q7165023]] | [[Pentamerida]] | Pentamerida | [[Rhynchonellata]] | [[File:PentamerusSilurian.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7168444|Q7168444]] | [[Peridiniales]] | Peridiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Peridinium willei - 400x - Dinoflagellate (15058894916).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7170041|Q7170041]] | [[Isoetales]] | Isoetales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lycopodiopsida]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref> | [[File:Illustration Isoetes lacustris0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7170634|Q7170634]] | [[Personales]] | Personales | [[Bicarpellatae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7175204|Q7175204]] | [[Salviniales]] | Salviniales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><br/>[[Salviniidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Illustration Pilularia globulifera0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7180089|Q7180089]] | [[Phaeophilales]] | Phaeophilales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7180129|Q7180129]] | [[Phaeothamniales]] | Phaeothamniales | [[Phaeothamniophyceae]] | [[File:Phaeothamnium F-E-Fritsch 1935.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7187078|Q7187078]] | [[Pholidopleuriformes]] | Pholidopleuriformes | [[Chondrostei]] | [[File:Australosomus merlei.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7188058|Q7188058]] | [[Phragmoteuthida]] | Phragmoteuthida | [[Belemnoidea]] | [[File:Phragmoteuthis conocauda 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7200511|Q7200511]] | [[Plagiopylida]] | Plagiopylida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Plagiopylea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7238543|Q7238543]] | [[Prasiolales]] | Prasiolales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | [[File:Prasiola stipitata Suhr (AM AK307212-1).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7245130|Q7245130]] | [[Principes]] | Principes | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7251529|Q7251529]] | [[Proteocephalidea]] | Proteocephalidea | [[Cestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7251541|Q7251541]] | [[Proteomyxa]] | Proteomyxa | [[Rhizopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7251914|Q7251914]] | [[Protococcidiorida]] | Protococcidiorida<ref name="ref_c6d903941c119b5806b920ee34efc2e359edd31e5689b2ac42e2e1338c591c95">''[[:d:Q109361645|[The systematics of Sporozoa]]]''</ref> | [[Coccidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7255510|Q7255510]] | [[Pseudorthocerida]] | Pseudorthocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | [[File:Orthoceras BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7255547|Q7255547]] | [[Pseudoscourfieldiales]] | Pseudoscourfieldiales | [[Pseudoscourfieldiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7256041|Q7256041]] | [[Psilophytites]] | Psilophytites | [[Polysporangiophytes]] | [[File:Starr 040131-0017 Psilotum nudum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7257149|Q7257149]] | [[Ptycholepiformes]] | Ptycholepiformes | [[Chondrostei]] | [[File:Ptycholepis bollensis - Fossils in the Arppeanum - DSC05529.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7263860|Q7263860]] | [[Pythiales]] | Pythiales | [[Oomycota]] | [[File:Pythium myriotylum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7263964|Q7263964]] | [[Pyxidiophorales]] | Pyxidiophorales | [[Laboulbeniomycetes]] | [[File:Pyxidiophora.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7269560|Q7269560]] | [[Quaternates]] | Quaternates | [[Mammiferos]] | [[File:Mammiferes.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7307471|Q7307471]] | [[Apoda]] | Apoda | [[amphibio]] | [[File:Dermophis mexicanus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7316739|Q7316739]] | [[Reticulosa]] | Reticulosa<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Amphidiscophora]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7316740|Q7316740]] | [[Reticulosida]] | Reticulosida | [[Proteomyxidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7388740|Q7388740]] | [[Pelagibacterales]] | Pelagibacterales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Pelagibacter.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7427553|Q7427553]] | [[Saurichthyiformes]] | Saurichthyiformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | [[File:Saurichthys curionii 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7431628|Q7431628]] | [[Schizosaccharomycetales]] | Schizosaccharomycetales | [[Schizosaccharomycetes]] | [[File:Fission yeast.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7438287|Q7438287]] | [[Scouleriales]] | Scouleriales | [[Dicranidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7438296|Q7438296]] | [[Scourfieldiales]] | Scourfieldiales<ref name="ref_3c0f3a963a088d120a69959b9fc365cfa2c88e1ff2fb9a600750e42be816fe53">''[[:d:Q100722396|FURTHER STUDIES OF PRESUMEDLY PRIMITIVE GREEN ALGAE, INCLUDING THE DESCRIPTION OF PEDINOPHYCEAE CLASS. NOV. AND RESULTOR GEN. NOV.1]]''</ref> | [[Pedinophyceae]] | [[File:Scourfieldia complanata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7439706|Q7439706]] | [[Scytosiphonales]] | Scytosiphonales | [[Phaeophyceae]] | [[File:Colpomeniasinuosa.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7444798|Q7444798]] | [[Secundates]] | Secundates | [[primate]] | [[File:Mammiferes.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7447901|Q7447901]] | [[Selenomonadales]] | Selenomonadales | [[Negativicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7512165|Q7512165]] | [[Phoenicopteriformes]] | Phoenicopteriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Mirandornithes]] | [[File:Flamingo.greater.flaps.750pix.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7541338|Q7541338]] | [[Slopalinida]] | Slopalinida | [[Stramenopiles]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7576781|Q7576781]] | [[Sphingobacteriales]] | Sphingobacteriales<ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Sphingobacteriia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7577701|Q7577701]] | [[Spiraculata]] | Spiraculata | [[Blastoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7634405|Q7634405]] | [[Suessiales]] | Suessiales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Duel life stages.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7680893|Q7680893]] | [[Tamaricales]] | Tamaricales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Violanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Polygonanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Caryophyllanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Tamarix usneoides 15230667.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7686676|Q7686676]] | [[Tarrasiiformes]] | Tarrasiiformes | [[Chondrostei]] | [[File:†Apholidotos ossna Unt Karbon Bear Gulch USA Ch885.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7692831|Q7692831]] | [[Tectofilosida]] | Tectofilosida | [[Thecofilosea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 87-1-2 Capsellina muscorum.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7783079|Q7783079]] | [[Thermales]] | Thermales | [[Deinococci]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q7783142|Q7783142]] | [[Thermococcales]] | Thermococcales<ref name="ref_fe76b9bf638d7fa02cf584302761f792e53c3b0138bf37fb70c02f229c8ed5fa">''[[:d:Q55951482|Pyrococcus woesei, sp. nov., an ultra-thermophilic marine archaebacterium, representing a novel order, Thermococcales]]''</ref> | [[Thermococci]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Pyrococcus furiosus.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7814684|Q7814684]] | [[Tolypelepidida]] | Tolypelepidida | [[Heterostraci]] | [[File:Tolypelepis undulata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7819141|Q7819141]] | [[Tommotiid]] | Tommotiida | [[Brachiopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7837412|Q7837412]] | [[Trebouxiales]] | Trebouxiales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | [[File:Botryococcus braunii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7840612|Q7840612]] | [[Triceratiales]] | Triceratiales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Triceratium polycystinorum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7841785|Q7841785]] | [[Trigoniida]] | Trigoniida | [[Palaeoheterodonta]] | [[File:Yaadia valentina.4 - Cretacico inferior.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7848574|Q7848574]] | [[Trypanoporida]] | Trypanoporida | [[Tentaculita]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7860400|Q7860400]] | [[Tymovirales]] | Tymovirales<ref name="ref_a5fd26998257214762eeb54d0cd502570b81d9abaf031014396ebb01a0e9b2e6">''[[:d:Q18810383|ICTV Master Species List 2013 v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb05d964c30a45fef07328fb0f9fc143725f04c72f1ebf9d3684c09fab1ed17c">''[[:d:Q24716610|ICTV Master Species List 2014 v4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14768e152946c11f036e10c2a6237af5f4ef8201b49bc4d154dcb9b5bc43504e">''[[:d:Q24571893|ICTV Master Species List 2015 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_340ce0d1fe54d6ea21cccd266d1800d30938dc28d8254ab31e91911ec8d21145">''[[:d:Q29000566|ICTV Master Species List 2016 v1.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3a1938395f14813c837ce1783f840d59a65323c465dcd06b4d1af160cdeff86f">''[[:d:Q69578243|ICTV Master Species List 2009]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5ea60a2f5237ff289cab894c54f4a7214ec821f4eca82f4a18015312f162d390">''[[:d:Q69577927|ICTV Master Species List 2011]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c5fbb4da26a55eb297e419b424ed5260340fdabc7bf32cded8c95ee5d79c42ce">''[[:d:Q69577800|ICTV Master Species List 2013]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Virus]]<ref name="ref_a5fd26998257214762eeb54d0cd502570b81d9abaf031014396ebb01a0e9b2e6">''[[:d:Q18810383|ICTV Master Species List 2013 v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb05d964c30a45fef07328fb0f9fc143725f04c72f1ebf9d3684c09fab1ed17c">''[[:d:Q24716610|ICTV Master Species List 2014 v4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14768e152946c11f036e10c2a6237af5f4ef8201b49bc4d154dcb9b5bc43504e">''[[:d:Q24571893|ICTV Master Species List 2015 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_340ce0d1fe54d6ea21cccd266d1800d30938dc28d8254ab31e91911ec8d21145">''[[:d:Q29000566|ICTV Master Species List 2016 v1.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3a1938395f14813c837ce1783f840d59a65323c465dcd06b4d1af160cdeff86f">''[[:d:Q69578243|ICTV Master Species List 2009]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5ea60a2f5237ff289cab894c54f4a7214ec821f4eca82f4a18015312f162d390">''[[:d:Q69577927|ICTV Master Species List 2011]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c5fbb4da26a55eb297e419b424ed5260340fdabc7bf32cded8c95ee5d79c42ce">''[[:d:Q69577800|ICTV Master Species List 2013]]''</ref><br/>[[Alsuviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Tymoviridae virion.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7899726|Q7899726]] | [[Uranolophina]] | Uranolophina | [[Dipnoi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q8043683|Q8043683]] | [[Xenophyophorida]] | Xenophyophorida | [[Granuloreticulosa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q8221361|Q8221361]] | [[Fucales]] | Fucales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Ascophylum nodosum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q8222480|Q8222480]] | [[Hemimastigida]] | Hemimastigida<ref name="ref_58dfc1d83951e35703b2a2a1aba78948c7015d0ae4a435375316002039078fa3">''[[:d:Q85570914|The hemimastigophora (Hemimastix amphikineta nov. gen., nov. spec.), a new protistan phylum from gondwanian soils]]''</ref> | [[Hemimastigea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q8255832|Q8255832]] | [[Caloneurodea]] | Caloneurodea | [[Archaeorthoptera]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c8dae2d19519e7ebc19b71e5f14220b6a8ef8aebfd931f8c6322beb01fed68bc">''[[:d:Q28938232|Venation pattern and revision of Orthoptera sensu nov. and sister groups. Phylogeny of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Orthoptera sensu nov.]]''</ref> | [[File:Caloneura dowsoni.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q8341457|Q8341457]] | [[Carterinida]] | Carterinida | [[Globothalamea]] | [[File:Carterina spiculotesta wall.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q8345469|Q8345469]] | [[Chlamydomonadales]] | Chlamydomonadales<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Chlorophyceae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Chlamydomonas (10000x).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9055339|Q9055339]] | [[Paracryphiales]] | Paracryphiales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[campanulids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Quintinia sieberi - Grose Valley.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9089985|Q9089985]] | [[Trichurida]] | Trichurida | [[Enoplia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9141993|Q9141993]] | [[Agavales]] | Agavales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Agave.americana(01).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9149398|Q9149398]] | [[Amaryllidales]] | Amaryllidales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Amaryllis4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9150820|Q9150820]] | [[Ancyromonadida]] | Ancyromonadida<ref name="ref_c033a9e634a29b6e57249cffd6636bd260a569be6db02d176f2e0abb8e439574">''[[:d:Q109996913|Neomonada and the origin of animals and fungi]]''</ref> | [[eucaryote]] | [[File:Ancyromonas.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9158844|Q9158844]] | [[Araucariales]] | Araucariales<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pinidae]]<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Starr 061206-1993 Araucaria columnaris.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9161604|Q9161604]] | [[Ateleopodiformes]] | Ateleopodiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Stenopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Ijimaia plicatellus1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9168966|Q9168966]] | [[Berberidales]] | Berberidales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Berberis verruculosa0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9174811|Q9174811]] | [[Menyanthales]] | Menyanthales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Campanulanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:NymphoidesPeltata-flower1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9192781|Q9192781]] | [[Circaeasterales]] | Circaeasterales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q9197797|Q9197797]] | [[Ardeiformes]] | Ardeiformes | [[Ciconiimorphae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9207684|Q9207684]] | [[Diphyllidea]] | Diphyllidea | [[Neoophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9260756|Q9260756]] | [[Annonales]] | Annonales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Magnolianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q9293374|Q9293374]] | [[Holomastigida]] | Holomastigida<ref name="ref_dd79759477c83f85c5af96b03e482769a75b8aec55471230deaa69780465ac0e">''[[:d:Q109985193|Protozoenstudien. III. Über eine Süßwasserart der Gattung Multicilia Cienkowsky (M. lacustris nov. spec.) und deren systematische Stellung]]''</ref> | [[Variosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9293813|Q9293813]] | [[Hymenophyllales]] | Hymenophyllales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:WP-Hymenophyllum-Exkursion nach Berdorf (Luxemburgexkursion) 011.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9304835|Q9304835]] | [[Potamogetonales]] | Potamogetonales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Alismatanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:PotamogetonNatans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9322797|Q9322797]] | [[Droserales]] | Droserales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Nepenthanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:AldrovandaVesiculosa3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9347528|Q9347528]] | [[Stygamoebida]] | Stygamoebida<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref> | [[Flabellinia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref><br/>[[Discosea]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q9357480|Q9357480]] | [[Theromorpha]] | Theromorpha | | | |- | [[:d:Q9362479|Q9362479]] | [[Trilliales]] | Trilliales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q9362738|Q9362738]] | [[Musophagiformes]] | Musophagiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Otidimorphae]] | [[File:Musophaga violacea-20080321.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9363852|Q9363852]] | [[Bradyodonti]] | Bradyodonti | [[Chondrichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9368192|Q9368192]] | [[Vampyrellida]] | Vampyrellida<ref name="ref_867bf6a671c48e2ef40e548d167ba607e3c9e89fed0bef9707439984cbb0d7cd">''[[:d:Q53073157|Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cell organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria.]]''</ref> | [[Vampyrellidea]] | [[File:Vampyrella lateritia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9368256|Q9368256]] | [[Vannellida]] | Vannellida<ref name="ref_11a9ad48592d8b890e9ed53e951a7d0f6e43ad2c23be7df7feb9ddb2e21d23cd">''[[:d:Q28273073|Molecular Phylogeny and Classification of the Lobose Amoebae]]''</ref> | [[Flabellinia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q9368275|Q9368275]] | [[Varipodida]] | Varipodida<ref name="ref_86db81ff3f13287683ffec9205953482a8097fdc26e7cd744c5b428d2e3ad538">''[[:d:Q29399107|Molecular phylogeny of Amoebozoa and the evolutionary significance of the unikont Phalansterium]]''</ref> | [[Variosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9371647|Q9371647]] | [[Thymelaeales]] | Thymelaeales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Malvanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q9375271|Q9375271]] | [[Winterales]] | Winterales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Magnolianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q9394365|Q9394365]] | [[Salmoniformes]] | Salmoniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Protacanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Salmo marmoratus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9575881|Q9575881]] | [[Acanthi]] | Acanthi | [[Dicotyledones]] | [[File:Acanthus montanus3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9579764|Q9579764]] | [[Acercostraca]] | Acercostraca<ref name="ref_e155c689111a2b3290dbd721d754f1e590dab633351e898c3a5b07ce050edb34">''[[:d:Q103870483|Vachonia rogeri n.g.n.sp. ein Branchiopod aus dem unterdevonischen Hunsrückschiefer]]''</ref> | [[Marrellomorpha]] | [[File:Vachonisia rogeri.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9633015|Q9633015]] | [[Asparagi]] | Asparagi | | | |- | [[:d:Q9644414|Q9644414]] | [[Balbianales]] | Balbianales | [[Florideophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9763859|Q9763859]] | [[Notoryctemorphia]] | Notoryctemorphia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Metatheria]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Marsupiales|Marsupialia]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[File:Notoryctes typhlops.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10262827|Q10262827]] | [[Cystoporata]] | Cystoporata | [[Stenolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10264635|Q10264635]] | [[Decagynia]] | Decagynia | [[Decandria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10266315|Q10266315]] | [[Digynia]] | Digynia | [[Monandria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10282219|Q10282219]] | [[Filices]] | Filices | [[tracheophyte]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10290262|Q10290262]] | [[Heterogloeales]] | Heterogloeales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10293243|Q10293243]] | [[Gymnospermia]] | Gymnospermia | [[Didynamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10295350|Q10295350]] | [[Hexagynia]] | Hexagynia | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10304508|Q10304508]] | [[Ixodida|Ixode]] | Ixodida<ref name="ref_1f3dfae897eb797b988cbf3b0747e45b5211a7b910963e95706054a0d09645c6">''[[:d:Q15072746|The Argasidae, Ixodidae and Nuttalliellidae (Acari: Ixodida) of the world: a list of valid species names]]''</ref> | [[Parasitiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Adult deer tick.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10312938|Q10312938]] | [[Junci]] | Junci<ref name="ref_36292781dd9d9be53dda2f715bad863ec1f7030a4b600ae9a5fe573de3636d3f">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k98276j/f92.table</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]] | [[File:Juncus effusus.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10326761|Q10326761]] | [[Marrellida]] | Marrellida | [[Marrellomorpha]] | [[File:Marella.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10328391|Q10328391]] | [[Meliae]] | Meliae | [[Dicotyledones]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10330169|Q10330169]] | [[Mimetasterida]] | Mimetasterida | [[Marrellomorpha]] | [[File:Mimetaster hexagonalis (2).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10331900|Q10331900]] | [[Monogynia]] | Monogynia | [[Monandria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10336146|Q10336146]] | [[Nemalionales]] | Nemalionales | [[Florideae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10336150|Q10336150]] | [[Nemertodermata]] | Nemertodermata | [[Turbellarios|Turbellaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10343746|Q10343746]] | [[Palaeocaridacea]] | Palaeocaridacea | [[Syncarida]] | [[File:Acanthotelson stimpsoni fossil shrimp (Mazon Creek Lagerstatte, Francis Creek Shale, Middle Pennsylvanian; coal mine dump pile near Essex, northern Illinois, USA).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10348371|Q10348371]] | [[Pentagynia]] | Pentagynia | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10348899|Q10348899]] | [[Mischococcales]] | Mischococcales | [[Xanthophyceae]] | [[File:Mischococcus Nägeli 1849.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10349711|Q10349711]] | [[Pihlellales]] | Pihlellales | [[Florideophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10350932|Q10350932]] | [[Polygamia frustranea]] | Polygamia frustranea | [[Polygamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10350933|Q10350933]] | [[Polygamia aequalis]] | Polygamia aequalis | [[Polygamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10350934|Q10350934]] | [[Polygamia superflua]] | Polygamia superflua | [[Polygamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10350935|Q10350935]] | [[Polygamia necessaria]] | Polygamia necessaria | [[Polygamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10350939|Q10350939]] | [[Polygynia]] | Polygynia | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10352007|Q10352007]] | [[Rhizochloridales]] | Rhizochloridales | [[Xanthophyceae]] | [[File:Rhizochloris mirabilis & R. stigmatica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10355344|Q10355344]] | [[Pteridospermales]] | Pteridospermales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | [[File:Specimen at Natural History Museum, Gothenburg 02 (cropped).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10355400|Q10355400]] | [[Ptychodactiaria]] | Ptychodactiaria | [[Hexacorallia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10360301|Q10360301]] | [[Rhabdocoela]] | Rhabdocoela | [[Rhabditophora]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Gyratrix hermaphroditus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10360304|Q10360304]] | [[Rhabdopleuroidea]] | Rhabdopleuroidea | [[Graptolithoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10363667|Q10363667]] | [[Rodhogorgonales]] | Rodhogorgonales | [[Florideophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10371492|Q10371492]] | [[Siliculosa]] | Siliculosa | [[Tetradynamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10371494|Q10371494]] | [[Siliquosa]] | Siliquosa | [[Tetradynamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10372839|Q10372839]] | [[Botrydiales]] | Botrydiales | [[Xanthophyceae]] | [[File:Alger, Botydium granulatum, Nordisk familjebok.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10380985|Q10380985]] | [[Tetragynia]] | Tetragynia | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10384753|Q10384753]] | [[Trigynia]] | Trigynia | [[Diandria]]<br/>[[Triandria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10389914|Q10389914]] | [[Verticillitida]] | Verticillitida | [[Demospongiae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10400366|Q10400366]] | [[Acrospermales]] | Acrospermales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:2014-02-28 Acrospermum graminum Lib 406559.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10403015|Q10403015]] | [[Agaricostilbales]] | Agaricostilbales | [[Agaricostilbomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10416617|Q10416617]] | [[Arachnomycetales]] | Arachnomycetales | [[Eurotiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10419530|Q10419530]] | [[Ascosphaerales]] | Ascosphaerales | [[Eurotiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10421948|Q10421948]] | [[Atractiellales]] | Atractiellales | [[Atractiellomycetes]] | [[File:2011-10-23 Phleogena faginea (Fr.) Link 214654.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10426780|Q10426780]] | [[Basidiobolales]] | Basidiobolales | [[Basidiobolomycetes]]<ref name="ref_b8c256ef49f76a6773946589846ce8cc2fc176141191f08a0f5375fe804cab79">''[[:d:Q117487849|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10433851|Q10433851]] | [[Botryosphaeriales]] | Botryosphaeriales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10434556|Q10434556]] | [[Biddulphiales]] | Biddulphiales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Eucampia-balaustium hg.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10445201|Q10445201]] | [[Cephalaspida]] | Cephalaspida | [[Gastropodos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10451613|Q10451613]] | [[Chromadorida]] | Chromadorida | [[Chromadorea]] | [[File:Chromadorina tangaroa (10.7717-peerj.9233) Figure 3.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10452652|Q10452652]] | [[Chytridiopsida]] | Chytridiopsida | [[Microsporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10454598|Q10454598]] | [[Classiculales]] | Classiculales | [[Classiculomycetes]] | [[File:Classicula sinensis (10.3897-mycokeys.40.23828) Figure 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10457097|Q10457097]] | [[Collothecaceae]] | Collothecaceae | [[Gnesiotrocha]]<ref name="ref_c6231a1cba5a31be54bcd7e77ad91c3f46069dba01c5b69000f3c893f8261b93">''[[:d:Q18644400|Phylum Rotifera Cuvier, 1817]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10459878|Q10459878]] | [[Coronata]] | Coronata | [[Scyphozoa]] | [[File:Strigatella coronata 01.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10460670|Q10460670]] | [[Siphonales]] | Siphonales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10462413|Q10462413]] | [[Cryptomycocolacales]] | Cryptomycocolacales | [[Cryptomycocolacomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10465216|Q10465216]] | [[Cystobasidiales]] | Cystobasidiales | [[Cystobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10484988|Q10484988]] | [[Entorrhizales]] | Entorrhizales | [[Entorrhizomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10487418|Q10487418]] | [[Eremothallales]] | Eremithallales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10488770|Q10488770]] | [[Erythrobasidiales]] | Erythrobasidiales | [[Cystobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10490776|Q10490776]] | [[Gloeodiniales]] | Gloeodiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10494503|Q10494503]] | [[Fecampiida]] | Fecampiida | [[Rhabditophora]] | [[File:Turbellaria 001.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10496950|Q10496950]] | [[Flosculariacea]] | Flosculariacea | [[Gnesiotrocha]]<ref name="ref_c6231a1cba5a31be54bcd7e77ad91c3f46069dba01c5b69000f3c893f8261b93">''[[:d:Q18644400|Phylum Rotifera Cuvier, 1817]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10507601|Q10507601]] | [[Gordea]] | Gordea | [[Nematomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10511592|Q10511592]] | [[Gymnosomatida]] | Gymnosomatida | [[Gastropodos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10516234|Q10516234]] | [[Halichondriida]] | Halichondriida | [[Demospongiae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10519603|Q10519603]] | [[Helicobasidiales]] | Helicobasidiales | [[Pucciniomycetes]] | [[File:Wortel violet wortelrot (Helicobasidium brebissonii on Daucus carota).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10556103|Q10556103]] | [[Lecideales]] | Lecideales | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Lecidea perlatolica - Flickr - pellaea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10562273|Q10562273]] | [[Limnognathida]] | Limnognathida | [[Micrognathozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10564038|Q10564038]] | [[Chrysomonadales]] | Chrysomonadales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10568658|Q10568658]] | [[Lobulomycetales]] | Lobulomycetales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a338fec77bc31c1dbbc52993cfb81f80d7549f9ab42232d15e5de94ec21898d3">''[[:d:Q33399328|Lobulomycetales, a new order in the Chytridiomycota]]''</ref> | [[Lobulomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10575749|Q10575749]] | [[Malasseziales]] | Malasseziales | [[Malasseziomycetes]] | [[File:Malassezia furfur SEM lores.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10581151|Q10581151]] | [[Meliolales]] | Meliolales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10582822|Q10582822]] | [[Metateratocephalida]] | Metateratocephalida | [[Adenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10584812|Q10584812]] | [[Microsporida]] | Microsporida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rozellomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10586727|Q10586727]] | [[Mixiales]] | Mixiales | [[Mixiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10588316|Q10588316]] | [[Monoblepharidales]] | Monoblepharidales | [[Monoblepharidomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10594261|Q10594261]] | [[Nanaloricida]] | Nanaloricida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Loricifera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10594506|Q10594506]] | [[Naohideales]] | Naohideales | [[Cystobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10595388|Q10595388]] | [[Nectonematida]] | Nectonematida | [[Gordioida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10596699|Q10596699]] | [[Neocallimastigales]] | Neocallimastigales | [[Neocallimastigomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10597370|Q10597370]] | [[Neolectales]] | Neolectales | [[Neolectomycetes]] | [[File:Neolecta irregularis 76559.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10603349|Q10603349]] | [[Notaspida]] | Notaspida | [[Gastropodos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10609751|Q10609751]] | [[Mobilida]] | Mobilida | [[Peritrichia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Trich2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10611127|Q10611127]] | [[Orbiliales]] | Orbiliales | [[Orbiliomycetes]] | [[File:Orbilia xanthostigma.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10614615|Q10614615]] | [[Pachnocybales]] | Pachnocybales | [[Pucciniomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10618026|Q10618026]] | [[Paraconodontida]] | Paraconodontida | [[vertebrato]]<br/>[[Conodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10633014|Q10633014]] | [[Plasmodigeneida]] | Plasmodigeneida | [[Orthonectida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q183364|Q183364]] | [[Cuculiformes]] | Cuculiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Otidimorphae]] | [[File:Chestnut-breasted Malkoha2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q183383|Q183383]] | [[Dermoptera]] | Dermoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Primatomorpha]] | [[File:Colugo (Galeopterus variegatus, adult female), Central Catchment Area, Singapore - 20060618.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q184479|Q184479]] | [[Sepiida]] | Sepiida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Decapodiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Ascarosepion latimanus (Reef cuttlefish) dark coloration.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q184616|Q184616]] | [[Trichoptera]] | Trichoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1790a56c8b13390db4d19b0bae418fecbf13c94ece22340b3a28119a83d377ee">''[[:d:Q21044786|Order Trichoptera Kirby, 1813 (English)]]''</ref> | [[Amphiesmenoptera]]<ref name="ref_02af895060b425d12c2753dbdea43a4b501bb7cc8f8f27e68e4380571e63d14f">''[[:d:Q28072935|Progress, pitfalls and parallel universes: a history of insect phylogenetics]]''</ref> | [[File:Lepidostoma.hirtum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q185628|Q185628]] | [[Thysanoptera]] | Thysanoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_9ea2dfa9b488710500aba93005766a2cf59be04cc804abdf162825465345e303">''[[:d:Q21045176|Order Thysanoptera Haliday, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Paraneoptera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Thysanoptera.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q186334|Q186334]] | [[Saurischia]] | Saurischia | [[Dinosauria]] | [[File:Herrerasaurusskeleton.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q188029|Q188029]] | [[Phasmatodea]] | Phasmida<ref name="ref_c476315743d9b1256b6cf35891c322a92892c70c30beacc44619346e48a190f3">''[[:d:Q21055950|Order Phasmida Leach, 1815]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Eukinolabia]]<ref name="ref_bfb68a78f1f6fe9ff6cf88c875b7263373ffd7ad24a431ecbbe1de9be5260767">''[[:d:Q54311073|Mantophasmatodea and phylogeny of the lower neopterous insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Malaysische Gespensterschrecke.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q191488|Q191488]] | [[Ornithischia]] | Ornithischia | [[Dinosauria]] | [[File:Ornithischia.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q192422|Q192422]] | [[Acipenseriformes]] | Acipenseriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Acipenser oxyrhynchus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q193389|Q193389]] | [[Clupeiformes]] | Clupeiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Clupeomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Clupei]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Alosa fallax.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q193418|Q193418]] | [[Amphipoda]] | Amphipoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ee8537fe54ade0dcdc4fbfa63340b3c335371f7829b3e40edc08a503500cf708">''[[:d:Q104204003|Uptaded checklist, historical overview and illustrated guide to the stygobiont Malacostraca (Arthropoda: Crustacea) species of Yucatan (Mexico)]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Gammarus roeselii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q194025|Q194025]] | [[Megaloptera]] | Megaloptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Neuropterida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Corydalus cornutus MHNT male.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q194515|Q194515]] | [[Ichthyosauria]] | Ichthyosauria | [[Eoichthyosauria]] | [[File:Harpoceras & Ichtyosaure (p).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q195590|Q195590]] | [[Onslowiales]] | Onslowiales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Dictyotophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q195605|Q195605]] | [[Scleractinia]] | Scleractinia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[Hexacorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Brain coral.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q196240|Q196240]] | [[Ishigeales]] | Ishigeales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f848045acd8cdb2b3ce278fd54a113214e623e1f14107bcd1f9001724ab6b8ea">''[[:d:Q54621615|A new brown algal order, Ishigeales (Phaeophyceae), established on the basis of plastid protein-coding rbcL, psaA, and psbA region comparisons]]''</ref> | [[Ishigeophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Ishige okamurae.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q199077|Q199077]] | [[Desmidiales]] | Desmidiales | [[Zygnematophyceae]] | [[File:Micrasterias radiata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q203547|Q203547]] | [[Plecoptera]] | Plecoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]] | [[File:Eusthenia sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q203779|Q203779]] | [[Zingiberales]] | Zingiberales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Commelinids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref> | [[File:Alpinia zerumbet2CaryCass.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q205301|Q205301]] | [[Mecoptera]] | Mecoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Antliophora]]<br/>[[Holometabola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Bittacidae fg1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q205712|Q205712]] | [[Sipuncula]] | Sipuncula<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Annelida]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Sipuncula.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q206338|Q206338]] | [[Isopoda]] | Isopoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Eurydice pulchra.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q206636|Q206636]] | [[Tremellales]] | Tremellales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | [[File:Tremella closeup.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q206948|Q206948]] | [[Lophiiformes]] | Lophiiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Eupercaria]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Percomorpha]] | [[File:Caulophryne pelagica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q208777|Q208777]] | [[Scorpaeniformes]] | Scorpaeniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[File:Pterois antennata-3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q211837|Q211837]] | [[Tetraodontiformes]] | Tetraodontiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Eupercaria]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:MolaMola Lisboa20051020 Modified.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q212492|Q212492]] | [[Gasterosteiformes]] | Gasterosteiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[File:Gasterosteus aculeatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q213333|Q213333]] | [[Dasyuromorphia]] | Dasyuromorphia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Australidelphia]]<br/>[[Marsupiales|Marsupialia]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Agreodontia]] | [[File:Dasyurus maculatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q216241|Q216241]] | [[Gadiformes]] | Gadiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[File:Phycis blennoides.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q217458|Q217458]] | [[Characiformes]] | Characiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Ostariophysi]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Characiphysae]] | [[File:Brycinus longipinnis.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q217516|Q217516]] | [[Raphidioptera]] | Raphidioptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Endopterygota]]<br/>[[Holometabola]]<br/>[[Neuropterida]] | [[File:Dichrostigma flavipes beentree.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q219143|Q219143]] | [[Russulales]] | Russulales | [[Agaricomycetidae]] | [[File:Russula emetica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q220877|Q220877]] | [[Asaphida]] | Asaphida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Libristoma]]<br/>[[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Asaphus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q221315|Q221315]] | [[Spirochaetales]] | Spirochaetales | [[Spirochaetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:20100905 211652 Spirochetes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q221448|Q221448]] | [[Agaricales]] | Agaricales | [[Agaricomycetidae]] | [[File:Agaricus campestris.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q223044|Q223044]] | [[Testudines]] | Testudines<ref name="ref_fb8d2bc8bdd470edbdab937dcac9149c061092dc9fce863f9589fee4cee04480">''[[:d:Q14565809|Checklist of Chelonians of the World]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3d0a04d5d568947e733eb4a78351670f2dec86e71af757406424a3027e5b5dcc">''[[:d:Q19317171|Order Testudines: 2013 update]]''</ref> | [[Perichelydia]]<br/>[[Archosauromorpha]]<ref name="ref_a543ce7ab4c2233f2401ba3d92a9216bfd5dda6deb11657a5133336b00351c01">''[[:d:Q24601429|More than 1000 ultraconserved elements provide evidence that turtles are the sister group of archosaurs]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8351c69cced47e0e6ced94416f679b9c2fd6cc225da7497827b5215de73a1623">''[[:d:Q34386457|Turtle origins: insights from phylogenetic retrofitting and molecular scaffolds]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7f8384de4f155d5912d5e2a640f39b589e737fd5e81fdbeca4b656cb2393117">''[[:d:Q24607249|MicroRNAs support a turtle + lizard clade]]''</ref> | [[File:Hawaii turtle 2.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q223597|Q223597]] | [[Oomycota]] | Oomycota | [[Stramenopiles]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref><br/>[[Chromista]]<br/>[[Heterokonta]] | [[File:Phytophtora reproduction.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q224470|Q224470]] | [[Lamniformes]] | Lamniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Galeomorphi]] | [[File:White shark.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q226951|Q226951]] | [[Thysanura]] | Thysanura | [[Apterygota]] | [[File:Silverfish 2007-2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q231550|Q231550]] | [[Scandentia]] | Scandentia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Euarchonta]] | [[File:Tupaia belangeri -Kaeng Krachan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q241493|Q241493]] | [[Valvatida]] | Valvatida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e4d07856bacf3074afeadf174e5899cb73264a0585b33b7cb846612d51c9d300">''[[:d:Q29997700|A reassessment of the sea-star orders Valvatida and Spinulosida]]''</ref> | [[Valvatacea]] | [[File:Mediaster aequalis on glass.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q244417|Q244417]] | [[Sepiolida]] | Sepiolida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Decapodiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Sepiola atlantica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q244587|Q244587]] | [[Peramelemorphia]] | Peramelemorphia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Australidelphia]]<br/>[[Marsupiales|Marsupialia]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Agreodontia]] | [[File:Taxidermied Bandicoot.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q245424|Q245424]] | [[Zygopteridales]] | Zygopteridales | [[Polypodiopsida]] | [[File:Alloiopteris erosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q245695|Q245695]] | [[Ceriantharia]] | Ceriantharia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[Hexacorallia]]<ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Ceriantharia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q246457|Q246457]] | [[Spirostreptida]] | Spirostreptida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Helminthomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Juliformia]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Hangzhou - millipede - CIMG2473.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q247134|Q247134]] | [[Lithobiomorpha]] | Lithobiomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[Pleurostigmophora]]<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[File:Eupolybothrus cavernicolus male paratype.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q254606|Q254606]] | [[Atheriniformes]] | Atheriniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Red m boesemani.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q255460|Q255460]] | [[Chlorococcales]] | Chlorococcales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | [[File:Chlorococcales composite.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q260031|Q260031]] | [[Orectolobiformes]] | Orectolobiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Galeomorphi]]<br/>[[elasmobranchio]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Spotted wobbegong.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q261485|Q261485]] | [[Lampreda|Petromyzontiformes]] | Petromyzontiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Cephalaspidomorphi]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Petromyzontida]]<ref name="ref_17a7637d05efc4bdee91d7cd9444c97f8d90559ef37bbf85b81f201c22d3cdc9">''[[:d:Q20425914|Dyntaxa]]''</ref><br/>[[Petromyzonti]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Jõesilmud2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q269195|Q269195]] | [[Plesiosauria]] | Plesiosauria | [[Pistosauria]] | [[File:Plesiosaurus dolich1DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q269303|Q269303]] | [[Pandanales]] | Pandanales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Starr 010209-0264 Pandanus tectorius.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q271623|Q271623]] | [[Psocoptera]] | Psocoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Paraneoptera]] | [[File:Graphopsocus cruciatus 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q275668|Q275668]] | [[Bursovaginoidea]] | Bursovaginoidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gnathostomulida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q275913|Q275913]] | [[Chaetonotida]] | Chaetonotida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gastrotricha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0e21d2f391eca5f2f3be713442cd269e6faf987853d7d220a83e592a345f2dad">''[[:d:Q18642824|Phylum Gastrotricha]]''</ref> | [[File:Lepidodermella squamatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q277471|Q277471]] | [[Crown jellyfish]] | Coronatae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Coronamedusae]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Nausithoe aurea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q282015|Q282015]] | [[Polydesmida]] | Polydesmida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Helminthomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Merochaeta]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Harpaphe haydeniana 001.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q290349|Q290349]] | [[Commelinales]] | Commelinales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Flor - Quintana Roo - México.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q303573|Q303573]] | [[Phallales]] | Phallales | [[Phallomycetidae]] | [[File:Phallus impudicus7 Stinkhorn.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q310364|Q310364]] | [[Dictyosteliida]] | Dictyosteliida | [[Dictyostelia]] | [[File:Dictyostelium Late Aggregation 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q319520|Q319520]] | [[Pelycosauria]] | Pelycosauria | [[Synapsida]] | [[File:Dimetrodon milleri (1).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q327144|Q327144]] | [[Strepsiptera]] | Strepsiptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Coleopterida]]<ref name="ref_9358a00ae7ae162479e003143d1f49241dbd7fce9bce891cb3c7aa3146136e52">''[[:d:Q105357584|Relationships among coleopteran suborders and major endoneopteran lineages: Evidence from hind wing characters]]''</ref><br/>[[Coleopteroidea]]<ref name="ref_3b041b8940889283b7736a24e58f8ce0d692c5bfdf22bdf581a157ca99478b5d">''[[:d:Q110445386|Taxonomic Review of Fossil Coleopterous Families (Insecta, Coleoptera). Suborder Archostemata: Superfamilies Coleopseoidea and Cupedoidea]]''</ref><br/>[[Holometabola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Elenchus koebelei.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q328082|Q328082]] | [[Afrosoricida]] | Afrosoricida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Afroinsectiphilia]] | [[File:Tanrek.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q329667|Q329667]] | [[Beloniformes]] | Beloniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Exvol u0.gif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q334855|Q334855]] | [[Stomatopoda]] | Stomatopoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Hoplocarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Curious mantis shrimp from Gilli Banta reef.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q337750|Q337750]] | [[Acanthodiformes]] | Acanthodiformes | [[Acanthodii]] | [[File:Acanthodes BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q342882|Q342882]] | [[Acrotretida]] | Acrotretida | [[Lingulata]] | [[File:Prototreta trapeze.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q343452|Q343452]] | [[Actinomycetales]] | Actinomycetales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Actinomyces israelii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q378085|Q378085]] | [[Belemnitida]] | Belemnitida | [[Decapodiformes]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:BelemniteDB2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q379768|Q379768]] | [[Esociformes]] | Esociformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Protacanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Hecht.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q388162|Q388162]] | [[Siphonaptera]] | Siphonaptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Panorpida]]<br/>[[Antliophora]]<br/>[[Holometabola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Flea Scanning Electron Micrograph False Color.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q394207|Q394207]] | [[Aglaspidida]] | Aglaspidida<ref name="ref_63930ecd907261be13192034c1e5d1ff5281f92f5557152cb7838dbb18bc615a">''[[:d:Q56697942|A new aglaspidid euarthropod with a six-segmented trunk from the Lower Ordovician Fezouata Konservat-Lagerstätte, Morocco]]''</ref> | [[Vicissicaudata]]<ref name="ref_176e52aedf8ba2b919cfd14ec073e5d6e0a8bf102769e9acaf6acc3e0ed71557">''[[:d:Q56430757|The phylogeny of aglaspidid arthropods and the internal relationships within Artiopoda]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fa22ac1efe899ab0b30e4c6ba5da69d7987e9aae106f8fbf53f391b976b105e8">''[[:d:Q41327881|The Vicissicaudata revisited - insights from a new aglaspidid arthropod with caudal appendages from the Furongian of China]]''</ref> | [[File:Beckwithia collection Paul Hille.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q395280|Q395280]] | [[Agoniatitida]] | Agoniatitida | [[Ammonoidea]] | [[File:Gasteropods - Ammonites - Agoniatites obliquus.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q422417|Q422417]] | [[Cordaitales]] | Cordaitales | [[Spermatophyta]] | [[File:Cordaites lungatus JdP.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q445364|Q445364]] | [[Archaeogastropoda]] | Archaeogastropoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Prosobranchia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Calliostoma annulatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q452969|Q452969]] | [[Dinornithiformes]] | Dinornithiformes | [[Palaeognathae]] | [[File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q465575|Q465575]] | [[Squaliformes]] | Squaliformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Squalomorphi]]<br/>[[elasmobranchio]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Centrophorus granulosus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q467392|Q467392]] | [[Embioptera]] | Embioptera | [[Polyneoptera]]<br/>[[Eukinolabia]]<ref name="ref_bfb68a78f1f6fe9ff6cf88c875b7263373ffd7ad24a431ecbbe1de9be5260767">''[[:d:Q54311073|Mantophasmatodea and phylogeny of the lower neopterous insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Embia major.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q476656|Q476656]] | [[Rhodospirillales]] | Rhodospirillales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:M. gryphiswaldense.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q478007|Q478007]] | [[Capnodiales]] | Capnodiales | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | [[File:Septoria-tritici.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q478553|Q478553]] | [[Calanoida]] | Calanoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Gymnoplea]] | [[File:Diaptomus GLERL 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q484131|Q484131]] | [[Coraciiformes]] | Coraciiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Picocoraciae]] | [[File:European roller.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q489845|Q489845]] | [[Aeromonadales]] | Aeromonadales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Aeromonas hydrophila.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q496637|Q496637]] | [[Beroida]] | Beroida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Nuda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Zooplankton2 300.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q497859|Q497859]] | [[Zygnematales]] | Zygnematales | [[Zygnematophyceae]] | [[File:20100417 005205 Zygnema.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q503667|Q503667]] | [[Pristiophoriformes]] | Pristiophoriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Squalomorphi]]<ref name="ref_e15368fd420c777ba2608cb300ef96bc5cf521014a821d17ae2db180d989550d">''[[:d:Q60731916|Fishes of the World]]''</ref> | [[File:Pristiophorus japonicus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q507287|Q507287]] | [[Platyctenida]] | Platyctenida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Tentaculata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Coeloplana astericola (Benthic ctenophores) on Echniaster luzonicus (Seastar).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q534535|Q534535]] | [[Tricladida]] | Tricladida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhabditophora]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Dugesia subtentaculata 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q540042|Q540042]] | [[Hysterangiales]] | Hysterangiales | [[Phallomycetidae]] | [[File:Hysterangium stoloniferum Rissige Schwanztrüffel.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q540502|Q540502]] | [[Zoraptera]] | Zoraptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]]<br/>[[Haplocercata]]<ref name="ref_bfb68a78f1f6fe9ff6cf88c875b7263373ffd7ad24a431ecbbe1de9be5260767">''[[:d:Q54311073|Mantophasmatodea and phylogeny of the lower neopterous insects]]''</ref> | [[File:Zorotypus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q545225|Q545225]] | [[Pleurogona]] | Pleurogona<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ascidiacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Botrylloidesleachi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q547507|Q547507]] | [[Lampriformes]] | Lampriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Teleostei]]<br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Lampridiomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Lophotus lacepede.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q568755|Q568755]] | [[Osmeriformes]] | Osmeriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Protacanthopterygii]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Hypomesus transpacificus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q573940|Q573940]] | [[Lyginopteridales]] | Lyginopteridales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | [[File:Diplopteridium holdenii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q574457|Q574457]] | [[Ophidiiformes]] | Ophidiiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Percomorpha]]<br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Fawn cusk-eel.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q577459|Q577459]] | [[Asiadelphia]] | Asiadelphia<ref name="ref_3cc6eab950d2f73b09677bbef7782b3433cad28d5ccb1bf9c2dca8a6df73646c">''[[:d:Q28775908|New Cretaceous marsupial from Mongolia and the early radiation of Metatheria]]''</ref> | [[Marsupialiformes]] | [[File:Asiatherium reshetovi holotype cast - ZooKeys 465 (skull).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q577485|Q577485]] | [[Prochlorales]] | Prochlorales<ref name="ref_e61f0d89fabfea3f88e752201bf9e5a021c672de801c3fd4b4481344f3c03e7c">''[[:d:Q45311013|Nomenclature of Prochloron didemni (Lewin 1977) sp. nov., nom. rev., Prochloron (Lewin 1976) gen. nov., nom. rev., Prochloraceae fam. nov., Prochlorales ord. nov., nom. rev. in the class Photobacteria Gibbons and Murray 1978]]''</ref> | [[Cyanophyceae]] | [[File:Prochlorales.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q579822|Q579822]] | [[Vampyromorphida]] | Vampyromorpha | [[Octopodiformes]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Vampire des abysses.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q580166|Q580166]] | [[Allogromiida]] | Allogromiida | [[Monothalamea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136644|Q136644]] | [[Rickettsiales]] | Rickettsiales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Rickettsia rickettsii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136663|Q136663]] | [[Araeoscelidia]] | Araeoscelidia | [[Diapsida]] | [[File:Petrolacosaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137552|Q137552]] | [[Alcyonacea]] | Alcyonacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref><ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3bb74a965b6fd2cbe0f3f2377af99ac5821d1679938ef8509d5d61ad26faf752">''[[:d:Q70103268|A review of gorgonian coral species (Cnidaria, Octocorallia, Alcyonacea) held in the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History research collection: focus on species from Scleraxonia, Holaxonia, Calcaxonia – Part II: Species of Holaxonia, families Go...]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ffec58d49c9662ab857860a28567e742fe0e7a7d25bd2d9e4be928a7392858d7">''[[:d:Q70103248|A review of gorgonian coral species (Cnidaria, Octocorallia, Alcyonacea) held in the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History research collection: focus on species from Scleraxonia, Holaxonia, and Calcaxonia – Part I: Introduction, species of Scler...]]''</ref> | [[Octocorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Muricea elongata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137818|Q137818]] | [[Onychodontiformes]] | Onychodontiformes | [[Sarcopterygii]] | [[File:OnychodusDB15.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137929|Q137929]] | [[Prostigmata]] | Prostigmata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff5fb1c85d7998e2a387c27ecf5d619e45ee3d5a566bf6659af4b067dbc0bafd">''[[:d:Q21074253|Order Trombidiformes Reuter, 1909]]''</ref> | [[Trombidiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff5fb1c85d7998e2a387c27ecf5d619e45ee3d5a566bf6659af4b067dbc0bafd">''[[:d:Q21074253|Order Trombidiformes Reuter, 1909]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinotrichida]]<ref name="ref_e5a81d1b48ca66c3c8f61aa87f1b82d0fb0b5e1bac384261d084c21d921f2dea">''[[:d:Q2745977|Fauna Europaea]]''</ref> | [[File:Tetranychus urticae 20080601 031.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137933|Q137933]] | [[Haramiyida]] | Haramiyida | [[Mammaliaformes]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Haramiyavia clemmenseni life restoration.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138087|Q138087]] | [[Bdellovibrionales]] | Bdellovibrionales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Oligoflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Slice from electron cryotomogram of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus cell.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138147|Q138147]] | [[Leptomedusae]] | Leptomedusae | [[Hydroidolina]] | [[File:Aequorea3.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138238|Q138238]] | [[Campylobacterales]] | Campylobacterales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Epsilonproteobacteria]] | [[File:ARS Campylobacter jejuni.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138456|Q138456]] | [[Glossopteridales]] | Glossopteridales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | [[File:Glossopteris sp., seed ferns, Permian - Triassic - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01765.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138602|Q138602]] | [[Phacopida]] | Phacopida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:Tribnod1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q139006|Q139006]] | [[Eugeneodontida]] | Eugeneodontida | [[Holocephali]] | [[File:Helicoprion bessonovi1DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q139011|Q139011]] | [[Hybodontiformes]] | Hybodontiformes | [[Hybodonta]]<ref name="ref_5dea26c44a0f8ef39af056c02e3b6ee6be5dc33c0bcc8e8515562329a9cf080f">''[[:d:Q23809256|Fishes of the World (4th edition)]]''</ref> | [[File:Asteracanthus image.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q139031|Q139031]] | [[Schizaeales]] | Schizaeales<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiopsida]]<br/>[[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Climbing fern.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q139057|Q139057]] | [[Symmoriida]] | Symmoriida | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | [[File:Symmorium1DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q139099|Q139099]] | [[Marchantiales]] | Marchantiales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Marchantiidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Marchantiales cf Conocephalum 20071111.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q139566|Q139566]] | [[Cestida]] | Cestida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Tentaculata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Cestum veneris.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q140344|Q140344]] | [[Bryales]] | Bryales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Mosses on a tombstone.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q140423|Q140423]] | [[Retortamonadida]] | Retortamonadida<ref name="ref_21e2e578e1dc61c794ecc1152f97f05b0ab4af6e42119e157a98c432d71e684a">''[[:d:Q109353487|Phylogénie. Protozoaires : Généralités. Flagellés.]]''</ref> | [[Eopharyngia]] | [[File:Metamonada retortamonas hexamita giardia.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q140930|Q140930]] | [[Narcomedusae]] | Narcomedusae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_95b7cb6e407571dbe6efd7e31701089d1cea28ae9cd5d35ee91867c79796dfab">''[[:d:Q109076051|Hydromedusae observed during night dives in the Gulf Stream]]''</ref> | [[Trachylinae]] | [[File:Bathykorus bouilloni.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q141240|Q141240]] | [[Jungermanniales]] | Jungermanniales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Jungermanniidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Jungermannia subulata (b, 144634-474722) 7627.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q141280|Q141280]] | [[Mucorales]] | Mucorales | [[Mucoromycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:Mature sporangium of a Mucor sp. fungus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q141484|Q141484]] | [[Notaspidea]] | Notaspidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Opisthobranchia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Pleurobranchaea meckelii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q141489|Q141489]] | [[Endogonales]] | Endogonales | [[Endogonomycetes]]<ref name="ref_b8c256ef49f76a6773946589846ce8cc2fc176141191f08a0f5375fe804cab79">''[[:d:Q117487849|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021]]''</ref> | [[File:Endogone pisiformis 56016.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q141514|Q141514]] | [[Dicranales]] | Dicranales | [[Dicranidae]] | [[File:Dicranum scoparium 2005.11.13 12.32.51-pb130023.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q141962|Q141962]] | [[Porolepiformes]] | Porolepiformes | [[Porolepimorpha]] | [[File:Various Porolepiformes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142219|Q142219]] | [[Pleuromeiales]] | Pleuromeiales | [[Isoetopsida]] | [[File:Pleuromeia restoration.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142368|Q142368]] | [[Aspidochirotida]] | Aspidochirotida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_23b80758ad1389c3f4fc571aa8731c18bcf8be1f285aad66f1fda148e11b60c7">''[[:d:Q97515613|A taxonomic guide to the Echinodermata of the South Atlantic Bight, USA: 1. Sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Aspidochirotacea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Three-Rowed Sea Cucumber.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142395|Q142395]] | [[Xenungulata]] | Xenungulata<ref name="ref_8b80fe0e4108a498c2bc0c730c4d6aa27ed1c8a1b1ede38d1967fed208b525cb">https://archive.org/details/bulletin-american-museum-natural-history-99-359-394/page/370</ref> | [[Meridiungulata]] | [[File:Carodnia vieirai NT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142660|Q142660]] | [[Seriata]] | Seriata | [[Rhabditophora]]<br/>[[Turbellarios|Turbellaria]] | [[File:Dugesia subtentaculata 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142754|Q142754]] | [[Pertusariales]] | Pertusariales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | [[File:Pertusaria velata-4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142758|Q142758]] | [[Pyrenulales]] | Pyrenulales<ref name="ref_3175a3497f9617ec5e7cd4020d814fd20efd5c51c573809634094e8df6c15b5b">http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90497</ref> | [[Chaetothyriomycetidae]] | [[File:Pyrenula pseudobufonia-5.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142779|Q142779]] | [[Georgefischeriales]] | Georgefischeriales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | [[File:Tilletiopsis spores 160X (2).png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q142898|Q142898]] | [[Morganucodonta]] | Morganucodonta | [[Mammaliaformes]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Morganucodon.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q143039|Q143039]] | [[Sordariales]] | Sordariales<ref name="ref_0c8ee0a917a4e8a39d91a45e4a20bd79634821969f5beaeb25e5a9eae5df679d">http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90499</ref> | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | [[File:Chaetonium (Acremonium) ascospores 160X (2).png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q143044|Q143044]] | [[Diaporthales]] | Diaporthales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | [[File:Apiognomonia errabunda.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q143441|Q143441]] | [[Pilosa]] | Pilosa<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Xenarthra]]<br/>[[Placentarios]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[File:Pilosa collage.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q143748|Q143748]] | [[Cyprinodontiformes]] | Cyprinodontiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Mummichog.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144336|Q144336]] | [[Rhenanida]] | Rhenanida | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Gemuendina stuertzi by avancna.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144456|Q144456]] | [[Peltigerales]] | Peltigerales | [[Lecanoromycetidae]] | [[File:Apfelflechte Peltigera aphtosa OhWeh-005.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144538|Q144538]] | [[Palaeonisciformes]] | Palaeonisciformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | [[File:Platysomus gibbosus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144837|Q144837]] | [[Lepidodendrales]] | Lepidodendrales | [[Lycopodiopsida]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref> | [[File:Lepidophloios.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144930|Q144930]] | [[Dothideales]] | Dothideales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | [[File:Suikerbiet planten Cercospora beticola.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144933|Q144933]] | [[Doassansiales]] | Doassansiales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q144946|Q144946]] | [[Endocerida]] | Endocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | [[File:Cameroceras trentonese.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144987|Q144987]] | [[Coronophorales]] | Coronophorales | [[Hypocreomycetidae]] | [[File:2013-06-08 Nitschkia grevillei (Rehm) Nannf 366928.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q144995|Q144995]] | [[Ophiostomatales]] | Ophiostomatales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | [[File:Ophiostoma minus.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q145181|Q145181]] | [[Verrucariales]] | Verrucariales<ref name="ref_93fbb7a0c49ef6ed4ee0b76f60d220b65403797a0e18628c814710ab3fbb3809">http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90504</ref> | [[Chaetothyriomycetidae]] | [[File:Verrucaria01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q145853|Q145853]] | [[Urocystidales]] | Urocystidales | [[Ustilaginomycetes]] | [[File:Urocystis colchici var. cepulae on an onion seedling.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q146286|Q146286]] | [[Harpacticoida]] | Harpacticoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Podoplea]] | [[File:Harpacticoid copepod GLERL 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q146554|Q146554]] | [[Phyllolepida]] | Phyllolepida | [[Arthrodira]] | [[File:Austrophyllolepis ritchiei.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q146660|Q146660]] | [[Ophiurida]] | Ophiurida<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_eb0edf213c89d7f7d1ae99460dd86b2e95a6f2c47f3ca16402d95a1310a11ccd">https://archive.org/details/nzoimemoir00181961/page/n20/mode/1up</ref> | [[Euryophiurida]]<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Ophiodea 70.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147256|Q147256]] | [[Actiniaria]] | Actiniaria<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[Hexacorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Actiniaria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147296|Q147296]] | [[Pleosporales]] | Pleosporales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Pleosporomycetidae]] | [[File:Chain of conidia of an Alternaria sp. fungus PHIL 3963 lores.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147309|Q147309]] | [[Elasipodida]] | Elasipodida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_74e031573bdba5450912104f761e0cc4ad9c3599875851aee7a87f5e0f71800e">''[[:d:Q131405017|A report of sea cucumbers collected on the first dedicated deep-sea biological survey of Australia’s Indian Ocean Territories around Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Actinopoda]] | [[File:Enypniastes eximia Puerto Rico.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147322|Q147322]] | [[Lulworthiales]] | Lulworthiales<ref name="ref_dfeabbc2e5029a20842e2defc27a8d9e8e0cadb5b84c2be800aa60db84b8f92a">''[[:d:Q111622634|Lulworthiales, a new order of marine Ascomycota]]''</ref> | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q147328|Q147328]] | [[Candelariales]] | Candelariales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Candelariella.coralliza2.-.lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147378|Q147378]] | [[Entylomatales]] | Entylomatales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | [[File:Entyloma achilleae - Lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147585|Q147585]] | [[Petalichthyida]] | Petalichthyida | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Diandongpetalichthys liaojiaoshanensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147600|Q147600]] | [[Drepanophycales]] | Drepanophycales | [[Lycopodiopsida]] | [[File:Asteroxylon fossil.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147907|Q147907]] | [[Eurypygiformes]] | Eurypygiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Eurypygimorphae]] | [[File:Eurypyga heliasPCCA20051227-2000B.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q147918|Q147918]] | [[Sphaerocarpales]] | Sphaerocarpales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Sphaerocarpidae]]<br/>[[Marchantiidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Sphaerocarpos texanus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148509|Q148509]] | [[Iniopterygiformes]] | Iniopterygia | [[Holocephali]] | [[File:Iniopteryxrushlaui.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148523|Q148523]] | [[Petalodontiformes]] | Petalodontiformes | [[Holocephali]] | [[File:Belantsea montana.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148539|Q148539]] | [[Caytoniales]] | Caytoniales | [[Caytoniopsida]]<ref name="ref_be93d6eeafb8ef6627a269e8e5499bf9f5403d8c1b26dd3ff62590f579f81c17">''[[:d:Q2578548|Tropicos]]''</ref> | [[File:Caytonia reconstruction Retallack and Dilcher 1988.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148671|Q148671]] | [[Coniochaetales]] | Coniochaetales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q148738|Q148738]] | [[Microascales]] | Microascales | [[Hypocreomycetidae]] | [[File:Thielaviopsis basicola 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148747|Q148747]] | [[Arthoniales]] | Arthoniales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Arthoniomycetes]] | [[File:Cryptothecia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148779|Q148779]] | [[Euglyphida]] | Euglyphida | [[Silicofilosea]] | [[File:Euglypha sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148806|Q148806]] | [[Stemonitida]] | Stemonitales | [[Myxogastria]]<br/>[[Columellidia]] | [[File:Stemonitis fusca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q148843|Q148843]] | [[Nitrosomonadales]] | Nitrosomonadales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Spirillen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149036|Q149036]] | [[Dactylopodida]] | Dactylopodida<ref name="ref_11a9ad48592d8b890e9ed53e951a7d0f6e43ad2c23be7df7feb9ddb2e21d23cd">''[[:d:Q28273073|Molecular Phylogeny and Classification of the Lobose Amoebae]]''</ref> | [[Flabellinia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q149055|Q149055]] | [[Gyrocotylidea]] | Gyrocotylidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Cestodaria]] | [[File:Gyrocotyle rugosa.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149088|Q149088]] | [[Bacillales]] | Bacillales | [[Bacilli]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bacillus coagulans 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149121|Q149121]] | [[Lobata]] | Lobata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Tentaculata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Bathocyroe fosteri.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149732|Q149732]] | [[Rotaliida]] | Rotaliida | [[Rotaliana]] | [[File:Ammonia beccarii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149753|Q149753]] | [[Chaetosphaeriales]] | Chaetosphaeriales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q149759|Q149759]] | [[Cyttariales]] | Cyttariales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | [[File:Cyttaria berteroi Berk 884973.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149770|Q149770]] | [[Myriangiales]] | Myriangiales | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | [[File:Elsinoe veneta - Lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149777|Q149777]] | [[Microstromatales]] | Microstromatales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q149808|Q149808]] | [[Umbilicariales]] | Umbilicariales<ref name="ref_fbf2917bb319fbfb1f3fce3a3618112b4e4cb04e2fea681c0bf126cefbce44e8">http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90783</ref> | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Umbilicaria hyperborea 45083.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149824|Q149824]] | [[Coryneliales]] | Coryneliales | [[Eurotiomycetes]] | [[File:Caliciopsis pinea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149934|Q149934]] | [[Acidithiobacillales]] | Acidithiobacillales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Acidithiobacillia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q150198|Q150198]] | [[Miliolida]] | Miliolida | [[Tubothalamea]] | [[File:QuinqueloculinaDonegalBay.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150578|Q150578]] | [[Unionoida]] | Unionida<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[Palaeoheterodonta]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Anodonta anatina1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150593|Q150593]] | [[Antiarchi]] | Antiarchi | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Yunnanolepis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150619|Q150619]] | [[Climatiiformes]] | Climatiiformes | [[Acanthodii]] | [[File:Climatius.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150624|Q150624]] | [[Lepidosireniformes]] | Lepidosireniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[Dipnoi]]<br/>[[Sarcopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[File:Protopterus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150631|Q150631]] | [[Nuculoida]] | Nuculoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Protobranchia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Acila cobboldiae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150634|Q150634]] | [[Ischnacanthiformes]] | Ischnacanthiformes | [[Acanthodii]] | [[File:Ishnacanthus gracilis.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150639|Q150639]] | [[Orthida]] | Orthida | [[Rhynchonellata]] | [[File:PlatystrophiaOrdovician.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q150893|Q150893]] | [[Cyclostomatida]] | Cyclostomatida | [[Stenolaemata]]<ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref> | [[File:Mesonea radians.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q151079|Q151079]] | [[Cydippida]] | Cydippida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Tentaculata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:LightRefractsOf comb-rows of ctenophore Mertensia ovum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q156438|Q156438]] | [[Neuroptera]] | Neuroptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Neuropterida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Myrmeleontidae roesel.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q157114|Q157114]] | [[Cycadales]] | Cycadales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Cycadopsida]]<br/>[[Cycadidae]]<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Cycas circinalis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q164689|Q164689]] | [[Meganisoptera]] | Meganisoptera | [[Euodonatoptera]]<ref name="ref_e9d2a3f834fdc76fc2b4d78e11526f3478130567a74b8ddb2bc808940ae86b88">''[[:d:Q56941092|New results concerning the morphology of the most ancient dragonflies (Insecta: Odonatoptera) from the Namurian of Hagen-Vorhalle (Germany)]]''</ref> | [[File:Meganeura monyi au Museum de Toulouse.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q167810|Q167810]] | [[Orthoptera]] | Orthoptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a9b0999ffe89002f31f4bf69dadd3a355ceac4a6d7eb5a3090ffd72a8a074dd8">''[[:d:Q21057176|Order Orthoptera Olivier, 1789 (English)]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]]<br/>[[Panorthoptera]]<ref name="ref_c8dae2d19519e7ebc19b71e5f14220b6a8ef8aebfd931f8c6322beb01fed68bc">''[[:d:Q28938232|Venation pattern and revision of Orthoptera sensu nov. and sister groups. Phylogeny of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Orthoptera sensu nov.]]''</ref> | [[File:Leptophyes punctatissima 20050808 028.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q174273|Q174273]] | [[Ephemeroptera]] | Ephemeroptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_efb489ed9dd80457344d72b6b244c966cc452d866892a3c66c453cabcc12990d">''[[:d:Q51419553|Insecta]]''</ref> | [[Pterygota]]<br/>[[Heptabranchia]]<ref name="ref_18fc2a99f68c76b2c0c277b7532af049a6ff8e684ad72a4e0d7b5a4bff719d1b">''[[:d:Q56940988|Revision of the giant pterygote insect Bojophlebia prokopi Kukalová-Peck, 1985 (Hydropalaeoptera: Bojophlebiidae) from the Carboniferous of the Czech Republic, with the first cladistic analysis of fossil palaeopterous insects]]''</ref><ref name="ref_060e91764ac49f3414cb8d658d3ff1dfa1f44364762c55d102439366084f6e71">''[[:d:Q54506024|Coxoplectoptera, a new fossil order of Palaeoptera (Arthropoda: Insecta), with comments on the phylogeny of the stem group of mayflies (Ephemeroptera)]]''</ref> | [[File:Eintagsfliege fg01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q177879|Q177879]] | [[Cypriniformes]] | Cypriniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Cypriniphysae]] | [[File:Cierniooczek długonosy (Acantopsis choirorhynchos).JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q179204|Q179204]] | [[Pterosauria]] | Pterosauria | [[Pterosauromorpha]] | [[File:Anhanguera piscator jconway.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q27850|Q27850]] | [[Cetartiodactyla]] | Cetartiodactyla | [[Euungulata]] | [[File:The Cetartiodactyla.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28078|Q28078]] | [[Columbiformes]] | Columbiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref><ref name="ref_02af895060b425d12c2753dbdea43a4b501bb7cc8f8f27e68e4380571e63d14f">''[[:d:Q28072935|Progress, pitfalls and parallel universes: a history of insect phylogenetics]]''</ref><br/>[[Holometabola]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:00 3080 Mehliger Salbei (Salvia farinacea).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28425|Q28425]] | [[Vespertilion|Chiroptera]] | Chiroptera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0883dc87b69d75612e06ca4260f7a3bdcb0e63c3cdb2e8cfbc4a8348f7145f5">''[[:d:Q19604469|A Guide to the Mammals of China]]''</ref> | [[Apo-Chiroptera]]<br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Laurasiatheria]]<br/>[[Eutheria]]<br/>[[Scrotifera]]<ref name="ref_70a3a835855462a25bd1af7daee80688bff19dfc93504c4ffb947035430b399e">http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/1/31.abstract</ref><ref name="ref_83a1762b32b2323d7f662db75312b011bcf6da803c24f22727ed6d100d39eab1">http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/09/03/sysbio.syr089.abstract</ref><br/>[[Pegasoferae]]<ref name="ref_6fab99dd3d693efd433a7875f94269754ebb460da09ea1363bf5faf6e4dbb8fb">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1479866</ref><br/>[[Placentarios]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref> | [[File:Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28502|Q28502]] | [[Poales]] | Poales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref> | [[File:Wheat field.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29498|Q29498]] | [[Euphausiacea]] | Euphausiacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eucarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Meganyctiphanes norvegica1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30111|Q30111]] | [[Zygentoma]] | Zygentoma<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[insecto]]<br/>[[Dicondylia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | [[File:Lepisma saccharina 1a.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q31431|Q31431]] | [[Psittaciformes]] | Psittaciformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Psittacimorphae]] | [[File:Ara ararauna Luc Viatour.jpg|center|32px]] | ordine de aves |- | [[:d:Q38957|Q38957]] | [[Plumatellida]] | Plumatellida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref> | [[Phylactolaemata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref> | [[File:Pectinatella magnifica 8568.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q40152|Q40152]] | [[Octopoda]] | Octopoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Octopodiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Octopus2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q41317|Q41317]] | [[electric ray]] | Torpediniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Batoidea]]<ref name="ref_e15368fd420c777ba2608cb300ef96bc5cf521014a821d17ae2db180d989550d">''[[:d:Q60731916|Fishes of the World]]''</ref> | [[File:Torpedo fuscomaculata2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q48178|Q48178]] | [[Carcharhiniformes]] | Carcharhiniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[squalo]] | [[File:Carcharhinus melanopterus2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q48407|Q48407]] | [[Osteoglossiformes]] | Osteoglossiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Osteoglossomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Osteoglossum bicirrhosum.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q53099|Q53099]] | [[Hyracoidea]] | Hyracoidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Paenungulata]] | [[File:Ein klippschliefer.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q53478|Q53478]] | [[Liliales]] | Liliales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_48a3130b6d2735cbba082a16f6145b4603d757b0cbb56fc618bd3d043d9aecf0">''[[:d:Q14396088|An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2ac0a98f2ede0af4121e6b3efcc3f0f055f5d9ad3db914c6538104d875766a81">''[[:d:Q14565069|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Lilium martagon 250605a.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q53636|Q53636]] | [[Anura]] | Anura<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_4edc7d9c77b0f50e3e2fe5e6bbf730c7d1c38e44387336ff61d30ae5641cb114">''[[:d:Q19978589|Class Amphibia Gray, 1825]]''</ref> | [[Salientia]]<br/>[[amphibio]]<ref name="ref_4edc7d9c77b0f50e3e2fe5e6bbf730c7d1c38e44387336ff61d30ae5641cb114">''[[:d:Q19978589|Class Amphibia Gray, 1825]]''</ref><ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Australia green tree frog (Litoria caerulea) crop.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q53663|Q53663]] | [[Caudata]] | Caudata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_4edc7d9c77b0f50e3e2fe5e6bbf730c7d1c38e44387336ff61d30ae5641cb114">''[[:d:Q19978589|Class Amphibia Gray, 1825]]''</ref> | [[Batrachia]]<br/>[[amphibio]]<ref name="ref_4edc7d9c77b0f50e3e2fe5e6bbf730c7d1c38e44387336ff61d30ae5641cb114">''[[:d:Q19978589|Class Amphibia Gray, 1825]]''</ref><br/>[[Caudata]] | [[File:Salamandra salamandra MHNT 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q59166|Q59166]] | [[Coelacanthiformes]] | Coelacanthiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinistia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Sarcopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Coelacanthi]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:201704 Coelacanth.svg|center|32px]]<ref name="ref_c803b47a9a811c1d1de7a662b4f07724085b51a0a9a3d283f07a64c4679d9583">http://togotv.dbcls.jp/ja/togopic.2017.11.html</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q59576|Q59576]] | [[Siluriformes]] | Siluriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Ostariophysi]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Channelcat.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q59577|Q59577]] | [[Pleuronectiformes]] | Pleuronectiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref> | [[Carangaria]] | [[File:Pseudopleuronectes americanus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q72506|Q72506]] | [[Tanaidacea]] | Tanaidacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Tanaissus lilljeborgi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q72554|Q72554]] | [[Cumacea]] | Cumacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Iphinoe trispinosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q81900|Q81900]] | [[Calamar|Teuthida]] | Teuthida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Decapodiformes]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Mastigoteuthis flammea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q82982|Q82982]] | [[Anaspidea]] | Anaspidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Opisthobranchia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Aplysia californica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q93760|Q93760]] | [[Mytilinidiales]] | Mytilinidiales | [[Pleosporomycetidae]] | [[File:2011-07-21 Glonium stellatum 159063.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q117659|Q117659]] | [[Tintinnida]] | Tintinnida<ref name="ref_a22e64f6276bc7510b1011622a422d0734129d1bdbdeb562e914dcc68ceeece2">''[[:d:Q122310402|A conspectus of the marine and fresh-water ciliata belonging to the suborder Tintinnoinea, with descriptions of new species principally from the Agassiz expedition to the eastern tropical Pacific 1904-1905]]''</ref><ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Choreotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Tintinn.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q119359|Q119359]] | [[Xenacanthiformes]] | Xenacanthiformes | [[elasmobranchio]] | [[File:Orthacanthus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q119671|Q119671]] | [[Synbranchiformes]] | Synbranchiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Ildaal.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q122422|Q122422]] | [[Squamata]] | Squamata<ref name="ref_24a7eb8e81a38172c3624bf7f00866e453e0070f4ab41d62ba13e3cbde9ac8cb">''[[:d:Q13416674|A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards and snakes]]''</ref> | [[Lepidosauria]] | [[File:Anole and snake.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q127044|Q127044]] | [[Leptostraca]] | Leptostraca<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Phyllocarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Nebalia bipes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q127065|Q127065]] | [[Magnaporthales]] | Magnaporthales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | [[File:Magnaporthe grisea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q127247|Q127247]] | [[Ceratobasidiales]] | Ceratobasidiales | [[Basidiomycota]] | [[File:Thanatephorus cucumeris infected peanuts.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q127595|Q127595]] | [[Perciformes]] | Perciformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:YellowPerch.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q128685|Q128685]] | [[Anguilliformes]] | Anguilliformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Elopomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Anguillarostratakils.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q129513|Q129513]] | [[Macroscelidea]] | Macroscelidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Placentarios]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref><br/>[[Afroinsectiphilia]]<ref name="ref_8c7ae50354f38805c25d1693d816cd15275879f279e6f1435d35c33a96156eef">''[[:d:Q22813242|The Tree of Life: A Phylogenetic Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Macroscelides. proboscideus.6869.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131011|Q131011]] | [[Sphenodontia]] | Sphenodontia | [[Lepidosauria]] | [[File:Tuatera.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131181|Q131181]] | [[Multituberculata]] | Multituberculata<ref name="ref_cd5bd53cfc10a06da72b95dcc18e5a33576a0b1d47ddce4d6cda7202282fa4c1">''[[:d:Q56700560|The Tertiary Marsupialia]]''</ref> | [[Allotheria]] | [[File:Taeniolabis taoensis.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131250|Q131250]] | [[Mantodea]] | Mantodea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Dictyoptera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Polyneoptera]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Mantis religiosa MHNT entière.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131322|Q131322]] | [[Notoungulata]] | Notoungulata | [[Meridiungulata]] | [[File:Rhynchippus equinus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131447|Q131447]] | [[Temnospondyli]] | Temnospondyli | [[Tetrapoda]] | [[File:Salamandra salamandra MHNT 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131666|Q131666]] | [[Embrithopoda]] | Embrithopoda<ref name="ref_4881f05dc9986e82c443deaa4ad19fc9430b6c86b781d4eb6c26847870622e72">''[[:d:Q126344126|A Suggested Change in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[Paenungulata]] | [[File:Arsinoitherium zitteli.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131768|Q131768]] | [[Rhynchosauria]] | Rhynchosauria | [[Archosauromorpha]] | [[File:Hyperodapedon BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131967|Q131967]] | [[Aetosauria]] | Aetosauria | [[Aetosauriformes]] | [[File:Aetosaurus ferratus.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132153|Q132153]] | [[Litopterna]] | Litopterna | [[Meridiungulata]] | [[File:Macrauchenia patachonica skull.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132255|Q132255]] | [[Hypocreales]] | Hypocreales | [[Sordariomycetes]]<br/>[[Hypocreomycetidae]] | [[File:Cordyceps capitata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132667|Q132667]] | [[Myoida]] | Myoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Heterodonta]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Mya arenaria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132678|Q132678]] | [[Veneroida]] | Veneroida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Cockle.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132694|Q132694]] | [[Bruniales]] | Bruniales<ref name="ref_a17cd45f195cdc191b9f590dfce26a41c267e800aab843f3152d21b863779439">''[[:d:Q13626292|A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[campanulids]]<ref name="ref_774629b5d6b96d18755d7eba9800e693975ea5262bd876c19af66b5ea59794ed">''[[:d:Q13683362|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Desfontainia spinosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132815|Q132815]] | [[Dinocerata]] | Dinocerata | [[Uintatheriamorpha]] | [[File:Prodinoceras plantigradum.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132823|Q132823]] | [[Bennettitales]] | Bennettitales<ref name="ref_1f9cddbf99edb8ac8e64b6d612948e7dec9a73cf3a55cbefe2c6143c796a6d7c">http://delta-intkey.com/gymno/www/fosscyca.htm</ref> | [[Spermatophyta]] | [[File:Williamsoniaceae Thérèse Ekblom.webp|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132824|Q132824]] | [[Hesperornithiformes]] | Hesperornithiformes | [[Ornithurae]] | [[File:Hesperornis BW (white background).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132828|Q132828]] | [[Placodontia]] | Placodontia | [[Sauropterygia]] | [[File:Cyamodus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q132961|Q132961]] | [[Mesonychia]] | Mesonychia | [[Laurasiatheria]] | [[File:Harpagolestes immanis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133041|Q133041]] | [[Sparassodonta]] | Sparassodonta | [[Metatheria]] | [[File:Lycopsis longirostris.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133047|Q133047]] | [[Ostreida]] | Ostreida | [[Pteriomorphia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Spondylus sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133068|Q133068]] | [[Choristodera]] | Choristodera | [[Archosauromorpha]] | [[File:Champsosaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133072|Q133072]] | [[Protorosauria]] | Protorosauria | [[Archosauromorpha]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Protorosaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133234|Q133234]] | [[Gondwanatheria]] | Gondwanatheria<ref name="ref_dd09157f996652aadeed81a0efb308fdfe6a4e4766065c462ee2fce1a0c1e3bf">''[[:d:Q108541483|Gondwanatheria, un nuevo orden de mamiferos del sudamericanos (Mammalia: Edentata:? Xenarthra)]]''</ref> | [[Allotheria]]<br/>[[Theriiformes]] | [[File:Sudamerica jaw.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133270|Q133270]] | [[Docodonta]] | Docodonta | [[Mammaliaformes]] | [[File:Castorocauda BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133317|Q133317]] | [[Hexanchiformes]] | Hexanchiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Squalomorphi]] | [[File:Chlamydoselachus anguineus head.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133589|Q133589]] | [[Lecanorales]] | Lecanorales | [[Lecanoromycetidae]] | [[File:Lecanora muralis-2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133684|Q133684]] | [[Astrapotheria]] | Astrapotheria | [[Meridiungulata]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Astraponotus skull.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133915|Q133915]] | [[Hiodontiformes]] | Hiodontiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Osteoglossomorpha]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Hiodon tergisus NOAA.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133966|Q133966]] | [[Pseudomonadales]] | Pseudomonadales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Acinetobacter baumannii.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134109|Q134109]] | [[Agnostida]] | Agnostida | [[Trilobita]] | [[File:Peronopsis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134239|Q134239]] | [[Chromatiales]] | Chromatiales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Chromatium Okenii al microscopio.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134378|Q134378]] | [[Leptictida]] | Leptictida | [[Placentarios]] | [[File:Leptictidium auderiense skeleton.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134393|Q134393]] | [[Cyclophyllidea]] | Cyclophyllidea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eucestoda]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Taenia solium scolex.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134429|Q134429]] | [[Oceanospirillales]] | Oceanospirillales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:GFAJ-1 (grown on arsenic).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134490|Q134490]] | [[Helotiales]] | Helotiales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Leotiomycetes]]<br/>[[Leotiomycetidae]] | [[File:Chlorociboria Haute-Sève 2010-09-24 10.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134577|Q134577]] | [[Fusulinida]] | Fusulinida | [[Foraminifera]] | [[File:Fusulinids Topeka Limestone Virgilian Greenwood County KS.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134584|Q134584]] | [[Burkholderiales]] | Burkholderiales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Betaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Burkholderia pseudomallei 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134765|Q134765]] | [[Polycladida]] | Polycladida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Rhabditophora]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a2d60ebf70a4e62cc9a7ae6753dd6c6a96900fb525c591016e68fc251ca4e35">''[[:d:Q82494|National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | [[File:Pseudobiceros hancockanus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134777|Q134777]] | [[Seymouriamorpha]] | Seymouriamorpha | [[Reptiliomorpha]] | [[File:Seymouria BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134807|Q134807]] | [[Redlichiida]] | Redlichiida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[File:RedlichiidaTakooensis.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134940|Q134940]] | [[Lysorophia]] | Lysorophia | [[Lepospondyli]] | [[File:Brachydectes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135007|Q135007]] | [[Nectridea]] | Nectridea | [[Lepospondyli]] | [[File:Diplocaulus vale21DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135008|Q135008]] | [[Adelospondyli]] | Adelospondyli | [[Lepospondyli]] | [[File:Adelospondylus2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135040|Q135040]] | [[Zoopagales]] | Zoopagales | [[Zoopagomycetes]] | [[File:Helicocephalum01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135056|Q135056]] | [[Architaenioglossa]] | Architaenioglossa<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Caenogastropoda]] | [[File:Pomacea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135108|Q135108]] | [[Teloschistales]] | Teloschistales | [[Lecanoromycetidae]] | [[File:Teloschistes chrysophthalmus4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135185|Q135185]] | [[Hypnales]] | Hypnales<ref name="ref_1042bb756b687b1faa435c877b0d247ca05f14857d647e92ab46abf701058872">''[[:d:Q38840|Catalogue of Life]]''</ref> | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Hypnum plumaeforme.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135266|Q135266]] | [[Eurotiales]] | Eurotiales | [[Eurotiomycetidae]] | [[File:Aspergillus.gif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135280|Q135280]] | [[Taeniodonta]] | Taeniodonta | [[Placentarios]] | [[File:Taeniodonta.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135419|Q135419]] | [[Eutriconodonta]] | Eutriconodonta | [[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:RepenomamusuZICA.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135435|Q135435]] | [[Pholadomyoida]] | Pholadomyoida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Anomalodesmata]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Brechites attrahens.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135603|Q135603]] | [[Helioporacea]] | Helioporacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[Octocorallia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79d09fea4a569da43c8a3514c91f894c55d49df8acf7bc964580748e4d1675f6">''[[:d:Q21069341|Class Anthozoa Ehrenberg, 1834]]''</ref> | [[File:Blaue Koralle 4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135664|Q135664]] | [[Limnomedusae]] | Limnomedusae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Trachylinae]] | [[File:Olindias formosa1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135666|Q135666]] | [[Trachymedusae]] | Trachymedusae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Trachylinae]] | [[File:HydomedusaeAglanthaDigitale.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135719|Q135719]] | [[Microsauria]] | Microsauria | [[Lepospondyli]] | [[File:Microbrachis BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136045|Q136045]] | [[Pterioida]] | Pterioida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Pteriomorphia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Pinna Nobilis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136109|Q136109]] | [[Palaeodictyoptera]] | Palaeodictyoptera | [[Palaeodictyopteroidea]] | [[File:Reconstruction Dunbaria fasciipennis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136129|Q136129]] | [[Arcellinida]] | Arcellinida | [[Tubulinea]] | [[File:Tecameba.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136146|Q136146]] | [[Chlorarachniophyte]] | Chlorarachniophyta<ref name="ref_68fa7692c7b543bcac3db584321f8d4ba0c253f807e0fa1377bd5d0af24a32a7">''[[:d:Q56158636|CYTOLOGY AND ULTRASTRUCTURE OF CHLORARACHNION REPTANS (CHLORARACHNIOPHYTA DIVISIO NOVA, CHLORARACHNIOPHYCEAE CLASSIS NOVA)]]''</ref> | [[Chlorarachniophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Chlorarachnion reptans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136219|Q136219]] | [[Onygenales]] | Onygenales | [[Eurotiomycetidae]] | [[File:Coccidioides immitis microscopy.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136234|Q136234]] | [[Diadectomorpha]] | Diadectomorpha | [[Cotylosauria]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Limnoscelis21DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136529|Q136529]] | [[Embolomeri]] | Embolomeri | [[Anthracosauria]] | [[File:Archeria BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136575|Q136575]] | [[Diplomonadida]] | Diplomonadida<ref name="ref_c067a03c5df967f0bdccbbaad02e009446750ca8443cdba348de126900640fe6">''[[:d:Q51523213|Protozoology : a manual for medical men, veterinarians and zoologists]]''</ref> | [[Fornicata]] | [[File:Giardia lamblia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136594|Q136594]] | [[Rhizobiales]] | Rhizobiales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bartonella.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q136606|Q136606]] | [[Arthrodira]] | Arthrodira | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Rolfosteus canningensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10633354|Q10633354]] | [[Platygloeales]] | Platygloeales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Pucciniomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10634696|Q10634696]] | [[Ploimida]] | Ploimida | [[Monogononta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10634833|Q10634833]] | [[Pneumocystidales]] | Pneumocystidales | [[Pneumocystidomycetes]] | [[File:Pneumocystis carinii 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10652798|Q10652798]] | [[Rhizocarpales]] | Rhizocarpales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Rhizocarpon superficiale - Flickr - pellaea (2).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10653041|Q10653041]] | [[Rhizophlyctidales]] | Rhizophlyctidales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23a54998c09daef3f82d5a4de522f50129036580dccb3ba4dba0e9cb8cbfded">''[[:d:Q54790815|Rhizophlyctidales—a new order in Chytridiomycota]]''</ref> | [[Rhizophlyctidomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10657222|Q10657222]] | [[Uredinales]] | Uredinales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10664055|Q10664055]] | [[Scleractinida]] | Scleractinida | [[Hexacorallia]] | [[File:Scleractinia (calcium skeleton of stony corals) at Göteborgs Naturhistoriska Museum 9003.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10664285|Q10664285]] | [[Scolopendrellida]] | Scolopendrellida | [[Symphyla]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10675671|Q10675671]] | [[Spiculogloeales]] | Spiculogloeales | [[Agaricostilbomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10676233|Q10676233]] | [[Sporidiobolales]] | Sporidiobolales<ref name="ref_a4c081e1178546100795ad0f05b69c7e8f366ec559745c2a0083333224d6bacf">''[[:d:Q99851826|Taxonomic studies in the Microbotryomycetidae: Leucosporidium golubevii sp. nov., Leucosporidiella gen. nov. and the new orders Leucosporidiales and Sporidiobolales]]''</ref> | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10687905|Q10687905]] | [[Sacoglossida]] | Sacoglossida | [[Gastropodos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10690709|Q10690709]] | [[Tantulocaridida]] | Tantulocaridida | [[Maxillopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10693176|Q10693176]] | [[Teratocephalida]] | Teratocephalida | [[Adenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10695952|Q10695952]] | [[Thecosomatida]] | Thecosomatida | [[Gastropodos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10696017|Q10696017]] | [[Thelebolales]] | Thelebolales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | [[File:2014-09-28 Trichobolus zukalii (Heimerl) Kimbr 503383.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10698026|Q10698026]] | [[Tilletiales]] | Tilletiales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | [[File:Tilletia-tritici.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10701696|Q10701696]] | [[Trefusiida]] | Trefusiida | [[Adenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10705479|Q10705479]] | [[Trypetheliales]] | Trypetheliales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Trypethelium virens-1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10706077|Q10706077]] | [[Tulasnellales]] | Tulasnellales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10719181|Q10719181]] | [[Wallemiales]] | Wallemiales | [[Wallemiomycetes]] | [[File:Wallemia sebi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10743649|Q10743649]] | [[Papaverales]] | Papaverales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Magnoliidae]]<ref name="ref_28cf80c5c6ebedaed76ed16b06e52f2e25c19a17378bed20e7c222d6915922b7">''[[:d:Q14244038|An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Papaver somniferum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-102.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10899530|Q10899530]] | [[Silicoloculinida]] | Silicoloculinida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10903148|Q10903148]] | [[Albuliformes]] | Albuliformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Elopomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Bonefish Albula vulpes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10926595|Q10926595]] | [[Coscinodiscales]] | Coscinodiscales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Coscinodiscus oculus-iridis (Ehrenberg) Ehrenberg 1840 diatom shell. SEM image.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11065859|Q11065859]] | [[Heterotrichales]] | Heterotrichales | [[Xanthophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q11085824|Q11085824]] | [[Apterygiformes]] | Apterygiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Palaeognathae]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | [[File:Apteryx mantelli -Rotorua, North Island, New Zealand-8a.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11111003|Q11111003]] | [[Rhizosoleniales]] | Rhizosoleniales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Guinardia flaccinia.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11111036|Q11111036]] | [[Rhizochrysidales]] | Rhizochrysidales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q11235738|Q11235738]] | [[Bothriocephalidea]] | Bothriocephalidea | [[Eucestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q11242467|Q11242467]] | [[Microthamniales]] | Microthamniales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | [[File:Microthamnion.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11680915|Q11680915]] | [[Craterostigmomorpha]] | Craterostigmomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[Pleurostigmophora]]<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[File:EB1911 - Centipede Fig. 8 Craterostigmus.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11693956|Q11693956]] | [[Dermamoebida]] | Dermamoebida<ref name="ref_86db81ff3f13287683ffec9205953482a8097fdc26e7cd744c5b428d2e3ad538">''[[:d:Q29399107|Molecular phylogeny of Amoebozoa and the evolutionary significance of the unikont Phalansterium]]''</ref> | [[Longamoebia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref><br/>[[Centramoebia]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q11743979|Q11743979]] | [[Tofieldiales]] | Tofieldiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q11743980|Q11743980]] | [[Iridales]] | Iridales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Kosaciec syberyjski Iris sibirica kwiaty.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11750309|Q11750309]] | [[Lardizabalales]] | Lardizabalales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q11754890|Q11754890]] | [[Corylales]] | Corylales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Juglandanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Hazelnoot Halle'sche Riesen vruchten.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11762774|Q11762774]] | [[Nelumbonales]] | Nelumbonales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Nelumbonanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Proteanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Nelumbo nucifera-Kyoto.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11777036|Q11777036]] | [[Melanthiales]] | Melanthiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q11780445|Q11780445]] | [[Menispermales]] | Menispermales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q11786825|Q11786825]] | [[Myristicales]] | Myristicales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Magnolianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q11792758|Q11792758]] | [[Nolandida]] | Nolandida | [[Tubulinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q11798074|Q11798074]] | [[Oleales]] | Oleales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Oleanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Lamianae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Olea europaea2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11812256|Q11812256]] | [[Diphyllobothriidea]] | Diphyllobothriidea | [[Eucestoda]] | [[File:Diphyl proglottidE.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11815496|Q11815496]] | [[Pellitida]] | Pellitida<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref> | [[Flabellinia]]<ref name="ref_06f98c19661781836388de3665a838b82a2aab0ba5f04645df3e692654062fe3">''[[:d:Q28244321|A revised classification of naked lobose amoebae (Amoebozoa: lobosa)]]''</ref><br/>[[Centramoebia]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q11818766|Q11818766]] | [[Paeoniales]] | Paeoniales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[File:Paeonia tenuifolia2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11833746|Q11833746]] | [[Brachiopterygii]] | Brachiopterygii | [[Cladistei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q11842482|Q11842482]] | [[Copelata]] | Copelata | [[Appendicularia]] | [[File:Oikopleura dioica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11842686|Q11842686]] | [[Platycopida]] | Platycopida | [[Podocopa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q11844132|Q11844132]] | [[Bochusacea]] | Bochusacea | [[Peracarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q11847380|Q11847380]] | [[Pyrosomatida]] | Pyrosomatida | [[Thaliacea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Tunicate off Atauro island.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11925587|Q11925587]] | [[Hydropteridales]] | Hydropteridales | [[Polypodiopsida]] | [[File:Salvinia minima 0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11958490|Q11958490]] | [[Aphloiales]] | Aphloiales | [[Rosidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12045595|Q12045595]] | [[Pleurocapsales]] | Pleurocapsales | [[Oscillatoriophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q12062402|Q12062402]] | [[Ajacicyathida]] | Ajacicyathida | [[Archaeocyatha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12062540|Q12062540]] | [[Aulocalycoida]] | Aulocalycoida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Hexasterophora]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q12072905|Q12072905]] | [[Verongida]] | Verongida | [[Demospongiae]] | [[File:Sponge from the family Verongida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12127638|Q12127638]] | [[Pharetronida]] | Pharetronida | [[Calcarea]] | [[File:Pharetronida - Raphidonema farringdonense.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12198609|Q12198609]] | [[Sphenisciformes]] | Sphenisciformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Austrodyptornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12253885|Q12253885]] | [[Archaeospicularia]] | Archaeospicularia | [[Polycystinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12304698|Q12304698]] | [[Buxbaumiales]] | Buxbaumiales | [[Bryopsida]] | [[File:Buxbaumiaaphylla.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12325893|Q12325893]] | [[Dryopteridales]] | Dryopteridales | | [[File:Dryopteris-filix-mas.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12330475|Q12330475]] | [[Orthotrichales]] | Orthotrichales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Ulota crispa (h, 144647-474823) 3563.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12332721|Q12332721]] | [[Aspleniales]] | Aspleniales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Asplenium ruta muraria1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12333354|Q12333354]] | [[Rhizogoniales]] | Rhizogoniales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Aulacomnium androgynum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12336127|Q12336127]] | [[Cortinariales]] | Cortinariales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Cortinarius archeri.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12336691|Q12336691]] | [[Splachnales]] | Splachnales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Mosses01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12338947|Q12338947]] | [[Tetraphidales]] | Tetraphidales | [[Tetraphidopsida]] | [[File:Tetraphis.pellucida3.-.lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12344137|Q12344137]] | [[Welwitschiales]] | Welwitschiales<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Gnetophyta]]<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><br/>[[Welwitschiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Welwitschia mirabilis(2).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12355980|Q12355980]] | [[Tinamiformes]] | Tinamiformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[ave]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Dinocrypturi]]<ref name="ref_16826e10137285cbf47fe88580b2de75cf1ad8148bb69036ab2b2ca07de74596">''[[:d:Q119499366|Phylogenetic definitions for 25 higher-level clade names of birds]]''</ref> | [[File:Tinamus majorPCSL00504B.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12379691|Q12379691]] | [[Eugregarinorida]] | Eugregarinorida<ref name="ref_167fdac8bcef75e80a6929a436f3617d025d3ff5073fa080e9cf88dd4e97829b">''[[:d:Q109566936|Sur un nouveau sporozoaire des larves de diptères]]''</ref> | [[Gregarinasina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12504101|Q12504101]] | [[Taphrinales]] | Taphrinales | [[Taphrinomycetes]] | [[File:Krulziekte bij Perzik Taphrina deformans Prunus persica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12589458|Q12589458]] | [[Lucinida]] | Lucinida | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Codakia orbicularis (Linnaeus, 1758) 2013 000.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12590916|Q12590916]] | [[Pelobiontida]] | Pelobiontida | [[Archamoebea]] | [[File:Pelomyxa palustris.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12593777|Q12593777]] | [[Dinophysida]] | Dinophysida | [[Dinophysoidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12599335|Q12599335]] | [[Blastodinida]] | Blastodinida | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12617334|Q12617334]] | [[Carditida]] | Carditida<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[Archiheterodonta]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Carditidae - Cardites antiquatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12621121|Q12621121]] | [[Tetragonidiales]] | Tetragonidiales | [[Cryptophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12745399|Q12745399]] | [[Hibberdiales]] | Hibberdiales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | [[File:Derepyxis amorpha Stokes 1885.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12747009|Q12747009]] | [[Stereomyxida]] | Stereomyxida | [[Amoebozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12763115|Q12763115]] | [[Adapedonta]] | Adapedonta | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Pharus legumen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12765692|Q12765692]] | [[Phaethontiformes]] | Phaethontiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Eurypygimorphae]] | [[File:White-tailed Tropicbird - Phaeton lepturus 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12777821|Q12777821]] | [[Tubificida]] | Tubificida | [[Tubificata]] | [[File:Tubifex01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12841719|Q12841719]] | [[Marsileales]] | Marsileales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Marsileidae]]<br/>[[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q12898809|Q12898809]] | [[Archimetatheria]] | Archimetatheria | [[Marsupialiformes]] | [[File:Didelphodon Clean.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12950017|Q12950017]] | [[Polypteriformes]] | Polypteriformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Cladistii]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Cladistei]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Polypterus -- Finny Pike (1878) - TIMEA.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13034815|Q13034815]] | [[Gobiesociformes]] | Gobiesociformes<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<br/>[[Actinopterygii]]<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Lepadogaster purpurea (Cornwall, England).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13112291|Q13112291]] | [[Pteroclidiformes]] | Pteroclidiformes | | | |- | [[:d:Q13140211|Q13140211]] | [[Homosclerophorida]] | Homosclerophorida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Homoscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[File:Oscarella lobularis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13167534|Q13167534]] | [[Grylloblattida]] | Grylloblattida | [[Notoptera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q13171533|Q13171533]] | [[Millericrinida]] | Millericrinida | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Liliocrinus polydactylus MHNT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13171559|Q13171559]] | [[Mystacocaridida]] | Mystacocaridida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Mystacocarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q13407324|Q13407324]] | [[Lumbriculida]] | Lumbriculida | [[Oligochaeta]] | [[File:Two tailed lumbriculus variegatus 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13411080|Q13411080]] | [[Mysida]] | Mysida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ee8537fe54ade0dcdc4fbfa63340b3c335371f7829b3e40edc08a503500cf708">''[[:d:Q104204003|Uptaded checklist, historical overview and illustrated guide to the stygobiont Malacostraca (Arthropoda: Crustacea) species of Yucatan (Mexico)]]''</ref> | [[Peracarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Hemimysis anomala GLERL 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13411128|Q13411128]] | [[Paucituberculata]] | Paucituberculata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Marsupiales|Marsupialia]]<ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><br/>[[Mammiferos]]<ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[File:Shrew opossum - Caenolestidae.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13419378|Q13419378]] | [[Parachela]] | Parachela<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | [[Eutardigrada]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref> | [[File:Waterbear.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13429442|Q13429442]] | [[Amphionidacea]] | Amphionidacea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eucarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Amphionides reynaudii larvae.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13436901|Q13436901]] | [[Bdelloida]] | Bdelloida | [[Bdelloidea]] | [[File:Habrotrocha rosa 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13439272|Q13439272]] | [[Bicornes]] | Bicornes | [[Sympetalae]] | [[File:Illustration Empetrum nigrum0.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13605369|Q13605369]] | [[Lepisosteiformes]] | Lepisosteiformes<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Neoginglymodi]] | [[File:Lepisosteus oculatus 03.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13605689|Q13605689]] | [[Nitrososphaerales]] | Nitrososphaerales | [[Nitrososphaeria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942292|Q14942292]] | [[Vochysiales]] | Vochysiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Geranianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942425|Q14942425]] | [[Tropaeolales]] | Tropaeolales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942454|Q14942454]] | [[Limnanthales]] | Limnanthales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942505|Q14942505]] | [[Connarales]] | Connarales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942953|Q14942953]] | [[Rutales]] | Rutales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942958|Q14942958]] | [[Coriariales]] | Coriariales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942959|Q14942959]] | [[Burserales]] | Burserales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943101|Q14943101]] | [[Elaeagnales]] | Elaeagnales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Rhamnanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943536|Q14943536]] | [[Hydrangeales]] | Hydrangeales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Cornanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943563|Q14943563]] | [[Roridulales]] | Roridulales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Cornanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943574|Q14943574]] | [[Desfontainiales]] | Desfontainiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Cornanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943631|Q14943631]] | [[Pterocliformes]] | Pterocliformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Columbimorphae]] | [[File:Syrrhaptes paradoxus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14943802|Q14943802]] | [[Aralidiales]] | Aralidiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Cornidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Cornanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943983|Q14943983]] | [[Torricelliales]] | Torricelliales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Aralianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943986|Q14943986]] | [[Pittosporales]] | Pittosporales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Aralianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14943993|Q14943993]] | [[Byblidales]] | Byblidales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Aralianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14944315|Q14944315]] | [[Apocynales]] | Apocynales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Gentiananae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14946301|Q14946301]] | [[Loasales]] | Loasales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Loasanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Cornanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14946343|Q14946343]] | [[Hydrostachyales]] | Hydrostachyales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Lamianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14946347|Q14946347]] | [[Hippuridales]] | Hippuridales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lamianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14946358|Q14946358]] | [[Goodeniales]] | Goodeniales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Campanulanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14946362|Q14946362]] | [[Stylidiales]] | Stylidiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Campanulanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Asteranae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15031551|Q15031551]] | [[Geoglossales]] | Geoglossales | [[Geoglossomycetes]] | [[File:Geoglossum difforme Ro Hjelmeland Trodlatysdal 08092009 DSCN0938.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15076861|Q15076861]] | [[Multiplacophora]] | Multiplacophora | [[Polyplacophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15089970|Q15089970]] | [[Holasteroida]] | Holasteroida | [[Euechinoidea]] | [[File:MHNT - Hemipneustes pyrenaicus - 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15099738|Q15099738]] | [[Rhynchocephalia]] | Rhynchocephalia<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[reptile]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><br/>[[Lepidosauria]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15105441|Q15105441]] | [[Chrysiogenales]] | Chrysiogenales | [[Chrysiogenia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15105488|Q15105488]] | [[Dictyoglomales]] | Dictyoglomales<ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Dictyoglomia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15105566|Q15105566]] | [[Vibrionales]] | Vibrionales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Vibrio cholerae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15157200|Q15157200]] | [[Sporadotrichida]] | Sporadotrichida | [[Spirotrichea]]<br/>[[Stichotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Oxytricha trifallax.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15207720|Q15207720]] | [[Squatiniformes]] | Squatiniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Squalomorphi]]<ref name="ref_e15368fd420c777ba2608cb300ef96bc5cf521014a821d17ae2db180d989550d">''[[:d:Q60731916|Fishes of the World]]''</ref> | [[File:Squatina australis 3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15210913|Q15210913]] | [[Heterotrichida]] | Heterotrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Heterotrichea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Climacostomum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15217713|Q15217713]] | [[Gloeophyllales]] | Gloeophyllales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Gloeophyllum sepiarium01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15220643|Q15220643]] | [[Xiphosurida]] | Xiphosurida | [[Xiphosura]] | [[File:Limulus polyphemus (aquarium).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15220703|Q15220703]] | [[Mesosauria]] | Mesosauria | [[Parareptilia]] | [[File:Mesosaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15240963|Q15240963]] | [[Rubrobacterales]] | Rubrobacterales | [[Rubrobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15241007|Q15241007]] | [[Dacrymycetales]] | Dacrymycetales | [[Dacrymycetes]] | [[File:Kleverig koraalzwammetje.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15241127|Q15241127]] | [[Eoarthropleurida]] | Eoarthropleurida | [[Arthropleuridea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15241146|Q15241146]] | [[Plasmodiophorales]] | Plasmodiophorales | [[Plasmodiophoromycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15241229|Q15241229]] | [[Atelaspidiformes]] | Atelaspidiformes | [[Osteostraci]] | [[File:Hemicyclaspis murchisoni 43.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15241269|Q15241269]] | [[Sessilida]] | Sessilida | [[Peritrichia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Zoothamnium niveum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15241287|Q15241287]] | [[Chloroflexales]] | Chloroflexales<ref name="ref_2edee2e3546bec6d3e0c7baae65325c8aaff89bea2789ed2c0a149e0a6469269">''[[:d:Q45323635|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Chloroflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15242268|Q15242268]] | [[Camarodonta]] | Camarodonta | [[Echinacea]] | [[File:Haeckel Echinidea 60.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15255592|Q15255592]] | [[Thyestiida]] | Thyestiida | [[Osteostraci]] | [[File:The Soviet Union 1990 CPA 6243 stamp (Thyestes).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15260282|Q15260282]] | [[Coriobacteriales]] | Coriobacteriales | [[Coriobacteriia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15261014|Q15261014]] | [[Acidobacteriales]] | Acidobacteriales<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[Terriglobia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15283225|Q15283225]] | [[Diphylleida]] | Diphylleida | [[Diphyllatea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Collodictyon.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15298531|Q15298531]] | [[Xanthomonadales]] | Xanthomonadales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Xanthomonas leaf spot.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15304495|Q15304495]] | [[Isocrinida]] | Isocrinida<ref name="ref_10527f57a46e4516e93f190276f7d5f4efac8ecb682762a7781d58c923ab4fc1">''[[:d:Q133886572|Classification of Isocrinida (Echinodermata: Crinoidea) with the description of a new extant genus and species from the western Pacific]]''</ref> | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Isocrinus nicoleti Kane County.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15324709|Q15324709]] | [[Plectida]] | Plectida | [[Chromadoria]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Leptolaimus dififtinus (10.7717-peerj.9923) Figure 3.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15411625|Q15411625]] | [[Synechodontiformes]] | Synechodontiformes | [[Squalomorphi]]<br/>[[Galeomorphi]] | [[File:Paraorthacodus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15455158|Q15455158]] | [[Hirudinida]] | Hirudinida | [[leech]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15489373|Q15489373]] | [[Pasteurellales]] | Pasteurellales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Haemophilus ducreyi 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15611315|Q15611315]] | [[Palaeocopida]] | Palaeocopida | [[Palaeocopa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15613251|Q15613251]] | [[Cirrhitiformes]] | Cirrhitiformes | [[Percomorpha]] | [[File:Oxycirrhites typus 5.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15628835|Q15628835]] | [[Amylocorticiales]] | Amylocorticiales | [[Agaricomycetidae]] | [[File:Ceraceomyces sublaevis 38439.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15631634|Q15631634]] | [[Neisseriales]] | Neisseriales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Neisseria gonorrhoeae 02.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15632233|Q15632233]] | [[Phytosauria]] | Phytosauria | [[Crurotarsi]]<ref name="ref_54bd02a635afc81086f48f6e0ad530c03fd3b969ce4a09fa59e46a5fc9008508">''[[:d:Q82486|Encyclopedia of Life]]''</ref><br/>[[Pseudosuchia]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Paleorhinus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15632368|Q15632368]] | [[Caulobacterales]] | Caulobacterales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Caulobacter crescentus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15632492|Q15632492]] | [[Ichthyornithiformes]] | Ichthyornithiformes | [[Odontotormae]] | [[File:Ichthyornis BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15642790|Q15642790]] | [[Leucosporidiales]] | Leucosporidiales<ref name="ref_a4c081e1178546100795ad0f05b69c7e8f366ec559745c2a0083333224d6bacf">''[[:d:Q99851826|Taxonomic studies in the Microbotryomycetidae: Leucosporidium golubevii sp. nov., Leucosporidiella gen. nov. and the new orders Leucosporidiales and Sporidiobolales]]''</ref> | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15643368|Q15643368]] | [[Sebacinales]] | Sebacinales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Sebacina.incrustans.-.lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15708883|Q15708883]] | [[Marattiales]] | Marattiales<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Marattiidae]]<ref name="ref_ecd3d782139f3bf8a6753c13254ae80d9209dfc6e8ff4382c1b1657a6a3ca2c1">''[[:d:Q30092476|A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Marattiopsida]]<ref name="ref_add02eabde36f087954f27e0f3017a01f0cc2862f557ba584f3a17ca60f9c54a">''[[:d:Q22305739|A Classification for Extant Ferns]]''</ref> | [[File:Kingfern Auckland.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15711568|Q15711568]] | [[Brachypoda]] | Brachypoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_012eba0dbe37c7aa40587f8eabee8d9593a81bb50a0f2eb0ad19456c16f84c79">''[[:d:Q16958215|iNaturalist]]''</ref> | [[Cephalocarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15715450|Q15715450]] | [[Gigaspermales]] | Gigaspermales | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15731102|Q15731102]] | [[Pangalliformes]] | Pangalliformes | [[Galloanserae]] | [[File:Sonnerathuhn.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15731194|Q15731194]] | [[Neritoida]] | Neritoida | [[Neritopsina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15733603|Q15733603]] | [[Myzostomida]] | Myzostomida | [[Polychaeta]] | [[File:Myzostoma fuscomaculatum at Percys Hole detail.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15733614|Q15733614]] | [[Acochlidioida]] | Acochlidioida | [[Gastropodos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15804153|Q15804153]] | [[Cytophagales]] | Cytophagales | [[Cytophagia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q15813269|Q15813269]] | [[Aspidodiadematoida]] | Aspidodiadematoida | [[Acroechinoidea]] | [[File:Aspidodiadematid Okeanos.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15814583|Q15814583]] | [[Hedwigiales]] | Hedwigiales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Hedwigia ciliata (e, 145257-481420) 3454.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15831534|Q15831534]] | [[Micropygoida]] | Micropygoida | [[Acroechinoidea]] | [[File:Micropyga.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15838879|Q15838879]] | [[Stomopneustoida]] | Stomopneustoida | [[Echinacea]] | [[File:Glyptocidaris crenularis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15844744|Q15844744]] | [[Echinoneoida]] | Echinoneoida | [[Irregularia]] | [[File:Echinoneus cyclostomus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15846988|Q15846988]] | [[Scombriformes]] | Scombriformes<ref name="ref_79f1f26ded63a460c0d46c412334a400918dbacd3e474caf0eba5ec5d25c2cfb">''[[:d:Q51501899|A manual of the vertebrate animals of the northern United States]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Pelagiaria]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Barrilete negro (Euthynnus lineatus), San José del Cabo, Baja California, México, 2024-12-21, DD 16.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15921856|Q15921856]] | [[Czekanowskiales]] | Czekanowskiales | [[Ginkgoopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q15930378|Q15930378]] | [[Enantiopoda]] | Enantiopoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Remipedia]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Tesnusocaris goldichi.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15982601|Q15982601]] | [[Euryalida]] | Euryalida<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[Ophiuroidea]]<br/>[[Euryophiurida]]<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Gorgeucnemis.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15991176|Q15991176]] | [[Meridiolestida]] | Meridiolestida | [[Dryolestoidea]] | [[File:Cronopio NT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16034823|Q16034823]] | [[Sporochnales]] | Sporochnales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Sporochnus pedunculatus Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16080917|Q16080917]] | [[Geroptera]] | Geroptera | [[Apodonatoptera]]<ref name="ref_756c75874c25e5e95891c28245b7cd715daa97e2217af118b4bc0333b7086f4b">''[[:d:Q110201126|New basal Odonatoptera (Insecta) from the lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian) of Argentina]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q16082294|Q16082294]] | [[Vaucheriales]] | Vaucheriales | [[Xanthophyceae]] | [[File:British sea-weeds - drawn from Professor Harvey's "Phycologia Britannica" (1872) (19797832143).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16159928|Q16159928]] | [[Neomphalida]] | Neomphalida | [[Vetigastropoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q16177038|Q16177038]] | [[Coccidiniales]] | Coccidiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16177729|Q16177729]] | [[Solirubrobacterales]] | Solirubrobacterales | [[Thermoleophilia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q16183435|Q16183435]] | [[Opalinida]] | Opalinida | [[Opalinea]] | [[File:Parasite140015-fig2 Protoopalina pingi (Opalinidae) Microscopy.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16183713|Q16183713]] | [[Archaeopterygiformes]] | Archaeopterygiformes | [[Eumaniraptora]] | [[File:SArchaeopteryxBerlin2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16267082|Q16267082]] | [[Eutreptiales]] | Eutreptiales | [[Euglenophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16294739|Q16294739]] | [[Spariformes]] | Spariformes<ref name="ref_f3cd2deb3f2a08b0af060ca6fc31cfc0387088f3a6847ee87839ee2553e4c587">''[[:d:Q5656891|Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Indo-Neerlandicae]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Sparus aurata Sardinia 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16349661|Q16349661]] | [[Productida]] | Productida | [[Strophomenata]] | [[File:Productid interior ventral Permian Texas.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16354454|Q16354454]] | [[Dipterida]] | Dipterida | [[Dipnoi]] | [[File:Dipterus valenciennesi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16360638|Q16360638]] | [[Kutorginida]] | Kutorginida | [[Kutorginata]] | [[File:Kutorgina cingulata.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16532115|Q16532115]] | [[Archaediscida]] | Archaediscida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16534832|Q16534832]] | [[Capitellida]] | Capitellida | [[Scolecida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16542750|Q16542750]] | [[Echinorhiniformes]] | Echinorhiniformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Squalomorphi]]<br/>[[elasmobranchio]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Echinorhinus brucus1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16545466|Q16545466]] | [[Cyrtocrinida]] | Cyrtocrinida | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Holopus 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16545470|Q16545470]] | [[Cyrtodontoida]] | Cyrtodontida | [[Pteriomorphia]] | [[File:InoceramusCretaceousSouthDakota.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16551177|Q16551177]] | [[Echinothurioida]] | Echinothurioida | [[Euechinoidea]] | [[File:Fire Urchin Asthenosoma varium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16556010|Q16556010]] | [[Dendrocerotales]] | Dendrocerotales | [[Dendrocerotidae]] | [[File:Dendroceros.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18485081|Q18485081]] | [[Cephalodiscoidea]] | Cephalodiscoidea | [[Graptolithoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18485296|Q18485296]] | [[Sphaeropsidales]] | Sphaeropsidales | [[Coelomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18515959|Q18515959]] | [[Hexamerocerata]] | Hexamerocerata<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref> | [[Pauropoda]]<ref name="ref_f8ad1347d57e7105fd7aadce9416e5ade090187180ef7ea4a024fd1a06bb4204">''[[:d:Q21055045|Class Chilopoda, Class Symphyla and Class Pauropoda]]''</ref><ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18534369|Q18534369]] | [[Polybranchiaspiformes]] | Polybranchiaspiformes | [[Galeaspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18536931|Q18536931]] | [[Siphoniulida]] | Siphoniulida<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Diplopoda]]<br/>[[Nematophora]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18544724|Q18544724]] | [[Strigulales]] | Strigulales | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | [[File:Strigula (10.3897-mycokeys.19.11174) Figure 2e-i.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18544744|Q18544744]] | [[Deferribacterales]] | Deferribacterales | [[Deferribacteres]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18544753|Q18544753]] | [[Desulfurellales]] | Desulfurellales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Campylobacterota]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18545964|Q18545964]] | [[Discosporangiales]] | Discosporangiales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Discosporangiophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[File:Album général des Cryptogames, Pl. 141.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18547778|Q18547778]] | [[Nectonematoidea]] | Nectonematoidea | [[Nematomorpha]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18549852|Q18549852]] | [[Aquificales]] | Aquificales | [[Aquificia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Venenivibrio.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18549865|Q18549865]] | [[Achnanthales]] | Achnanthales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Cocconeis duplex.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18549867|Q18549867]] | [[Leperditicopida]] | Leperditicopida | [[arthropodo]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18552460|Q18552460]] | [[Bibymalagasia]] | Bibymalagasia | [[Afrotheria]] | [[File:Plesiorycteropus madagascarensis.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18552493|Q18552493]] | [[Archaeopteridales]] | Archaeopteridales | [[Progymnosperm]] | [[File:Archaeopteris reconstruction.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18552830|Q18552830]] | [[Capilloventrida]] | Capilloventrida | [[Clitellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18560225|Q18560225]] | [[Cystiphyllida]] | Cystiphyllida | [[Rugosa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18565751|Q18565751]] | [[Fissiculata]] | Fissiculata | [[Blastoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18566792|Q18566792]] | [[Archaeocyathida]] | Archaeocyathida | [[Archaeocyatha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18571801|Q18571801]] | [[Orthotetida]] | Orthotetida | [[Strophomenata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18571816|Q18571816]] | [[Actinostromatida]] | Actinostromatida | [[Stromatoporoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18572672|Q18572672]] | [[Fenestellida]] | Fenestellida | [[Bryozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18573102|Q18573102]] | [[Loxodida]] | Loxodida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Karyorelictea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Loxoda.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18573120|Q18573120]] | [[Stauriida]] | Stauriida | [[Rugosa]] | [[File:Gymnophyllum wardi - National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo - DSC07730.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18573556|Q18573556]] | [[Lychniscosa]] | Lychniscosa | [[Hexactinellida]] | [[File:Callodictyonidae - Plocoscyphia labrosa.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18575142|Q18575142]] | [[Entodiniomorphida]] | Entodiniomorphida | [[Trichostomatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Ophryoscolex spp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18575564|Q18575564]] | [[Mystiornithiformes]] | Mystiornithiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | [[File:Bauxitornis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18575769|Q18575769]] | [[Amoebidiales]] | Amoebidiales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Ichthyosporea]] | [[File:Amoebidium parasiticum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18577525|Q18577525]] | [[Roveacrinida]] | Roveacrinida | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Saccocoma2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18602888|Q18602888]] | [[Lecanicephalidea]] | Lecanicephalidea | [[Eucestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18604601|Q18604601]] | [[Pleurobranchomorpha]] | Pleurobranchomorpha | [[Opisthobranchia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Tomoberthella martensi (Pilsbry, 1896).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18606109|Q18606109]] | [[Dactylogyridea]] | Dactylogyridea | [[Monopisthocotylea]] | [[File:Parasite170078-fig2 Cichlidogyrus philander (Monogenea, Ancyrocephalidae).png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18606829|Q18606829]] | [[Leucodictyida]] | Leucodictyida | [[Granofilosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18619487|Q18619487]] | [[Ellimmichthyformes]] | Ellimmichthyformes | [[Clupeomorpha]] | [[File:Diplomystus dentatus Green River Formation Wyoming.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18637031|Q18637031]] | [[Seisonacea]] | Seisonacea | [[Pararotatoria]]<ref name="ref_c6231a1cba5a31be54bcd7e77ad91c3f46069dba01c5b69000f3c893f8261b93">''[[:d:Q18644400|Phylum Rotifera Cuvier, 1817]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18643193|Q18643193]] | [[Parvularculales]] | Parvularculales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18643218|Q18643218]] | [[Orodontiformes]] | Orodontiformes | [[Paraselachimorpha]] | [[File:Orodus sp1DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18643349|Q18643349]] | [[Cardiobacteriales]] | Cardiobacteriales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Cardiobacterium hominis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18644477|Q18644477]] | [[Polyacanthorhynchida]] | Polyacanthorhynchida | [[Polyacanthocephala]]<ref name="ref_ec5fa21d16527256b5f3b40769ea14e0d69ce93ab2734773ebe2c914450ab010">''[[:d:Q18644461|Phylum Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18645615|Q18645615]] | [[Methylophilales]] | Methylophilales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18645923|Q18645923]] | [[Aulacoseirales]] | Aulacoseirales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Aulacoseira crenulata (Ehrenberg) Thwaites 1848.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18647632|Q18647632]] | [[Endogenida]] | Endogenida | [[Suctoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18647863|Q18647863]] | [[Surirellales]] | Surirellales | [[Bacillariophycidae]] | [[File:Cymatopleura solea kramer 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18647885|Q18647885]] | [[Climatiida]] | Climatiida | [[Acanthodii]] | [[File:Climatius BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18648026|Q18648026]] | [[Tabellariales]] | Tabellariales | [[Fragilariophyceae]] | [[File:Tabellaria fenestrata.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18648039|Q18648039]] | [[Rhopalodiales]] | Rhopalodiales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Rhopalodia sp. 1925-img.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18654682|Q18654682]] | [[Nassulida]] | Nassulida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Nassophorea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Nassula.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18654688|Q18654688]] | [[Phaeosphaerida]] | Phaeosphaerida | [[Phaeodaria]] | [[File:Glassmodel von aulosphaera elegantissima.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18654728|Q18654728]] | [[Eunotiales]] | Eunotiales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Eunotia sp.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18667422|Q18667422]] | [[Benthimermithida]] | Benthimermithida | [[Chromadorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18667437|Q18667437]] | [[Mastigamoebida]] | Mastigamoebida | [[Archamoebea]] | [[File:Entamoeba Coli trophozoite.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18667460|Q18667460]] | [[Occlusosporidae]] | Occlusosporida<ref name="ref_05b76844e293ed05b5e8d83c431f65580cf714a96e7fafa867717d1a6ed1c182">''[[:d:Q108899521|Classification of the Haplosporidia]]''</ref> | [[Stellatosporea]]<ref name="ref_05b76844e293ed05b5e8d83c431f65580cf714a96e7fafa867717d1a6ed1c182">''[[:d:Q108899521|Classification of the Haplosporidia]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18667537|Q18667537]] | [[Coleochaetales]] | Coleochaetales | [[Coleochaetophyceae]] | [[File:British fresh-water algae, exclusive of Desmidieae and Diatomaceae (1882-1884) (20409523652).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18667822|Q18667822]] | [[Phytodiniales]] | Phytodiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18668013|Q18668013]] | [[Phragmophora]] | Phragmophora | [[Sagittoidea]] | [[File:Chaetoblack.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18668015|Q18668015]] | [[Aphragmophora]] | Aphragmophora | [[Sagittoidea]] | [[File:MEB back.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18668315|Q18668315]] | [[Aspidosiphoniformes]] | Aspidosiphoniformes | [[Phascolosomatidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18668350|Q18668350]] | [[Rhodocyclales]] | Rhodocyclales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Betaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18668438|Q18668438]] | [[Methylococcales]] | Methylococcales<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Methylomonas methanica EID.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18668467|Q18668467]] | [[Koralionastetales]] | Koralionastetales<ref name="ref_479917edc727ac1737fbfe7665e05cca79cc0ad4023c70fb542d7e82b446edb8">''[[:d:Q33393119|Koralionastetales, a new order of marine Ascomycota in the Sordariomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18668659|Q18668659]] | [[Pedinomonadales]] | Pedinomonadales<ref name="ref_3c0f3a963a088d120a69959b9fc365cfa2c88e1ff2fb9a600750e42be816fe53">''[[:d:Q100722396|FURTHER STUDIES OF PRESUMEDLY PRIMITIVE GREEN ALGAE, INCLUDING THE DESCRIPTION OF PEDINOPHYCEAE CLASS. NOV. AND RESULTOR GEN. NOV.1]]''</ref> | [[Pedinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18668733|Q18668733]] | [[Halosphaerales]] | Halosphaerales | [[Prasinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18670046|Q18670046]] | [[Thalassiophysales]] | Thalassiophysales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Thalassiophysa rhipidis-Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18670531|Q18670531]] | [[Lagenidiales]] | Lagenidiales | [[Phycomycetes]]<br/>[[Oomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18670620|Q18670620]] | [[Klebsormidiales]] | Klebsormidiales | [[Klebsormidiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18674113|Q18674113]] | [[Tribonematales]] | Tribonematales<ref name="ref_012eba0dbe37c7aa40587f8eabee8d9593a81bb50a0f2eb0ad19456c16f84c79">''[[:d:Q16958215|iNaturalist]]''</ref> | [[Xanthophyceae]] | [[File:Tribonema marinum Feldmann 1941.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18674575|Q18674575]] | [[Sphaerobacterales]] | Sphaerobacterales | [[Thermomicrobia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18674592|Q18674592]] | [[Planctomycetales]] | Planctomycetales<ref name="ref_7761e9eaf4b75abc4b24d4aa57bfbcc9f96af90c1efd04f9f092161bfb6ce230">''[[:d:Q58425394|Assignment of the genera Planctomyces and Pirella to a new family Planctomycetaceae fam. nov. and description of the order Planctomycetales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Planctomycetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Figure-2-Scanning-electron-micrograph-of-P.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18674820|Q18674820]] | [[Craniida]] | Craniida<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Craniforma]]<ref name="ref_f37f24b656cb23a9ca38b6885309672e3c7e8327e0dab838e55c494857e0a97e">''[[:d:Q18674784|Phylum Brachiopoda]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18674900|Q18674900]] | [[Trimastigida]] | Trimastigida<ref name="ref_614fb8f075f79819a8e5dacfa2ef160947f7237cfd6bac90b82407d11bdf8b00">''[[:d:Q30885386|The excavate protozoan phyla Metamonada Grassé emend. (Anaeromonadea, Parabasalia, Carpediemonas, Eopharyngia) and Loukozoa emend. (Jakobea, Malawimonas): their evolutionary affinities and new higher taxa]]''</ref> | [[Anaeromonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18674940|Q18674940]] | [[Opisthopora]] | Opisthopora | [[Oligochaeta]]<br/>[[Metagynophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18675188|Q18675188]] | [[Acanthopleuribacterales]] | Acanthopleuribacterales<ref name="ref_ad9d145a47d4ad839b60d7f38a11bebfce5e33ebef47ed5a52dae3f35981a87f">''[[:d:Q33382663|Acanthopleuribacter pedis gen. nov., sp. nov., a marine bacterium isolated from a chiton, and description of Acanthopleuribacteraceae fam. nov., Acanthopleuribacterales ord. nov., Holophagaceae fam. nov., Holophagales ord. nov. and Holophagae classi]]''</ref> | [[Holophagae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18676689|Q18676689]] | [[Fragilariales]] | Fragilariales | [[Fragilariophyceae]] | [[File:Asterionella formosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18676939|Q18676939]] | [[Kordiimonadales]] | Kordiimonadales<ref name="ref_568e65fda05e3b7e6528ae48e724722e9159511ae03395d62705f9862be1fa46">''[[:d:Q31004881|Kordiimonas gwangyangensis gen. nov., sp. nov., a marine bacterium isolated from marine sediments that forms a distinct phyletic lineage (Kordiimonadales ord. nov.) in the 'Alphaproteobacteria'.]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18679042|Q18679042]] | [[Dictyochales]] | Dictyochales<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[Dictyochophyceae]] | [[File:Dictyocha speculum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18679060|Q18679060]] | [[Rhizochromulinales]] | Rhizochromulinales | [[Actinochrysea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18679087|Q18679087]] | [[Melosirales]] | Melosirales<ref name="ref_3313edb8167a03a0961922a8b4ccb9c146cc2557ac039a6b8c0ba875bb9f66ec">''[[:d:Q51885189|Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera]]''</ref><ref name="ref_012eba0dbe37c7aa40587f8eabee8d9593a81bb50a0f2eb0ad19456c16f84c79">''[[:d:Q16958215|iNaturalist]]''</ref> | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Melosira varians Ag.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18679146|Q18679146]] | [[Echinamoebida]] | Echinamoebida | [[Tubulinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18680884|Q18680884]] | [[Cathetocephalidea]] | Cathetocephalidea | [[Cestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18681203|Q18681203]] | [[Rhinebothriidea]] | Rhinebothriidea | [[Cestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18681334|Q18681334]] | [[Polystilifera]] | Polystilifera | [[Hoplonemertea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18681346|Q18681346]] | [[Gyrodactylidea]] | Gyrodactylidea | [[Monopisthocotylea]] | [[File:Gyrodactylus alexanderi on Gasterosteus aculeatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18681411|Q18681411]] | [[Spathebothriidea]] | Spathebothriidea | [[Cestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18681414|Q18681414]] | [[Litobothriidea]] | Litobothriidea | [[Cestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18683483|Q18683483]] | [[Piroplasmorida]] | Piroplasmorida | [[Haematozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18690145|Q18690145]] | [[Scalpelliformes]] | Scalpelliformes | [[Thoracica]] | [[File:Pollicipes pollicipes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18690380|Q18690380]] | [[Oegopsida]] | Oegopsida | [[Decapodiformes]] | [[File:Giant Squid NASA.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18692934|Q18692934]] | [[Lepidopleurida]] | Lepidopleurida | [[Neoloricata]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Leptochiton asellus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18693228|Q18693228]] | [[Diplostomida]] | Diplostomida | [[Digenea]] | [[File:Page210a.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18706648|Q18706648]] | [[Trilophosauria]] | Trilophosauria | [[Archosauromorpha]] | [[File:Trilophosaurus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18706745|Q18706745]] | [[Pseudanabaenales]] | Pseudanabaenales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Leptolyngbya sp..jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18707562|Q18707562]] | [[Euthycarcinida]] | Euthycarcinida | [[Euthycarcinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18707694|Q18707694]] | [[Cathayornithiformes]] | Cathayornithiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18708009|Q18708009]] | [[Astraspidiformes]] | Astraspidiformes | [[Astraspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18710371|Q18710371]] | [[Gelyelloida]] | Gelyelloida | [[Podoplea]] | [[File:Gelyella monardi Museum de Genève.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18711792|Q18711792]] | [[Diplonemida]] | Diplonemida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6a3224ed9e9612f3b161f90deafb215ffecae36153e66735b907fd7bacda7748">''[[:d:Q24634634|Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla]]''</ref> | [[Diplonemea]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18711832|Q18711832]] | [[Sceptrulophora]] | Sceptrulophora | [[Hexasterophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18816667|Q18816667]] | [[Myopsida]] | Myopsida | [[Decapodiformes]] | [[File:Loligo forbesii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18821512|Q18821512]] | [[Prymnesiales]] | Prymnesiales | [[Prymnesiophycidae]] | [[File:HaptonemaChrysochromulinaFL.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18845145|Q18845145]] | [[Moraniales]] | Moraniales | [[Nostocophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q13636018|Q13636018]] | [[Filicales]] | Filicales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref> | [[Pteropsida]] | [[File:Dryopteris dilatata Moore26.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13636170|Q13636170]] | [[Filospermoida]] | Filospermoida | [[Filospermoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q13636438|Q13636438]] | [[Holotricha]] | Holotricha | [[Infusoria]] | [[File:Paramecium caudatum Ehrenberg, 1833.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13829275|Q13829275]] | [[Meiopriapulomorpha]] | Meiopriapulomorpha | [[Priapulida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q14107023|Q14107023]] | [[Coniferales]] | Coniferales | [[Pinidae]]<br/>[[Coniferopsida]] | [[File:Abies alba - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-001.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14196619|Q14196619]] | [[Microbiotheria]] | Microbiotheria<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b461bd9e2542d8062d3fd2ec7a638c156f7e79c989097d43409982eb64d5e86d">''[[:d:Q19302303|Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5f23685d9d76bf1b20f6172bc8e9dfec50028c616fc311bbf816b245a34ad6c8">''[[:d:Q1538807|Mammal Species of the World (Third edition)]]''</ref> | [[Metatheria]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[File:Monito del Monte ps6.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14333619|Q14333619]] | [[Seticoronaria]] | Seticoronaria | [[Priapulida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q14426976|Q14426976]] | [[Symbiida]] | Symbiida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Eucycliophora]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14545384|Q14545384]] | [[Pteraspidiformes]] | Pteraspidiformes | [[Heterostraci]] | [[File:Lamiaspis longiripa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14545387|Q14545387]] | [[Cyathaspidiformes]] | Cyathaspidiformes | [[Heterostraci]] | [[File:Cyathaspis banksii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14556976|Q14556976]] | [[Anthoathecata]] | Anthoathecata<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[Hydroidolina]] | [[File:Haeckel Anthomedusae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14563773|Q14563773]] | [[Angiospermia]] | Angiospermia | [[Didynamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q14563774|Q14563774]] | [[Polypetala]] | Polypetala | [[Didynamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q14563950|Q14563950]] | [[Trioecia]] | Trioecia | [[Polygamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q14566629|Q14566629]] | [[Trogoniformes]] | Trogoniformes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Eucavitaves]] | [[File:Harpactes erythrocephalus - Khao Yai.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14848818|Q14848818]] | [[Ranales]] | Ranales | [[Thalamiflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14849555|Q14849555]] | [[Opilioacarida]] | Opilioacarida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Opilioacariformes]] | [[File:Opilioacarus segmentatus.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14851742|Q14851742]] | [[Scleronychophora]] | Scleronychophora | [[Xenusia]] | [[File:USNM PAL 83935 Hallucigenia sparsa Image 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14854124|Q14854124]] | [[Platycopioida]] | Platycopioida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Progymnoplea]] | [[File:Platycopia perplexa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14856233|Q14856233]] | [[Passiflorales]] | Passiflorales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Calyciflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref><br/>[[Violanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14856627|Q14856627]] | [[Ficoidales]] | Ficoidales | [[Calyciflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14856870|Q14856870]] | [[Umbellales]] | Umbellales | [[Calyciflorae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14857810|Q14857810]] | [[Curvembryeae]] | Curvembryeae | [[Monochlamydeae]] | [[File:Amaranthus retroflexus full1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14858011|Q14858011]] | [[Multiovulatae terrestres]] | Multiovulatae terrestres | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14858028|Q14858028]] | [[Micrembryeae]] | Micrembryeae | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14858032|Q14858032]] | [[Daphnales]] | Daphnales | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14858246|Q14858246]] | [[Achlamydosporeae]] | Achlamydosporeae | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14858249|Q14858249]] | [[Unisexuales]] | Unisexuales | [[Monochlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14858646|Q14858646]] | [[Epigynae]] | Epigynae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14858653|Q14858653]] | [[Coronarieae]] | Coronarieae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14861099|Q14861099]] | [[Calycineae]] | Calycineae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14861284|Q14861284]] | [[Nudifloreae]] | Nudifloreae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14861302|Q14861302]] | [[Apocarpae]] | Apocarpae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_621d6bb1f35f60ee4489c304a6ae0f88ad38a6f49a1c164d0f3b01e5164860e2">''[[:d:Q5876832|Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14885733|Q14885733]] | [[Synanthae]] | Synanthae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14885975|Q14885975]] | [[Spathiflorae]] | Spathiflorae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14886341|Q14886341]] | [[Farinosae]] | Farinosae | [[Monocotyledoneae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14905182|Q14905182]] | [[Julianiales]] | Julianiales | [[Archichlamydeae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q14905309|Q14905309]] | [[Mesostigmatales]] | Mesostigmatales | [[Mesostigmatophyceae]] | [[File:Mesostigma viride 534857918.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14906166|Q14906166]] | [[Pelliales]] | Pelliales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Pelliidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Pellia epiphylla7 ies.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14914658|Q14914658]] | [[Sarraceniales]] | Sarraceniales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Archichlamydeae]]<br/>[[Sarracenianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14914668|Q14914668]] | [[Pandales]] | Pandales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14915568|Q14915568]] | [[Opuntiales]] | Opuntiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14915569|Q14915569]] | [[Myrtiflorae]] | Myrtiflorae | [[Archichlamydeae]]<ref name="ref_38b181f0a23ac15f921536dc9468603db8fe4e02ca836d5259b079b60505bfef">''[[:d:Q14866876|Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 9)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14916702|Q14916702]] | [[Eupomatiales]] | Eupomatiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Magnolianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14917540|Q14917540]] | [[Calycanthales]] | Calycanthales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lauranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14918093|Q14918093]] | [[Lactoridales]] | Lactoridales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lactoridanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14918102|Q14918102]] | [[Hydnorales]] | Hydnorales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rafflesianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Piperanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14918125|Q14918125]] | [[Cynomoriales]] | Cynomoriales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Balanophoranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Saxifraganae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14918144|Q14918144]] | [[Balanophorales]] | Balanophorales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Balanophoranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Santalanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Balanophora fungosa-BSI-1-yercaud-salem-India.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14920259|Q14920259]] | [[Hydropeltidales]] | Hydropeltidales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Nelumbonanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14920463|Q14920463]] | [[Charales]] | Charales | [[Charophyceae]]<br/>[[Streptophyta]] | [[File:CharaFragilis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14920666|Q14920666]] | [[Butomales]] | Butomales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Butomanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14920675|Q14920675]] | [[Aponogetonales]] | Aponogetonales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Alismatanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14920676|Q14920676]] | [[Juncaginales]] | Juncaginales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Alismatanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14923111|Q14923111]] | [[Smilacales]] | Smilacales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14923278|Q14923278]] | [[Nartheciales]] | Nartheciales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Acoranae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14923554|Q14923554]] | [[Alstroemeriales]] | Alstroemeriales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Alstroemeria aurantiaca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14923582|Q14923582]] | [[Colchicales]] | Colchicales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Colchicum soboliferum 04.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14924033|Q14924033]] | [[Hypoxidales]] | Hypoxidales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14926560|Q14926560]] | [[Tecophilaeales]] | Tecophilaeales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14926679|Q14926679]] | [[Burmanniales]] | Burmanniales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[File:Burmannia disticha.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14926682|Q14926682]] | [[Asteliales]] | Asteliales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Nolina parryi 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14926752|Q14926752]] | [[Hanguanales]] | Hanguanales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14928147|Q14928147]] | [[Velloziales]] | Velloziales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Bromelianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Pandananae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14928153|Q14928153]] | [[Haemodorales]] | Haemodorales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pontederianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14928155|Q14928155]] | [[Philydrales]] | Philydrales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pontederianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14928157|Q14928157]] | [[Pontederiales]] | Pontederiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pontederianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14928171|Q14928171]] | [[Xyridales]] | Xyridales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14931537|Q14931537]] | [[Glaucidiales]] | Glaucidiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14932354|Q14932354]] | [[Eupteleales]] | Eupteleales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Trochodendranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Ranunculanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14932356|Q14932356]] | [[Cercidiphyllales]] | Cercidiphyllales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Trochodendranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14932360|Q14932360]] | [[Myrothamnales]] | Myrothamnales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Myrothamnanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14932597|Q14932597]] | [[Barbeyales]] | Barbeyales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Daphniphyllanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14932631|Q14932631]] | [[Simmondsiales]] | Simmondsiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Daphniphyllanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14932656|Q14932656]] | [[Rhoipteleales]] | Rhoipteleales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Juglandanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14933450|Q14933450]] | [[Physenales]] | Physenales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Theanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Caryophyllanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14933454|Q14933454]] | [[Ochnales]] | Ochnales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Theanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Podostemanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14933459|Q14933459]] | [[Elatinales]] | Elatinales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Theanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14933462|Q14933462]] | [[Ancistrocladales]] | Ancistrocladales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Theanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14933465|Q14933465]] | [[Dioncophyllales]] | Dioncophyllales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Theanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14934155|Q14934155]] | [[Actinidiales]] | Actinidiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14934302|Q14934302]] | [[Geissolomatales]] | Geissolomatales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14934306|Q14934306]] | [[Fouquieriales]] | Fouquieriales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14934445|Q14934445]] | [[Styracales]] | Styracales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Primulanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14934688|Q14934688]] | [[Caricales]] | Caricales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Violanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14934726|Q14934726]] | [[Elaeocarpales]] | Elaeocarpales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Violanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14939883|Q14939883]] | [[Moringales]] | Moringales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14939915|Q14939915]] | [[Gyrostemonales]] | Gyrostemonales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940030|Q14940030]] | [[Cistales]] | Cistales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Malvanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940650|Q14940650]] | [[Begoniales]] | Begoniales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Cucurbitanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:ЦВЕТЫ 25. Бегонии. Фото А. Щекинова.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14940717|Q14940717]] | [[Cunoniales]] | Cunoniales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Saxifraganae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940720|Q14940720]] | [[Cephalotales]] | Cephalotales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Saxifraganae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940725|Q14940725]] | [[Greyiales]] | Greyiales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Saxifraganae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940728|Q14940728]] | [[Francoales]] | Francoales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Saxifraganae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940870|Q14940870]] | [[Brexiales]] | Brexiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Celastranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940875|Q14940875]] | [[Parnassiales]] | Parnassiales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Celastranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940880|Q14940880]] | [[Salvadorales]] | Salvadorales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Celastranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14940884|Q14940884]] | [[Corynocarpales]] | Corynocarpales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Celastranae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14941029|Q14941029]] | [[Medusandrales]] | Medusandrales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Santalanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q14942282|Q14942282]] | [[Balsaminales]] | Balsaminales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Geranianae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q16558762|Q16558762]] | [[Earlandiida]] | Earlandiida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16562049|Q16562049]] | [[Endothyrida]] | Endothyrida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16570577|Q16570577]] | [[Gallionellales]] | Gallionellales | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | [[File:Gallionella branched bands drawing.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16586882|Q16586882]] | [[Komokiida]] | Komokiida | [[Monothalamia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16592376|Q16592376]] | [[Loftusiida]] | Loftusiida | [[Textulariia]] | [[File:Orbitolina texana.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16616011|Q16616011]] | [[Parathuramminida]] | Parathuramminida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16618753|Q16618753]] | [[Phymatocerotales]] | Phymatocerotales | [[Dendrocerotidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16622864|Q16622864]] | [[Pseudopalmulida]] | Pseudopalmulida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16627084|Q16627084]] | [[Rzehakinida]] | Rzehakinida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16631423|Q16631423]] | [[Echinolampadoida]] | Echinolampadoida | [[Neognathostomata]] | [[File:Echinolampas depressa.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16632093|Q16632093]] | [[Encrinida]] | Encrinida | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Encrinus liliiformis 4.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16635184|Q16635184]] | [[Eulipotyphla]] | Eulipotyphla<ref name="ref_ac863dfe391d71559d950822fbfcf747b1d192925f0d887836aa680d3512e078">''[[:d:Q28206255|Towards resolving the interordinal relationships of placental mammals]]''</ref> | [[Laurasiatheria]] | [[File:Eulipotyphla.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16636061|Q16636061]] | [[Stannomida]] | Stannomida | [[Monothalamea]]<br/>[[Xenophyophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16636088|Q16636088]] | [[Fervidicoccales]] | Fervidicoccales<ref name="ref_3681aa678b8991b1188d54b8079f44333218e73d36ee8a78d7d74a1d071c99a6">''[[:d:Q33511185|Fervidicoccus fontis gen. nov., sp. nov., an anaerobic, thermophilic crenarchaeote from terrestrial hot springs, and proposal of Fervidicoccaceae fam. nov. and Fervidicoccales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Thermoprotei]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q16637151|Q16637151]] | [[Synechococcales]] | Synechococcales | [[Synechococcophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Aphanocapsa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16641929|Q16641929]] | [[Tournayellida]] | Tournayellida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16642616|Q16642616]] | [[Hyocrinida]] | Hyocrinida | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Calamocrinus diomedæ (Plate XXVIII) BHL4232451.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16666315|Q16666315]] | [[Neozygitales]] | Neozygitales | [[Neozygitomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16670909|Q16670909]] | [[Praecardioida]] | Praecardioida | [[Bivalvos]] | [[File:InoceramusCretaceousSouthDakota.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16681141|Q16681141]] | [[Trigonioida]] | Trigonioida | [[Molluscos]] | [[File:Yaadia valentina.1 - Cretacico inferior.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16687464|Q16687464]] | [[Ambiortiformes]] | Ambiortiformes | [[Palaeognathae]] | [[File:Ambopteryx restoration.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16687636|Q16687636]] | [[Dendroidea]] | Dendroidea | [[Graptolithina]] | [[File:BMNH IMG 5568 Callograptus sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16687741|Q16687741]] | [[Exogenida]] | Exogenida | [[Suctoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q16687795|Q16687795]] | [[Fusobacteriales]] | Fusobacteriales<ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Fusobacteriia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Fusobacterium novum 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16724409|Q16724409]] | [[Otidiformes]] | Otidiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Otidimorphae]] | [[File:Dabao.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16829691|Q16829691]] | [[Apostomatida]] | Apostomatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligohymenophorea]]<br/>[[Apostomatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Collinia sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16831233|Q16831233]] | [[Thalassiosirales]] | Thalassiosirales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:"Diatoms cake". Typical diatom species - Stephanodiscus hantzschii Grunow in Cleve & Grunow.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16862740|Q16862740]] | [[Shuotheridia]] | Shuotheridia | [[Mammiferos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16879206|Q16879206]] | [[Bartramiales]] | Bartramiales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Bartramia halleriana (b, 133241-465046) 6773.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16884986|Q16884986]] | [[Multivalvulida]] | Multivalvulida | [[Myxosporea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Parasite150085-fig2 Kudoa septempunctata spores from olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus).tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16886080|Q16886080]] | [[Ontonychophora]] | Ontonychophora | [[Udeonychophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16888348|Q16888348]] | [[Phosphatocopida]] | Phosphatocopina | [[Labrophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16888374|Q16888374]] | [[Discinida]] | Discinida | [[Linguliformea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16889889|Q16889889]] | [[Craniopsida]] | Craniopsida | [[Craniforma]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16893422|Q16893422]] | [[Thelyphonida]] | Thelyphonida<ref name="ref_a75156e404102f9a8ba4d067b3c66e7667629a0b0430ece4047230b29dfdf6ac">''[[:d:Q21054961|Order Thelyphonida Latreille, 1804]]''</ref> | [[arachnido]] | [[File:Whipscorpion.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16897745|Q16897745]] | [[Hydrurales]] | Hydrurales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16901960|Q16901960]] | [[Fenestrata]] | Fenestrata | [[Stenolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16907681|Q16907681]] | [[Trimerellida]] | Trimerellida | [[Craniforma]] | [[File:Trimerella ohioensis (fossil brachiopod) (Lockport Dolomite, Middle Silurian; quarry in Ottawa County, Ohio, USA).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16910284|Q16910284]] | [[Odontopterygiformes]] | Odontopterygiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16910608|Q16910608]] | [[Herpetosiphonales]] | Herpetosiphonales<ref name="ref_2edee2e3546bec6d3e0c7baae65325c8aaff89bea2789ed2c0a149e0a6469269">''[[:d:Q45323635|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Chloroflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q16920908|Q16920908]] | [[Lipotyphla]] | Lipotyphla | [[Mammiferos]] | [[File:Ericulus nigrescens St.-Hilaire 1839.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16938484|Q16938484]] | [[Gogiida]] | Gogiida | [[Eocrinoidea]] | [[File:Gogia ojenai.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16948771|Q16948771]] | [[Millerosauria]] | Millerosauria | [[Parareptilia]] | [[File:Milleretta BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16948957|Q16948957]] | [[Cladida]] | Cladida | [[Camerata]]<br/>[[Pentacrinoidea]] | [[File:Ulrichicrinus coryphaeus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16963671|Q16963671]] | [[Ignatiales]] | Ignatiales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16976090|Q16976090]] | [[Acrasida]] | Acrasida | [[Heterolobosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16982961|Q16982961]] | [[Hematitida]] | Hematitida | [[Belemnoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16984006|Q16984006]] | [[Kriegeriales]] | Kriegeriales<ref name="ref_0bd50087ac085e8c0421ac3e90d778e9c8b89a5437a7d15e9248f6f2ffe9e3c3">''[[:d:Q30574760|Meredithblackwellia eburneagen. et sp. nov., Kriegeriaceae fam. nov. and Kriegeriales ord. nov.—toward resolving higher-level classification in Microbotryomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | [[File:Meredithblackwellia-eburnea-colony.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16984369|Q16984369]] | [[Lepidostromatales]] | Lepidostromatales<ref name="ref_9b7b79e46b12d64625e53dd3bbc22c1699714af562c2842b6a5a66fc2be04664">''[[:d:Q54670524|Lepidostromatales, a new order of lichenized fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes), with two new genera, Ertzia and Sulzbacheromyces, and one new species, Lepidostroma winklerianum]]''</ref> | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Lepidostroma vilgalysii, type collection, in the field, 2007.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16985913|Q16985913]] | [[Monobathrida]] | Monobathrida | [[Camerata]] | [[File:Cactocrinus imperator - National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo - DSC07702.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16989278|Q16989278]] | [[Rigifilida]] | Rigifilida<ref name="ref_fb9c90def3f007bbdae6ad17073635b559a5f6c834f42e84028b005517c22d1c">''[[:d:Q34297963|Rigifila ramosa n. gen., n. sp., a filose apusozoan with a distinctive pellicle, is related to Micronuclearia.]]''</ref> | [[CRuMs]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16992591|Q16992591]] | [[Skaracarida]] | Skaracarida | [[Copepodoida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16993560|Q16993560]] | [[Yanornithiformes]] | Yanornithiformes | [[Ornithurae]] | [[File:Yanornis recon.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17122355|Q17122355]] | [[Albuginales]] | Albuginales | [[Oomycota]] | [[File:Albugo candida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17125589|Q17125589]] | [[Alexornithiformes]] | Alexornithiformes<ref name="ref_be1e3af8b1a2c495eafcb20046f1edcdd6693d6de53da0cc6aff67e2269075d1">https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=txn:71346</ref> | [[Euenantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17189347|Q17189347]] | [[Opisthocomiformes]] | Opisthocomiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Inopinaves]] | [[File:Opisthocomus hoazin.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17189405|Q17189405]] | [[Leptosomiformes]] | Leptosomiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Cavitaves]] | [[File:Leptosomusdiscolor.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17189557|Q17189557]] | [[Mesitornithiformes]] | Mesitornithiformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Columbimorphae]] | [[File:Subdesert Mesite Male.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17259263|Q17259263]] | [[Archidiales]] | Archidiales | [[Bryidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17276476|Q17276476]] | [[Bryoxiphiales]] | Bryoxiphiales | [[Dicranidae]]<br/>[[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17276583|Q17276583]] | [[Leucodontales]] | Leucodontales | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17276609|Q17276609]] | [[Hypnodendrales]] | Hypnodendrales | [[Bryopsida]] | [[File:Hypnodendron comosum community.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17276620|Q17276620]] | [[Diphysciales]] | Diphysciales | [[Diphysciidae]] | [[File:Diphyscium foliosum (a, 113100-471926) 9518.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17276632|Q17276632]] | [[Hypnobryales]] | Hypnobryales | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17276672|Q17276672]] | [[Isobryales]] | Isobryales | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17276680|Q17276680]] | [[Lunulariales]] | Lunulariales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Marchantiidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Lunularia cruciata065.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17276737|Q17276737]] | [[Ptilidiales]] | Ptilidiales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Jungermanniidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Ptilidium pulcherrimum.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17276741|Q17276741]] | [[Notothyladales]] | Notothyladales | [[Notothyladidae]] | [[File:Phaeoceros laevis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17276750|Q17276750]] | [[Oedipodiales]] | Oedipodiales | [[Oedipodiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17276792|Q17276792]] | [[Pleuroziales]] | Pleuroziales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Metzgeriidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Pleurozia purpurea36373 580 360.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17277039|Q17277039]] | [[Eubryales]] | Eubryales | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17277084|Q17277084]] | [[Takakiales]] | Takakiales | [[Takakiopsida]] | [[File:Takakia lepidozioides.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17277238|Q17277238]] | [[Timmiales]] | Timmiales | [[Timmiidae]] | [[File:Timmia norvegica (a, 133246-471443) 4150.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17280209|Q17280209]] | [[Heterodontiformes]] | Heterodontiformes<ref name="ref_2e440cc0285a592cd9e99c53186474ef4b1cf2cea52af12b02df194fb28883fe">''[[:d:Q19402385|Pisces]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Galeomorphi]]<ref name="ref_e15368fd420c777ba2608cb300ef96bc5cf521014a821d17ae2db180d989550d">''[[:d:Q60731916|Fishes of the World]]''</ref> | [[File:Heterodontus japonicus port of nagoya.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17300110|Q17300110]] | [[Siphonocryptida]] | Siphonocryptida<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Colobognatha]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Siphonocryptus zigzag holotype.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17330256|Q17330256]] | [[Hymenostraca]] | Hymenostraca | [[Phyllocarida]]<ref name="ref_9e0928ecc952815f17e9827319a19df55f7a34988b1688d63d1924f3053e50d2">''[[:d:Q12345690|BioLib]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q17400453|Q17400453]] | [[Fossombroniales]] | Fossombroniales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Pelliidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Fossombronia wondraczekii (b, 144804-474746) 7244.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17400609|Q17400609]] | [[Pallaviciniales]] | Pallaviciniales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Pelliidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Pallavicinia xiphoides (Hook.f. and Tayl.) Trev. (AM AK298944).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17400765|Q17400765]] | [[Porellales]] | Porellales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Jungermanniidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Porella platyphylla.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17505518|Q17505518]] | [[Astigmata]] | Astigmata | [[arachnido]] | [[File:Sarraceniopus gibsoni 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17521922|Q17521922]] | [[Centrarchiformes]] | Centrarchiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]]<br/>[[Percomorpha]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Centrarchus macropterus small.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17591711|Q17591711]] | [[Scanilepiformes]] | Scanilepiformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17633675|Q17633675]] | [[Heterohelicida]] | Heterohelicida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17716344|Q17716344]] | [[Marsupiomonadales]] | Marsupiomonadales<ref name="ref_96623d305fde75c602a84999502e257aa23c71d24d0eb405bbe2cb0c210bc583">''[[:d:Q29541169|Nested in the Chlorellales or Independent Class? Phylogeny and Classification of the Pedinophyceae (Viridiplantae) Revealed by Molecular Phylogenetic Analyses of Complete Nuclear and Plastid-encoded rRNA Operons]]''</ref> | [[Pedinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17747564|Q17747564]] | [[Struthiornithiformes]] | Struthiornithiformes | [[Neornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17816503|Q17816503]] | [[Arctocyonia]] | Arctocyonia | [[Placentarios]] | [[File:Arctocyon DB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18080801|Q18080801]] | [[Perkinsida]] | Perkinsida<ref name="ref_9e2b6f90ff9118ad204195d52bd1da21c9b5bfa6d4e469907af8a170fe632e24">''[[:d:Q105988928|Perkinsus gen. n. and Other New Taxa in the Protozoan Phylum Apicomplexa]]''</ref> | [[Perkinsea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18156085|Q18156085]] | [[Protospinaciformes]] | Protospinaciformes | [[Squalomorphi]] | [[File:Protospinax annectens, Paläontologisches Museum München WB.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18196332|Q18196332]] | [[Arguloida]] | Arguloida | [[Branchiura]] | [[File:Argulus coregoni tyoumdk01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18197480|Q18197480]] | [[Apygophora]] | Apygophora | [[Maxillopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18199160|Q18199160]] | [[Nippotaeniidea]] | Nippotaeniidea | [[Neoophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18228570|Q18228570]] | [[Glomeridesmida]] | Glomeridesmida<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Limacomorpha]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Termitodesmus ceylonicus dorsal.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18228577|Q18228577]] | [[Stemmiulida]] | Stemmiulida<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[Diplopoda]]<br/>[[Nematophora]]<ref name="ref_ca21f415746648150e193896e2ee7444bdd75aca11096d9b712baf1a0d03d7fd">''[[:d:Q21061184|Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844]]''</ref> | [[File:Stemmiulus beroni female and male.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18229004|Q18229004]] | [[Laingiomedusae]] | Laingiomedusae | [[Hydrozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18231220|Q18231220]] | [[Euharamiyida]] | Euharamiyida | [[Allotheria]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18282108|Q18282108]] | [[Turniciformes]] | Turniciformes | [[Charadriiformes]] | [[File:Paainted Buttonquail kobble08.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18346400|Q18346400]] | [[Halisarcida]] | Halisarcida | [[Demospongiae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18353823|Q18353823]] | [[Archidesmida]] | Archidesmida | [[Archipolypoda]] | [[File:Archidesmus macnicoli 02.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18362044|Q18362044]] | [[Blechnales]] | Blechnales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiopsida]] | [[File:Blechnum nipponicum sisigasira01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18426766|Q18426766]] | [[Trichiales]] | Trichiales<br/>Trichiida | [[Myxomycetes]]<br/>[[Lucisporidia]] | [[File:Destructed Trichiidae sporangia in Hokkaidō, Japan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20403870|Q20403870]] | [[Gobiiformes]] | Gobiiformes<ref name="ref_ad1e79b3d67249e4adc2cd5f018d9855589ec3018311664b89eeb128048c4cc4">http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree.aspx?src=0&id=201882</ref> | [[Gobiaria]]<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Cryptocentrus cinctus.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20471184|Q20471184]] | [[Trichasteropsida]] | Trichasteropsida<ref name="ref_944a1a2debfbb4cc201978dc36c418cc536f4b98502a8f865564050a83c4ba40">''[[:d:Q56170790|A classification and phylogeny of post-Palaeozoic sea stars (Asteroidea: Echinodermata)]]''</ref> | [[Forcipulatacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20604429|Q20604429]] | [[Podicipediformes]] | Podicipediformes<ref name="ref_78b47291c0dd6e5173ebe92d807c354d3e1151fe5d647c93e9876c1d452e713f">''[[:d:Q27042747|IOC World Bird List Version 6.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_43c4be1e7a0e8e16fe1d7d313e2c3d2135be0eea9fbd009e3978efed469b1674">''[[:d:Q27907675|IOC World Bird List Version 6.4]]''</ref><ref name="ref_564ad4a35529977276f5df09652cc9788cb3b659e772f52f97b7a69e5a603205">''[[:d:Q28971563|IOC World Bird List Version 7.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_266fcb1bcf1f83500e47dc964480b1abf5bf69e09fc2dd5d9b57347bbaabaad1">''[[:d:Q29937193|IOC World Bird List Version 7.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_56f56aeaf68793da280086a33452bd3feaa50bc613807c2b86a0bfa262ca31df">''[[:d:Q38258000|IOC World Bird List Version 7.3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7fb09d9af26132096ff14dd4ef58ffb60b45e0768da21314279f13d5d338079">''[[:d:Q53908065|IOC World Bird List Version 8.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1a04f3e8a02e2f0067f21bdedf92bd06b2e80ff85eadd8bb9590d073c9dcbd4c">''[[:d:Q56180957|IOC World Bird List Version 8.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b7131d5524efffceb73c1152c6ac776b7173ee57b206b02fc8dd5b15ee984e78">''[[:d:Q61018800|IOC World Bird List Version 9.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a3c926eefcbad41afe10b925c2d6828b77f009127f1ad218304f36d439df8393">''[[:d:Q65961410|IOC World Bird List Version 9.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6397691e9a04867daffb17c105db161cd56acafd886415cad59d0d45fb7f1e35">''[[:d:Q83589462|IOC World Bird List Version 10.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_45fffc643465cf2c3059569cd5f7c6f78f16ce2a27a7ef8f1d7f646b75b2b33a">''[[:d:Q98069412|IOC World Bird List Version 10.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_97a6951a2d81c2fdb35ed9d72113c3e7b5f3fa4708b0b1b9fc2f90bf53e1a784">''[[:d:Q105870418|IOC World Bird List Version 11.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Mirandornithes]] | [[File:Podiceps griseigena 1 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20639356|Q20639356]] | [[Cathartiformes]] | Cathartiformes | [[Accipitrimorphae]] | [[File:California Condor.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20643849|Q20643849]] | [[Thermodesulfobacteriales]] | Thermodesulfobacteriales | [[Thermodesulfobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Thermodesulfobacterium hydrogeniphilum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20643994|Q20643994]] | [[Anaerolineales]] | Anaerolineales | [[Anaerolineae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20666202|Q20666202]] | [[Ampelocrinida]] | Ampelocrinida | [[Articulata]] | [[File:Calceolispongia hindei.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20667009|Q20667009]] | [[Helcionellida]] | Helcionellida | [[Helcionelloida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20670868|Q20670868]] | [[Centrales]] | Centrales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Diatomeas centrales.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20675800|Q20675800]] | [[Plasmodiophorida]] | Plasmodiophorida | [[Phytomyxea]] | [[File:Plasmodiophora brassicae on cauliflower, Knolvoet bij bloemkool (6).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20683351|Q20683351]] | [[Traquairaspidiformes]] | Traquairaspidiformes | [[Heterostraci]] | [[File:Traquairaspis campbelli.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20686382|Q20686382]] | [[Cyathaspidida]] | Cyathaspidida | [[Heterostraci]] | [[File:Cyathaspis banksii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20719736|Q20719736]] | [[Schlumbergerinida]] | Schlumbergerinida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20721315|Q20721315]] | [[Holophagales]] | Holophagales<ref name="ref_ad9d145a47d4ad839b60d7f38a11bebfce5e33ebef47ed5a52dae3f35981a87f">''[[:d:Q33382663|Acanthopleuribacter pedis gen. nov., sp. nov., a marine bacterium isolated from a chiton, and description of Acanthopleuribacteraceae fam. nov., Acanthopleuribacterales ord. nov., Holophagaceae fam. nov., Holophagales ord. nov. and Holophagae classi]]''</ref> | [[Holophagae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Holophaga foetida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20721828|Q20721828]] | [[Kurtiformes]] | Kurtiformes<ref name="ref_7cc870d4a7280a340235a051f6521b358e5a79c3b805a7f6acecd7a93deb6039">''[[:d:Q51454312|Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Percomorpha]]<br/>[[Gobiaria]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Ichthyologie; ou, Histoire naturelle des poissons (Plate 169) (6918416854).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20722173|Q20722173]] | [[Zoanthidea]] | Zoanthidea | [[Anthozoa]] | [[File:Parazoanth3.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20724864|Q20724864]] | [[Hupehsuchia]] | Hupehsuchia | [[Diapsida]] | [[File:HupehsuchusNanchangensis-PaleozoologicalMuseumOfChina-May23-08.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20731890|Q20731890]] | [[Incertae]] | Incertae | [[Teleostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20735479|Q20735479]] | [[Leptothecatae]] | Leptothecatae<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Hydroidolina]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20735649|Q20735649]] | [[Cyrtophorida]] | Cyrtophorida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Phyllopharyngea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20738632|Q20738632]] | [[Coelocanthiformes]] | Coelocanthiformes | [[Actinistia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20738886|Q20738886]] | [[Elusimicrobiales]] | Elusimicrobiales | [[Elusimicrobia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20739307|Q20739307]] | [[Cellvibrionales]] | Cellvibrionales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20739319|Q20739319]] | [[Magnetococcales]] | Magnetococcales<ref name="ref_0c1dd6378ef39af9db8588b7cd6c5b4b08536de04ba1079a9859ce028a6b2bb0">''[[:d:Q34267532|Magnetococcus marinus gen. nov., sp. nov., a marine, magnetotactic bacterium that represents a novel lineage (Magnetococcaceae fam. nov., Magnetococcales ord. nov.) at the base of the Alphaproteobacteria]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20751925|Q20751925]] | [[Nitrospirales]] | Nitrospirales | [[Nitrospiria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20804649|Q20804649]] | [[Amphitheriida]] | Amphitheriida | [[Dryolestoidea]] | [[File:Amphitherium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20804802|Q20804802]] | [[Caldisericales]] | Caldisericales | [[Caldisericia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20857155|Q20857155]] | [[Permoplectoptera]] | Permoplectoptera | [[Ephemerida]]<ref name="ref_18fc2a99f68c76b2c0c277b7532af049a6ff8e684ad72a4e0d7b5a4bff719d1b">''[[:d:Q56940988|Revision of the giant pterygote insect Bojophlebia prokopi Kukalová-Peck, 1985 (Hydropalaeoptera: Bojophlebiidae) from the Carboniferous of the Czech Republic, with the first cladistic analysis of fossil palaeopterous insects]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20894417|Q20894417]] | [[Sagenocrinida]] | Sagenocrinida | [[Crinoidea]] | [[File:Sagenocrinida - Forbesiocrinus.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20895390|Q20895390]] | [[Armatimonadales]] | Armatimonadales | [[Armatimonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20895708|Q20895708]] | [[Haplopharyngida]] | Haplopharyngida | [[Macrostomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20900400|Q20900400]] | [[Galeaspidiformes]] | Galeaspidiformes | [[Galeaspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20922100|Q20922100]] | [[Debeeriiformes]] | Debeeriiformes | [[Paraselachimorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20922309|Q20922309]] | [[Devonobiomorpha]] | Devonobiomorpha | [[Phylactrometria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20925038|Q20925038]] | [[Palaechinoidea]] | Palaechinoidea | [[Echinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20932030|Q20932030]] | [[Eosauropterygia]] | Eosauropterygia | [[Sauropterygia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20962746|Q20962746]] | [[Mitrosagophora]] | Mitrosagophora | [[animal]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20970667|Q20970667]] | [[Myalinida]] | Myalinida | [[Pteriomorphia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20976269|Q20976269]] | [[Pleurotomariida]] | Pleurotomariida | [[Vetigastropoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Pleurotomaria delagei (MNHN-IM-2000-4940).jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20977799|Q20977799]] | [[Fonticulida]] | Fonticulida | [[Cristidiscoidea]] | [[File:Fonticula.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20986465|Q20986465]] | [[Modiomorphida]] | Modiomorphida | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Saffordia sp. from Mount Horeb, Wisconsin.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20991282|Q20991282]] | [[Afghanodesmatida]] | Afghanodesmatida | [[Protobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20991814|Q20991814]] | [[Jeholornithiformes]] | Jeholornithiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20992656|Q20992656]] | [[Enantiornithiformes]] | Enantiornithiformes | [[Enantiornithes]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20993405|Q20993405]] | [[Vampirovibrionales]] | Vampirovibrionales | [[Vampirovibrionophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20993633|Q20993633]] | [[Lentisphaerales]] | Lentisphaerales | [[Lentisphaeria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21008910|Q21008910]] | [[Colpomyida]] | Colpomyida | [[Pteriomorphia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21009622|Q21009622]] | [[Nuculida]] | Nuculida | [[Protobranchia]] | [[File:Acila cobboldiae-outside.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21010422|Q21010422]] | [[Platyasterida]] | Platyasterida | [[Asteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21011993|Q21011993]] | [[Euornithiformes]] | Euornithiformes | [[Euenantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21012226|Q21012226]] | [[Pleurojulida]] | Pleurojulida | [[Helminthomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21012228|Q21012228]] | [[Euphoberiida]] | Euphoberiida | [[Archipolypoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21012759|Q21012759]] | [[Zosterogrammida]] | Zosterogrammida | [[Pentazonia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21012915|Q21012915]] | [[Acanthocystida]] | Acanthocystida<ref name="ref_befa3f94ed07828286001d81aa1172a0d61dc33839f42a3d601847e97863ecd2">''[[:d:Q34239332|Microheliella maris (Microhelida ord. n.), an ultrastructurally highly distinctive new axopodial protist species and genus, and the unity of phylum Heliozoa.]]''</ref> | [[Centrohelea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21012945|Q21012945]] | [[Eoblattida]] | Eoblattida | [[Polyneoptera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21012973|Q21012973]] | [[Rhabdomesida]] | Rhabdomesida | [[Stenolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21012979|Q21012979]] | [[Proparia]] | Proparia | [[Trilobita]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21030170|Q21030170]] | [[Peramura]] | Peramura | [[Zatheria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21031741|Q21031741]] | [[Diplobathrida]] | Diplobathrida | [[Crinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21031743|Q21031743]] | [[Uintacrinida]] | Uintacrinida | [[Articulata]]<ref name="ref_e78e3fa1dd9adc2021ca3b902beca80e943d098a9a33385b3e3a342566b690de">''[[:d:Q55922542|Phylogenetic taxonomy and classification of the Crinoidea (Echinodermata)]]''</ref> | [[File:Uintacrinus socialis fossil crinoids in chalk (Niobrara Formation, Upper Cretaceous; western Kansas, USA) 4 (15279201036).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21032335|Q21032335]] | [[Didymoconida]] | Didymoconida | [[Mammiferos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21032706|Q21032706]] | [[Aulacopleurida]] | Aulacopleurida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21032709|Q21032709]] | [[Olenida]] | Olenida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21035185|Q21035185]] | [[Eodiscida]] | Eodiscida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21035187|Q21035187]] | [[Harpida]] | Harpida<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | [[Trilobita]]<ref name="ref_9853d2323d6f09185bc3bd3f1558f200602b56c313714970986ec8ea86bc3b3d">''[[:d:Q21032691|Class Trilobita Walch, 1771]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21076290|Q21076290]] | [[Haptopoda]] | Haptopoda | [[arachnido]] | [[File:Plesiosiro madeleyi CT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21076296|Q21076296]] | [[Mischopterida]] | Mischopterida | [[insecto]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21087174|Q21087174]] | [[Lithodesmiales]] | Lithodesmiales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Lithodesmium undulatum in Peragallo 1897.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21191176|Q21191176]] | [[Leiosporocerotales]] | Leiosporocerotales | [[Leiosporocerotopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21213553|Q21213553]] | [[Aberratiodontuiformes]] | Aberratiodontuiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21213665|Q21213665]] | [[Hemiaulales]] | Hemiaulales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Hemiaulus in Coupin 1868.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21213720|Q21213720]] | [[Chlorocystidales]] | Chlorocystidales | [[Ulvophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21214015|Q21214015]] | [[Chrysanthemodiscales]] | Chrysanthemodiscales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214114|Q21214114]] | [[Heteramorphida]] | Heteramorphida | [[Palaeacanthocephala]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214209|Q21214209]] | [[Rhabdomonadida]] | Rhabdomonadida | [[Euglenoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214300|Q21214300]] | [[Heteromyota]] | Heteromyota | [[Echiura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214367|Q21214367]] | [[Rhigonematida]] | Rhigonematida | [[Chromadoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214466|Q21214466]] | [[Rhipidiales]] | Rhipidiales | [[Peronosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214469|Q21214469]] | [[Claustrosporida]] | Claustrosporida<ref name="ref_44f24686f2789c068fd8ec108d8157a80f85c9812027463b4f7b1994955f336c">''[[:d:Q28189660|Phylogeny and classification of phylum Cercozoa (Protozoa)]]''</ref> | [[Ascetosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214861|Q21214861]] | [[Ribeirioida]] | Ribeirioida | [[Rostroconchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214884|Q21214884]] | [[Nitrosocaldales]] | Nitrosocaldales | [[Thermoproteota]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21214914|Q21214914]] | [[Riftiida]] | Riftiida | [[Pogonophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21214961|Q21214961]] | [[Noctilucida]] | Noctilucida | [[Noctilucea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21215143|Q21215143]] | [[Collodaria]] | Collodaria | [[Polycystinea]] | [[File:Radiolaria (Challenger) Plate 008.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21215257|Q21215257]] | [[Colpodida]] | Colpodida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Colpodea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21215553|Q21215553]] | [[Conocardioida]] | Conocardioida | [[Rostroconchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21215697|Q21215697]] | [[Copromyxida]] | Copromyxida | [[Lobosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21215778|Q21215778]] | [[Salilagenidiales]] | Salilagenidiales | [[Saprolegniidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21215914|Q21215914]] | [[Corethrales]] | Corethrales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Corethron pelagicum.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21216033|Q21216033]] | [[Albaillellaria]] | Albaillellaria | [[Polycystinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21216249|Q21216249]] | [[Ibliformes]] | Ibliformes | [[Thoracica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21216260|Q21216260]] | [[Iblomorpha]] | Iblomorpha | [[Phosphatothoracica]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Hairy-stalked-barnacle-ibla-quadrivalvis-389728-medium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21216619|Q21216619]] | [[Olpidiopsidales]] | Olpidiopsidales | [[Peronosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21216923|Q21216923]] | [[Cryptolobiferida]] | Cryptolobiferida | [[Cyclocoela]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21217027|Q21217027]] | [[Oocystales]] | Oocystales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21217054|Q21217054]] | [[Opabiniida]] | Opabiniida | [[Dinocarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21217314|Q21217314]] | [[Isolaimida]] | Isolaimida | [[Dorylaimia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21217854|Q21217854]] | [[Orthoseirales]] | Orthoseirales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21217906|Q21217906]] | [[Cymatosirales]] | Cymatosirales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Cymatosira in Coupin 1868.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21218075|Q21218075]] | [[Anaulales]] | Anaulales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Anaulus in Pergallo 1897.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22075467|Q22075467]] | [[Carybdeida]] | Carybdeida | [[Cubozoa]] | [[File:Irukandji-jellyfish-queensland-australia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22103970|Q22103970]] | [[Eurynotoidiformes]] | Eurynotoidiformes | [[Palaeonisci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22104453|Q22104453]] | [[Discordichthyiformes]] | Discordichthyiformes | [[Palaeonisci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22105778|Q22105778]] | [[Lepidogalaxiiformes]] | Lepidogalaxiiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Lepidogalaxii]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q22105825|Q22105825]] | [[Myllokunmingiformes]] | Myllokunmingiformes | [[Agnatha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22108070|Q22108070]] | [[Holocentriformes]] | Holocentriformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Holocentrimorphaceae]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q22110878|Q22110878]] | [[Actinophryida]] | Actinophryida | [[Nucleohelea]]<br/>[[Actinochrysea]] | [[File:Actinophrys sol (phase contrast microscopy).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22286498|Q22286498]] | [[Spirulinales]] | Spirulinales | [[Oscillatoriophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | [[File:Spirulina 5.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22286707|Q22286707]] | [[Hyaenodonta]] | Hyaenodonta | [[Pan-Carnivora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22286714|Q22286714]] | [[Stereopsidales]] | Stereopsidales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | [[File:Stereopsis humphreyi 56449.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22286816|Q22286816]] | [[Diadematoidea]] | Diadematoidea | [[Echinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22343349|Q22343349]] | [[Bubarida]] | Bubarida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]] | [[File:Acanthella acuta Schmidt, 1862.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22343354|Q22343354]] | [[Chondrosiida]] | Chondrosiida | [[Verongimorpha]] | [[File:Chondrosia reniformis01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22343356|Q22343356]] | [[Clionaida]] | Clionaida | [[Demospongiae]] | [[File:Spirastrella cunctatrix.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22343357|Q22343357]] | [[Desmacellida]] | Desmacellida<ref name="ref_201edeb7ae35cd3010bcc6c2e72c8820bdb24dc946754f7689eeac9245bac9e6">http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845474</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_201edeb7ae35cd3010bcc6c2e72c8820bdb24dc946754f7689eeac9245bac9e6">http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845474</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q22343366|Q22343366]] | [[Polymastiida]] | Polymastiida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22343368|Q22343368]] | [[Spongillida]] | Spongillida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]] | [[File:Spongilla lacustris.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22343370|Q22343370]] | [[Tethyida]] | Tethyida<ref name="ref_1d390e27321892c15f8fe9b201089662c3cff1ebcf48179067832c5a1ff7f2a8">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845507</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_1d390e27321892c15f8fe9b201089662c3cff1ebcf48179067832c5a1ff7f2a8">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845507</ref> | [[File:Tethya (10.5852-ejt.2019.529) Figure 4.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22343372|Q22343372]] | [[Trachycladida]] | Trachycladida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22669891|Q22669891]] | [[Neohodgsoniales]] | Neohodgsoniales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Marchantiidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Carpocephala of Neohodgsonia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22914688|Q22914688]] | [[Hyphochytriales]] | Hyphochytriales | [[Hyphochytriomycetes]]<ref name="ref_54bd02a635afc81086f48f6e0ad530c03fd3b969ce4a09fa59e46a5fc9008508">''[[:d:Q82486|Encyclopedia of Life]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q22919492|Q22919492]] | [[Pirsoniales]] | Pirsoniales | [[Hyphochytrea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22997392|Q22997392]] | [[Reighardiida]] | Reighardiida | [[Pentastomida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22997421|Q22997421]] | [[Raillietiellida]] | Raillietiellida | [[Pentastomida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23015127|Q23015127]] | [[Baracromia]] | Baracromia | [[Thunnosauria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23017627|Q23017627]] | [[Liaoningornithiformes]] | Liaoningornithiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23043640|Q23043640]] | [[Birkeniiformes]] | Birkeniiformes | [[Anaspida]] | [[File:Pterygolepis nitida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23043815|Q23043815]] | [[Pleurostomatida]] | Pleurostomatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Haptoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23043918|Q23043918]] | [[Haptorida]] | Haptorida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Haptoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23058510|Q23058510]] | [[Sapeornithiformes]] | Sapeornithiformes | [[Pygostylia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070079|Q23070079]] | [[Bolidomonadales]] | Bolidomonadales | [[Bolidophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070122|Q23070122]] | [[Ardissoneales]] | Ardissoneales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070125|Q23070125]] | [[Climacospheniales]] | Climacospheniales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070128|Q23070128]] | [[Cyclophorales]] | Cyclophorales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | [[File:Cyclophora Castr in Péragallo 1851.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23070129|Q23070129]] | [[Licmophorales]] | Licmophorales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070131|Q23070131]] | [[Protoraphidales]] | Protoraphidales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070133|Q23070133]] | [[Rhabdonematales]] | Rhabdonematales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | [[File:Rhabdonema sp. H. Coupin 1868.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23070134|Q23070134]] | [[Rhaphoneidales]] | Rhaphoneidales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | [[File:Rhaphoneis sp. in Peragallo 1851.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23070136|Q23070136]] | [[Striatellales]] | Striatellales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | [[File:Striatella H. et M. Peragallo 1851.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23070138|Q23070138]] | [[Thalassionematales]] | Thalassionematales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | [[File:Thalassionema Grun Péragallo 1851.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23070140|Q23070140]] | [[Toxariales]] | Toxariales | [[Fragilariophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070182|Q23070182]] | [[Blastocystida]] | Blastocystida | [[Blastocystea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070187|Q23070187]] | [[Placidiida]] | Placidiida | [[Placididia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070197|Q23070197]] | [[Katablepharidales]] | Katablepharidales<ref name="ref_ab3973daf023fef568b49f71467c21da31b8be8b77f099a836007c77c92299e4">''[[:d:Q31005665|The katablepharids are a distant sister group of the Cryptophyta: A proposal for Katablepharidophyta divisio nova/ Kathablepharida phylum novum based on SSU rDNA and beta-tubulin phylogeny]]''</ref> | [[Katablepharidophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070198|Q23070198]] | [[Goniomonadales]] | Goniomonadales<ref name="ref_1907a50b98982e87a6eaa507087f391deebe5f7e2c9948c6f45e27be273cf03c">''[[:d:Q104115715|Some proposals for a new classification system of the Cryptophyceae]]''</ref> | [[Goniomonadophyceae]] | [[File:Cyathomonas truncata in Engler et Prantl 1900.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23070224|Q23070224]] | [[Syracosphaerales]] | Syracosphaerales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | [[File:FMIB 53282 Squelette de Coronosphaera calycina Haeckel (Challenger).jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23070225|Q23070225]] | [[Zygodiscales]] | Zygodiscales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070365|Q23070365]] | [[Anisolpidiales]] | Anisolpidiales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Oomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070369|Q23070369]] | [[Developayellales]] | Developayellales | [[Bigyromonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23070376|Q23070376]] | [[Rozellopsidales]] | Rozellopsidales | [[Oomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23091988|Q23091988]] | [[Sandcoleiformes]] | Sandcoleiformes | [[Trogonomorphae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23196607|Q23196607]] | [[Oligotrichida]] | Oligotrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligotrich]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23196716|Q23196716]] | [[Thigmotrichida]] | Thigmotrichida | [[Scuticociliatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23199866|Q23199866]] | [[Dipteriformes]] | Dipteriformes | [[Osteichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23301574|Q23301574]] | [[Prorodontida]] | Prorodontida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Prostomatea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23301678|Q23301678]] | [[Prostomatida]] | Prostomatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Prostomatea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23303922|Q23303922]] | [[Antiarchiformes]] | Antiarchiformes | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23538285|Q23538285]] | [[Dinoflagellida]] | Dinoflagellida | [[Phytomastigophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23680588|Q23680588]] | [[Eubodonida]] | Eubodonida | [[Metakinetoplastina]] | [[File:FMIB 40824 Boda caudatus.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23749470|Q23749470]] | [[Docoglossa]] | Docoglossa | [[Eogastropoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23753074|Q23753074]] | [[Ceratiomyxida]] | Ceratiomyxida | [[Myxogastrea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23753092|Q23753092]] | [[Craspedida]] | Craspedida<ref name="ref_34bc0fc69a97bf32d851c4d078a9fedc41953d88ade5871200aaf529fc6f017e">''[[:d:Q62085705|Amoeboflagellates and mitochondrial cristae in eukaryote evolution: megasystematics of the new protozoan subkingdoms Eozoa and Neozoa]]''</ref> | [[Choanoflagellatea]] | [[File:Monosiga Brevicollis Phase.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23753161|Q23753161]] | [[Parabodonida]] | Parabodonida | [[Metakinetoplastina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23753163|Q23753163]] | [[Neobodonida]] | Neobodonida | [[Metakinetoplastina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23768269|Q23768269]] | [[Sclerosporales]] | Sclerosporales | [[Oomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23768277|Q23768277]] | [[Fimbriimonadales]] | Fimbriimonadales<ref name="ref_978be4add1dee8edd64becba369db056e716958a13bb72b3605088b55641c7e3">''[[:d:Q45322534|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Fimbriimonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23768281|Q23768281]] | [[Chthonomonadales]] | Chthonomonadales | [[Chthonomonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23781152|Q23781152]] | [[Anarcestida]] | Anarcestida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781160|Q23781160]] | [[Phylloceratida]] | Phylloceratida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781168|Q23781168]] | [[Phylloceratitida]] | Phylloceratitida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781173|Q23781173]] | [[Lytocerida]] | Lytocerida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781178|Q23781178]] | [[Psiloceratida]] | Psiloceratida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781190|Q23781190]] | [[Praeglyphiocerida]] | Praeglyphiocerida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781195|Q23781195]] | [[Medlicottiida]] | Medlicottiida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781199|Q23781199]] | [[Tornocerida]] | Tornocerida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781201|Q23781201]] | [[Lytoceratida]] | Lytoceratida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23781202|Q23781202]] | [[Phyllocerida]] | Phyllocerida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23797212|Q23797212]] | [[Rhizomastigida]] | Rhizomastigida | [[Archamoebea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23809401|Q23809401]] | [[Halteriida]] | Halteriida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Halteriia]] | [[File:Halteria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23810342|Q23810342]] | [[Choreotrichida]] | Choreotrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligotrich]]<br/>[[Choreotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23810470|Q23810470]] | [[Euplotida]] | Euplotida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Hypotrichia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23810513|Q23810513]] | [[Microthoracida]] | Microthoracida | [[Nassophorea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23832068|Q23832068]] | [[Lophodiniales]] | Lophodiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23832214|Q23832214]] | [[Bicoecida]] | Bicoecida | [[Cyathobodoniae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23832301|Q23832301]] | [[Pseudodendromonida]] | Pseudodendromonida | [[Cyathobodoniae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23832631|Q23832631]] | [[Distomatineae]] | Distomatineae | [[Flagellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23832633|Q23832633]] | [[Protomastigineae]] | Protomastigineae | [[Flagellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23832634|Q23832634]] | [[Pantostomatineae]] | Pantostomatineae | [[Flagellatae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23832654|Q23832654]] | [[Bodonidea]] | Bodonidea | [[Protomonadina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23832661|Q23832661]] | [[Protomyxidea]] | Protomyxidea | [[Heliozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23840154|Q23840154]] | [[Brevinematales]] | Brevinematales<ref name="ref_9359c89a0c4378f31e8862f3d170072fb7d70937d185d18a8e104caf99981799">''[[:d:Q45332770|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Spirochaetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q23937540|Q23937540]] | [[Icacinales]] | Icacinales<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Icacina senegalensis MS 4687.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23937548|Q23937548]] | [[Metteniusales]] | Metteniusales | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Metteniusa tessmanniana 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q23942653|Q23942653]] | [[Vahliales]] | Vahliales<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[lamiids]]<ref name="ref_0303c5a81833512e1031f9c4da00ad4804acd2b29b0a3572354e7281145a630b">''[[:d:Q23803501|An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV]]''</ref> | [[File:Vahlia capensis 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q24006689|Q24006689]] | [[Xenusiida]] | Xenusiida | [[Xenusia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24026124|Q24026124]] | [[Phagodinida]] | Phagodinida | [[Phagodinia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24048470|Q24048470]] | [[Mantamonadida]] | Mantamonadida | [[Apusozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24048474|Q24048474]] | [[Microhelida]] | Microhelida<ref name="ref_befa3f94ed07828286001d81aa1172a0d61dc33839f42a3d601847e97863ecd2">''[[:d:Q34239332|Microheliella maris (Microhelida ord. n.), an ultrastructurally highly distinctive new axopodial protist species and genus, and the unity of phylum Heliozoa.]]''</ref> | [[Endohelea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24048480|Q24048480]] | [[Hypotrichomonadida]] | Hypotrichomonadida<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | [[Hypotrichomonadea]]<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q24048481|Q24048481]] | [[Tritrichomonadida]] | Tritrichomonadida<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | [[Tritrichomonadea]]<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | [[File:Tritrichomonas foetus (259 26) Cultured.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21218313|Q21218313]] | [[Katoporida]] | Katoporida | [[Thelodonti]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21219138|Q21219138]] | [[Solibacterales]] | Solibacterales | [[Solibacteres]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21219301|Q21219301]] | [[Pansporoblastina]] | Pansporoblastina | [[Microsporida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21219586|Q21219586]] | [[Desmomastigales]] | Desmomastigales | [[Dinoflagellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21219620|Q21219620]] | [[Lagenismatales]] | Lagenismatales | [[Oomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21219677|Q21219677]] | [[Lamellibrachiida]] | Lamellibrachiida | [[Pogonophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21220045|Q21220045]] | [[Spirotrichonymphida]] | Spirotrichonymphida<ref name="ref_21e2e578e1dc61c794ecc1152f97f05b0ab4af6e42119e157a98c432d71e684a">''[[:d:Q109353487|Phylogénie. Protozoaires : Généralités. Flagellés.]]''</ref> | [[Trichomonadea]]<br/>[[Spirotrichonymphea]]<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21220148|Q21220148]] | [[Dictyoneidales]] | Dictyoneidales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Dictyoneis Cleve in Péragallo 1851.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21220193|Q21220193]] | [[Paraliales]] | Paraliales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Paralia in Coupin 1868.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21220209|Q21220209]] | [[Latentifistularia]] | Latentifistularia | [[Polycystinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21220513|Q21220513]] | [[Arachnoidiscales]] | Arachnoidiscales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Arachnoidiscus-Hemiptychus Henry Coupin 1868.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21220650|Q21220650]] | [[Arberiales]] | Arberiales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21220713|Q21220713]] | [[Lepadiformes]] | Lepadiformes | [[Thoracica]] | [[File:Lepas anatifera - Quintana Roo - Mexico.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21220793|Q21220793]] | [[Diplobelida]] | Diplobelida | [[Belemnoidea]] | [[File:Phragmoteuthis conocauda.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21221055|Q21221055]] | [[Leptocylindrales]] | Leptocylindrales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | [[File:Leptocylindrus danicus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21221071|Q21221071]] | [[Stictocyclales]] | Stictocyclales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21221091|Q21221091]] | [[Stictodiscales]] | Stictodiscales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21221107|Q21221107]] | [[Parastelida]] | Parastelida | [[Myxogastrea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21221166|Q21221166]] | [[Stilbellales]] | Stilbellales | [[Hyphomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21221257|Q21221257]] | [[Distomatida]] | Distomatida<ref name="ref_ca5f88aca1567efdc2379626bf9c5df649ba24a4653f09b99f3a48708f112d18">''[[:d:Q110252310|Flagellatenstudien. Theil I.]]''</ref> | [[Diplozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21221299|Q21221299]] | [[Leptostrobales]] | Leptostrobales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21221538|Q21221538]] | [[Stromatoporoida]] | Stromatoporoida | [[Sclerosponge]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21221606|Q21221606]] | [[Parmales]] | Parmales<ref name="ref_f03cad8f4a15471f74d27116bb373d3d803b492a08d49929b3eb88e1b8734f32">''[[:d:Q56689558|PARMALES, A NEW ORDER OF MARINE CHRYSOPHYTES, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW GENERA AND SEVEN NEW SPECIES]]''</ref> | [[Ochrophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222095|Q21222095]] | [[Pedicellinida]] | Pedicellinida | [[Entoprocta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222138|Q21222138]] | [[Dunalliellales]] | Dunalliellales | [[Prasinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222341|Q21222341]] | [[Lithodesmidales]] | Lithodesmidales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222355|Q21222355]] | [[Athecanephria]] | Athecanephria | [[Pogonophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222672|Q21222672]] | [[Tabulospongida]] | Tabulospongida | [[Sclerosponge]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222733|Q21222733]] | [[Longipterygiformes]] | Longipterygiformes | [[Euenantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222819|Q21222819]] | [[Lophomonadida]] | Lophomonadida<ref name="ref_9e86710b485402bfbacdb11b6512a6c9cbd41bdf9a02e5116112968aeb1de3b5">''[[:d:Q110252427|Kofoidia, a new flagellate, from a california termite]]''</ref> | [[Trichomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21222986|Q21222986]] | [[Petalomonadida]] | Petalomonadida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Homostavia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21223003|Q21223003]] | [[Loxosomatida]] | Loxosomatida | [[Entoprocta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21223206|Q21223206]] | [[Phaeocalpida]] | Phaeocalpida | [[Phaeodarea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21223222|Q21223222]] | [[Phaeogromia]] | Phaeogromia | [[Phaeodarea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21223249|Q21223249]] | [[Phagomyxida]] | Phagomyxida | [[Phytomyxea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21223313|Q21223313]] | [[Phalansteriida]] | Phalansteriida | [[Variosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21223419|Q21223419]] | [[Lyrellales]] | Lyrellales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Lyrella hennedy 1600x contrast invertion.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21223492|Q21223492]] | [[Phascolosomatiformes]] | Phascolosomatiformes | [[Phascolosomatidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21223746|Q21223746]] | [[Entactinaria]] | Entactinaria | [[Polycystinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21223771|Q21223771]] | [[Bacillariales]] | Bacillariales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Nitzschia-kerguelensis hg.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21224355|Q21224355]] | [[Malacovalvulida]] | Malacovalvulida | [[Malacosporea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21224384|Q21224384]] | [[Tevniida]] | Tevniida | [[Pogonophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21224392|Q21224392]] | [[Malawimonadida]] | Malawimonadida<ref name="ref_614fb8f075f79819a8e5dacfa2ef160947f7237cfd6bac90b82407d11bdf8b00">''[[:d:Q30885386|The excavate protozoan phyla Metamonada Grassé emend. (Anaeromonadea, Parabasalia, Carpediemonas, Eopharyngia) and Loukozoa emend. (Jakobea, Malawimonas): their evolutionary affinities and new higher taxa]]''</ref> | [[Malawimonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21224697|Q21224697]] | [[Thecanephria]] | Thecanephria | [[Pogonophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21224742|Q21224742]] | [[Belemnoteuthina]] | Belemnoteuthina | [[Belemnoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21224949|Q21224949]] | [[Thermomicrobiales]] | Thermomicrobiales | [[Thermomicrobia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21224971|Q21224971]] | [[Erysipelotrichales]] | Erysipelotrichales | [[Erysipelotrichia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21225120|Q21225120]] | [[Mastogloiales]] | Mastogloiales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | [[File:Mastogloia sp. Henry Coupin 1868.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21225128|Q21225128]] | [[Ethmodiscales]] | Ethmodiscales | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21225275|Q21225275]] | [[Billingsellida]] | Billingsellida | [[Strophomenata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21225386|Q21225386]] | [[Biphragmosagittiformes]] | Biphragmosagittiformes | [[Sagittoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21225403|Q21225403]] | [[Birkeniida]] | Birkeniida | [[Anaspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21225673|Q21225673]] | [[Eugregarinida]] | Eugregarinida<ref name="ref_167fdac8bcef75e80a6929a436f3617d025d3ff5073fa080e9cf88dd4e97829b">''[[:d:Q109566936|Sur un nouveau sporozoaire des larves de diptères]]''</ref> | [[Telosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21226049|Q21226049]] | [[Pleurastrales]] | Pleurastrales | [[Prasinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21226673|Q21226673]] | [[Merliida]] | Merliida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21226739|Q21226739]] | [[Trichonymphida]] | Trichonymphida<ref name="ref_21bcb25a1fdeb1f447f3ba8529b27e9049eace8d063b6379c8457b5ef5a79321">''[[:d:Q109507870|Das System der Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[Trichonymphea]]<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | [[File:Trichonympha campanula.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21226800|Q21226800]] | [[Trichotheliales]] | Trichotheliales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21226894|Q21226894]] | [[Triganglionata]] | Triganglionata | [[Heterobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21226944|Q21226944]] | [[Breviatida]] | Breviatida<ref name="ref_86db81ff3f13287683ffec9205953482a8097fdc26e7cd744c5b428d2e3ad538">''[[:d:Q29399107|Molecular phylogeny of Amoebozoa and the evolutionary significance of the unikont Phalansterium]]''</ref> | [[Breviatea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21227882|Q21227882]] | [[Foraminiferida]] | Foraminiferida | [[Foraminifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21227915|Q21227915]] | [[Tuberculariales]] | Tuberculariales | [[Hyphomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21227969|Q21227969]] | [[Tubulinida]] | Tubulinida | [[Tubulinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21228651|Q21228651]] | [[Protoaviformes]] | Protoaviformes | [[Protoaviornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21228764|Q21228764]] | [[Cambojiida]] | Cambojiida | [[Cyclocoela]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21228788|Q21228788]] | [[Urnatellida]] | Urnatellida | [[Entoprocta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21228796|Q21228796]] | [[Protonychophora]] | Protonychophora | [[Xenusia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21228893|Q21228893]] | [[Protostelida]] | Ptotostelida<ref name="ref_49179f03fe7584a29e02b1f2cc7592d1fea27858f99396ecddc2582070f3b3d9">''[[:d:Q71187125|Schizoplasmodium, a Mycetozoan Genus Intermediate Between Cavostelium and Protostelium: a New Order of Mycetozoa]]''</ref> | [[Variosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229229|Q21229229]] | [[Giardiida]] | Giardiida<ref name="ref_cf1a4e43d55f12e320643c3cfcb702e27a1d9d63f91f11793e92b75c1da65c82">''[[:d:Q34413248|Molecular phylogeny of the free-living archezoan Trepomonas agilis and the nature of the first eukaryote]]''</ref> | [[Diplozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229294|Q21229294]] | [[Gigantonomiales]] | Gigantonomiales | [[Pteridospermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229460|Q21229460]] | [[Verrucomorpha]] | Verrucomorpha | [[Thoracicalcarea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21229481|Q21229481]] | [[Verticellida]] | Verticellida | [[Peritrichia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229513|Q21229513]] | [[Moniligastrida]] | Moniligastrida | [[Oligochaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229555|Q21229555]] | [[Monocotylidea]] | Monocotylidea | [[Monopisthocotylea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229605|Q21229605]] | [[Gloeobacterales]] | Gloeobacterales | [[Gloeobacterophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21229619|Q21229619]] | [[Glomerellales]] | Glomerellales | [[Hypocreomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229678|Q21229678]] | [[Carpediemonadida]] | Carpediemonadida<ref name="ref_614fb8f075f79819a8e5dacfa2ef160947f7237cfd6bac90b82407d11bdf8b00">''[[:d:Q30885386|The excavate protozoan phyla Metamonada Grassé emend. (Anaeromonadea, Parabasalia, Carpediemonas, Eopharyngia) and Loukozoa emend. (Jakobea, Malawimonas): their evolutionary affinities and new higher taxa]]''</ref> | [[Carpediemonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21229696|Q21229696]] | [[Glycostylida]] | Glycostylida<ref name="ref_86db81ff3f13287683ffec9205953482a8097fdc26e7cd744c5b428d2e3ad538">''[[:d:Q29399107|Molecular phylogeny of Amoebozoa and the evolutionary significance of the unikont Phalansterium]]''</ref> | [[Discosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21230169|Q21230169]] | [[Murchisoniina]] | Murchisoniina | [[Orthogastropoda]] | [[File:Murchisonia-Moscow.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21230534|Q21230534]] | [[Gromiida]] | Gromiida | [[Gromiidea]] | [[File:Die Gartenlaube (1890) b 083.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21230631|Q21230631]] | [[Myzocytiopsidales]] | Myzocytiopsidales | [[Oomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21230668|Q21230668]] | [[Pseudosporida]] | Pseudosporida | [[Proteomyxidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21230732|Q21230732]] | [[Ceratoporellida]] | Ceratoporellida | [[Sclerosponge]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21230738|Q21230738]] | [[Xenopneusta]] | Xenopneusta | [[Echiura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21231149|Q21231149]] | [[Chancelloriida]] | Chancelloriida | [[Coeloscleritophoran]] | [[File:Chancelloria eros fossil, Middle Cambrian, Millard County UT.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21231244|Q21231244]] | [[Chaoyangornithiformes]] | Chaoyangornithiformes | [[Ornithurae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21231409|Q21231409]] | [[Ptychomniales]] | Ptychomniales | [[Hypnanae]] | [[File:Spread of Garovaglia sp controlled by a crustaceous lichen 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21286802|Q21286802]] | [[Argulidea]] | Argulidea | [[Branchiura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21286919|Q21286919]] | [[Aplousobranchiata]] | Aplousobranchiata<ref name="ref_de8c9fe672414f92c15d9e49410da145a4ee5bc45b499ce27f117591c5d69b0f">''[[:d:Q130613998|Northwestern Pacific ascidians (Tunicata: Ascidiacea). Part 1. Order Aplousobranchia]]''</ref> | [[Tunicata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21286985|Q21286985]] | [[Phlebobranchiata]] | Phlebobranchiata | [[Tunicata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287017|Q21287017]] | [[Stolidobranchiata]] | Stolidobranchiata | [[Tunicata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287109|Q21287109]] | [[Actiniarida]] | Actiniarida | [[Hexacorallia]] | [[File:Actinostola.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21287232|Q21287232]] | [[Lobatida]] | Lobatida | [[Tentaculata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287277|Q21287277]] | [[Umbraculida]] | Umbraculida | [[Tectipleura]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Umbraculum umbraculum - 2.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21287540|Q21287540]] | [[Pteriomorpha]] | Pteriomorpha | [[Lamellibranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287594|Q21287594]] | [[Plasmodigenea]] | Plasmodigenea | [[Orthonectida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287606|Q21287606]] | [[Stichocotylida]] | Stichocotylida | [[Aspidogastrea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287615|Q21287615]] | [[Chimaericolidea]] | Chimaericolidea | [[Polyopisthocotylea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287625|Q21287625]] | [[Polystomatidea]] | Polystomatidea | [[Polyopisthocotylea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287758|Q21287758]] | [[Onchoproteocephalidea]] | Onchoproteocephalidea | [[Eucestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21287950|Q21287950]] | [[Phyllobothriidea]] | Phyllobothriidea | [[Eucestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24048483|Q24048483]] | [[Cristamonadida]] | Cristamonadida<ref name="ref_452f443fc34a157344da895d8941bc6f908d24b467a0dca175a7e4bfc971a44c">''[[:d:Q104430830|Ultrastructure of Joenina pulchella Grassi, 1917 (Protista, Parabasalia), a reassessment of evolutionary trends in the parabasalids, and a new order Cristamonadida for devescovinid, calonymphid and lophomonad flagellates]]''</ref> | [[Cristamonadea]]<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | [[File:Mixotricha paradoxa color and.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q24056656|Q24056656]] | [[Ebriales]] | Ebriales | [[Ebriophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24192225|Q24192225]] | [[Echinostomatida]] | Echinostomatida | [[Digenea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24884870|Q24884870]] | [[Orbales]] | Orbales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25095426|Q25095426]] | [[Sclerorhynchiformes]] | Sclerorhynchiformes | [[Batomorphii]] | [[File:Sclerorhynchidae - Libanopristis hiram.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25095560|Q25095560]] | [[Cephalaspidida]] | Cephalaspidida | [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] | [[File:Cephalaspis tenuicornis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25095672|Q25095672]] | [[Prioniodinida]] | Prioniodinida | [[Conodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25360644|Q25360644]] | [[Planomonadida]] | Planomonadida<ref name="ref_87e147012347efa614d55f2472833597239fb4536eaae5c7af6388a6d1172818">''[[:d:Q28291678|Planomonadida ord. nov. (Apusozoa): ultrastructural affinity with Micronuclearia podoventralis and deep divergences within Planomonas gen. nov]]''</ref> | [[Hilomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25360916|Q25360916]] | [[Strombidiida]] | Strombidiida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:FMIB 40856 Strombidium caudalum.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25360981|Q25360981]] | [[Kiitrichida]] | Kiitrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Hypotrichia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361788|Q25361788]] | [[Licnophorida]] | Licnophorida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Licnophoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361822|Q25361822]] | [[Protocruziida]] | Protocruziida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Protocruziidia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361829|Q25361829]] | [[Plagiotomida]] | Plagiotomida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Stichotrich]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25361863|Q25361863]] | [[Urostylida]] | Urostylida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Stichotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361876|Q25361876]] | [[Bryometopida]] | Bryometopida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Colpodea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361878|Q25361878]] | [[Bryophryida]] | Bryophryida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Colpodea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361883|Q25361883]] | [[Bursariomorphida]] | Bursariomorphida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Colpodea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361885|Q25361885]] | [[Cyrtolophosidida]] | Cyrtolophosidida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Colpodea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361889|Q25361889]] | [[Sorogenida]] | Sorogenida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Colpodea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25361932|Q25361932]] | [[Synhymeniida]] | Synhymeniida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Nassophorea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362009|Q25362009]] | [[Astomatophorida]] | Astomatophorida | [[Apostomatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362022|Q25362022]] | [[Pilisuctorida]] | Pilisuctorida | [[Apostomatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362081|Q25362081]] | [[Hymenostomatida]] | Hymenostomatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Hymenostome]] | [[File:Tetrahymena thermophila.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25362084|Q25362084]] | [[Ophryoglenida]] | Ophryoglenida | [[Hymenostome]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362091|Q25362091]] | [[Tetrahymenida]] | Tetrahymenida | [[Hymenostome]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362362|Q25362362]] | [[Pleuronematida]] | Pleuronematida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Scuticociliatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362745|Q25362745]] | [[Cryptogemmida]] | Cryptogemmida | [[Chonotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362748|Q25362748]] | [[Exogemmida]] | Exogemmida | [[Chonotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362750|Q25362750]] | [[Hypocomatida]] | Hypocomatida | [[Rhynchodia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362753|Q25362753]] | [[Rhynchodida]] | Rhynchodida | [[Rhynchodia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25362756|Q25362756]] | [[Evaginogenida]] | Evaginogenida | [[Suctoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25363680|Q25363680]] | [[Phacodiniida]] | Phacodiniida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Intramacronucleata]]<br/>[[Phacodiniidia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25364049|Q25364049]] | [[Acrocoelida]] | Acrocoelida<ref name="ref_b3b6955dfda9961f6a234d3fd30cf4832f6b3b37394838e2e82d3a428d2fc773">''[[:d:Q54540793|Protalveolate phylogeny and systematics and the origins of Sporozoa and dinoflagellates (phylum Myzozoa nom. nov.)]]''</ref> | [[Apicomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25364126|Q25364126]] | [[Brachidiniales]] | Brachidiniales | [[Dinophyceae]] | [[File:Karenia brevis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25364131|Q25364131]] | [[Dinamoebida]] | Dinamoebida | [[Peridinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25364132|Q25364132]] | [[Nannoceratopsida]] | Nannoceratopsida | [[Dinophysoidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25364135|Q25364135]] | [[Gloediniales]] | Gloediniales | [[Dinoflagellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25365721|Q25365721]] | [[Algovorida]] | Algovorida | [[Colponemea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25365723|Q25365723]] | [[Chilovorida]] | Chilovorida | [[Myzomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25365869|Q25365869]] | [[Micronucleariida]] | Micronucleariida | [[Hilomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25365872|Q25365872]] | [[Mantomonadida]] | Mantomonadida | [[Thecomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25365874|Q25365874]] | [[Borokida]] | Borokida | [[Borokiae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25365875|Q25365875]] | [[Anoecida]] | Anoecida | [[Cyathobodoniae]] | [[File:Cafeteria roenbergensis FENCHEL and D J PATTERSON schematic drawing.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25365888|Q25365888]] | [[Labyrinthulida]] | Labyrinthulida | [[Labyrinthulomycetes]] | [[File:Labyrinthula vitellina a1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25365893|Q25365893]] | [[Thraustochytriida]] | Thraustochytriida | [[Labyrinthulomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25366019|Q25366019]] | [[Rhaponeidales]] | Rhaponeidales | [[Bacillariophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25366201|Q25366201]] | [[Rhinopristiformes]] | Rhinopristiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Batoidea]]<br/>[[elasmobranchio]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Rhinobatos Rhinobatos.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25366231|Q25366231]] | [[Chaetocerales]] | Chaetocerales | [[Chaetocerotanae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25366234|Q25366234]] | [[Stictocycales]] | Stictocycales | [[Coscinodiscanae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25366599|Q25366599]] | [[Aurearenales]] | Aurearenales | [[Aurearenophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25366603|Q25366603]] | [[Chrysomeridales]] | Chrysomeridales | [[Chrysomerophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25366609|Q25366609]] | [[Chloramoebales]] | Chloramoebales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | [[File:Chloramoeba heteromorpha Henri Coupin 1868.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25366944|Q25366944]] | [[Pleurochloridellales]] | Pleurochloridellales | [[Phaeophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25367499|Q25367499]] | [[Raphidomonadales]] | Raphidomonadales | [[Raphidophyte]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25367502|Q25367502]] | [[Acanthonida]] | Acanthonida | [[Acantharia]] | [[File:Acantharia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25368171|Q25368171]] | [[Marimonadida]] | Marimonadida | [[Imbricatea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25368196|Q25368196]] | [[Metromonadida]] | Metromonadida | [[Metromonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25368761|Q25368761]] | [[Tremulida]] | Tremulida<ref name="ref_d867c5060e2dd5ff9261542004db6c5190a08d04316b1be4c5d8297108ca650c">''[[:d:Q33812343|Novel Cultured Protists Identify Deep-branching Environmental DNA Clades of Cercozoa: New Genera Tremula, Micrometopion, Minimassisteria, Nudifila, Peregrinia]]''</ref> | [[Skiomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25368763|Q25368763]] | [[Sticholonchida]] | Sticholonchida | [[Sticholonchea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25368770|Q25368770]] | [[Phaeodendrida]] | Phaeodendrida | [[Phaeodaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25368771|Q25368771]] | [[Phaeogromida]] | Phaeogromida | [[Phaeodaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25368773|Q25368773]] | [[Phaeogymnocellida]] | Phaeogymnocellida | [[Phaeodaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25368776|Q25368776]] | [[Ventricleftida]] | Ventricleftida | [[Thecofilosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25373990|Q25373990]] | [[Synchytriales]] | Synchytriales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[fungo]]<br/>[[Synchytriomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25384198|Q25384198]] | [[Cyprilepadiformes]] | Cyprilepadiformes | [[Thoracica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25385804|Q25385804]] | [[Venerida]] | Venerida | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Venus verrucosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25385817|Q25385817]] | [[Pectinida]] | Pectinida | [[Pteriomorphia]] | [[File:Aequipecten opercularis MHNT CON 2003 1171 de Roquemaurel.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25398124|Q25398124]] | [[Arandaspidiformes]] | Arandaspidiformes | [[Arandaspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25398973|Q25398973]] | [[Youngolepidiformes]] | Youngolepidiformes | [[Porolepimorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25398984|Q25398984]] | [[Eriptychiiformes]] | Eriptychiiformes | [[Astraspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25399065|Q25399065]] | [[Gyrodontiformes]] | Gyrodontiformes | [[Pycnodontomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25399188|Q25399188]] | [[Catervarioliformes]] | Catervarioliformes | [[Teleostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25399582|Q25399582]] | [[Osteostraciformes]] | Osteostraciformes | [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25399686|Q25399686]] | [[Mongolepidiformes]] | Mongolepidiformes | [[Chondrichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25399714|Q25399714]] | [[Bransonelliformes]] | Bransonelliformes | [[Xenacanthimorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25406753|Q25406753]] | [[Cystoflagellata]] | Cystoflagellata | [[Noctilucea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25407374|Q25407374]] | [[Armophorida]] | Armophorida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Armophorea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25407433|Q25407433]] | [[Clevelandellida]] | Clevelandellida | [[Armophorea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25407553|Q25407553]] | [[Protoheterotrichida]] | Protoheterotrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Karyorelictea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25407564|Q25407564]] | [[Protostomatida]] | Protostomatida | [[Karyorelictea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25407700|Q25407700]] | [[Trichostomatida]] | Trichostomatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Vestibulifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25407791|Q25407791]] | [[Actiniscales]] | Actiniscales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25407800|Q25407800]] | [[Amphilothales]] | Amphilothales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25407852|Q25407852]] | [[Pyrocystales]] | Pyrocystales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25407856|Q25407856]] | [[Thalassomycetales]] | Thalassomycetales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25407912|Q25407912]] | [[Leprocaulales]] | Leprocaulales | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | [[File:Leprocaulon microscopicum - Flickr - pellaea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25408019|Q25408019]] | [[Rastrimonadida]] | Rastrimonadida | [[Perkinsea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25408078|Q25408078]] | [[Venturiales]] | Venturiales<ref name="ref_7c00f3d921f8f89d504049e7c270ae9b5526ea4c76436581b34c7cb38d915aac">''[[:d:Q34173231|A molecular, morphological and ecological re-appraisal of Venturiales-a new order of Dothideomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Schurft bij appel (Venturia inaequalis on Malus domestica 'Schone van Boskoop').jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25411100|Q25411100]] | [[Thallochrysidales]] | Thallochrysidales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25411133|Q25411133]] | [[Choristocarpales]] | Choristocarpales | [[Phaeophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25411349|Q25411349]] | [[Chlamydomyxales]] | Chlamydomyxales<ref name="ref_d2feb31a27374cb7eb8fc3303b8456fc809e4430fc15d7e0de6510e8c7fd7251">http://organismnames.com/details.htm?lsid=1835126</ref> | [[Picophagea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25411350|Q25411350]] | [[Picophagales]] | Picophagales | [[Picophagea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25411351|Q25411351]] | [[Schizocladiales]] | Schizocladiales | [[Schizocladiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25412313|Q25412313]] | [[Pansomonadida]] | Pansomonadida | [[Sarcomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25412428|Q25412428]] | [[Phaeoconchida]] | Phaeoconchida | [[Phaeodaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25412440|Q25412440]] | [[Phaeocystida]] | Phaeocystida | [[Phaeodaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25412597|Q25412597]] | [[Cladochytriales]] | Cladochytriales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cfcf089845c6a8c553ceeb432c904a959ab1c8f54e241f19a63f6dcb0404ebca">''[[:d:Q44507115|Cladochytriales--a new order in Chytridiomycota]]''</ref> | [[Chytridiomycetes]]<br/>[[Cladochytriomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Cellulose Chytrids TVP12 005.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25448958|Q25448958]] | [[Melanconiales]] | Melanconiales | [[Coelomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25803969|Q25803969]] | [[Eugeneodontiformes]] | Eugeneodontiformes | [[Euchondrocephali]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25852390|Q25852390]] | [[Ploeotiida]] | Ploeotiida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Ploeotarea]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21445958|Q21445958]] | [[Gloeodendrales]] | Gloeodendrales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446019|Q21446019]] | [[Panderichthyida]] | Panderichthyida | [[Tetrapodomorpha]] | [[File:Pandericthys-Ichthyostega-Acanthostega-Seymouria-Dimetrodon.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21446039|Q21446039]] | [[Gregarinae]] | Gregarinae<ref name="ref_4409955f0b4b4931659d1aba2f0e0c3c32f6838c4aa332eadbff212865240f3e">''[[:d:Q42190326|Generelle Morphologie der Organismen]]''</ref> | [[Sporozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446078|Q21446078]] | [[Astasida]] | Astasida | [[Euglenia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446096|Q21446096]] | [[Athalamida]] | Athalamida | [[Athalamea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446124|Q21446124]] | [[Haemosporidia]] | Haemosporidia | [[Coccidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446141|Q21446141]] | [[Ausktribosphenida]] | Ausktribosphenida | [[Australosphenida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446170|Q21446170]] | [[Pedinellida]] | Pedinellida | [[Chrysomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446177|Q21446177]] | [[Axoplasthelida]] | Axoplasthelida | [[Centrohelea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446182|Q21446182]] | [[Haplosporida]] | Haplosporida<ref name="ref_3e058715a18b00e3a22f9b5eb0650695fe4514068aaa169d060a0a28df4e00d5">''[[:d:Q108908969|Sur le genere Aplosporidium (nov.) et l'ordre nouveau des Aplosporidies]]''</ref><ref name="ref_05b76844e293ed05b5e8d83c431f65580cf714a96e7fafa867717d1a6ed1c182">''[[:d:Q108899521|Classification of the Haplosporidia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c980fa20222306284d97e6128fcd535cd1bce8c8adf8489d2e8e896c8b6dfc99">''[[:d:Q108913858|Ergebnisse der neueren Sporozoenforschung]]''</ref> | [[Ascetosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446185|Q21446185]] | [[Haplosporidiidea]] | Haplosporidiidea<ref name="ref_21bcb25a1fdeb1f447f3ba8529b27e9049eace8d063b6379c8457b5ef5a79321">''[[:d:Q109507870|Das System der Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[Sporozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446221|Q21446221]] | [[Percolomonadida]] | Percolomonadida | [[Percolatea]] | [[File:Percolomonas sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21446241|Q21446241]] | [[Peripoda]] | Peripoda<ref name="ref_01c969f1c18666da98589a1eec52668bd195d78f22d9403986ab3a4216de6d01">''[[:d:Q54505094|A new class of Echinodermata from New Zealand]]''</ref> | [[Concentricycloidea]]<ref name="ref_01c969f1c18666da98589a1eec52668bd195d78f22d9403986ab3a4216de6d01">''[[:d:Q54505094|A new class of Echinodermata from New Zealand]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21446243|Q21446243]] | [[Helioflagellida]] | Helioflagellida | [[Actinopodea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446244|Q21446244]] | [[Peritricha]] | Peritricha | [[Spirotricha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446253|Q21446253]] | [[Permothemistida]] | Permothemistida<ref name="ref_1bf166d5f56d5ae0792e66b829cc29bdc118fa5f478919c06bc7cd3b02213726">https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=293395</ref> | [[Palaeoptera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446301|Q21446301]] | [[Hesperornithes]] | Hesperornithes | [[Odontoholcae]]<br/>[[Ornithurae]] | [[File:Hesperornis.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21446357|Q21446357]] | [[Histionida]] | Histionida | [[Kinetomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446475|Q21446475]] | [[Plegmacantha]] | Plegmacantha | [[Holacanthia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446496|Q21446496]] | [[Hypermastigina]] | Hypermastigina<ref name="ref_98d02a1e172c91ba54374567aaba64f4af48747cbe376647ab214856210a6c8b">''[[:d:Q110253945|Intorno ai protozoi dei termiti]]''</ref> | [[Zoomastigina]] | [[File:Hypermastigida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21446549|Q21446549]] | [[Calamitales]] | Calamitales | [[Equisetopsida]]<br/>[[Calamitopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446679|Q21446679]] | [[Jaapiales]] | Jaapiales | [[Agaricomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446681|Q21446681]] | [[Promycetozoida]] | Promycetozoida | [[Athalamea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446692|Q21446692]] | [[Jakobida]] | Jakobida | [[Jakobids]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446731|Q21446731]] | [[Proteromonadida]] | Proteromonadida | [[Proteromonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446735|Q21446735]] | [[Proteromonadina]] | Proteromonadina | [[Protomonadina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446748|Q21446748]] | [[Centrohelidia]] | Centrohelidia | [[Actinophrydia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446761|Q21446761]] | [[Protomastigina]] | Protomastigina | [[Flagellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446767|Q21446767]] | [[Cephalaspidiformes]] | Cephalaspidiformes | [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] | [[File:Cephalaspis lyelli recon.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21446777|Q21446777]] | [[Ceratida]] | Ceratida | [[Ammonoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446782|Q21446782]] | [[Protosphagnales]] | Protosphagnales | [[Sphagnopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446792|Q21446792]] | [[Prymnesiida]] | Prymnesiida | [[Phytomastigophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446793|Q21446793]] | [[Karotomorphida]] | Karotomorphida | [[Opalinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446826|Q21446826]] | [[Pseudodendromonadida]] | Pseudodendromonadida | [[Bicosoecea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446892|Q21446892]] | [[Kopriimonadales]] | Kopriimonadales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446907|Q21446907]] | [[Chlorarachnida]] | Chlorarachnida | [[Chlorarachnea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446919|Q21446919]] | [[Chloromonadina]] | Chloromonadina | [[Phytomastigina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446949|Q21446949]] | [[Chonotricha]] | Chonotricha | [[Infusoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446987|Q21446987]] | [[Chrysomonadina]] | Chrysomonadina | [[Phytomastigina]] | [[File:Wilson1900Fig3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21446994|Q21446994]] | [[Chrysomonadineae]] | Chrysomonadineae | [[Flagellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447007|Q21447007]] | [[Raphidomonadida]] | Raphidomonadida | [[Stramenopiles]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447017|Q21447017]] | [[Cilioflagellata]] | Cilioflagellata | [[Infusoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447068|Q21447068]] | [[Rhabdopleurida]] | Rhabdopleurida | [[Pterobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447084|Q21447084]] | [[Coccolithophorales]] | Coccolithophorales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | [[File:Newfoundland OSE2002210.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447121|Q21447121]] | [[Limnopolypae]] | Limnopolypae | [[Hydrozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447133|Q21447133]] | [[Colponemida]] | Colponemida | [[Colponemea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447136|Q21447136]] | [[Rhizomastigina]] | Rhizomastigina | [[Zoomastigina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447165|Q21447165]] | [[Conulariida]] | Conulariida | [[Scyphozoa]] | [[File:Conulariid 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447170|Q21447170]] | [[Loboreticulatida]] | Loboreticulatida | [[Gymnamoebia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447200|Q21447200]] | [[Cornuta]] | Cornuta | [[Stylophora]] | [[File:Cothurnocystis elizae CRF.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447207|Q21447207]] | [[Rotosphaerida]] | Rotosphaerida | [[Holomycota]] | [[File:Nuclearia sp Nikko.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447227|Q21447227]] | [[Luffisphaerida]] | Luffisphaerida | [[Holosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447261|Q21447261]] | [[Cryptomonadida]] | Cryptomonadida | [[Phytomastigoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447265|Q21447265]] | [[Lyromonadida]] | Lyromonadida<ref name="ref_6a3224ed9e9612f3b161f90deafb215ffecae36153e66735b907fd7bacda7748">''[[:d:Q24634634|Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla]]''</ref> | [[Lyromonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447305|Q21447305]] | [[Sarcinochrysidales]] | Sarcinochrysidales | [[Pelagophycia]] | [[File:Tribonema marinum Feldmann 1941.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447317|Q21447317]] | [[Sarrameanales]] | Sarrameanales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447403|Q21447403]] | [[Marteiliida]] | Marteiliida | [[Paramyxea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447431|Q21447431]] | [[Desmothoraca]] | Desmothoraca | [[Heliozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447451|Q21447451]] | [[Silicoflagellata]] | Silicoflagellata | [[Actinochrysia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447495|Q21447495]] | [[Dimorphida]] | Dimorphida | [[Heliozoea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447515|Q21447515]] | [[Dioctophymida]] | Dioctophymida | [[Dorylaimia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447524|Q21447524]] | [[Diphylleiida]] | Diphylleiida | [[Loukozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447598|Q21447598]] | [[Spirotricha]] | Spirotricha | [[Infusoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447656|Q21447656]] | [[Ebriida]] | Ebriida | [[Thecofilosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447660|Q21447660]] | [[Ministeriida]] | Ministeriida<ref name="ref_34bc0fc69a97bf32d851c4d078a9fedc41953d88ade5871200aaf529fc6f017e">''[[:d:Q62085705|Amoeboflagellates and mitochondrial cristae in eukaryote evolution: megasystematics of the new protozoan subkingdoms Eozoa and Neozoa]]''</ref> | [[Filasterea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447679|Q21447679]] | [[Mitrata]] | Mitrata | [[Stylophora]] | [[File:Haeckel Amphoridea-1a.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447686|Q21447686]] | [[Ellimmichthyiformes]] | Ellimmichthyiformes | [[Clupeomorpha]] | [[File:Ellimmichthyiformes - Armigatus brevissimus.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447709|Q21447709]] | [[Entamoebida]] | Entamoebida | [[Archamoebea]] | [[File:Entamoeba coli 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447715|Q21447715]] | [[Enteromonadida]] | Enteromonadida | [[Enteromonadia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447796|Q21447796]] | [[Telonemida]] | Telonemida | [[Telonemea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447806|Q21447806]] | [[Testacea]] | Testacea | [[Rhizopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447869|Q21447869]] | [[Trapeliales]] | Trapeliales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447876|Q21447876]] | [[Treubiales]] | Treubiales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Treubiidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Treubia lacunosa (Colenso) Prosk. (AM AK322391-1).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447982|Q21447982]] | [[Volaticotheria]] | Volaticotheria | [[Mammiferos]] | [[File:Volaticotherium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447985|Q21447985]] | [[Volvocida]] | Volvocida | [[Protozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21584788|Q21584788]] | [[Phaeosiphoniellales]] | Phaeosiphoniellales<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | [[Fucophycidae]]<ref name="ref_9a2dacecf9c16e46d11ce384fc244e2c3a109bb934b599738dae23e9766005e7">''[[:d:Q21483204|An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21587962|Q21587962]] | [[Belotelsonidea]] | Belotelsonidea | [[Malacostraca]] | [[File:Belotelson.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21588662|Q21588662]] | [[Byroniida]] | Byroniida | [[Scyphozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21588954|Q21588954]] | [[Barinophytales]] | Barinophytales | [[Zosterophyllopsida]] | [[File:Barinophyton richardsonii (=Lepidostrobus richardsonii) v.6 (1861) - The Canadian naturalist and geologist.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21588956|Q21588956]] | [[Khairkhaniifomes]] | Khairkhaniifomes | [[Divasibranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21589269|Q21589269]] | [[Protocaridida]] | Protocaridida | [[Hymenocarina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21589445|Q21589445]] | [[Tesseraspidiformes]] | Tesseraspidiformes | [[Heterostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21589465|Q21589465]] | [[Hyolithelmintida]] | Hyolithelmintida | [[animal]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21589469|Q21589469]] | [[Voromonadida]] | Voromonadida | [[Myzomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21589757|Q21589757]] | [[Nematophytales]] | Nematophytales | [[Nematophytina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21590157|Q21590157]] | [[Phyllosiphonales]] | Phyllosiphonales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21590274|Q21590274]] | [[Palaeosomatida]] | Palaeosomatida | [[Archipolypoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21590327|Q21590327]] | [[Rastromonadida]] | Rastromonadida | [[Perkinsea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21590434|Q21590434]] | [[Thermolithobacterales]] | Thermolithobacterales<ref name="ref_b9b8ce73ddab2125a17cb987c0f0e08f322e9d5dd9fedfd42ee6b106d5106467">''[[:d:Q45317832|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Thermolithobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21591100|Q21591100]] | [[Cardipeltiformes]] | Cardipeltiformes | [[Heterostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21608447|Q21608447]] | [[Symmoriiformes]] | Symmoriiformes | [[Chondrichthyes]] | [[File:Kawichthys moodiei.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21663136|Q21663136]] | [[Chlorachniida]] | Chlorachniida | [[Chlorarachnea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21666234|Q21666234]] | [[Prolacertiformes]] | Prolacertiformes | [[Archosauromorpha]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Macrocnemus BW.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21694401|Q21694401]] | [[Scopalinida]] | Scopalinida<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8835aa6e21d593ef7209dd7ff497fdf699239fd89acfcd105da39b7c2deb5ee9">''[[:d:Q2784883|Australian Faunal Directory]]''</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_ba032967a81ad925b97abdbd17a59d04f5101667762df30ada752142b3afd2a7">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845472</ref> | [[File:Stylissa carteri (éponge oreille d'éléphant).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21705000|Q21705000]] | [[Chondrillida]] | Chondrillida<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[Verongimorpha]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Chondrilla nucula 1402.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21708405|Q21708405]] | [[Ignavibacteriales]] | Ignavibacteriales | [[Ignavibacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21711088|Q21711088]] | [[Archaeolithophyllales]] | Archaeolithophyllales | [[Rhodophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21711263|Q21711263]] | [[Suberitida]] | Suberitida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Suberites domuncula.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21711601|Q21711601]] | [[Biemnida]] | Biemnida<ref name="ref_93dc5115126496584afd80767cec283c9b3b0dd2e88b649c48d3abc99cfa9276">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=736911</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_93dc5115126496584afd80767cec283c9b3b0dd2e88b649c48d3abc99cfa9276">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=736911</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21768331|Q21768331]] | [[Tetractinellida]] | Tetractinellida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]] | [[File:Yellow pot sponge (Rhabdastrella globostellata).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21290892|Q21290892]] | [[Solemyida]] | Solemyida | [[Protobranchia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Solemya velum hand.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21290897|Q21290897]] | [[Taxocrinida]] | Taxocrinida | [[Crinoidea]] | [[File:Taxocrinus colletti fossil crinoid (Mississippian; Crawfordsville, Indiana, USA) 1 (17384747492).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21290911|Q21290911]] | [[Priodontina]] | Priodontina | [[Conodonta]] | [[File:Promissum NT small.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21290917|Q21290917]] | [[Haptoglossales]] | Haptoglossales | [[Oomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21290930|Q21290930]] | [[Aneurophytales]] | Aneurophytales | [[Progymnosperm]] | [[File:Tetraxylopteris reconstruccion.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21291009|Q21291009]] | [[Dichoporata]] | Dichoporata | [[Rhombifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291011|Q21291011]] | [[Pholadomyida]] | Pholadomyida | [[Heteroconchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291015|Q21291015]] | [[Glyptocystitida]] | Glyptocystitida | [[Rhombifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291019|Q21291019]] | [[Siphonotretida]] | Siphonotretida | [[Lingulata]] | [[File:Haeckel Spirobranchia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21291026|Q21291026]] | [[Paterinida]] | Paterinida | [[Brachiopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291055|Q21291055]] | [[Palliocerida]] | Palliocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291057|Q21291057]] | [[Bothriocidaroida]] | Bothriocidaroida | [[Echinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291061|Q21291061]] | [[Fordillida]] | Fordillida | [[Bivalvos]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21291081|Q21291081]] | [[Furcacaudiformes]] | Furcacaudiformes | [[Thelodonti]] | [[File:Furcacauda heintzae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21291093|Q21291093]] | [[Zenaspidida]] | Zenaspidida | [[Cornuata]] | [[File:Zenaspis NT small.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21291098|Q21291098]] | [[Ellobiopsida]] | Ellobiopsida | [[Ellobiopsea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291101|Q21291101]] | [[Jamoytiiformes]] | Jamoytiiformes | [[Hyperoartia]] | [[File:Jamoytius kerwoodi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21291172|Q21291172]] | [[Lipostraca]] | Lipostraca | [[Phyllopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291178|Q21291178]] | [[Thelodontiformes]] | Thelodontiformes | [[Thelodonti]] | [[File:Thelodus parvidens.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21291203|Q21291203]] | [[Pectocaridida]] | Pectocaridida | [[arthropodo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291302|Q21291302]] | [[Hoplostraca]] | Hoplostraca | [[Malacostraca]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291330|Q21291330]] | [[Botryopteridales]] | Botryopteridales | [[Filocopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291396|Q21291396]] | [[Waterstonellidea]] | Waterstonellidea | [[Crustacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291540|Q21291540]] | [[Hypseloconida]] | Hypseloconida | [[Tergomya]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291750|Q21291750]] | [[Diplacanthiformes]] | Diplacanthiformes | [[Acanthodii]] | [[File:Diplacanthus striatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21291869|Q21291869]] | [[Cowiedesmida]] | Cowiedesmida | [[Archipolypoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21291881|Q21291881]] | [[Dendrocrinida]] | Dendrocrinida | [[Cladida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292069|Q21292069]] | [[Montchadskyellidea]] | Montchadskyellidea | [[Monogenea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292078|Q21292078]] | [[Chytridiodinida]] | Chytridiodinida | [[Dinoflagellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292264|Q21292264]] | [[Zenaspida]] | Zenaspida | [[Osteostraci]] | [[File:Zenaspis cf powriei.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21292306|Q21292306]] | [[Waptiida]] | Waptiida | [[Hymenocarina]] | [[File:Waptia fieldensis 34.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21292312|Q21292312]] | [[Concavicarida]] | Concavicarida | [[Thylacocephala]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292350|Q21292350]] | [[Fuxianhuiida]] | Fuxianhuiida | [[arthropodo]]<br/>[[Mandibulata]] | [[File:20211117 Fuxianhuiida Fuxianhuiids.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21292357|Q21292357]] | [[Dysteriida]] | Dysteriida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Phyllopharyngea]]<br/>[[Cyrtophoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21292362|Q21292362]] | [[Proconodontida]] | Proconodontida | [[Conodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292364|Q21292364]] | [[Diplorhynchina]] | Diplorhynchina | [[Dipnoi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292483|Q21292483]] | [[Victivallales]] | Victivallales | [[Lentisphaeria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21292487|Q21292487]] | [[Caldilineales]] | Caldilineales | [[Caldilineae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21292493|Q21292493]] | [[Pelagomonadales]] | Pelagomonadales | [[Pelagophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292499|Q21292499]] | [[Hemicidaroida]] | Hemicidaroida | [[Echinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21292503|Q21292503]] | [[Canadaspidida]] | Canadaspidida | [[Crustacea]] | [[File:Canadaspis (8012625428).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21292514|Q21292514]] | [[Praeornithiformes]] | Praeornithiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21293813|Q21293813]] | [[Taxopodida]] | Taxopodida | [[Sticholonchea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21293817|Q21293817]] | [[Cyclotrichiida]] | Cyclotrichiida | [[Haptoria]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21293820|Q21293820]] | [[Trimerophytales]] | Trimerophytales | [[Trimerophytopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21344135|Q21344135]] | [[Calobryales]] | Calobryales<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Haplomitriidae]]<ref name="ref_0572b28956989bcbedf9d6cc9b2b32630bd2b584a66836826816f279d8f6dc17">''[[:d:Q22579849|Phylogeny and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[File:Untersuchungen über Haplomitrium Hookeri (1843) plate XIII.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21344242|Q21344242]] | [[Chaetosphaeridiales]] | Chaetosphaeridiales | [[Coleochaetophyceae]] | [[File:Chaetosphaeridium globosum 168080226.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21344388|Q21344388]] | [[Oltmannsiellopsidales]] | Oltmannsiellopsidales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21344410|Q21344410]] | [[Nephroselmidales]] | Nephroselmidales<ref name="ref_5d20b2497ae39e602bc4da367c7dd5235d502c5b32ed0852fd5862f136e26f9f">''[[:d:Q99659946|Phylogeny and ultrastructure of Nephroselmis and Pseudoscourfieldia (Chlorophyta), including the description of Nephroselmis anterostigmatica sp. nov. and a proposal for the Nephroselmidales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Nephroselmidophyceae]] | [[File:Nephroselmis olivacea, Stein (1878), plate 19 cropped.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21344540|Q21344540]] | [[Monomastigales]] | Monomastigales<ref name="ref_2c414b4f9fc65e5dec31b3eb6cee49db0c63ad63e22253876505c0bc60b3e414">''[[:d:Q45718648|Molecular phylogeny and classification of the Mamiellophyceae class. nov. (Chlorophyta) based on sequence comparisons of the nuclear- and plastid-encoded rRNA operons]]''</ref> | [[Mamiellophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21345794|Q21345794]] | [[Altholepidiformes]] | Altholepidiformes | [[Chondrichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21346196|Q21346196]] | [[Antarctilamniformes]] | Antarctilamniformes | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | [[File:Antarctilamna? sp. (fossil shark spine) (Silica Formation, Middle Devonian; quarry northwest of Paulding, Ohio, USA) (48320065021).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21346589|Q21346589]] | [[Permotrichoptera]] | Permotrichoptera | [[Panorpida]]<br/>[[Mecopterida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21346714|Q21346714]] | [[Acochlidea]] | Acochlidea | [[Opisthobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21346838|Q21346838]] | [[Phoebodontiformes]] | Phoebodontiformes | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21346913|Q21346913]] | [[Archipelepidiformes]] | Archipelepidiformes | [[Thelodonti]] | [[File:Archipelepis turbinata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21347219|Q21347219]] | [[Polysentoriformes]] | Polysentoriformes | [[Chondrichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21347300|Q21347300]] | [[Arthrodiriformes]] | Arthrodiriformes | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21348323|Q21348323]] | [[Tremataspidiformes]] | Tremataspidiformes | [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21348598|Q21348598]] | [[Omalodontiformes]] | Omalodontiformes | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21349215|Q21349215]] | [[Sphenocephaliformes]] | Sphenocephaliformes | [[Paracanthopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21349241|Q21349241]] | [[Cheilostomida]] | Cheilostomida | [[Gymnolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21349246|Q21349246]] | [[Paronychophora]] | Paronychophora | [[Xenusia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21349289|Q21349289]] | [[Archonychophora]] | Archonychophora | [[Xenusia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21349665|Q21349665]] | [[Palaeostomatopoda]] | Palaeostomatopoda | [[Stomatopoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21350898|Q21350898]] | [[Perunelomorpha]] | Perunelomorpha | [[Caenogastropoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21351929|Q21351929]] | [[Yandangithiformes]] | Yandangithiformes | [[Saurornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21351941|Q21351941]] | [[Liaoxiornithiformes]] | Liaoxiornithiformes | [[Saurornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21351959|Q21351959]] | [[Eoenantiornithiformes]] | Eoenantiornithiformes | [[Euenantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21351973|Q21351973]] | [[Gansuiformes]] | Gansuiformes | [[Palaeognathae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21351983|Q21351983]] | [[Palaeocursornithiformes]] | Palaeocursornithiformes | [[Palaeognathae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21353922|Q21353922]] | [[Kloedenellocopida]] | Kloedenellocopida | [[Ostracoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21354172|Q21354172]] | [[Tuarangiida]] | Tuarangiida | [[Rostroconchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21358789|Q21358789]] | [[Eugaleaspidiformes]] | Eugaleaspidiformes | [[Galeaspida]] | [[File:Dunyu longiforus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21359288|Q21359288]] | [[Microdecemplicida]] | Microdecemplicida | [[Arthropleuridea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21359897|Q21359897]] | [[Leanchoiliida]] | Leanchoiliida | [[Megacheira]]<br/>[[Cheiromorpha]]<ref name="ref_b7efd61accd9a8573bc690556493ed0c4a3fa34cdb5513001f51e1dda2992e96">''[[:d:Q57277456|A large new leanchoiliid from the Burgess Shale and the influence of inapplicable states on stem arthropod phylogeny]]''</ref> | [[File:Leanchoilia illecebrosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21360120|Q21360120]] | [[Conulatae]] | Conulatae | [[Staurozoa]]<ref name="ref_30534e7b51fb80b9e28a8710625b8a848ffdad42b5f28c2a9af60a89da702bdd">''[[:d:Q55868086|Cladistic analysis of Medusozoa and cnidarian evolution]]''</ref><br/>[[Scyphozoa]]<ref name="ref_26960acd91cb5d778f5ffa1d53c20efe32abdd5b2c8cf46ee7cb07a009c61c26">''[[:d:Q57744424|Reassessment of the phylogenetic position of conulariids (?Ediacaran‐Triassic) within the subphylum medusozoa (phylum cnidaria)]]''</ref> | [[File:Conulariid03.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21360561|Q21360561]] | [[Modiomorphoida]] | Modiomorphoida | [[Bivalvos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21363451|Q21363451]] | [[Polybranchiaspidiformes]] | Polybranchiaspidiformes | [[Polybranchiaspidida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21363461|Q21363461]] | [[Huananaspidiformes]] | Huananaspidiformes<ref name="ref_aab7733af5201207f3de05ddf60ba70570932b85f7871735c187425a3678081a">https://www.bilibili.com/opus/865350478980972563</ref> | [[Polybranchiaspidida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21363572|Q21363572]] | [[Ptyctodontiformes]] | Ptyctodontiformes | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21363930|Q21363930]] | [[Holodipterida]] | Holodipterida | [[Dipnoi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21364567|Q21364567]] | [[Jaymoytiiformes]] | Jaymoytiiformes | [[Anaspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21366705|Q21366705]] | [[Ozarkodinida]] | Ozarkodinida | [[Prioniodontida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21368166|Q21368166]] | [[Ichtyodectiformes]] | Ichtyodectiformes | [[Teleostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21400364|Q21400364]] | [[Chattonellales]] | Chattonellales | [[Raphidophyte]] | [[File:Chattonella subsalsa B.Biecheler, 1936.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21400374|Q21400374]] | [[Tesakoviaspidida]] | Tesakoviaspidida | [[Astraspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21400378|Q21400378]] | [[Stichotrichida]] | Stichotrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Spirotrichea]]<br/>[[Stichotrich]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21405499|Q21405499]] | [[Jaymotiiformes]] | Jaymotiiformes | [[Anaspida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445641|Q21445641]] | [[Actinomyxidia]] | Actinomyxidia | [[Cnidosporidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445643|Q21445643]] | [[Actinophrydea]] | Actinophrydea | [[Radiolaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445646|Q21445646]] | [[Actinophrydia]] | Actinophrydia | [[Heliozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445685|Q21445685]] | [[Eutreptiida]] | Eutreptiida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Euglenophycidae]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21445763|Q21445763]] | [[Fibrobacterales]] | Fibrobacterales<ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Fibrobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21445770|Q21445770]] | [[Allocaudata]] | Allocaudata | [[Lissamphibia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445781|Q21445781]] | [[Flagellata]] | Flagellata | [[Zoomastigophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445897|Q21445897]] | [[Anoecales]] | Anoecales | [[Bicoecia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445923|Q21445923]] | [[Oxymonadina]] | Oxymonadina | [[Metamonadina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445930|Q21445930]] | [[Oxyrrhinales]] | Oxyrrhinales | [[Dinophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445946|Q21445946]] | [[Glissomonadida]] | Glissomonadida<ref name="ref_e54a138ba283a71fd80f5b8d9095f297d21821e586fafc2413f1cd06ffc81aee">''[[:d:Q33422730|Phylogeny, taxonomy, and astounding genetic diversity of glissomonadida ord. nov., the dominant gliding zooflagellates in soil (Protozoa: Cercozoa).]]''</ref> | [[Cercomonadida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133624|Q35133624]] | [[Innaecoeliida]] | Innaecoeliida | [[Hexactinellida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133644|Q35133644]] | [[Ischyrinoida]] | Ischyrinoida | [[Rostroconchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133667|Q35133667]] | [[Archaeocopida]] | Archaeocopida | [[arthropodo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133688|Q35133688]] | [[Ralliformes]] | Ralliformes | [[Charadriimorphae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133707|Q35133707]] | [[Stephanolithiales]] | Stephanolithiales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133726|Q35133726]] | [[Metacopida]] | Metacopida | [[Ostracoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133746|Q35133746]] | [[Thambetolepida]] | Thambetolepida | [[Molluscos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133761|Q35133761]] | [[Jurinida]] | Jurinida | [[Neoptera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133781|Q35133781]] | [[Watznaueriales]] | Watznaueriales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133802|Q35133802]] | [[Architarbida]] | Architarbida | [[arachnido]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133819|Q35133819]] | [[Isorophida]] | Isorophida | [[Edrioasteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133869|Q35133869]] | [[Protorthida]] | Protorthida | [[Rhynchonellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133887|Q35133887]] | [[Tentaculitida]] | Tentaculitida | [[Lophophorata]] | [[File:Tentaculite in Devonian limestone (48873661118).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35133905|Q35133905]] | [[Arkhangelskiales]] | Arkhangelskiales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133926|Q35133926]] | [[Hyolithelminthida]] | Hyolithelminthida | [[Problematica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133960|Q35133960]] | [[Kiringellida]] | Kiringellida | [[Tergomya]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134001|Q35134001]] | [[Caulerpales]] | Caulerpales | [[Bryopsidophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134024|Q35134024]] | [[Cricocosmida]] | Cricocosmida | [[Palaeoscolecida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134045|Q35134045]] | [[Lichenariida]] | Lichenariida | [[Tabulata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134063|Q35134063]] | [[Calyptoptomatida]] | Calyptoptomatida | [[Molluscos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134101|Q35134101]] | [[Hemizonida]] | Hemizonida | [[Asteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134124|Q35134124]] | [[Cambridioida]] | Cambridioida | [[Stenothecoida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134146|Q35134146]] | [[Monocyathida]] | Monocyathida | [[Regulares]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134184|Q35134184]] | [[Edrioasterida]] | Edrioasterida | [[Edrioasteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134203|Q35134203]] | [[Psammosteiformes]] | Psammosteiformes | [[Heterostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134217|Q35134217]] | [[Panderodontida]] | Panderodontida<br/>Panderontida | [[Conodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134229|Q35134229]] | [[Sarcinulida]] | Sarcinulida | [[Tabulata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134248|Q35134248]] | [[Spongiomorphida]] | Spongiomorphida | [[Hydrozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134269|Q35134269]] | [[Cichliformes]] | Cichliformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Cichlomorphae]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Pholidichthys leucotaenia 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35134286|Q35134286]] | [[Olenellida]] | Olenellida | [[Trilobita]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134303|Q35134303]] | [[Trachelocrinida]] | Trachelocrinida | [[Eocrinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134321|Q35134321]] | [[Gondwanostachyales]] | Gondwanostachyales | [[Equisetopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134334|Q35134334]] | [[Conchyliocarida]] | Conchyliocarida | [[Thylacocephala]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134365|Q35134365]] | [[Protoconodontida]] | Protoconodontida | [[Chaetognatha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134379|Q35134379]] | [[Amynilyspedida]] | Amynilyspedida | [[pill millipede]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134392|Q35134392]] | [[Dromornithiformes]] | Dromornithiformes | [[Galloanserimorphae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134410|Q35134410]] | [[Capparidales]] | Capparidales | [[Dilleniidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134430|Q35134430]] | [[Comarocystitida]] | Comarocystitida | [[Paracrinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134454|Q35134454]] | [[Ascocystitida]] | Ascocystida<br/>Ascocystitida | [[Eocrinoidea]] | [[File:Ascocystites drabowensis化石.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35134473|Q35134473]] | [[Sabelliditida]] | Sabelliditida | [[Annelida]]<ref name="ref_9370f51ecbf30a250ce0ac7d84fca883d68c409371249be643d34d892d62fcfa">''[[:d:Q17073815|Paleobiology Database]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q35134515|Q35134515]] | [[Belodellida]] | Belodellida | [[Conodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134532|Q35134532]] | [[Lyssakida]] | Lyssakida | [[Hexactinellida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134551|Q35134551]] | [[Acanthothoraciformes]] | Acanthothoraciformes | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134591|Q35134591]] | [[Furcacudiformes]] | Furcacudiformes | [[Pteraspidomorphi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134637|Q35134637]] | [[Protopanderodontida]] | Protopanderodontida | [[Conodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134658|Q35134658]] | [[Cordaitanthales]] | Cordaitanthales | [[Pinopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134680|Q35134680]] | [[Naukatida]] | Naukatida | [[Obolellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134707|Q35134707]] | [[Calcifoliida]] | Calcifoliida | [[Rhodophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134746|Q35134746]] | [[Petalichthyiformes]] | Petalichthyiformes | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134764|Q35134764]] | [[Tetradiida]] | Tetradiida | [[Tabulata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134787|Q35134787]] | [[Ischnacanthida]] | Ischnacanthida | [[Acanthodii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134807|Q35134807]] | [[Sapotales]] | Sapotales<ref name="ref_70bf05e61b2b9bdd016feae33b1d7b5de0ce721d914bd156fd8bd57827c49ae6">''[[:d:Q167402|Australian Plant Name Index]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Dilleniidae]]<br/>[[Primulanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q35134832|Q35134832]] | [[Globorilida]] | Globorilida | [[Calyptoptomatida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134854|Q35134854]] | [[Turrilepadida]] | Turrilepadida | [[Machaeridia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134896|Q35134896]] | [[Gigantopteridales]] | Gigantopteridales | [[Embryophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35134918|Q35134918]] | [[Rhizostomatida]] | Rhizostomatida | [[Scyphozoa]] | [[File:Rhizostomeae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35134940|Q35134940]] | [[Psilophytales]] | Psilophytales | [[Psilophytopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135010|Q35135010]] | [[Sphaeractinida]] | Sphaeractinida | [[Hydrozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135032|Q35135032]] | [[Cyathocystida]] | Cyathocystida | [[Edrioasteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135051|Q35135051]] | [[Uniconomorphitida]] | Uniconomorphitida | [[Trompetoconarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135073|Q35135073]] | [[Ctenocystoida]] | Ctenocystoida | [[Ctenocystoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135094|Q35135094]] | [[Protactinocerida]] | Protactinocerida | [[Cephalopode]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135114|Q35135114]] | [[Platycystitida]] | Platycystitida | [[Paracrinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135136|Q35135136]] | [[Karkeniales]] | Karkeniales | [[Ginkgoopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135157|Q35135157]] | [[Bradyodontida]] | Bradyodontida | [[Chondrichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135180|Q35135180]] | [[Coronatida]] | Coronatida | [[Scyphozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135203|Q35135203]] | [[Kazakhstanicyathida]] | Kazakhstanicyathida | [[Irregulares]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135222|Q35135222]] | [[Yanhecerida]] | Yanhecerida | [[Cephalopode]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135241|Q35135241]] | [[Loligosepiida]] | Loligosepiida | [[Coleoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135259|Q35135259]] | [[Pentoxylales]] | Pentoxylales | [[Ginkgoopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135281|Q35135281]] | [[Prohaleciteiformes]] | Prohaleciteiformes | [[Teleosteomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135303|Q35135303]] | [[Squatinactiformes]] | Squatinactiformes | [[Cladodontomorphi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135326|Q35135326]] | [[Macropetalichthyida]] | Macropetalichthyida | [[Petalichthyida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135347|Q35135347]] | [[Trachylinida]] | Trachylinida | [[Hydrozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135373|Q35135373]] | [[Paleosiphonocladales]] | Paleosiphonocladales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135401|Q35135401]] | [[Haloragidales]] | Haloragidales | [[Rosidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135421|Q35135421]] | [[Rhenaniformes]] | Rhenaniformes | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135441|Q35135441]] | [[Naraoiida]] | Naraoiida | [[Trilobita]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135459|Q35135459]] | [[Fortiforcipida]] | Fortiforcipida | [[Megacheira]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135481|Q35135481]] | [[Anetshelloida]] | Anetshelloida | [[Rostroconchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135499|Q35135499]] | [[Semaeostomatida]] | Semaeostomatida | [[Scyphozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135521|Q35135521]] | [[Pseudoscorpionida]] | Pseudoscorpionida | [[arachnido]] | [[File:Baltic amber-Arachnida,Pseudoscorpion4.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35135545|Q35135545]] | [[Phanerozonida]] | Phanerozonida | [[Asteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135571|Q35135571]] | [[Lagenostomales]] | Lagenostomales | [[Cycadopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135594|Q35135594]] | [[Coleoloida]] | Coleoloida | [[Problematica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135612|Q35135612]] | [[Hercolepadida]] | Hercolepadida | [[Machaeridia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135632|Q35135632]] | [[Stensioellida]] | Stensioellida | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135651|Q35135651]] | [[Yohoiida]] | Yohoiida | [[Megacheira]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135671|Q35135671]] | [[Dioales]] | Dioales | [[Cycadopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135688|Q35135688]] | [[Boletzkida]] | Boletzkida | [[Cephalopode]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135707|Q35135707]] | [[Volborthellida]] | Volborthellida | [[Problematica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135728|Q35135728]] | [[Paiutiida]] | Paiutiida | [[Problematica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135748|Q35135748]] | [[Acanthinocyathida]] | Acanthinocyathida | [[Regulares]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135766|Q35135766]] | [[Cladoselachida]] | Cladoselachida | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135785|Q35135785]] | [[Cooksoniales]] | Cooksoniales | [[Zosterophyllopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135823|Q35135823]] | [[Olbiaspidida]] | Olbiaspidida | [[Heterostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135841|Q35135841]] | [[Asterothecales]] | Asterothecales | [[Marattiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135859|Q35135859]] | [[Nuculiformes]] | Nuculiformes | [[Nuculiformii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135878|Q35135878]] | [[Trigonocarpales]] | Trigonocarpales | [[Cycadopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135898|Q35135898]] | [[Orstenocarida]] | Orstenocarida | [[Pancrustacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q51310074|Q51310074]] | [[Ophiacanthida]] | Ophiacanthida<ref name="ref_ca1c4c73c5930d273c374f5f9e995f2b437afe9ccddfa76443531df046eaf070">''[[:d:Q36219626|Restructuring higher taxonomy using broad-scale phylogenomics: The living Ophiuroidea]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[Ophintegrida]]<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Ophiure noire à la Réunion.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51310079|Q51310079]] | [[Ophioleucida]] | Ophioleucida<ref name="ref_ca1c4c73c5930d273c374f5f9e995f2b437afe9ccddfa76443531df046eaf070">''[[:d:Q36219626|Restructuring higher taxonomy using broad-scale phylogenomics: The living Ophiuroidea]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[Ophintegrida]]<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Ophiernus seminudus (MNHN-IE-2013-10245) 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51310084|Q51310084]] | [[Ophioscolecida]] | Ophioscolecida<ref name="ref_ca1c4c73c5930d273c374f5f9e995f2b437afe9ccddfa76443531df046eaf070">''[[:d:Q36219626|Restructuring higher taxonomy using broad-scale phylogenomics: The living Ophiuroidea]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[Ophintegrida]]<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Ophiomyces frutectosus (MNHN-IE-2013-10282) 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51526792|Q51526792]] | [[Ortervirales]] | Ortervirales<ref name="ref_cd46295b4c9aa5e90d4a7a8fd52beff93613dee877af94aabbc087f0419672e8">''[[:d:Q51526638|ICTV Master Species List 2017 v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Revtraviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:HI-virión.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51765823|Q51765823]] | [[Cariacotrichida]] | Cariacotrichida<ref name="ref_49c5113b1f6c883d3cc7843a5b9a3147837b4dc8b87ec9c6e2d6ce50a5b978e1">''[[:d:Q45321879|Class Cariacotrichea, a novel ciliate taxon from the anoxic Cariaco Basin, Venezuela.]]''</ref> | [[Cariacotrichea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q52658711|Q52658711]] | [[Ingolfiellida]] | Ingolfiellida | [[Peracarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q52658981|Q52658981]] | [[Tirisporellales]] | Tirisporellales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q52658982|Q52658982]] | [[Togniniales]] | Togniniales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | [[File:Phaeoacremonium ovale (10.3897-mycokeys.41.27536) Figure 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q52708197|Q52708197]] | [[Myrmecridiales]] | Myrmecridiales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | [[File:Myrmecridium schulzeri.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q52766908|Q52766908]] | [[Phomatosporales]] | Phomatosporales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q53315331|Q53315331]] | [[Falcocladiales]] | Falcocladiales | [[Hypocreomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q53564970|Q53564970]] | [[Rictida]] | Rictida | [[Rictidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q53818214|Q53818214]] | [[Aphelidiales]] | Aphelidiales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Aphelidiomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q53988922|Q53988922]] | [[Physodermatales]] | Physodermatales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Physodermatomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q53988963|Q53988963]] | [[Sanchytriales]] | Sanchytriales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Sanchytriomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q54069438|Q54069438]] | [[Calcarisporiellales]] | Calcarisporiellales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Calcarisporiellomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q54281914|Q54281914]] | [[Barbatosporales]] | Barbatosporales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Barbatosporomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q54653001|Q54653001]] | [[Olpidiales]] | Olpidiales | [[Olpidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q54763173|Q54763173]] | [[Eugeroptera]] | Eugeroptera<ref name="ref_756c75874c25e5e95891c28245b7cd715daa97e2217af118b4bc0333b7086f4b">''[[:d:Q110201126|New basal Odonatoptera (Insecta) from the lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian) of Argentina]]''</ref> | [[Odonatoptera]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref><ref name="ref_756c75874c25e5e95891c28245b7cd715daa97e2217af118b4bc0333b7086f4b">''[[:d:Q110201126|New basal Odonatoptera (Insecta) from the lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian) of Argentina]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q54824881|Q54824881]] | [[Kukaloptera]] | Kukaloptera<ref name="ref_756c75874c25e5e95891c28245b7cd715daa97e2217af118b4bc0333b7086f4b">''[[:d:Q110201126|New basal Odonatoptera (Insecta) from the lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian) of Argentina]]''</ref> | [[Palaeodonatoptera]]<ref name="ref_756c75874c25e5e95891c28245b7cd715daa97e2217af118b4bc0333b7086f4b">''[[:d:Q110201126|New basal Odonatoptera (Insecta) from the lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian) of Argentina]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Kirchnerala treintamil.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q54942819|Q54942819]] | [[Ramicandelaberales]] | Ramicandelaberales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Ramicandelaberomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q55606458|Q55606458]] | [[Callionymiformes]] | Callionymiformes | [[Percomorpha]] | [[File:Callionymus lyra 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q55613370|Q55613370]] | [[Haplobothriidea]] | Haplobothriidea | [[Eucestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q55706362|Q55706362]] | [[Chrysomonadida]] | Chrysomonadida | [[Phytomastigoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q55719113|Q55719113]] | [[Sporidesmiales]] | Sporidesmiales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q55757778|Q55757778]] | [[Dolichomicrostomida]] | Dolichomicrostomida | [[Macrostomorpha]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q56045524|Q56045524]] | [[Xylobotryales]] | Xylobotryales | [[Xylobotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56071470|Q56071470]] | [[Argentinoptera]] | Argentinoptera<ref name="ref_756c75874c25e5e95891c28245b7cd715daa97e2217af118b4bc0333b7086f4b">''[[:d:Q110201126|New basal Odonatoptera (Insecta) from the lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian) of Argentina]]''</ref> | [[Plesiodonatoptera]]<ref name="ref_756c75874c25e5e95891c28245b7cd715daa97e2217af118b4bc0333b7086f4b">''[[:d:Q110201126|New basal Odonatoptera (Insecta) from the lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian) of Argentina]]''</ref> | [[File:Argentinala cristinae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56254531|Q56254531]] | [[Ateleaspidiformes]] | Ateleaspidiformes | [[Osteostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56315980|Q56315980]] | [[Cheilostomatida]] | Cheilostomatida | [[Gymnolaemata]] | [[File:Sertella septentrionalis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56317121|Q56317121]] | [[Holothuriida]] | Holothuriida<ref name="ref_74e031573bdba5450912104f761e0cc4ad9c3599875851aee7a87f5e0f71800e">''[[:d:Q131405017|A report of sea cucumbers collected on the first dedicated deep-sea biological survey of Australia’s Indian Ocean Territories around Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Actinopoda]] | [[File:Actinopyga echinites1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56317646|Q56317646]] | [[Soluta]] | Soluta | [[Homoiostelea]] | [[File:Castericystis sprinklei - MHNT - Millard County, Utha, USA.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56317648|Q56317648]] | [[Cincta]] | Cincta | [[Homostelea]] | [[File:Trochocystites bohemicus with stem.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56326610|Q56326610]] | [[Dapediiformes]] | Dapediiformes | [[Holostei]] | [[File:Dapedium politum Naturalis.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56394861|Q56394861]] | [[Torpedosporales]] | Torpedosporales | [[Hypocreomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56421437|Q56421437]] | [[Conioscyphales]] | Conioscyphales | [[Savoryellomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56421440|Q56421440]] | [[Fuscosporellales]] | Fuscosporellales | [[Savoryellomycetidae]] | [[File:Parafuscosporella obovata diversity-13-00517-g003.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56421445|Q56421445]] | [[Pisorisporiales]] | Pisorisporiales | [[Pisorisporiomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56446880|Q56446880]] | [[Pleurotheciales]] | Pleurotheciales | [[Savoryellomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56446884|Q56446884]] | [[Savoryellales]] | Savoryellales | [[Savoryellomycetidae]] | [[File:Savoryella lignicola.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56479261|Q56479261]] | [[Protodonata]] | Protodonata | [[Holodonata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56675978|Q56675978]] | [[Parmulariales]] | Parmulariales<ref name="ref_0eaffd4ddbc2e6aa07c15ec8d6b8f6c53b5e83e369c75c2af656141676fdfd07">''[[:d:Q59679145|Studies on Parmulariaceae I. A phylogeny based on available sequence data; introducing Parmulariales ord. nov., and Hemigraphaceae, Melaspileellaceae and Stictographaceae fam. nov]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Placosoma nothopanacis 27144636.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56751113|Q56751113]] | [[Cladoriellales]] | Cladoriellales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56751124|Q56751124]] | [[Murramarangomycetales]] | Murramarangomycetales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56751130|Q56751130]] | [[Pararamichloridiales]] | Pararamichloridiales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56751135|Q56751135]] | [[Pseudodactylariales]] | Pseudodactylariales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56755423|Q56755423]] | [[Threskiornithiformes]] | Threskiornithiformes | [[Neognathae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q57263003|Q57263003]] | [[Aplysiida]] | Aplysiida | [[Euthyneura]] | [[File:Aplysia californica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q57312297|Q57312297]] | [[Sclerococcales]] | Sclerococcales | [[Sclerococcomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q57412133|Q57412133]] | [[Orthodontiales]] | Orthodontiales | [[Bryanae]] | [[File:Orthodontium.lineare.-.lindsey.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q57442734|Q57442734]] | [[Acochlidacea]] | Acochlidacea | [[Opisthobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q57741758|Q57741758]] | [[Muvirales]] | Muvirales<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Chunqiuviricetes]]<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q57742139|Q57742139]] | [[Serpentovirales]] | Serpentovirales<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Milneviricetes]]<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q57743230|Q57743230]] | [[Jingchuvirales]] | Jingchuvirales<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Monjiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q57743262|Q57743262]] | [[Goujianvirales]] | Goujianvirales<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Yunchangviricetes]]<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q57743271|Q57743271]] | [[Articulavirales]] | Articulavirales<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Insthoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q58033294|Q58033294]] | [[Tracyllalales]] | Tracyllalales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q58044089|Q58044089]] | [[Coprothermobacterales]] | Coprothermobacterales<ref name="ref_5adebfffdd6e1a7375f0d21bc4d1d54f640873304318658c72f86dbab967138f">''[[:d:Q51143933|Proposal for a new classification of a deep branching bacterial phylogenetic lineage: transfer of Coprothermobacter proteolyticus and Coprothermobacter platensis to Coprothermobacteraceae fam. nov., within Coprothermobacterales ord. nov., Coprotherm]]''</ref><ref name="ref_37d054a4c8cde52029f709d9b663c8f23a78e4822a90332b4b620aec5f0920e1">''[[:d:Q60164468|Notification that new names of prokaryotes, new combinations, and new taxonomic opinions have appeared in volume 68, part 5, of the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Coprothermobacteria]]<ref name="ref_5adebfffdd6e1a7375f0d21bc4d1d54f640873304318658c72f86dbab967138f">''[[:d:Q51143933|Proposal for a new classification of a deep branching bacterial phylogenetic lineage: transfer of Coprothermobacter proteolyticus and Coprothermobacter platensis to Coprothermobacteraceae fam. nov., within Coprothermobacterales ord. nov., Coprotherm]]''</ref><ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q58192325|Q58192325]] | [[Trochida]] | Trochida | [[Vetigastropoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q58376904|Q58376904]] | [[Lepetellida]] | Lepetellida | [[Vetigastropoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Haliotis lamellosa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q58376950|Q58376950]] | [[Seguenziida]] | Seguenziida | [[Vetigastropoda]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q58834670|Q58834670]] | [[Amphisphaeriales]] | Amphisphaeriales | [[Xylariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q58834703|Q58834703]] | [[Xenospadicoidales]] | Xenospadicoidales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q58897196|Q58897196]] | [[Glugeida]] | Glugeida | [[Microsporidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q59257373|Q59257373]] | [[Nephridiophagales]] | Nephridiophagales | [[Chytridiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q59514678|Q59514678]] | [[Bicosoecida]] | Bicosoecida | [[Cyathobodoniae]] | [[File:Cafeteria roenbergensis FENCHEL and D J PATTERSON schematic drawing.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q59654245|Q59654245]] | [[Cossurida]] | Cossurida | [[Scolecida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q59660560|Q59660560]] | [[Protodrilida]] | Protodrilida | [[Polychaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60230735|Q60230735]] | [[Neocelosporiales]] | Neocelosporiales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60477980|Q60477980]] | [[Cycloneritida]] | Cycloneritida | [[Neritimorpha]] | [[File:Nerita plicata 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60499593|Q60499593]] | [[Caproiformes]] | Caproiformes<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_137bf6360cd8b91cec0697729a484439e783d9c60defd2ff2eb49ad0a4609190">''[[:d:Q27721031|Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Boarfish (Capros aper).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60499665|Q60499665]] | [[Priacanthiformes]] | Priacanthiformes<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f4829663dd7a24c25c607891807ca1fb53414cf9d0e12fd7458ffac92eb794f">''[[:d:Q51444567|Atlas ichthyologique des Indes orientales néêrlandaises : publié sous les auspices du gouvernement colonial néêrlandais]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Crescent-tail bigeye, Priacanthus hamrur, at Elphinstone Reef, Red Sea, Egypt -SCUBA (6180750282).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60499707|Q60499707]] | [[Lobotiformes]] | Lobotiformes | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Lobotes surinamensis Ford 21.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60499781|Q60499781]] | [[Gerreiformes]] | Gerreiformes<ref name="ref_f3cd2deb3f2a08b0af060ca6fc31cfc0387088f3a6847ee87839ee2553e4c587">''[[:d:Q5656891|Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Indo-Neerlandicae]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60499998|Q60499998]] | [[Lutjaniformes]] | Lutjaniformes<ref name="ref_2fbcd70ea6d1f1a9dd2c82d60977f1fbcfff272c39807353423621a7bbf1e93a">''[[:d:Q172266|Biodiversity Heritage Library]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Bigeye Snappers (Lutjanus lutjanus) (6124107622).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60500115|Q60500115]] | [[Acanthuriformes]] | Acanthuriformes<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><br/>[[Teleostei]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Pez cirujano azul cielo (Acanthurus leucosternon), Zanzíbar, Tanzania, 2024-05-29, DD 90.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60500300|Q60500300]] | [[Chaetodontiformes]] | Chaetodontiformes<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f3cd2deb3f2a08b0af060ca6fc31cfc0387088f3a6847ee87839ee2553e4c587">''[[:d:Q5656891|Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Indo-Neerlandicae]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Chaetodon melannotus edit.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60500655|Q60500655]] | [[Pempheriformes]] | Pempheriformes<ref name="ref_f0113f25e45ce800a5912c8d6a11f36d19f48bdbd918313b0761ddf499147e46">''[[:d:Q21090249|The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Pempheris vanicolensis Karpathos.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60500706|Q60500706]] | [[Labriformes]] | Labriformes | [[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Labrus merula 03-12-06 (Stefano Guerrieri).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60582552|Q60582552]] | [[Stiassnyiformes]] | Stiassnyiformes<ref name="ref_100da085a9b70fc501060dbfefd985ebd4f71e890900e597114b1c121ec361f8">''[[:d:Q33390062|RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny]]''</ref> | [[Percomorpha]] | [[File:Gelege pflegende perculas.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60610511|Q60610511]] | [[Herpomycetales]] | Herpomycetales | [[Laboulbeniomycetes]] | [[File:Female thallus of Herpomyces chaetophilus, scale bar 100 μm.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60610522|Q60610522]] | [[Parasympodiellales]] | Parasympodiellales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60610531|Q60610531]] | [[Spathulosporales]] | Spathulosporales<ref name="ref_7e0c637848e1db6d243c2227935970b19db8a4762e00f30bc69a385e75a36bf7">''[[:d:Q99886417|Spathulosporales, a New Order and Possible Missing Link between Laboulbeniales and Pyrenomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60613116|Q60613116]] | [[Blenniiformes]] | Blenniiformes<ref name="ref_a051e33592281cdd8168a7cb9c91b7bae6f1bfaba3b754dd2fe75e352e48ebb5">''[[:d:Q33883775|Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f3cd2deb3f2a08b0af060ca6fc31cfc0387088f3a6847ee87839ee2553e4c587">''[[:d:Q5656891|Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Indo-Neerlandicae]]''</ref><ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f3cd2deb3f2a08b0af060ca6fc31cfc0387088f3a6847ee87839ee2553e4c587">''[[:d:Q5656891|Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Indo-Neerlandicae]]''</ref> | [[Ovalentaria]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Ophioblennius steindachneri.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60621979|Q60621979]] | [[Vermiculariopsiellales]] | Vermiculariopsiellales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60730928|Q60730928]] | [[Symbiotaphrinales]] | Symbiotaphrinales | [[Xylonomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60732129|Q60732129]] | [[Protacrodontiformes]] | Protacrodontiformes<ref name="ref_e15368fd420c777ba2608cb300ef96bc5cf521014a821d17ae2db180d989550d">''[[:d:Q60731916|Fishes of the World]]''</ref> | [[Euselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60752698|Q60752698]] | [[Silvanigrellales]] | Silvanigrellales<ref name="ref_213dabdcf54779be959c54079ac39216721c72adf7d01a0e8266adca50124209">''[[:d:Q38644756|Silvanigrella aquatica gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from a freshwater lake, description of Silvanigrellaceae fam. nov. and Silvanigrellales ord. nov., reclassification of the order Bdellovibrionales in the class Oligoflexia, reclassification of the]]''</ref> | [[Oligoflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q60974835|Q60974835]] | [[Graphidales]] | Graphidales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | [[File:Graphis scripta.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60974866|Q60974866]] | [[Sporastatiales]] | Sporastatiales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Lecanoromycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60974868|Q60974868]] | [[Stomiatiformes]] | Stomiatiformes | [[Stomiati]] | | |- | [[:d:Q60982686|Q60982686]] | [[Orbiniida]] | Orbiniida | [[Polychaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61014058|Q61014058]] | [[Schaereriales]] | Schaereriales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | [[File:Schaereria fuscocinerea 50-Digulleville,Jardeheu 2015-05-30 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q61014061|Q61014061]] | [[Thelenellales]] | Thelenellales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61041696|Q61041696]] | [[Siphonariida]] | Siphonariida | [[Siphonarimorpha]] | [[File:Siphonaria normalis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q61484133|Q61484133]] | [[Proplicastomata]] | Proplicastomata | [[Turbellarios|Turbellaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61593831|Q61593831]] | [[Trichinellida]] | Trichinellida | [[Dorylaimia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61677352|Q61677352]] | [[Tectibranchiata]] | Tectibranchiata | [[Tectipleura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61677362|Q61677362]] | [[Ellobiida]] | Ellobiida | [[Eupulmonata]] | [[File:Kuriirokomimi0903-1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q61677364|Q61677364]] | [[Runcinida]] | Runcinida | [[Tectipleura]] | [[File:Runcina brenkoae (10.3989-scimar.04907.07A) Figure 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q27677911|Q27677911]] | [[Holtermanniales]] | Holtermanniales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27677912|Q27677912]] | [[Trichosporonales]] | Trichosporonales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27892666|Q27892666]] | [[Capsulocyathida]] | Capsulocyathida | [[Regulares]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27923225|Q27923225]] | [[Golubeviales]] | Golubeviales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27923228|Q27923228]] | [[Robbauerales]] | Robbauerales | [[Exobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27923232|Q27923232]] | [[Uleiellales]] | Uleiellales | [[Ustilaginomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27925921|Q27925921]] | [[Unilacrymales]] | Unilacrymales | [[Dacrymycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27973071|Q27973071]] | [[Abrothallales]] | Abrothallales | [[Ascomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28038324|Q28038324]] | [[Cyphobasidiales]] | Cyphobasidiales | [[Cystobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28042943|Q28042943]] | [[Hygrophila]] | Hygrophila | [[Pulmonata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28052234|Q28052234]] | [[Geminibasidiales]] | Geminibasidiales | [[Geminibasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28052315|Q28052315]] | [[Talbotiomycetales]] | Talbotiomycetales<ref name="ref_05400cb1b2d84eba140c1d460d381a16ea33ac7a71d74a1a004bd7fcc5fcf85f">''[[:d:Q40704760|Identification of a new order of root-colonising fungi in the Entorrhizomycota: Talbotiomycetales ord. nov. on eudicotyledons]]''</ref> | [[Entorrhizomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28547221|Q28547221]] | [[Sachitida]] | Sachitida | [[Diplacophora]]<br/>[[Molluscos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28647026|Q28647026]] | [[Erniettamorpha]] | Erniettamorpha | [[Eumetazoa]]<br/>[[Petalonamae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28757963|Q28757963]] | [[Aethiocarenodea]] | Aethiocarenodea<ref name="ref_100b3e8d487a643c269f7ad04ed9a81b064cec6e03eabe8e3235bca56c3f15d8">''[[:d:Q56619445|An exotic insect Aethiocarenus burmanicus gen. et sp. nov. (Aethiocarenodea ord. nov., Aethiocarenidae fam. nov.) from mid-Cretaceous Myanmar amber]]''</ref> | [[Neoptera]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Aethiocarenus burmanicus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28777772|Q28777772]] | [[Methylacidiphilales]] | Methylacidiphilales | [[Verrucomicrobiota]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q28788037|Q28788037]] | [[Gromochytriales]] | Gromochytriales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c826663b87a1c09f185039d2c3743ebba7af83b032eec973536986e5d7252337">''[[:d:Q30855745|Gromochytrium mamkaevae gen. & sp. nov. and two new orders: Gromochytriales and Mesochytriales (Chytridiomycetes).]]''</ref> | [[Chytridiomycetes]]<br/>[[Mesochytriomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q28801489|Q28801489]] | [[Polychytriales]] | Polychytriales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Chytridiomycetes]]<br/>[[Polychytriomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q28805644|Q28805644]] | [[Discoasterales]] | Discoasterales | [[Haptophyta]] | [[File:Discoaster 02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28813590|Q28813590]] | [[Branchiostomatida]] | Branchiostomatida | [[Leptocardii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28837761|Q28837761]] | [[Harpochytriales]] | Harpochytriales | [[Monoblepharidomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28837762|Q28837762]] | [[Hyaloraphidiales]] | Hyaloraphidiales | [[Hyaloraphidiomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q28870176|Q28870176]] | [[Diatrymiformes]] | Diatrymiformes | [[Galloanserimorphae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28870387|Q28870387]] | [[Remiornithiformes]] | Remiornithiformes | [[Palaeognathae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28870486|Q28870486]] | [[Gobipterygiformes]] | Gobipterygiformes<ref name="ref_4c5937d1dca78eedeb2b48477509079c0a4ba9ee7c5652365492acfd9c1afcc3">''[[:d:Q137900386|Preliminary note on the palaeognathous bird from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b9b6e328b0dc62f9b812bfa0e3714a3d057d05961c4d0d46105a70ce4dfc551e">https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=39252</ref> | [[Ornithurae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28872069|Q28872069]] | [[Coniocybales]] | Coniocybales | [[Coniocybomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28872070|Q28872070]] | [[Collemopsidiales]] | Collemopsidiales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d03344640ae16116577b8b6ed84ba8eb0d22152ac762e2adc85b7df9dc29a90b">''[[:d:Q54795804|Hidden diversity of marine borderline lichens and a new order of fungi: Collemopsidiales (Dothideomyceta)]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]]<br/>[[Collemopsidiomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q28872073|Q28872073]] | [[Monoblastiales]] | Monoblastiales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Anisomeridium biforme (Stinzenkorst) - Katwijk, Coepelduyn, NL v3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28872075|Q28872075]] | [[Phaeomoniellales]] | Phaeomoniellales | [[Chaetothyriomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28872079|Q28872079]] | [[Caliciales]] | Caliciales | [[Lecanoromycetidae]] | [[File:Shrub Stubble Lichen (2298099580).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28872080|Q28872080]] | [[Arctomiales]] | Arctomiales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28872083|Q28872083]] | [[Hymeneliales]] | Hymeneliales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28872087|Q28872087]] | [[Thelocarpales]] | Thelocarpales | [[Pezizomycotina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28872088|Q28872088]] | [[Vezdaeales]] | Vezdaeales | [[Pezizomycotina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28912442|Q28912442]] | [[Triadotiaroida]] | Triadotiaroida | [[Echinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q28970519|Q28970519]] | [[Actinodontida]] | Actinodontida | [[Archiheterodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29000551|Q29000551]] | [[Bunyavirales]] | Elliovirales<ref name="ref_3f927e7e1b3723f211bfdc7bd045db12bd099878d7886fe0e82a0133741d089b">''[[:d:Q134471649|ICTV Master Species List 2023.v4]]''</ref> | [[Ellioviricetes]]<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Rift Valley fever tissue.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29256893|Q29256893]] | [[Rhaptothyreida]] | Rhaptothyreida | [[Enoplea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29312216|Q29312216]] | [[Mesochytriales]] | Mesochytriales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c826663b87a1c09f185039d2c3743ebba7af83b032eec973536986e5d7252337">''[[:d:Q30855745|Gromochytrium mamkaevae gen. & sp. nov. and two new orders: Gromochytriales and Mesochytriales (Chytridiomycetes).]]''</ref> | [[Chytridiomycota]]<br/>[[Mesochytriomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q29388215|Q29388215]] | [[Lichenostigmatales]] | Lichenostigmatales | [[Arthoniomycetes]] | [[File:Lichenostigma cosmopolites 143712.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29457836|Q29457836]] | [[Stylephoriformes]] | Stylephoriformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Actinopterygii]]<br/>[[Gadariae]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[File:Stylephorus chordatus 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29476624|Q29476624]] | [[Asterinales]] | Asterinales | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29515174|Q29515174]] | [[Stschapoviales]] | Stschapoviales<ref name="ref_e4646ef48486262398f4d3cfaba400d6a406dd7e9bb0459d73d010bf7dfd5d9c">''[[:d:Q28597843|Molecular phylogeny of two unusual brown algae, Phaeostrophion irregulare and Platysiphon glacialis, proposal of the Stschapoviales ord. nov. and Platysiphonaceae fam. nov., and a re-examination of divergence times for brown algal orders]]''</ref> | [[Phaeophyceae]] | [[File:Halosiphon tomentosus Crouan.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29515181|Q29515181]] | [[Asterotexiales]] | Asterotexiales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29560321|Q29560321]] | [[Squamocutida]] | Squamocutida<ref name="ref_3d592a1adab2bec71ec950ab003d8e8298fb51ddbd4091cd68be40e3ae11892d">''[[:d:Q28601015|187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution]]''</ref> | [[Cutosea]]<ref name="ref_3d592a1adab2bec71ec950ab003d8e8298fb51ddbd4091cd68be40e3ae11892d">''[[:d:Q28601015|187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q29876893|Q29876893]] | [[Myida]] | Myida | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Mya arenaria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29876901|Q29876901]] | [[Pholadida]] | Pholadida | [[Pholadiformii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29877020|Q29877020]] | [[Nuculanida]] | Nuculanida | [[Protobranchia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Acila cobboldiae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29877127|Q29877127]] | [[Arcida]] | Arcida | [[Pteriomorphia]] | [[File:AnadaraPliocene.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29877378|Q29877378]] | [[Megalodontida]] | Megalodontida | [[Imparidentia]] | [[File:Megalodon shell.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29877474|Q29877474]] | [[Hippuritida]] | Hippuritida | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q29913663|Q29913663]] | [[Dyfrolomycetales]] | Dyfrolomycetales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29913690|Q29913690]] | [[Lichenoconiales]] | Lichenoconiales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29913692|Q29913692]] | [[Lichenotheliales]] | Lichenotheliales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:2012-03-28 Lichenostigma saxicola K. Knudsen & Kocourk 208668.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q29980529|Q29980529]] | [[Minutisphaerales]] | Minutisphaerales<ref name="ref_cb757eb6f994a6e29010d9fa401fdb5bd030732cef4de5f623232c6eeb47b042">''[[:d:Q30990421|Minutisphaerales (Dothideomycetes, Ascomycota): a new order of freshwater ascomycetes including a new family, Minutisphaeraceae, and two new species from North Carolina, USA.]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29994916|Q29994916]] | [[Muyocopronales]] | Muyocopronales<ref name="ref_f2a55d4e4232dcd66a40918db24dd821e881529a07fb22a45724e47bda7d5cec">''[[:d:Q28945133|Muyocopronales, ord. nov., (Dothideomycetes, Ascomycota) and a reappraisal of Muyocopron species from northern Thailand]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Muyocopron-castanopsis-holotype-a-c-Superficial-ascomata-on-substrate-d-e-Squash.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30004777|Q30004777]] | [[Hapalidiales]] | Hapalidiales<ref name="ref_5f5f304a29eaee25e9ec6698e27d05d37f42388b45507febcd132d5a9b3ff6bc">''[[:d:Q31059607|Multi-gene phylogenetic analyses of New Zealand coralline algae: Corallinapetra Novaezelandiae gen. et sp. nov. and recognition of the Hapalidiales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Corallinophycidae]] | [[File:Hapalidiaceae - Mesophyllum expansum.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30012568|Q30012568]] | [[Natipusillales]] | Natipusillales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30016996|Q30016996]] | [[Entwisleiales]] | Entwisleiales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30017010|Q30017010]] | [[Atractophorales]] | Atractophorales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30017043|Q30017043]] | [[Catenellopsidales]] | Catenellopsidales | [[Rhodymeniophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30227692|Q30227692]] | [[Phaeotrichales]] | Phaeotrichales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:2014-02-21 Trichodelitschia bisporula (P. Crouan & H. Crouan) Munk 405083.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30587689|Q30587689]] | [[Araneida]] | Araneida | [[arachnido]]<br/>[[Serikodiastida]] | [[File:Araneida 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30593916|Q30593916]] | [[Favositida]] | Favositida | [[Tabulata]] | [[File:FavositesOrdovicianIndiana.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30913065|Q30913065]] | [[Aegotheliformes]] | Aegotheliformes<ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Neoaves]] | [[File:603 aegotheles.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30914573|Q30914573]] | [[Discocelida]] | Discocelida | [[Imbricatea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30942006|Q30942006]] | [[Taenioglossa]] | Taenioglossa | [[Gastropodos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30943651|Q30943651]] | [[Taxodonta]] | Taxodonta | [[Bivalvos]] | [[File:Barnea candida-Nl2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30951036|Q30951036]] | [[Heterogastropoda]] | Heterogastropoda | [[Orthogastropoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q31270314|Q31270314]] | [[Buckleyzymales]] | Buckleyzymales | [[Cystobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q31270315|Q31270315]] | [[Sakaguchiales]] | Sakaguchiales | [[Cystobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q31836167|Q31836167]] | [[Trachichthyiformes]] | Trachichthyiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Berycimorphaceae]] | [[File:Hoplostethus mediterraneus mediterraneus Sardinia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q32824633|Q32824633]] | [[Cardiida]] | Cardiida | [[Imparidentia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Strigilla carnaria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q32849575|Q32849575]] | [[Stigmatodiscales]] | Stigmatodiscales<ref name="ref_ab5ef541f8e6a333862442f6c91a0e7bb4ddc7082cc3a87d88543d612c39b72a">''[[:d:Q28821334|Asterodiscus and Stigmatodiscus, two new apothecial dothideomycete genera and the new order Stigmatodiscales]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q32849577|Q32849577]] | [[Superstratomycetales]] | Superstratomycetales<ref name="ref_75895ea89310f61dbacb519d89db485cebe4381e3971ff984bba9682bd86c234">''[[:d:Q28818403|Wood staining fungi revealed taxonomic novelties in Pezizomycotina: New order Superstratomycetales and new species Cyanodermella oleoligni]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q32868240|Q32868240]] | [[Tubeufiales]] | Tubeufiales | [[Dothideomycetes]]<br/>[[Pleosporomycetidae]] | [[File:Tubeufia roraimensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q32945414|Q32945414]] | [[Mikrocytida]] | Mikrocytida<ref name="ref_c2aba0f51fb62462d55a43dd7602b69261bc7493573886970ec463c875601bd7">''[[:d:Q28111743|Mikrocytids Are a Broadly Distributed and Divergent Radiation of Parasites in Aquatic Invertebrates]]''</ref> | [[Ascetosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q32945416|Q32945416]] | [[Protosporangida]] | Protosporangida<ref name="ref_3d592a1adab2bec71ec950ab003d8e8298fb51ddbd4091cd68be40e3ae11892d">''[[:d:Q28601015|187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution]]''</ref> | [[Amoebozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q32990444|Q32990444]] | [[Valsariales]] | Valsariales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q33014980|Q33014980]] | [[Caryophanales]] | Caryophanales | [[Bacilli]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bacillus coagulans 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q33033646|Q33033646]] | [[Zeloasperisporiales]] | Zeloasperisporiales<ref name="ref_4dee41c5fa5e934bb8edfdbc23cce43728c41e45f75c4304841707a569838ab4">''[[:d:Q54500361|Zeloasperisporiales ord. nov., and Two New Species ofZeloasperisporium]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q33062137|Q33062137]] | [[Aulacomniales]] | Aulacomniales | [[Bryidae]] | [[File:Aulacomnium palustre1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q33120782|Q33120782]] | [[Tarachoptera]] | Tarachoptera | [[Endopterygota]] | [[File:Tarachocelis microlepidopterella holotype.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q33176250|Q33176250]] | [[Sphaeronitida]] | Sphaeronitida | [[Diploporita]] | | |- | [[:d:Q33181010|Q33181010]] | [[Desmothoracida]] | Desmothoracida | [[Granofilosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q33225219|Q33225219]] | [[Dictyosteliales]] | Dictyosteliales | [[Dictyosteliomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q34445736|Q34445736]] | [[Placidiales]] | Placidiales | [[Bicoecea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q34613085|Q34613085]] | [[Conodontophorida]] | Conodontophorida | [[Conodonta]] | [[File:Venomous conodonts.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35132691|Q35132691]] | [[Labechiida]] | Labechiida | [[Stromatoporoidea]] | [[File:Labechia sp. (fossil stromatoporoid sponge) (Elkhorn Formation, Upper Ordovician; south of Dayton, Ohio, USA) 4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35133346|Q35133346]] | [[Blattida]] | Blattida | [[Dictyoptera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133372|Q35133372]] | [[Spiriferinida]] | Spiriferinida | [[Rhynchonellata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133395|Q35133395]] | [[Astartida]] | Astartida | [[Lucinidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133436|Q35133436]] | [[Papilionida]] | Papilionida | [[Amphiesmenoptera]] | [[File:Papilio peranthus kangean MHNT dos.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35133459|Q35133459]] | [[Michelinoceratida]] | Michelinoceratida | [[Orthoceratoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133484|Q35133484]] | [[Sinoceratida]] | Sinoceratida | [[Orthoceratoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133508|Q35133508]] | [[Auloporida]] | Auloporida | [[Tabulata]] | [[File:Geodized auloporid coral mass (Fort Payne Formation, Lower Mississippian; Rt. 61 roadcut, north of Burkesville, Kentucky, USA) 2 (42369558312).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35133531|Q35133531]] | [[Podorhabdales]] | Podorhabdales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133553|Q35133553]] | [[Eiffellithales]] | Eiffellithales | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133577|Q35133577]] | [[Trichechiformes]] | Trichechiformes | [[Tethytheria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35133603|Q35133603]] | [[Archinacellida]] | Archinacellida | [[Tergomya]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135923|Q35135923]] | [[Acanthodida]] | Acanthodida | [[Acanthodii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135944|Q35135944]] | [[Longirostravisiformes]] | Longirostravisiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135976|Q35135976]] | [[Pholidichthyiformes]] | Pholidichthyiformes | [[Cichlomorphae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35135990|Q35135990]] | [[Pygasteroida]] | Pygasteroida | [[Diadematacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136004|Q35136004]] | [[Emeraldellida]] | Emeraldellida | [[Merostomoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136016|Q35136016]] | [[Apsaraviformes]] | Apsaraviformes | [[Euenantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136035|Q35136035]] | [[Xenacanthida]] | Xenacanthida | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136054|Q35136054]] | [[Boluochiformes]] | Boluochiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136076|Q35136076]] | [[Protopterygiformes]] | Protopterygiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136098|Q35136098]] | [[Galaxiiformes]] | Galaxiiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Protacanthopterygii]]<br/>[[Actinopteri]]<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q35136119|Q35136119]] | [[Rahonaviformes]] | Rahonaviformes | [[Euenantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136141|Q35136141]] | [[Galeiformes]] | Galeiformes | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136159|Q35136159]] | [[Steloxylales]] | Steloxylales | [[Cladoxylopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136183|Q35136183]] | [[Dalatiiformes]] | Dalatiiformes | [[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136202|Q35136202]] | [[Amphiaspidiformes]] | Amphiaspidiformes | [[Heterostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136223|Q35136223]] | [[Zosterophyllales]] | Zosterophyllales | [[Zosterophyllopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136241|Q35136241]] | [[Brindabellaspida]] | Brindabellaspida | [[Placodermi]] | [[File:Brindabellaspis reconstruction.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35136256|Q35136256]] | [[Tabulacyathida]] | Tabulacyathida | [[Regulares]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136275|Q35136275]] | [[Ophidiformes]] | Ophidiformes | [[Paracanthopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136311|Q35136311]] | [[Dentalioida]] | Dentalioida | [[Scaphopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136329|Q35136329]] | [[Cambridiida]] | Cambridiida | [[Stenothecoida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136345|Q35136345]] | [[Sinuitopsida]] | Sinuitopsida | [[Monoplacophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136361|Q35136361]] | [[Banigales]] | Banigales | [[Rhodophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136385|Q35136385]] | [[Monocleales]] | Monocleales | [[Marchantiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136406|Q35136406]] | [[Plectonocerida]] | Plectonocerida | [[Cephalopode]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136423|Q35136423]] | [[Pteraspidida]] | Pteraspidida | [[Pteraspidomorphi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136437|Q35136437]] | [[Rhyniales]] | Rhyniales | [[Rhyniopsida]] | [[File:Rynian (Rynie) Chert Thin Section (Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii) - 1.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35136454|Q35136454]] | [[Alcediniformes]] | Alcediniformes | [[Picocoraciae]] | [[File:Blyth's Kingfisher - Rarest Kingfisher found in India.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35136474|Q35136474]] | [[Gigantopleurida]] | Gigantopleurida | [[arthropodo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136487|Q35136487]] | [[Echinostachyales]] | Echinostachyales | [[Equisetopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136501|Q35136501]] | [[Hermanophytales]] | Hermanophytales | [[Embryophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136515|Q35136515]] | [[Avimimiformes]] | Avimimiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136534|Q35136534]] | [[Khairkhaniiformes]] | Khairkhaniiformes | [[Molluscos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136553|Q35136553]] | [[Sedentarida]] | Sedentarida | [[Polychaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136576|Q35136576]] | [[Squatinida]] | Squatinida | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136596|Q35136596]] | [[Zorocallida]] | Zorocallida<ref name="ref_3c2e7fabec0c941df6f7a34b3100528242e618e088c78b74e92cae2ad985b4da">''[[:d:Q56045184|Zorocallida, new order, and Doraster constellatus, new genus and species, with notes on the Zoroasteridae (Echinodermata; Asteroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Asteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136613|Q35136613]] | [[Pyllodocida]] | Pyllodocida | [[Polychaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136631|Q35136631]] | [[Lithorhizostomatida]] | Lithorhizostomatida | [[Scyphozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136653|Q35136653]] | [[Traquairaspidida]] | Traquairaspidida | [[Heterostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136672|Q35136672]] | [[Calamocarpales]] | Calamocarpales | [[Calamitopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136690|Q35136690]] | [[Pituriaspidiformes]] | Pituriaspidiformes | [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136708|Q35136708]] | [[Halysitida]] | Halysitida | [[Tabulata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136735|Q35136735]] | [[Moellerinales]] | Moellerinales | [[Charophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136754|Q35136754]] | [[Echmatocrinida]] | Echmatocrinida | [[Crinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136781|Q35136781]] | [[Pelagielliformes]] | Pelagielliformes | [[Archaeobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136800|Q35136800]] | [[Multifariida]] | Multifariida | [[Monoplacophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136826|Q35136826]] | [[Desmiodontida]] | Desmiodontida | [[Chondrichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136845|Q35136845]] | [[Cyclocrinales]] | Cyclocrinales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Cyclocrinites dactioloides (fossil algae) (Hopkinton Formation, Lower Silurian; Monticello, Iowa, USA) 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q35136865|Q35136865]] | [[Coronodontida]] | Coronodontida | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136884|Q35136884]] | [[Andreaobryales]] | Andreaobryales | [[Andreaeidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136901|Q35136901]] | [[Hyaenodontida]] | Hyaenodontida | [[Ferae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136920|Q35136920]] | [[Cladodontida]] | Cladodontida | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136937|Q35136937]] | [[Henosferida]] | Henosferida | [[Paratribosphenida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136953|Q35136953]] | [[Stromatocystitida]] | Stromatocystitida | [[Edrioasteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136972|Q35136972]] | [[Iraniales]] | Iraniales | [[Embryophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35136987|Q35136987]] | [[Orodontida]] | Orodontida | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35137005|Q35137005]] | [[Dascladales]] | Dascladales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35137026|Q35137026]] | [[Serpianotiaroida]] | Serpianotiaroida | [[Euechinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35137047|Q35137047]] | [[Sycidiales]] | Sycidiales | [[Charophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q35137068|Q35137068]] | [[Limulavida]] | Limulavida | [[Merostomoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q36822827|Q36822827]] | [[Gigasporales]] | Gigasporales | [[Glomeromycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q38534855|Q38534855]] | [[Paradinida]] | Paradinida<ref name="ref_14886f064fd3e8d6603904119a2abb5efcd12a32fc456a01e383326b639c7b7a">''[[:d:Q28298706|Phylogeny of novel naked Filose and Reticulose Cercozoa: Granofilosea cl. n. and Proteomyxidea revised]]''</ref> | [[Ascetosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q38567126|Q38567126]] | [[Palaeoniscoidea]] | Palaeoniscoidea | [[Actinopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q40954145|Q40954145]] | [[Menaspiformes]] | Menaspiformes | [[Chondrichthyes]] | [[File:MenaspidDB17.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q41595562|Q41595562]] | [[Lyopomi]] | Lyopomi | [[Teleostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q41595642|Q41595642]] | [[Meiodihaplophasida]] | Meiodihaplophasida | [[Dihaplophasea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q42013459|Q42013459]] | [[Delonicicolales]] | Delonicicolales<ref name="ref_ac162d1d84fd945fffadb3dd8abd0025a40c4857ee9be6b111e38116971593e1">''[[:d:Q54800586|Delonicicola siamense gen. & sp. nov. (Delonicicolaceae fam. nov., Delonicicolales ord. nov.), a Saprobic Species from Delonix regia Seed Pods]]''</ref> | [[Xylariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q42707726|Q42707726]] | [[Christianseniales]] | Christianseniales | [[Tremellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q42780327|Q42780327]] | [[Kirschsteiniotheliales]] | Kirschsteiniotheliales<ref name="ref_db176f35e8ff66985382896397c52c0ead2b6e4f7c36fcf864eb58708c08420e">''[[:d:Q1860469|Index Fungorum]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:2013-10-04 Kirschsteiniothelia aethiops 545486.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q44671057|Q44671057]] | [[Polypodiidea]] | Polypodiidea | [[Polypodiozoa]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Polypodium hydriforme.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q45201701|Q45201701]] | [[Synallactida]] | Synallactida<ref name="ref_74e031573bdba5450912104f761e0cc4ad9c3599875851aee7a87f5e0f71800e">''[[:d:Q131405017|A report of sea cucumbers collected on the first dedicated deep-sea biological survey of Australia’s Indian Ocean Territories around Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b0fb9b0e22438f79263482a522ddeca86b1bda241ebac5e6c7f3a9841e9c8937">''[[:d:Q36298186|Molecular phylogeny of extant Holothuroidea (Echinodermata)]]''</ref> | [[Actinopoda]] | [[File:Three-Rowed Sea Cucumber.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q45353969|Q45353969]] | [[Lophioneurida]] | Lophioneurida | [[Thripida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47009061|Q47009061]] | [[Lauriomycetales]] | Lauriomycetales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | [[File:Lauriomyces bellulus 1781178.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q47009064|Q47009064]] | [[Phacidiales]] | Phacidiales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | [[File:Phacidium infestans P. Karst. 1467400.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q47164972|Q47164972]] | [[Nowakiida]] | Nowakiida | [[Dacryoconarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q48068364|Q48068364]] | [[Chaetomellales]] | Chaetomellales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q48166962|Q48166962]] | [[Ephippiformes]] | Ephippiformes<ref name="ref_56fd228b77561045c33c2714cdaedf1c352aa6cf6c9b4270f3bf3204f944e384">https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3</ref> | [[Eupercaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q48205386|Q48205386]] | [[Chelonii]] | Chelonii | [[reptile]] | | |- | [[:d:Q48970316|Q48970316]] | [[Persiculida]] | Persiculida<ref name="ref_b0fb9b0e22438f79263482a522ddeca86b1bda241ebac5e6c7f3a9841e9c8937">''[[:d:Q36298186|Molecular phylogeny of extant Holothuroidea (Echinodermata)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_74e031573bdba5450912104f761e0cc4ad9c3599875851aee7a87f5e0f71800e">''[[:d:Q131405017|A report of sea cucumbers collected on the first dedicated deep-sea biological survey of Australia’s Indian Ocean Territories around Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)]]''</ref> | [[Actinopoda]] | [[File:Meseres.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q49381348|Q49381348]] | [[Phasmatodea]] | Phasmatodea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Polyneoptera]] | [[File:Phasmatodea 2941.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q49405704|Q49405704]] | [[Peritrichida]] | Peritrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligohymenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408499|Q49408499]] | [[Bodonales]] | Bodonales | [[Bodonophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408513|Q49408513]] | [[Paracinetida]] | Paracinetida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Phyllopharyngea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408517|Q49408517]] | [[Tracheliida]] | Tracheliida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Litostomatea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408521|Q49408521]] | [[Suctorida]] | Suctorida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Kinetofragminophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408525|Q49408525]] | [[Scuticociliatida]] | Scuticociliatida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligohymenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408529|Q49408529]] | [[Nassulopsida]] | Nassulopsida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Nassophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408533|Q49408533]] | [[Karyorelictida]] | Karyorelictida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Karyorelictea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408537|Q49408537]] | [[Trachelocercida]] | Trachelocercida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Karyorelictea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408541|Q49408541]] | [[Chilodonellida]] | Chilodonellida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Cyrtophoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408545|Q49408545]] | [[Grossglockneriida]] | Grossglockneriida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Colpodea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408549|Q49408549]] | [[Eremothallales]] | Eremothallales | [[Lichinomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408553|Q49408553]] | [[Acnanthales]] | Acnanthales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q49408557|Q49408557]] | [[Climacosphenales]] | Climacosphenales | [[Bacillariophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q50788659|Q50788659]] | [[Amplistromatales]] | Amplistromatales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q50788660|Q50788660]] | [[Annulatascales]] | Annulatascales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q50809087|Q50809087]] | [[Atractosporales]] | Atractosporales<ref name="ref_56a100a18a3ea39de33444d429a8503321d4e624637ad947ba1af7edd5ef430a">''[[:d:Q67213020|Towards a natural classification of Annulatascaceae-like taxa: introducing Atractosporales ord. nov. and six new families]]''</ref> | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | [[File:Conlarium sacchari (10.3897-mycokeys.56.35857) Figure 3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51032739|Q51032739]] | [[Uranoscopiformes]] | Uranoscopiformes<ref name="ref_068508f23074980b28d6f7415f4c5386369468516c626dcfc14896d3dd8a42b4">''[[:d:Q51386589|Verslagen en mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen]]''</ref> | [[Percomorphaceae]]<br/>[[Eupercaria]] | [[File:Whitemargin Stargazer (Uranoscopus sulphureus) (8461235506).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51266657|Q51266657]] | [[Aplysiomorpha]] | Aplysiomorpha | [[Euopisthobranchia]]<br/>[[Opisthobranchia]] | [[File:Sea hare DSC01663.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51310043|Q51310043]] | [[Amphilepidida]] | Amphilepidida<ref name="ref_ca1c4c73c5930d273c374f5f9e995f2b437afe9ccddfa76443531df046eaf070">''[[:d:Q36219626|Restructuring higher taxonomy using broad-scale phylogenomics: The living Ophiuroidea]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[Ophintegrida]]<ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Amphilimna multispina (MNHN-IE-2013-10240) 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25859366|Q25859366]] | [[Prokinetoplastida]] | Prokinetoplastida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Prokinetoplastina]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25859717|Q25859717]] | [[Postgaardida]] | Postgaardida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref><ref name="ref_614fb8f075f79819a8e5dacfa2ef160947f7237cfd6bac90b82407d11bdf8b00">''[[:d:Q30885386|The excavate protozoan phyla Metamonada Grassé emend. (Anaeromonadea, Parabasalia, Carpediemonas, Eopharyngia) and Loukozoa emend. (Jakobea, Malawimonas): their evolutionary affinities and new higher taxa]]''</ref> | [[Postgaardea]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25891867|Q25891867]] | [[Pharyngomonadida]] | Pharyngomonadida<ref name="ref_fb6656b9ac51ad36b8aa29423f65ef017f6056d1e9e633546cb27686df7486ab">''[[:d:Q28305642|The zooflagellates Stephanopogon and Percolomonas are a clade (class Percolatea: Phylum Percolozoa)]]''</ref> | [[Pharyngomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25893279|Q25893279]] | [[Pseudociliatida]] | Pseudociliatida | [[Percolatea]] | [[File:Stephanopogon sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25936347|Q25936347]] | [[Haloferacales]] | Haloferacales | [[Halobacteria]] | [[File:Haloferax volcanii.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25998044|Q25998044]] | [[Natrialbales]] | Natrialbales | [[Halobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26132294|Q26132294]] | [[Methanomassiliicoccales]] | Methanomassiliicoccales<ref name="ref_67cc54ddecc2a20f1d6c9d75e8daa34bdbe29ae1867a8ca02b506739a871e3df">''[[:d:Q45329259|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Thermoplasmata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26208693|Q26208693]] | [[Nevskiales]] | Nevskiales<ref name="ref_8b141781a9c70f24afa12ee6436ea993bb2faa74c1ae82fa0f448a3ba599fcf6">''[[:d:Q28109626|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26209135|Q26209135]] | [[Kosmotogales]] | Kosmotogales<ref name="ref_8d06ccf6b9cacfb9dd1acddd6b9659e11957fb6c68c952389c70db0a535d18b0">''[[:d:Q45334369|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Thermotogae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26209675|Q26209675]] | [[Arenicellales]] | Arenicellales<ref name="ref_c15820041bfb2d7c40c0ee56ee1018e641c3ce784f870d8eb356f7b9243c5020">''[[:d:Q30865532|Perspicuibacter marinus gen. nov., sp. nov., a semi-transparent bacterium isolated from surface seawater, and description of Arenicellaceae fam. nov. and Arenicellales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26209693|Q26209693]] | [[Blastocatellales]] | Blastocatellales<ref name="ref_6d382414a84add6365f80536edfcf9f7c48ae6ed840567ef8e146fdcc5ae45ef">''[[:d:Q45340584|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Blastocatellia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26209710|Q26209710]] | [[Balneolales]] | Balneolales<ref name="ref_5e599c42960a8741099d7ac6bc249cd1ac4305ee3fbb1d8859a698ce01666176">''[[:d:Q45759877|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Balneolia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26211121|Q26211121]] | [[Eggerthellales]] | Eggerthellales | [[Coriobacteriia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26212848|Q26212848]] | [[Frankiales]] | Frankiales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26219769|Q26219769]] | [[Acidiferrobacterales]] | Acidiferrobacterales<ref name="ref_67e01181a30d6a0bcbae58adba25767731202e5cefe4d290a0e097bc8df1289e">''[[:d:Q30983684|Sulfurifustis variabilis gen. nov., sp. nov., a sulfur oxidizer isolated from a lake, and proposal of Acidiferrobacteraceae fam. nov. and Acidiferrobacterales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26220202|Q26220202]] | [[Tissierellales]] | Tissierellales | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220301|Q26220301]] | [[Ardenticatenales]] | Ardenticatenales | [[Ardenticatenia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220313|Q26220313]] | [[Bradymonadales]] | Bradymonadales<ref name="ref_2dde94fd5b070c43944ce434343409dc4192df55c0b1bb1f1f4aa75c64a7ee6c">''[[:d:Q30899438|Bradymonas sediminis gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from coastal sediment, and description of Bradymonadaceae fam. nov. and Bradymonadales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Deltaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220327|Q26220327]] | [[Chitinivibrionales]] | Chitinivibrionales<ref name="ref_c1bf6ede9a5b04dddc88d237cb62cad1a7e5ab20f1217901a35c9cfff5bc4a91">''[[:d:Q45339298|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Chitinivibrionia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220336|Q26220336]] | [[Chthoniobacterales]] | Chthoniobacterales | [[Terrimicrobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220342|Q26220342]] | [[Petrotogales]] | Petrotogales<ref name="ref_8d06ccf6b9cacfb9dd1acddd6b9659e11957fb6c68c952389c70db0a535d18b0">''[[:d:Q45334369|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Thermotogae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220363|Q26220363]] | [[Kallotenuales]] | Kallotenuales<ref name="ref_584b2dbecb6fe4596aff6e28b1fba5ba9ae6a1b17e231bd874ef32532802fa7f">''[[:d:Q34364326|Kallotenue papyrolyticum gen. nov., sp. nov., a cellulolytic and filamentous thermophile that represents a novel lineage (Kallotenuales ord. nov., Kallotenuaceae fam. nov.) within the class Chloroflexia]]''</ref> | [[Chloroflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220376|Q26220376]] | [[Kiloniellales]] | Kiloniellales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220382|Q26220382]] | [[Ktedonobacterales]] | Ktedonobacterales<ref name="ref_8164b1fed3c0d867a5b4e965c75dd31caaea56c3534b249ac7b2fa723d916f17">''[[:d:Q45317522|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Ktedonobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220410|Q26220410]] | [[Limnochordales]] | Limnochordales<ref name="ref_4ea13a9e2de371c3de4f2038155be35cae59fef61cbd383bfb33b98deba244b8">''[[:d:Q30937440|Limnochorda pilosa gen. nov., sp. nov., a moderately thermophilic, facultatively anaerobic, pleomorphic bacterium and proposal of Limnochordaceae fam. nov., Limnochordales ord. nov. and Limnochordia classis nov. in the phylum Firmicutes]]''</ref> | [[Limnochordia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220418|Q26220418]] | [[Mesoaciditogales]] | Mesoaciditogales<ref name="ref_1046731ba82b71b1750b3670b285d734ce03cdf167d97635d0565060f3b8df44">''[[:d:Q31031267|Athalassotoga saccharophila gen. nov. sp. nov. isolated from an acidic terrestrial hot spring of Japan, and proposal of Mesoaciditogales ord. nov., Mesoaciditogaceae fam. nov. in the phylum Thermotogae.]]''</ref> | [[Thermotogae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26225489|Q26225489]] | [[Puniceicoccales]] | Puniceicoccales<ref name="ref_f81575408f20ca3d6c3213b291c1e08d192bf82c92517cc6cce7538862e0d8d2">''[[:d:Q33276115|Puniceicoccus vermicola gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel marine bacterium, and description of Puniceicoccaceae fam. nov., Puniceicoccales ord. nov., Opitutaceae fam. nov., Opitutales ord. nov. and Opitutae classis nov. in the phylum 'Verrucomicrobia'.]]''</ref> | [[Opitutia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26226428|Q26226428]] | [[Tsukubamonadida]] | Tsukubamonadida | [[Tsukubea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26265264|Q26265264]] | [[Acidothermales]] | Acidothermales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265265|Q26265265]] | [[Actinopolysporales]] | Actinopolysporales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265266|Q26265266]] | [[Catenulisporales]] | Catenulisporales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265267|Q26265267]] | [[Corynebacteriales]] | Corynebacteriales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26265270|Q26265270]] | [[Geodermatophilales]] | Geodermatophilales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265271|Q26265271]] | [[Glycomycetales]] | Glycomycetales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265272|Q26265272]] | [[Jiangellales]] | Jiangellales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265273|Q26265273]] | [[Kineosporiales]] | Kineosporiales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265274|Q26265274]] | [[Micrococcales]] | Micrococcales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:SEM of Arthrobacter chlorophenolicus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26265276|Q26265276]] | [[Micromonosporales]] | Micromonosporales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265277|Q26265277]] | [[Nakamurellales]] | Nakamurellales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265278|Q26265278]] | [[Propionibacteriales]] | Propionibacteriales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265279|Q26265279]] | [[Pseudonocardiales]] | Pseudonocardiales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265280|Q26265280]] | [[Streptomycetales]] | Streptomycetales | [[Actinobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26265281|Q26265281]] | [[Streptosporangiales]] | Streptosporangiales<ref name="ref_6a451ebf6eb9feb412ab68fc9c30f0c4dc6c3baaa9ebc12a77930afa5bc9ccf4">''[[:d:Q45339879|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26265282|Q26265282]] | [[Actinomarinales]] | Actinomarinales | [[Actinomycetota]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26267708|Q26267708]] | [[Egibacterales]] | Egibacterales<ref name="ref_33cdf2700796818509fb64f5d4bd04630a43cd32fc8e57158cbd7099b3a3d6bd">''[[:d:Q31012505|Egibacter rhizosphaerae gen. nov., sp. nov., an obligately halophilic, facultatively alkaliphilic actinobacterium and proposal of Egibaceraceae fam. nov. and Egibacterales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Nitriliruptoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26267711|Q26267711]] | [[Egicoccales]] | Egicoccales<ref name="ref_7994b0daac7d468a83e705921c17df4ed012143be0944faad431fc6ac48fa704">''[[:d:Q31020387|Egicoccus halophilus gen. nov., sp. nov., a halophilic, alkalitolerant actinobacterium and proposal of Egicoccaceae fam. nov. and Egicoccales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Nitriliruptoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26267714|Q26267714]] | [[Euzebyales]] | Euzebyales | [[Nitriliruptoria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26267717|Q26267717]] | [[Nitriliruptorales]] | Nitriliruptorales<ref name="ref_51f8349038da982ddba4793a3863533aa4fc09835b9a1f9fbdbe11ab948e80f5">''[[:d:Q33406096|Nitriliruptor alkaliphilus gen. nov., sp. nov., a deep-lineage haloalkaliphilic actinobacterium from soda lakes capable of growth on aliphatic nitriles, and proposal of Nitriliruptoraceae fam. nov. and Nitriliruptorales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Nitriliruptoria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26270666|Q26270666]] | [[Gaiellales]] | Gaiellales<ref name="ref_0b02e7e3ea4aa0a944cf4bea9551588be52d214f718c9a4d7db27c9f65a0df37">''[[:d:Q34013322|Gaiella occulta gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel representative of a deep branching phylogenetic lineage within the class Actinobacteria and proposal of Gaiellaceae fam. nov. and Gaiellales ord. nov.]]''</ref><ref name="ref_24d2d46705db916133cd4c2b6023f23e2d8cb719fea51d23f6bedb46c0c2286c">''[[:d:Q45322205|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Thermoleophilia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26270677|Q26270677]] | [[Thermoleophilales]] | Thermoleophilales | [[Thermoleophilia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26270680|Q26270680]] | [[Desulfurobacteriales]] | Desulfurobacteriales<ref name="ref_8d6408e375bd3df437426745d57bd46a61c936bef1025cad2a5446499ec2d841">''[[:d:Q45330503|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Aquificia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26292257|Q26292257]] | [[Chitinophagales]] | Chitinophagales<ref name="ref_5e599c42960a8741099d7ac6bc249cd1ac4305ee3fbb1d8859a698ce01666176">''[[:d:Q45759877|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Chitinophagia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26433983|Q26433983]] | [[Cnemidolestodea]] | Cnemidolestodea | [[Archaeorthoptera]]<br/>[[Plecopteroidea]]<ref name="ref_30eda01b851830296e9985a684af13a7c617c5636bb9984bf0f9a7c780075447">''[[:d:Q109909801|Classification of the order Cnemidolestida (Insecta: Perlidea) with descriptions of new taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26447018|Q26447018]] | [[Dehalococcoidales]] | Dehalococcoidales<ref name="ref_843df279601ec7790adf29ca172f0887c38c9e7580757de1a43c95f5cf10e7ae">''[[:d:Q45339777|Dehalococcoides mccartyi gen. nov., sp. nov., obligately organohalide-respiring anaerobic bacteria relevant to halogen cycling and bioremediation, belong to a novel bacterial class, Dehalococcoidia classis nov., order Dehalococcoidales ord. nov. a...]]''</ref> | [[Dehalococcoidia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26447026|Q26447026]] | [[Thermogemmatisporales]] | Thermogemmatisporales<ref name="ref_cfe5c11b194958e6dccea47af37f89dd4c0c1b9a64774b52b308acaf57055185">''[[:d:Q33584935|Thermogemmatispora onikobensis gen. nov., sp. nov. and Thermogemmatispora foliorum sp. nov., isolated from fallen leaves on geothermal soils, and description of Thermogemmatisporaceae fam. nov. and Thermogemmatisporales ord. nov. within the class Kt]]''</ref> | [[Ktedonobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26447028|Q26447028]] | [[Thermoflexales]] | Thermoflexales | [[Thermoflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26629556|Q26629556]] | [[Metchnikovellida]] | Metchnikovellida | [[Metchnikovellea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26698966|Q26698966]] | [[Sneathiellales]] | Sneathiellales<ref name="ref_3d56dbd1ae10ec41dd09bba8d7795e12b751426ff40c3a9a6041c9c9559bbd8d">''[[:d:Q31148553|Sneathiella glossodoripedis sp. nov., a marine alphaproteobacterium isolated from the nudibranch Glossodoris cincta, and proposal of Sneathiellales ord. nov. and Sneathiellaceae fam. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26699300|Q26699300]] | [[Oligosphaerales]] | Oligosphaerales | [[Oligosphaeria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26700299|Q26700299]] | [[Salinisphaerales]] | Salinisphaerales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26700334|Q26700334]] | [[Sulfuricellales]] | Sulfuricellales<ref name="ref_9eb7546d09a7930222132fb08421dd0a4cb80cea027ff7f005c9a8fb4510d7ef">''[[:d:Q30896833|Sulfuriferula multivorans gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from a freshwater lake, reclassification of ‘Thiobacillus plumbophilus’ as Sulfuriferula plumbophilus sp. nov., and description of Sulfuricellaceae fam. nov. and Sulfuricellales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26704395|Q26704395]] | [[Bactritida]] | Bactritida | [[Bactritida]] | [[File:Bactritida-ammonoidea evolution morphology.PNG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26713533|Q26713533]] | [[Alienoptera]] | Alienoptera | [[Dictyoptera]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26740301|Q26740301]] | [[Hypermastigida]] | Hypermastigida<ref name="ref_98d02a1e172c91ba54374567aaba64f4af48747cbe376647ab214856210a6c8b">''[[:d:Q110253945|Intorno ai protozoi dei termiti]]''</ref> | [[Zoomastigophora]] | [[File:Hypermastigida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26787975|Q26787975]] | [[Reculida]] | Reculida<ref name="ref_15e114a1455aede9dccd176e7c422086e42d13bacca1355b38b16832c9dc2ee6">''[[:d:Q109909854|Classification of the order Eoblattida (Insecta: Blattidea) with description of new taxa]]''</ref> | [[Pterygota]]<br/>[[Polyneoptera]]<ref name="ref_15e114a1455aede9dccd176e7c422086e42d13bacca1355b38b16832c9dc2ee6">''[[:d:Q109909854|Classification of the order Eoblattida (Insecta: Blattidea) with description of new taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26827235|Q26827235]] | [[Chroococcidiopsidales]] | Chroococcidiopsidales | [[Oscillatoriophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26832437|Q26832437]] | [[Aporidea]] | Aporidea | [[Eucestoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26832543|Q26832543]] | [[Heliolitida]] | Heliolitida | [[Tabulata]] | [[File:Museum Mensch und Natur - catenipora.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26832562|Q26832562]] | [[Runcinacea]] | Runcinacea | [[Opisthobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26833580|Q26833580]] | [[Tubuliporata]] | Tubuliporata | [[Stenolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26836786|Q26836786]] | [[Oligoflexales]] | Oligoflexales<ref name="ref_8b6876a8cdadf61bbc79a3576dcddd9d29a694c79abb164d08d306081db8b7dc">''[[:d:Q30836028|Oligoflexus tunisiensis gen. nov., sp. nov., a Gram-negative, aerobic, filamentous bacterium of a novel proteobacterial lineage, and description of Oligoflexaceae fam. nov., Oligoflexales ord. nov. and Oligoflexia classis nov.]]''</ref> | [[Oligoflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26836908|Q26836908]] | [[Rhodothermales]] | Rhodothermales<ref name="ref_5e599c42960a8741099d7ac6bc249cd1ac4305ee3fbb1d8859a698ce01666176">''[[:d:Q45759877|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Rhodothermia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26837573|Q26837573]] | [[Brachyspirales]] | Brachyspirales<ref name="ref_9359c89a0c4378f31e8862f3d170072fb7d70937d185d18a8e104caf99981799">''[[:d:Q45332770|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Spirochaetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26837619|Q26837619]] | [[Leptospirales]] | Leptospirales | [[Spirochaetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Leptospira interrogans strain RGA 01.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26839060|Q26839060]] | [[Volynitida]] | Volynitida | [[Trompetoconarida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26844123|Q26844123]] | [[Fibromonadales]] | Fibromonadales | [[Fibrobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26844239|Q26844239]] | [[Chitinispirillales]] | Chitinispirillales<ref name="ref_a25afa24983402a023c867220d977742cc38109a08b24c472b80b2f949d8751f">''[[:d:Q45340843|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Chitinispirillia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26844251|Q26844251]] | [[Endomicrobiales]] | Endomicrobiales<ref name="ref_4e93640b70a3f593a79b634996dbc94be8601d512541d1ae04a518dd3d20baf4">''[[:d:Q84957783|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Endomicrobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26844272|Q26844272]] | [[Veillonellales]] | Veillonellales | [[Negativicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26844274|Q26844274]] | [[Acidaminococcales]] | Acidaminococcales | [[Negativicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26869649|Q26869649]] | [[Mytilida]] | Mytilida | [[Pteriomorphia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Miesmuscheln.1420.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26869740|Q26869740]] | [[Longimicrobiales]] | Longimicrobiales | [[Longimicrobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26878724|Q26878724]] | [[Nitrospinales]] | Nitrospinales | [[Nitrospinia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26878732|Q26878732]] | [[Phycisphaerales]] | Phycisphaerales<ref name="ref_9b6e1b21b7b3f6251dbd57de7cc8aa20d9be82fabc65adbb20bd4d4dafefcf62">''[[:d:Q33495971|Phycisphaera mikurensis gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from a marine alga, and proposal of Phycisphaeraceae fam. nov., Phycisphaerales ord. nov. and Phycisphaerae classis nov. in the phylum Planctomycetes]]''</ref><ref name="ref_205270fb7053e07cd53789b411bb4d99ae96f31c315beea79846a1c94d4d71da">''[[:d:Q45319845|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Phycisphaerae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Fmicb-11-602250-g004D.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26878753|Q26878753]] | [[Tepidisphaerales]] | Tepidisphaerales<ref name="ref_9ae2bb55b9257894cd3e0904af5ade67e9248915c44c694f65a41bdf4a836d7c">''[[:d:Q30870343|Tepidisphaera mucosa gen. nov., sp. nov., a moderately thermophilic member of the class Phycisphaerae in the phylum Planctomycetes, and proposal of a new family, Tepidisphaeraceae fam. nov., and a new order, Tepidisphaerales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Phycisphaerae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26885628|Q26885628]] | [[Odontaspidida]] | Odontaspidida | [[Lamnae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26896795|Q26896795]] | [[Xylonales]] | Xylonales | [[Xylonomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26902955|Q26902955]] | [[Tritirachiales]] | Tritirachiales | [[Tritirachiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26911210|Q26911210]] | [[Petalichthida]] | Petalichthida | [[Placodermi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26932005|Q26932005]] | [[Ferrovales]] | Ferrovales | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26932009|Q26932009]] | [[Ferritrophicales]] | Ferritrophicales | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27022164|Q27022164]] | [[Rhodothalassiales]] | Rhodothalassiales<ref name="ref_ccd1f68ac33346b8dde9dcb2049dea5ad2096284563ce91642cc1d5ada64974f">''[[:d:Q44928975|Emended description of the genus Rhodothalassium Imhoff et al., 1998 and proposal of Rhodothalassiaceae fam. nov. and Rhodothalassiales ord. nov.]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e18a30867cff203314c7da92021d906ed30084ececd0928332e0320e22a95dbf">''[[:d:Q45338971|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q27057016|Q27057016]] | [[Opitutales]] | Opitutales<ref name="ref_f81575408f20ca3d6c3213b291c1e08d192bf82c92517cc6cce7538862e0d8d2">''[[:d:Q33276115|Puniceicoccus vermicola gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel marine bacterium, and description of Puniceicoccaceae fam. nov., Puniceicoccales ord. nov., Opitutaceae fam. nov., Opitutales ord. nov. and Opitutae classis nov. in the phylum 'Verrucomicrobia'.]]''</ref> | [[Opitutia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q27057035|Q27057035]] | [[Archaeorhizomycetales]] | Archaeorhizomycetales | [[Archaeorhizomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27067997|Q27067997]] | [[Trepostomida]] | Trepostomida | [[Stenolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27084588|Q27084588]] | [[Anomalosdesmata]] | Anomalosdesmata | [[Bivalvos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27096119|Q27096119]] | [[Permopsocida]] | Permopsocida | [[Acercaria]] | [[File:Psocorrhyncha burmitica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q27120570|Q27120570]] | [[Cryptophialida]] | Cryptophialida | [[Acrothoracica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27120599|Q27120599]] | [[Lithoglyptida]] | Lithoglyptida | [[Acrothoracica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27668535|Q27668535]] | [[Umbelopsidales]] | Umbelopsidales<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Mucoromycotina]]<br/>[[Umbelopsidomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18916507|Q18916507]] | [[Peranemida]] | Peranemida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Peranemia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18916511|Q18916511]] | [[Euglenida]] | Euglenida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Euglenophycidae]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref><br/>[[Euglenoidea]] | [[File:Ehrenberg euglena viridis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18924862|Q18924862]] | [[Ephedrales]] | Ephedrales<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Gnetophyta]]<ref name="ref_e7c32bf06f270365c7c10b40d8dd0726f5acc3d9f38c7ed8612deb66e50cfb95">''[[:d:Q18920913|A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms]]''</ref><br/>[[Ephedridae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Ephedra distachya.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19273846|Q19273846]] | [[Trypanosomatida]] | Trypanosomatida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Metakinetoplastina]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Trypanosoma sp. PHIL 613 lores.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19318156|Q19318156]] | [[Octactinellida]] | Octactinellida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Heteractinida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19318174|Q19318174]] | [[Hetairacyathida]] | Hetairacyathida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Heteractinida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327004|Q19327004]] | [[Protomonaxonida]] | Protomonaxonida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Clavaxinellida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327082|Q19327082]] | [[Plakinida]] | Plakinida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Choristida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327103|Q19327103]] | [[Pachastrellida]] | Pachastrellida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Choristida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327128|Q19327128]] | [[Ancorinida]] | Ancorinida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Choristida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327149|Q19327149]] | [[Craniellida]] | Craniellida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Choristida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327198|Q19327198]] | [[Streptosclerophorida]] | Streptosclerophorida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Tetractinomorpha]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327330|Q19327330]] | [[Vaceletida]] | Vaceletida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Ceractinomorpha]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327353|Q19327353]] | [[Sigmatosclerophorida]] | Sigmatosclerophorida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Ceractinomorpha]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327496|Q19327496]] | [[Megalithistida]] | Megalithistida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Lithistida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327522|Q19327522]] | [[Axinellida]] | Axinellida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Axinella polypoides by Line1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19327567|Q19327567]] | [[Monalithistida]] | Monalithistida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Lithistida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327640|Q19327640]] | [[Spirosclerophorida]] | Spirosclerophorida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Lithistida]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19327872|Q19327872]] | [[Sphaerocladina]] | Sphaerocladina<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bda8dd090aee8bc494671d683854b0e3c1086889bafc4ce1240a2874d4aa02a0">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845457</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_bda8dd090aee8bc494671d683854b0e3c1086889bafc4ce1240a2874d4aa02a0">https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845457</ref> | [[File:Vetulina (10.1007-s12526-017-0658-7) Figure 3.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19328311|Q19328311]] | [[Sycettida]] | Sycettida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Calcaronea]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19328554|Q19328554]] | [[Stellispongiida]] | Stellispongiida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Calcaronea]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19328570|Q19328570]] | [[Sphaerocoeliida]] | Sphaerocoeliida<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Calcaronea]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19329038|Q19329038]] | [[Hemidiscosa]] | Hemidiscosa<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | [[Amphidiscophora]]<ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19372238|Q19372238]] | [[Carbotriplurida]] | Carbotriplurida | [[Dicondylia]]<ref name="ref_9258fe48d3ceca79c12eaf3fe84ba3c67f2de11bbc29b276398a9c591be01b6d">''[[:d:Q54704052|Neither silverfish nor fowl: the enigmatic Carboniferous Carbotriplura kukalovae Kluge, 1996 (Insecta: Carbotriplurida) is the putative fossil sister group of winged insects (Insecta: Pterygota)]]''</ref><br/>[[Paranotalia]]<ref name="ref_18fc2a99f68c76b2c0c277b7532af049a6ff8e684ad72a4e0d7b5a4bff719d1b">''[[:d:Q56940988|Revision of the giant pterygote insect Bojophlebia prokopi Kukalová-Peck, 1985 (Hydropalaeoptera: Bojophlebiidae) from the Carboniferous of the Czech Republic, with the first cladistic analysis of fossil palaeopterous insects]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19507280|Q19507280]] | [[Gemmatimonadales]] | Gemmatimonadales | [[Gemmatimonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Gemmatimonas aurantiaca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19509894|Q19509894]] | [[Syntonopterida]] | Syntonopterida | [[Pterygota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19567380|Q19567380]] | [[Lithornithiformes]] | Lithornithiformes | [[Palaeognathae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19595514|Q19595514]] | [[Conocardiida]] | Conocardiida | [[Rostroconchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19595560|Q19595560]] | [[Arthropleurida]] | Arthropleurida<ref name="ref_8e476256da2b0c483fd07481bf50dc1347974cd8f1732b3dc9078aa1c3f52194">''[[:d:Q113540853|Études des gîtes minéraux de la France. Bassin houiller de la Sarre et de la Lorraine. 2, Faune fossile. Étude de la faune continentale du terrain houiller sarro-lorrain]]''</ref> | [[Arthropleuridea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19622322|Q19622322]] | [[Iberomesornithiformes]] | Iberomesornithiformes | [[Enantiornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19652150|Q19652150]] | [[Skleroptera]] | Skleroptera<ref name="ref_59ca93fbf7c600187b6792241d36d16fb6e3e6c4b71dc9ed6340cdd1a7ea3a36">''[[:d:Q107057335|Skleroptera, a new order of holometabolous insects (Insecta) from the Carboniferous]]''</ref> | [[Holometabola]]<br/>[[Coleopterida]]<ref name="ref_59ca93fbf7c600187b6792241d36d16fb6e3e6c4b71dc9ed6340cdd1a7ea3a36">''[[:d:Q107057335|Skleroptera, a new order of holometabolous insects (Insecta) from the Carboniferous]]''</ref><br/>[[Coleopteroidea]]<ref name="ref_3b041b8940889283b7736a24e58f8ce0d692c5bfdf22bdf581a157ca99478b5d">''[[:d:Q110445386|Taxonomic Review of Fossil Coleopterous Families (Insecta, Coleoptera). Suborder Archostemata: Superfamilies Coleopseoidea and Cupedoidea]]''</ref> | [[File:Stephanastus polinae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19655097|Q19655097]] | [[Schwickertoptera]] | Schwickertoptera<ref name="ref_e471dba81bf58e700d7b28c31f04899f47bea3a9cd0c21563fe42a276e542697">''[[:d:Q56941069|The Crato Fossil Beds of Brazil]]''</ref> | [[Neuropterida]]<ref name="ref_e471dba81bf58e700d7b28c31f04899f47bea3a9cd0c21563fe42a276e542697">''[[:d:Q56941069|The Crato Fossil Beds of Brazil]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19668484|Q19668484]] | [[Haloplasmatales]] | Haloplasmatales<ref name="ref_6bcbed2177c33fdadb2c68a60a8a1eee555f385b8871cdcf11ce9722a97283e0">''[[:d:Q45318773|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Mollicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19671408|Q19671408]] | [[Procabacteriales]] | Procabacteriales | [[Betaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19672751|Q19672751]] | [[Nautiliales]] | Nautiliales<ref name="ref_11b652a6f8d9e2e055f6f9b67cff2e9858026054e675249c007b8d37f1324c14">''[[:d:Q30890350|Caminibacter profundus sp. nov., a novel thermophile of Nautiliales ord. nov. within the class 'Epsilonproteobacteria', isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent.]]''</ref> | [[Epsilonproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19684624|Q19684624]] | [[Mariprofundales]] | Mariprofundales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Mariprofundus ferrooxydans PV-1 cell and stalk TEM image.tiff|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19750467|Q19750467]] | [[Dileptida]] | Dileptida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Rhynchostomatia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19752322|Q19752322]] | [[Labyrinthulales]] | Labyrinthulales | [[Labyrinthulomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19753259|Q19753259]] | [[Synergistales]] | Synergistales | [[Synergistia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19776301|Q19776301]] | [[Mesostigmales]] | Mesostigmales | [[Mesostigmatophyceae]] | [[File:Mesostigma viride 534857918.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19776310|Q19776310]] | [[Omnivoropterygiformes]] | Omnivoropterygiformes<ref name="ref_3313edb8167a03a0961922a8b4ccb9c146cc2557ac039a6b8c0ba875bb9f66ec">''[[:d:Q51885189|Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera]]''</ref> | [[ave]]<ref name="ref_3313edb8167a03a0961922a8b4ccb9c146cc2557ac039a6b8c0ba875bb9f66ec">''[[:d:Q51885189|Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19776311|Q19776311]] | [[Yalkaparidontia]] | Yalkaparidontia<ref name="ref_fdde7bb1f286cdf29b3c8e0d1ba2266a31afacfbae9357070d7e3851a01fd32b">''[[:d:Q61648606|A New Order of Tertiary Zalambdodont Marsupials]]''</ref> | [[Marsupiales|Marsupialia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19817098|Q19817098]] | [[Cheirolepiformes]] | Cheirolepiformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19823607|Q19823607]] | [[Myllokunmingiida]] | Myllokunmingiida | [[Agnatha]] | [[File:Myllokunmingia.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19823819|Q19823819]] | [[Microsporales]] | Microsporales | [[Chlorophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19832802|Q19832802]] | [[Chondrenchelyiformes]] | Chondrenchelyiformes | [[Holocephalimorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19832805|Q19832805]] | [[Peripodida]] | Peripodida<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref><ref name="ref_01c969f1c18666da98589a1eec52668bd195d78f22d9403986ab3a4216de6d01">''[[:d:Q54505094|A new class of Echinodermata from New Zealand]]''</ref> | [[Concentricycloidea]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Xyloplax janetae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19833395|Q19833395]] | [[Limnofilida]] | Limnofilida<ref name="ref_14886f064fd3e8d6603904119a2abb5efcd12a32fc456a01e383326b639c7b7a">''[[:d:Q28298706|Phylogeny of novel naked Filose and Reticulose Cercozoa: Granofilosea cl. n. and Proteomyxidea revised]]''</ref> | [[Granofilosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19833402|Q19833402]] | [[Lycopteriformes]] | Lycopteriformes | [[Osteoglossomorpha]] | [[File:Fossil Lycoptera.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19833404|Q19833404]] | [[Megalichthyiformes]] | Megalichthyiformes | [[Tetrapodomorpha]] | [[File:Megalichthys hibberti.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19839001|Q19839001]] | [[Moniliellales]] | Moniliellales | [[Moniliellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19839075|Q19839075]] | [[Synchromales]] | Synchromales | [[Synchromophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19839167|Q19839167]] | [[Redfieldiiformes]] | Redfieldiiformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | [[File:Redfieldius gracilis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19839177|Q19839177]] | [[Psammodontiformes]] | Psammodontiformes | [[Holocephalimorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19839280|Q19839280]] | [[Parasemionotiformes]] | Parasemionotiformes | [[Halecomorphi]] | [[File:Parasemionotus labordei 7.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19839479|Q19839479]] | [[Strabopida]] | Strabopida | [[arthropodo]] | [[File:Strabops thatcheri fossil aglaspidid. Potosi Dolomite, Upper Cambrian.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19839483|Q19839483]] | [[Palaeopantopoda]] | Palaeopantopoda<ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | [[Pycnogonida]]<ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19839497|Q19839497]] | [[Cryptofilida]] | Cryptofilida<ref name="ref_14886f064fd3e8d6603904119a2abb5efcd12a32fc456a01e383326b639c7b7a">''[[:d:Q28298706|Phylogeny of novel naked Filose and Reticulose Cercozoa: Granofilosea cl. n. and Proteomyxidea revised]]''</ref> | [[Granofilosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19839527|Q19839527]] | [[Mollisoniida]] | Mollisoniida<ref name="ref_d5764da24ddab5cbf55e415164d2e995c8f38be5d94c358bdd6adf0f9402fdd5">''[[:d:Q106699177|New exceptionally preserved panarthropods from the Drumian Wheeler Konservat‐Lagerstätte of the House Range of Utah]]''</ref> | [[Chelicerata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19841494|Q19841494]] | [[Leptolepiformes]] | Leptolepiformes | [[Teleostei]] | [[File:Leptolepides sprattiformis 322333.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19841917|Q19841917]] | [[Helodontiformes]] | Helodontiformes | [[Paraselachimorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19842457|Q19842457]] | [[Guildayichthyiformes]] | Guildayichthyiformes | [[Cladistia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19842583|Q19842583]] | [[Sinoburiida]] | Sinoburiida | [[Petalopleura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19842612|Q19842612]] | [[Metopiida]] | Metopiida | [[Filosa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19844643|Q19844643]] | [[Philasterida]] | Philasterida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Oligohymenophorea]]<br/>[[Scuticociliatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Uronema nigricans - 400x (13464953765).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19844664|Q19844664]] | [[Luganoiiformes]] | Luganoiiformes | [[Chondrostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19844782|Q19844782]] | [[Desulfarculales]] | Desulfarculales<ref name="ref_69868936193b78c8509bc87f6072186cd07dee976a267d00103e45418b387dc7">''[[:d:Q45316293|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Desulfarculia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19844805|Q19844805]] | [[Copodontiformes]] | Copodontiformes | [[Holocephalimorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19844916|Q19844916]] | [[Aspidorhychiformes]] | Aspidorhychiformes | [[Neopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19845007|Q19845007]] | [[Aspidorhynchiformes]] | Aspidorhynchiformes | [[Teleostei]] | [[File:Aspidorhynchus acustirostris.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19887835|Q19887835]] | [[Cladoselachiformes]] | Cladoselachiformes | [[elasmobranchio]]<br/>[[Neoselachii]] | [[File:Early Shark.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19888112|Q19888112]] | [[Phaeocystales]] | Phaeocystales<ref name="ref_802acaa704182f044c5fde26b8cc8b7b63c1c9c3d15f61f10a60433407ac57fa">''[[:d:Q110221064|Phylogenetic reconstructions of the Haptophyta inferred from 18S ribosomal DNA sequences and available morphological data]]''</ref> | [[Prymnesiophyceae]] | [[File:Schaum von Phaeocystis globosa.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19888495|Q19888495]] | [[Ottoiomorpha]] | Ottoiomorpha | [[Priapulida]] | [[File:Ottoia burrowing.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19890834|Q19890834]] | [[Arandaspidida]] | Arandaspidida | [[Pteraspidomorphi]] | [[File:Arandaspis prionotolepis fossil.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19891296|Q19891296]] | [[Urodela]] | Urodela | [[Caudata]] | [[File:Seminobatrachus boltischki F06 135.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19962467|Q19962467]] | [[Adinetida]] | Adinetida | [[Bdelloidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962489|Q19962489]] | [[Aspidogastrida]] | Aspidogastrida | [[Aspidogastrea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962500|Q19962500]] | [[Capsalidea]] | Capsalidea | [[Monopisthocotylea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962528|Q19962528]] | [[Chordodea]] | Chordodea | [[Gordioida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962552|Q19962552]] | [[Diclybothriidea]] | Diclybothriidea | [[Oligonchoinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962559|Q19962559]] | [[Ectobranchia]] | Ectobranchia | [[Heterobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962570|Q19962570]] | [[Mazocreaidea]] | Mazocreaidea | [[Oligonchoinea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962575|Q19962575]] | [[Microcoryphia]] | Microcoryphia | [[insecto]] | [[File:Machilinus rupestris. Microcoryphia Meinertellidae - Flickr - gailhampshire.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19962613|Q19962613]] | [[Cyanophorales]] | Cyanophorales | [[Glaucocystophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962620|Q19962620]] | [[Nerillida]] | Nerillida | [[Polychaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962629|Q19962629]] | [[Notostigmata]] | Notostigmata | [[Anactinotrichida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962631|Q19962631]] | [[Philodinavida]] | Philodinavida | [[Bdelloidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962636|Q19962636]] | [[Philodinida]] | Philodinida | [[Bdelloidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962640|Q19962640]] | [[Picimorphes]] | Picimorphes | [[Picimorphae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962644|Q19962644]] | [[Proboscoida]] | Proboscoida | [[Leptothecata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962656|Q19962656]] | [[Strigeida]] | Strigeida | [[Digenea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962661|Q19962661]] | [[Tetamerocerata]] | Tetamerocerata | [[Pauropoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19962675|Q19962675]] | [[Tetrabothriidea]] | Tetrabothriidea | [[Eucestoda]] | [[File:Tetrabothrius intrepidus.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20010908|Q20010908]] | [[Pustulosida]] | Pustulosida | [[Asteroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20011719|Q20011719]] | [[Sipunculiformes]] | Sipunculiformes | [[Sipunculidea]] | [[File:Sipunculus nudus Japan.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20011911|Q20011911]] | [[Palaeoisopoda]] | Palaeoisopoda<ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | [[Pycnogonida]]<ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20011921|Q20011921]] | [[Nectopantopoda]] | Nectopantopoda<ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | [[Pycnogonida]]<ref name="ref_28227edb99fa4bc1a524b8e8d4fd261041534218c0d148952811c4ff49aa715d">''[[:d:Q20011904|Class Pycnogonida Latreille, 1810]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20035924|Q20035924]] | [[Chaetodermatida]] | Chaetodermatida | [[Caudofoveata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20055309|Q20055309]] | [[Muspiceida]] | Muspiceida | [[Enoplea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20072830|Q20072830]] | [[Archaeostraca]] | Archaeostraca | [[Phyllocarida]] | [[File:Nahecaris stuertzi.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q61677365|Q61677365]] | [[Pleurobranchida]] | Pleurobranchida | [[Nudipleura]] | [[File:Tomoberthella martensi (Pilsbry, 1896).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q61719409|Q61719409]] | [[Acropomatiformes]] | Acropomatiformes<ref name="ref_326ac5569391c4058005e6ad9441a464fc841e83feba37d7ba7668f7c922fe08">''[[:d:Q9185167|Catalog of Fishes]]''</ref> | [[Acanthopterygii]]<br/>[[Teleostei]] | [[File:Acropoma japonicum.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q61785088|Q61785088]] | [[Gnosonesimida]] | Gnosonesimida | [[Neoophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61882916|Q61882916]] | [[Dolichomastigales]] | Dolichomastigales<ref name="ref_2c414b4f9fc65e5dec31b3eb6cee49db0c63ad63e22253876505c0bc60b3e414">''[[:d:Q45718648|Molecular phylogeny and classification of the Mamiellophyceae class. nov. (Chlorophyta) based on sequence comparisons of the nuclear- and plastid-encoded rRNA operons]]''</ref> | [[Mamiellophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61954804|Q61954804]] | [[Picomonadida]] | Picomonadida<ref name="ref_6f84893f17d7dac5f1f35e78e801676446c737f5807c18239365a578d6349f8b">''[[:d:Q21089798|Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as ‘Picobiliphytes’]]''</ref> | [[Picomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61995833|Q61995833]] | [[Entosiphonida]] | Entosiphonida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Entosiphonea]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61996034|Q61996034]] | [[Decastavida]] | Decastavida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Homostavia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61996113|Q61996113]] | [[Heterostavida]] | Heterostavida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Heterostavia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61996150|Q61996150]] | [[Anisonemida]] | Anisonemida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Anisonemia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61996166|Q61996166]] | [[Natomonadida]] | Natomonadida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Anisonemia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61996307|Q61996307]] | [[Acroglissida]] | Acroglissida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Anisonemia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61996383|Q61996383]] | [[Rapazida]] | Rapazida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Rapazia]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61996471|Q61996471]] | [[Bihospitida]] | Bihospitida<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[Postgaardea]]<ref name="ref_434ca199bdc838a6ed49c005b9c03973cbc6c433a66101db8e1a66595b1e97d7">''[[:d:Q39151632|Higher classification and phylogeny of Euglenozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Bihospites bacati.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q62027276|Q62027276]] | [[Marinilabiliales]] | Marinilabiliales<ref name="ref_9ae6c8ad221311ebd778c9d88b42488f04a12fd332a74f693a61d971cd8e311c">''[[:d:Q31118258|Description of Ancylomarina subtilis gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from coastal sediment, proposal of Marinilabiliales ord. nov. and transfer of Marinilabiliaceae, Prolixibacteraceae and Marinifilaceae to the order Marinilabiliales]]''</ref> | [[Bacteroidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q62033507|Q62033507]] | [[Parachlamydiales]] | Parachlamydiales<ref name="ref_a25afa24983402a023c867220d977742cc38109a08b24c472b80b2f949d8751f">''[[:d:Q45340843|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Chlamydiia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q62066301|Q62066301]] | [[Kiritimatiellales]] | Kiritimatiellales<ref name="ref_2c4dfd394042fbfceb463f93db11e02a29e679c3dec44a71baa7f9ed165fbb9f">''[[:d:Q45760105|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Kiritimatiellia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q62602515|Q62602515]] | [[Saprospirales]] | Saprospirales<ref name="ref_2724d13786ac91bda0097cc619b6c671650279ec70877a9dd71d395a353c7ee6">''[[:d:Q45760312|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Saprospiria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q62629846|Q62629846]] | [[Iodidimonadales]] | Iodidimonadales<ref name="ref_4cdc9f927d5f2db64e3aae537e098b2abebfb5bf0626f0282bd7b2bf07efa11d">''[[:d:Q36114794|Iodidimonas muriae gen. nov., sp. nov., an aerobic iodide-oxidizing bacterium isolated from brine of a natural gas and iodine recovery facility, and proposals of Iodidimonadaceae fam. nov., Iodidimonadales ord. nov., Emcibacteraceae fam. nov. and Em]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q62630101|Q62630101]] | [[Micropepsales]] | Micropepsales<ref name="ref_099e527cc6f1ad212c98ac9b5372c69d0d7a7e7914a65530fa4ed69afdc20754">''[[:d:Q31146117|Micropepsis pineolensis gen. nov., sp. nov., a mildly acidophilic alphaproteobacterium isolated from a poor fen, and proposal of Micropepsaceae fam. nov. within Micropepsales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q62646382|Q62646382]] | [[Immundisolibacterales]] | Immundisolibacterales<ref name="ref_50b5e10f95ce441e37e8af9ec2827e2ff93bdaca5a97decc7b8ce8bc85a11c85">''[[:d:Q31147391|Description of Immundisolibacter cernigliae gen. nov., sp. nov., a high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading bacterium within the class Gammaproteobacteria, and proposal of Immundisolibacterales ord. nov. and Immundisolibactera]]''</ref> | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q62646992|Q62646992]] | [[Lysobacterales]] | Lysobacterales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q63362711|Q63362711]] | [[Minwuiales]] | Minwuiales<ref name="ref_63e7eb55c1137f1df3ca22987e5f977cabed0e569a931075aa68eaaaa52816f0">''[[:d:Q57457771|Minwuia thermotolerans gen. nov., sp. nov., a marine bacterium forming a deep branch in the Alphaproteobacteria, and proposal of Minwuiaceae fam. nov. and Minwuiales ord. nov]]''</ref> | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q63366516|Q63366516]] | [[Methanonatronarchaeales]] | Methanonatronarchaeales | [[Methanonatronarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q63433510|Q63433510]] | [[Capsulimonadales]] | Capsulimonadales<ref name="ref_55b8961a7dcc45cace5483661f8e4884931d73af1b32c8767e3dc86a258f4cf8">''[[:d:Q63339648|Capsulimonas corticalis gen. nov., sp. nov., an aerobic capsulated bacterium, of a novel bacterial order, Capsulimonadales ord. nov., of the class Armatimonadia of the phylum Armatimonadetes]]''</ref> | [[Armatimonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q63526920|Q63526920]] | [[Jobellisiales]] | Jobellisiales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | [[File:Jobellisia luteola.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q63622085|Q63622085]] | [[Violaceomycetales]] | Violaceomycetales<ref name="ref_82a93aaf9856a2fd63eac3fba3fe343ad7e56198d14659e833e0b85253d528e1">''[[:d:Q30989140|Violaceomyces palustris gen. et sp. nov. and a new monotypic lineage, Violaceomycetales ord. nov. in Ustilaginomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Ustilaginomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q63985623|Q63985623]] | [[Prorhynchida]] | Prorhynchida | [[Rhabditophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q64350794|Q64350794]] | [[Bartheletiales]] | Bartheletiales | [[Bartheletiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q65120555|Q65120555]] | [[Benneviaspidiformes]] | Benneviaspidiformes | [[Osteostraci]] | | |- | [[:d:Q65133717|Q65133717]] | [[Gloeochaetales]] | Gloeochaetales | [[Glaucophyceae]] | [[File:Gloeochaete wittrockiana 336295979.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q65147721|Q65147721]] | [[Corallicolida]] | Corallicolida<ref name="ref_82674526fa5a7ad5f848891c100d44304a99aaac22eff3ab03fc12f16773650b">''[[:d:Q107742586|Taxonomy of the Apicomplexan Symbionts of Coral, including Corallicolida ord. nov., Reassignment of the Genus Gemmocystis , and Description of New Species Corallicola aquarius gen. nov. sp. nov. and Anthozoaphila gnarlus gen. nov. sp. nov]]''</ref> | [[Conoidasida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q65684104|Q65684104]] | [[Umbellinales]] | Umbellinales | [[Charophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q66793644|Q66793644]] | [[Rhodelphida]] | Rhodelphida<ref name="ref_1c4c81dfe9821d726fc2a7e0d711e97f1c130b35c01f3557dbc10ab5c096eac6">''[[:d:Q91969380|Non-photosynthetic predators are sister to red algae]]''</ref> | [[Rhodelphea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q67428932|Q67428932]] | [[Eupodiscales]] | Eupodiscales | [[Thalassiosirophycidae]] | [[File:Eupodiscus in Peragallo 1897.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q68355482|Q68355482]] | [[Goniochloridales]] | Goniochloridales | [[Eustigmatophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q68781205|Q68781205]] | [[Eucoccidiida]] | Eucoccidiida<ref name="ref_482b1afc773fdb8673c3a9d2bf5b723661e4792369fa3621a45a9c4d9cfa9c67">''[[:d:Q109567037|Selenococcidium intermedium Lég. et Dub. et la systématique des sporozoaires]]''</ref> | [[Coccidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q68805630|Q68805630]] | [[Hypotrichida]] | Hypotrichida | [[Polymenophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q69466372|Q69466372]] | [[Eimeriida]] | Eimeriida | | | |- | [[:d:Q71426529|Q71426529]] | [[Gastrochaenida]] | Gastrochaenida | [[Imparidentia]] | [[File:Winged Chimney Clam (11670624063).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q71439911|Q71439911]] | [[Sphaeriida]] | Sphaeriida | [[Imparidentia]] | [[File:Sphaerium corneum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q71807112|Q71807112]] | [[Galeommatida]] | Galeommatida | [[Imparidentia]] | [[File:Un bivalve de la famille des Galeommatidae.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q72265514|Q72265514]] | [[Rudista]] | Rudista | | | |- | [[:d:Q75381923|Q75381923]] | [[Naiaditales]] | Naiaditales<ref name="ref_6391a79fce707863162e6f9160e97be2103e6c52abb90c750e6948af61e61729">''[[:d:Q23718005|Validation of ordinal and family names for a Triassic fossil liverwort, Naiadita (Naiaditaceae, Marchantiopsida)]]''</ref> | [[Marchantiidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q76877615|Q76877615]] | [[Cocculinida]] | Cocculinida | [[Neomphaliones]] | [[File:Coccopigya hispida (MNHN-IM-2000-4954).jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q77043819|Q77043819]] | [[Phlebolepidiformes]] | Phlebolepidiformes | [[Thelodonti]] | | |- | [[:d:Q80125024|Q80125024]] | [[Loganelliiformes]] | Loganelliiformes | [[Thelodonti]] | | |- | [[:d:Q80128509|Q80128509]] | [[Gloeomargaritales]] | Gloeomargaritales<ref name="ref_e01dcf3d912f75555f18e269d584adf6ee3316aec5fa7716215e6e3bf24b12e7">''[[:d:Q31146072|Description of Gloeomargarita lithophora gen. nov., sp. nov., a thylakoid-bearing basal-branching cyanobacterium with intracellular carbonates, and proposal for Gloeomargaritales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Gloeobacterophycidae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q81932568|Q81932568]] | [[Barclayales]] | Barclayales | [[Angiospermae|angiosperms]] | | |- | [[:d:Q81932854|Q81932854]] | [[Euryalales]] | Euryalales | [[Angiospermae|angiosperms]] | | |- | [[:d:Q81933723|Q81933723]] | [[Trimeniales]] | Trimeniales<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Magnoliopsida]]<br/>[[Nymphaeanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q81935761|Q81935761]] | [[Asarales]] | Asarales | [[magnoliids]] | | |- | [[:d:Q81936634|Q81936634]] | [[Degeneriales]] | Degeneriales | [[Magnoliidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q81937093|Q81937093]] | [[Himantandrales]] | Himantandrales<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Magnoliidae]]<br/>[[Magnolianae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q82298227|Q82298227]] | [[Scotinosphaerales]] | Scotinosphaerales<ref name="ref_3895185af95cf28476dd9af5cc417cf324bb23cb2fba734abae77f23730244a8">''[[:d:Q39893958|Morphology and Phylogenetic Position of the Freshwater Green Microalgae Chlorochytrium (Chlorophyceae) and Scotinosphaera (Scotinosphaerales, ord. nov., Ulvophyceae).]]''</ref> | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Scotinosphaera paradoxa in Klebs 1881.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q82342899|Q82342899]] | [[Sandiviiformes]] | Sandiviiformes | [[Thelodonti]] | | |- | [[:d:Q84550989|Q84550989]] | [[Chloropicales]] | Chloropicales<ref name="ref_93e5b331f74e37623548173396db15e1d2164f42f2a2735e529656555c8b859e">''[[:d:Q42630271|Chloropicophyceae, a new class of picophytoplanktonic prasinophytes.]]''</ref> | [[Chloropicophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q84556357|Q84556357]] | [[Prasinococcales]] | Prasinococcales<ref name="ref_df92f74a2661655060d9beb7927f10f6b8ddf7c3ad37aed7855a4a0cd90ae91e">''[[:d:Q28603071|Chloroplast phylogenomic analyses reveal the deepest-branching lineage of the Chlorophyta, Palmophyllophyceae class. nov]]''</ref> | [[Palmophyllophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q84562353|Q84562353]] | [[Picocystales]] | Picocystales<ref name="ref_93e5b331f74e37623548173396db15e1d2164f42f2a2735e529656555c8b859e">''[[:d:Q42630271|Chloropicophyceae, a new class of picophytoplanktonic prasinophytes.]]''</ref> | [[Picocystophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q85764131|Q85764131]] | [[Gosslingiales]] | Gosslingiales | [[Zosterophyllopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q86837870|Q86837870]] | [[Canuelloida]] | Canuelloida | [[Podoplea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q86941093|Q86941093]] | [[Marthamycetales]] | Marthamycetales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q88305188|Q88305188]] | [[Micropeltidales]] | Micropeltidales | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q92035382|Q92035382]] | [[Nanoarchaeales]] | Nanoarchaeales | [[Nanoarchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92198718|Q92198718]] | [[Tubulavirales]] | Tubulavirales<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Faserviricetes]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92198781|Q92198781]] | [[Polivirales]] | Polivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Mouviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92198840|Q92198840]] | [[Sepolyvirales]] | Sepolyvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Papovaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92198891|Q92198891]] | [[Zurhausenvirales]] | Zurhausenvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Papovaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92198939|Q92198939]] | [[Piccovirales]] | Piccovirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Quintoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92198999|Q92198999]] | [[Baphyvirales]] | Baphyvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Arfiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199060|Q92199060]] | [[Cirlivirales]] | Cirlivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Arfiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199132|Q92199132]] | [[Cremevirales]] | Cremevirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Arfiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199175|Q92199175]] | [[Mulpavirales]] | Mulpavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Arfiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199229|Q92199229]] | [[Recrevirales]] | Recrevirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Arfiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199277|Q92199277]] | [[Geplafuvirales]] | Geplafuvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Repensiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199356|Q92199356]] | [[Haloruvirales]] | Haloruvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Huolimaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199404|Q92199404]] | [[Ghabrivirales]] | Ghabrivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Chrymotiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199470|Q92199470]] | [[Hepelivirales]] | Hepelivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Alsuviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Hepatitis E virus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q92199535|Q92199535]] | [[Martellivirales]] | Martellivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Alsuviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199599|Q92199599]] | [[Amarillovirales]] | Amarillovirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Flasuviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199658|Q92199658]] | [[Nodamuvirales]] | Nodamuvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Magsaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199717|Q92199717]] | [[Tolivirales]] | Tolivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tolucaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199767|Q92199767]] | [[Cryppavirales]] | Cryppavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Howeltoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199803|Q92199803]] | [[Ourlivirales]] | Ourlivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Miaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199892|Q92199892]] | [[Patatavirales]] | Patatavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Stelpaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199940|Q92199940]] | [[Stellavirales]] | Stellavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Stelpaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92199989|Q92199989]] | [[Blubervirales]] | Blubervirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Revtraviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92200027|Q92200027]] | [[Priklausovirales]] | Priklausovirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Maveriviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92200073|Q92200073]] | [[Belfryvirales]] | Belfryvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tectiliviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92200124|Q92200124]] | [[Kalamavirales]] | Kalamavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tectiliviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92200167|Q92200167]] | [[Rowavirales]] | Rowavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tectiliviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92200206|Q92200206]] | [[Vinavirales]] | Vinavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tectiliviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92200246|Q92200246]] | [[Halopanivirales]] | Halopanivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Laserviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614093|Q92614093]] | [[Petitvirales]] | Petitvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Malgrandaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614140|Q92614140]] | [[Reovirales]] | Reovirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Resentoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614181|Q92614181]] | [[Mindivirales]] | Mindivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Vidaverviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614227|Q92614227]] | [[Levivirales]] | Levivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref> | [[Allassoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614275|Q92614275]] | [[Wolframvirales]] | Wolframvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Amabiliviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614327|Q92614327]] | [[Durnavirales]] | Durnavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Duplopiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614401|Q92614401]] | [[Sobelivirales]] | Sobelivirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Pisoniviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614443|Q92614443]] | [[Algavirales]] | Algavirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Megaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q108074506|Q108074506]] | [[Coenomycetales]] | Coenomycetales | [[Coenomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108079150|Q108079150]] | [[Eremomycetales]] | Eremomycetales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Arthrographis cuboidea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q108081127|Q108081127]] | [[Gloniales]] | Gloniales | [[Pleosporomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108086030|Q108086030]] | [[Micrinomonadales]] | Micrinomonadales | [[Micrinomonadophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108117338|Q108117338]] | [[Podargiformes]] | Podargiformes<ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Neoaves]] | [[File:Srilankan frogmouth.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q108117411|Q108117411]] | [[Nyctibiiformes]] | Nyctibiiformes<ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Neoaves]] | [[File:Andean Potto (Nyctibius maculosus) on a branch.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q108117479|Q108117479]] | [[Steatornithiformes]] | Steatornithiformes<ref name="ref_7edb301dd0fb7ff2cdd7d7f5a23116941a2655b566e8892314c255fd7b60c47f">''[[:d:Q108116032|IOC World Bird List Version 11.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_540c8d5ca51fcbcfdde3ed3fc93419ae3b011062884a1903a6c90b44028c9a05">''[[:d:Q116732424|IOC World Bird List Version 12.1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29b118fd222e87d09eb4c0d34e662b0f9c0a14846d72dff04e08c839e7ce2bca">''[[:d:Q117190405|IOC World Bird List Version 12.2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_120581709b59e2f7acda8a22fb111da6e394c2562df61854f0a2691fb1342889">''[[:d:Q117219094|IOC World Bird List Version 13.1]]''</ref> | [[Neoaves]] | [[File:Oilbirds.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q108315889|Q108315889]] | [[Cothoniida]] | Cothoniida | [[Hexacorallia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108368174|Q108368174]] | [[Botryopteridiales]] | Botryopteridiales | [[Botryopteridiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108383281|Q108383281]] | [[Callimastigales]] | Callimastigales | [[Blastocladiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108383570|Q108383570]] | [[Crossothecales]] | Crossothecales | [[Botryopteridiophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108383612|Q108383612]] | [[Dicranophyllales]] | Dicranophyllales | [[Dicranophyllopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108383636|Q108383636]] | [[Discopteridales]] | Discopteridales | [[Botryopteridiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108383690|Q108383690]] | [[Ferugliocladales]] | Ferugliocladales | [[Cordaitopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108384003|Q108384003]] | [[Mononematales]] | Mononematales | [[Kickxellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108384425|Q108384425]] | [[Neomariopteridales]] | Neomariopteridales | [[Botryopteridiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108386234|Q108386234]] | [[Paleoblastocladiales]] | Paleoblastocladiales | [[Blastocladiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108388442|Q108388442]] | [[Polyphagales]] | Polyphagales | [[Monoblepharidomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108388929|Q108388929]] | [[Psygmophyllales]] | Psygmophyllales | [[Cordaitopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108389825|Q108389825]] | [[Saccopodiales]] | Saccopodiales | [[Chytridiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108390031|Q108390031]] | [[Senftenbergiales]] | Senftenbergiales | [[Botryopteridiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108390257|Q108390257]] | [[Spiromycetales]] | Spiromycetales | [[Kickxellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108400894|Q108400894]] | [[Archaeolepadomorpha]] | Archaeolepadomorpha | [[Thoracicalcarea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108408716|Q108408716]] | [[Calanticomorpha]] | Calanticomorpha | [[Thoracicalcarea]] | [[File:Calantica graphica (MNHN-IU-2013-16550) 002.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q108470479|Q108470479]] | [[Sedimentisphaerales]] | Sedimentisphaerales | [[Phycisphaerae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q108481048|Q108481048]] | [[Pirellulales]] | Pirellulales | [[Planctomycetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q108485483|Q108485483]] | [[Gemmatales]] | Gemmatales | [[Planctomycetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q108523179|Q108523179]] | [[Eolepadomorpha]] | Eolepadomorpha | [[Phosphatothoracica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108523323|Q108523323]] | [[Pollicipedomorpha]] | Pollicipedomorpha | [[Thoracicalcarea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109019614|Q109019614]] | [[Ctenocystida]] | Ctenocystida | [[Ctenocystoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109442195|Q109442195]] | [[Tubulaniformes]] | Tubulaniformes | [[Palaeonemertea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109877889|Q109877889]] | [[Cribrariales]] | Cribrariales | [[Lucisporidia]]<br/>[[Myxomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109877910|Q109877910]] | [[Reticulariales]] | Reticulariales<ref name="ref_05d1a1231353d3c32cc6ebd7e9afceefef76e65dc0c70ea97faad645546a7fec">''[[:d:Q87005931|Towards a phylogenetic classification of the Myxomycetes]]''</ref><br/>Reticulariida<ref name="ref_05d1a1231353d3c32cc6ebd7e9afceefef76e65dc0c70ea97faad645546a7fec">''[[:d:Q87005931|Towards a phylogenetic classification of the Myxomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Lucisporidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109877911|Q109877911]] | [[Clastodermatales]] | Clastodermatales<ref name="ref_05d1a1231353d3c32cc6ebd7e9afceefef76e65dc0c70ea97faad645546a7fec">''[[:d:Q87005931|Towards a phylogenetic classification of the Myxomycetes]]''</ref><br/>Clastodermatida<ref name="ref_05d1a1231353d3c32cc6ebd7e9afceefef76e65dc0c70ea97faad645546a7fec">''[[:d:Q87005931|Towards a phylogenetic classification of the Myxomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Columellidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109877912|Q109877912]] | [[Meridermatales]] | Meridermatales<ref name="ref_05d1a1231353d3c32cc6ebd7e9afceefef76e65dc0c70ea97faad645546a7fec">''[[:d:Q87005931|Towards a phylogenetic classification of the Myxomycetes]]''</ref><br/>Meridermatida<ref name="ref_05d1a1231353d3c32cc6ebd7e9afceefef76e65dc0c70ea97faad645546a7fec">''[[:d:Q87005931|Towards a phylogenetic classification of the Myxomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Columellidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109984877|Q109984877]] | [[Fractovitellida]] | Fractovitellida<ref name="ref_02e2335fb304c5c174f93b5b215156375fdaa8c687751349545635b93dcba42e">''[[:d:Q21560938|Comprehensive phylogenetic reconstruction of amoebozoa based on concatenated analyses of SSU-rDNA and actin genes]]''</ref> | [[Variosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109985061|Q109985061]] | [[Ramamoebida]] | Ramamoebida<ref name="ref_3d592a1adab2bec71ec950ab003d8e8298fb51ddbd4091cd68be40e3ae11892d">''[[:d:Q28601015|187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution]]''</ref> | [[Variosea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109997414|Q109997414]] | [[Corallochytrida]] | Corallochytrida | [[Corallochytrea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110007378|Q110007378]] | [[Rozellida]] | Rozellida<ref name="ref_b0ab7d2574c635091eba0140547b1ce24309f2b0bc47177df19133b4e6942474">''[[:d:Q34307318|Early evolution of eukaryote feeding modes, cell structural diversity, and classification of the protozoan phyla Loukozoa, Sulcozoa, and Choanozoa]]''</ref> | [[Rozellidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110007465|Q110007465]] | [[Aphelidida]] | Aphelidida<ref name="ref_b0ab7d2574c635091eba0140547b1ce24309f2b0bc47177df19133b4e6942474">''[[:d:Q34307318|Early evolution of eukaryote feeding modes, cell structural diversity, and classification of the protozoan phyla Loukozoa, Sulcozoa, and Choanozoa]]''</ref> | [[Rozellidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110123930|Q110123930]] | [[Prasinodermatales]] | Prasinodermatales<ref name="ref_5631ca20a38193263affb5106e125eff9a45b825d04393ee636b119cdad1bec1">''[[:d:Q96641117|The genome of Prasinoderma coloniale unveils the existence of a third phylum within green plants]]''</ref> | [[Prasinodermatophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110208093|Q110208093]] | [[Palpitida]] | Palpitida<ref name="ref_a47de1747645cc33a5241c834f801a3d852586a2178badcb90aba9f80ce671e8">''[[:d:Q34154015|Oxnerella micra sp. n. (Oxnerellidae fam. n.), a tiny naked centrohelid, and the diversity and evolution of heliozoa]]''</ref> | [[Palpitea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110209010|Q110209010]] | [[Goniomonadida]] | Goniomonadida<ref name="ref_1907a50b98982e87a6eaa507087f391deebe5f7e2c9948c6f45e27be273cf03c">''[[:d:Q104115715|Some proposals for a new classification system of the Cryptophyceae]]''</ref><ref name="ref_073f5d113ee6d5e1831aa575f51a0687fbb540242a8df51194e91be83112d19e">''[[:d:Q110209023|A Zoological Classification System of Cryptomonads]]''</ref> | [[Goniomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110209266|Q110209266]] | [[Hemiarmida]] | Hemiarmida<ref name="ref_da4ee0a6b2499082277a96c7c13ba2a1c5cbb148dc622ea1f89e1560c80c8896">''[[:d:Q47194626|Kingdom Chromista and its eight phyla: a new synthesis emphasising periplastid protein targeting, cytoskeletal and periplastid evolution, and ancient divergences]]''</ref> | [[Cryptomonada]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110221376|Q110221376]] | [[Pavlomulinales]] | Pavlomulinales<ref name="ref_396b795f9e59447306031266a69dae89c8bd278dff7ae7990f8faff35595a67b">''[[:d:Q110221358|Rappemonads are haptophyte phytoplankton]]''</ref> | [[Rappephyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110222580|Q110222580]] | [[Pterocystida]] | Pterocystida<ref name="ref_befa3f94ed07828286001d81aa1172a0d61dc33839f42a3d601847e97863ecd2">''[[:d:Q34239332|Microheliella maris (Microhelida ord. n.), an ultrastructurally highly distinctive new axopodial protist species and genus, and the unity of phylum Heliozoa.]]''</ref> | [[Centroplasthelida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110224985|Q110224985]] | [[Minorisida]] | Minorisida<ref name="ref_da4ee0a6b2499082277a96c7c13ba2a1c5cbb148dc622ea1f89e1560c80c8896">''[[:d:Q47194626|Kingdom Chromista and its eight phyla: a new synthesis emphasising periplastid protein targeting, cytoskeletal and periplastid evolution, and ancient divergences]]''</ref> | [[Chlorarachnea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110225224|Q110225224]] | [[Helkesida]] | Helkesida<ref name="ref_da4ee0a6b2499082277a96c7c13ba2a1c5cbb148dc622ea1f89e1560c80c8896">''[[:d:Q47194626|Kingdom Chromista and its eight phyla: a new synthesis emphasising periplastid protein targeting, cytoskeletal and periplastid evolution, and ancient divergences]]''</ref> | [[Helkesea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110225634|Q110225634]] | [[Paracercomonadida]] | Paracercomonadida<ref name="ref_867bf6a671c48e2ef40e548d167ba607e3c9e89fed0bef9707439984cbb0d7cd">''[[:d:Q53073157|Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cell organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria.]]''</ref> | [[Sarcomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110225635|Q110225635]] | [[Krakenida]] | Krakenida<ref name="ref_867bf6a671c48e2ef40e548d167ba607e3c9e89fed0bef9707439984cbb0d7cd">''[[:d:Q53073157|Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cell organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria.]]''</ref> | [[Imbricatea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110226426|Q110226426]] | [[Aquavolonida]] | Aquavolonida<ref name="ref_c45734f48684f7991d0a1fb524f808d579ca41eb04e7305f998f31c5cf6594a9">''[[:d:Q52586953|Rhizarian 'Novel Clade 10' Revealed as Abundant and Diverse Planktonic and Terrestrial Flagellates, including Aquavolon n. gen.]]''</ref> | [[Rhizaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110233654|Q110233654]] | [[Selenaionida]] | Selenaionida<ref name="ref_c2ab33b471a37da746490cda9236e6c0b1ddc84b9ff2226e8fd87b668cfe8425">''[[:d:Q58840735|Dactylomonas gen. nov., a Novel Lineage of Heterolobosean Flagellates with Unique Ultrastructure, Closely Related to the Amoeba Selenaion koniopes Park, De Jonckheere & Simpson, 2012]]''</ref> | [[Tetramitia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110253397|Q110253397]] | [[Honigbergiellida]] | Honigbergiellida<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | [[Trichomonadea]]<ref name="ref_fccc0941b62b767d4ca8f911d6b9157d10c21c21d83ffbc28182047bca5ee1d4">''[[:d:Q33525747|Critical taxonomic revision of Parabasalids with description of one new genus and three new species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q110386907|Q110386907]] | [[Tremellodendropsidales]] | Tremellodendropsidales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110544430|Q110544430]] | [[Codiolales]] | Codiolales<ref name="ref_012eba0dbe37c7aa40587f8eabee8d9593a81bb50a0f2eb0ad19456c16f84c79">''[[:d:Q16958215|iNaturalist]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a5cb691fd2a2b68bd3f1f4fdd86e8363d0afaafce9c9a45fe2e1fcfcae264a67">''[[:d:Q1531570|Global Biodiversity Information Facility]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26ee57c4cbf5b5dbc46cd1e5a0a3bbd402e9076aadcb65b5785fff89ccad5ac6">''[[:d:Q11959214|Species Nomenclature Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Ulvophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110584931|Q110584931]] | [[Phanerochaetales]] | Phanerochaetales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110621139|Q110621139]] | [[Terrimicrobiales]] | Terrimicrobiales | [[Terrimicrobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q110657071|Q110657071]] | [[Ironida]] | Ironida | [[Enoplica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110749324|Q110749324]] | [[Trueperales]] | Trueperales | [[Deinococci]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q110788345|Q110788345]] | [[Aulographales]] | Aulographales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110969915|Q110969915]] | [[Trochiliscales]] | Trochiliscales | [[Charophyceae]]<ref name="ref_ff4287d2b684447b988dc170c7ca062d5ba1a84425bf769a210a2c4e4ad32e8f">''[[:d:Q2835653|AlgaeBase]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q110992552|Q110992552]] | [[Alaimida]] | Alaimida<ref name="ref_70f1c4793b5bdb19703e919e5840b91bf25d5b1a23984171db261a8de2a48431">https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Alaimida</ref> | [[Enoplica]]<ref name="ref_70f1c4793b5bdb19703e919e5840b91bf25d5b1a23984171db261a8de2a48431">https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Alaimida</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q111033054|Q111033054]] | [[Basibranchia]] | Basibranchia | [[Pogonophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111043433|Q111043433]] | [[Coniosporiales]] | Coniosporiales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111090250|Q111090250]] | [[Vendotaeniales]] | Vendotaeniales | [[Vendophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111165584|Q111165584]] | [[Geobacterales]] | Geobacterales | [[Desulfuromonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q111168899|Q111168899]] | [[Bacteriovoracales]] | Bacteriovoracales | [[Oligoflexia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q111169589|Q111169589]] | [[Syntrophales]] | Syntrophales | [[Syntrophia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q111207304|Q111207304]] | [[Apoikiales]] | Apoikiales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111208050|Q111208050]] | [[Chrysosaccales]] | Chrysosaccales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111210858|Q111210858]] | [[Olisthodiscales]] | Olisthodiscales | [[Olisthodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111210950|Q111210950]] | [[Paraphysomonadales]] | Paraphysomonadales | [[Chrysophyceae]] | [[File:Paraphysomonas butcheri whole mount.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q111263173|Q111263173]] | [[Phaeosacciales]] | Phaeosacciales | [[Phaeosacciophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111417204|Q111417204]] | [[Esthonioporata]] | Esthonioporata | [[Stenolaemata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111578728|Q111578728]] | [[Hubrechtiiformes]] | Hubrechtiiformes | [[Pilidiophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q111697002|Q111697002]] | [[Watanabeales]] | Watanabeales | [[Trebouxiophyceae]] | [[File:Sommer et al 2020 Watanabea sp. NN-1-1-E n.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q111721085|Q111721085]] | [[Campylopterodea]] | Campylopterodea | [[Neodonatoptera]]<br/>[[Odonatoclada]]<ref name="ref_8230028630b8eb0936c830f674dcb646f6069ce02b9baa345dcc2a8665c5d3f6">https://bechly.lima-city.de/system.htm</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q111803447|Q111803447]] | [[Vaginulinida]] | Vaginulinida | [[Nodosariata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q112252965|Q112252965]] | [[Hericiales]] | Hericiales | [[Basidiomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q112426913|Q112426913]] | [[Cyrtocerinida]] | Cyrtocerinida | [[Multiceratoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q112567388|Q112567388]] | [[Bisonocerida]] | Bisonocerida | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q112611217|Q112611217]] | [[Nodosariida]] | Nodosariida | [[Nodosariana]] | | |- | [[:d:Q112625204|Q112625204]] | [[Arcanodiscales]] | Arcanodiscales | [[Melosirophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q112633495|Q112633495]] | [[Plagiogrammales]] | Plagiogrammales | [[Urneidophycidae]] | [[File:Plagiogramma in A. Pritchard 1861.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q112633661|Q112633661]] | [[Cocconeidales]] | Cocconeidales | [[Bacillariophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113661624|Q113661624]] | [[Oscillospirales]] | Oscillospirales | [[Clostridia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113833750|Q113833750]] | [[Bilinguales]] | Bilinguales | [[Biddulphiophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113833912|Q113833912]] | [[Briggerales]] | Briggerales | [[Biddulphiophycidae]] | [[File:Dicladiopsis in Engler & Prantl 1900.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q113835306|Q113835306]] | [[Echinolampadacea]] | Echinolampadacea | [[Luminacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113840465|Q113840465]] | [[Probosciales]] | Probosciales | [[Mediophyceae]] | [[File:Rhizosolenia alata Brightw., 1858 in Engler & Prantl 1900.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q113841045|Q113841045]] | [[Stephanodiscales]] | Stephanodiscales | [[Thalassiosirophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113940369|Q113940369]] | [[Amphioxi]] | Amphioxi | [[Leptocardii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113961658|Q113961658]] | [[Uniciliatida]] | Uniciliatida | [[Nanomonadea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q114315358|Q114315358]] | [[Punciocopida]] | Punciocopida | [[Ostracoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q114680935|Q114680935]] | [[Urophlyctales]] | Urophlyctales | [[Blastocladiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q114728382|Q114728382]] | [[Thraustochytrida]] | Thraustochytrida | [[Labyrinthulomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q115115203|Q115115203]] | [[Distichiales]] | Distichiales | [[Dicranidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q115120497|Q115120497]] | [[Placidida]] | Placidida | [[Placididea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q115138941|Q115138941]] | [[Hyphomicrobiales]] | Hyphomicrobiales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q115198386|Q115198386]] | [[Neopilinida]] | Neopilinida | [[Monoplacophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122831327|Q122831327]] | [[Desertifilales]] | Desertifilales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122832363|Q122832363]] | [[Geitlerinematales]] | Geitlerinematales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122840457|Q122840457]] | [[Rhabdiasida]] | Rhabdiasida | [[Chromadorea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122840460|Q122840460]] | [[Onchidiida]] | Onchidiida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | [[Systellommatophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122842224|Q122842224]] | [[Gomontiellales]] | Gomontiellales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122963983|Q122963983]] | [[Amphiporida]] | Amphiporida | [[Stromatoporoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122966411|Q122966411]] | [[Disasteroida]] | Disasteroida | [[Echinoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123136078|Q123136078]] | [[Leptolyngbyales]] | Leptolyngbyales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123137952|Q123137952]] | [[Eoholyniales]] | Eoholyniales | [[Vendophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123138164|Q123138164]] | [[Archyfasmales]] | Archyfasmales | [[Vendophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123165236|Q123165236]] | [[Nodosilineales]] | Nodosilineales | [[Cyanophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123172725|Q123172725]] | [[Oculatellales]] | Oculatellales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123172962|Q123172962]] | [[Pelonematales]] | Pelonematales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123222511|Q123222511]] | [[Jatrophihabitantales]] | Jatrophihabitantales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123222544|Q123222544]] | [[Motilibacterales]] | Motilibacterales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123239891|Q123239891]] | [[Atribacterales]] | Atribacterales | [[Atribacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123282258|Q123282258]] | [[Sykidiales]] | Sykidiales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Sykidion droebakense in Wille 1901.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q123343617|Q123343617]] | [[Thermosediminibacterales]] | Thermosediminibacterales<ref name="ref_283fbe43c40820805d5c78a601700cdaec6b7e8ff38246bafd965deff3f3a333">''[[:d:Q84963869|Description of Biomaibacter acetigenes gen. nov., sp. nov., and proposal of Thermosediminibacterales ord. nov. containing two novel families of Tepidanaerobacteraceae fam. nov. and Thermosediminibacteraceae fam. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123359009|Q123359009]] | [[Mycoplasmoidales]] | Mycoplasmoidales | [[Mollicutes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123359098|Q123359098]] | [[Panxianichthyiformes]] | Panxianichthyiformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123381994|Q123381994]] | [[Mariplanellida]] | Mariplanellida | [[Rhabditophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123425625|Q123425625]] | [[Stereolasmatina]] | Stereolasmatina | [[Rugosa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123437089|Q123437089]] | [[Calditrichales]] | Calditrichales | [[Calditrichia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123438828|Q123438828]] | [[Sporobolomycetales]] | Sporobolomycetales | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123439032|Q123439032]] | [[Nidulariales]] | Nidulariales | [[gasteroid fungi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123439477|Q123439477]] | [[Tichowtungiales]] | Tichowtungiales<ref name="ref_7658d030456746642a731b04d417dab3456ce1d7f745f1091695beec6e889c19">''[[:d:Q98388076|Tichowtungia aerotolerans gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel representative of the phylum Kiritimatiellaeota and proposal of Tichowtungiaceae fam. nov., Tichowtungiales ord. nov. and Tichowtungiia class. nov]]''</ref> | [[Tichowtungiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123469055|Q123469055]] | [[Kitasatosporales]] | Kitasatosporales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Streptomyces sp 01.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q123470265|Q123470265]] | [[Thermotomaculales]] | Thermotomaculales | [[Holophagae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123470748|Q123470748]] | [[Ecerinales]] | Ecerinales | [[Trichomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123478613|Q123478613]] | [[Bryobacterales]] | Bryobacterales | [[Terriglobia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123517389|Q123517389]] | [[Discotrichida]] | Discotrichida<ref name="ref_e0191ad41a1edf5ccf6a402340be7358a30246ca84513bcc4d8462bbdfdad5d8">''[[:d:Q35115482|Phylogeny of the poorly known ciliates, microthoracida, a systematically confused taxon (ciliophora), with morphological reports of three species]]''</ref> | [[Nassophorea]]<ref name="ref_e0191ad41a1edf5ccf6a402340be7358a30246ca84513bcc4d8462bbdfdad5d8">''[[:d:Q35115482|Phylogeny of the poorly known ciliates, microthoracida, a systematically confused taxon (ciliophora), with morphological reports of three species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123518036|Q123518036]] | [[Muranotrichida]] | Muranotrichida<ref name="ref_b0abbd385dec5e6abacb3ba4a75e45a9ac086772ec47027bdb56c1c68eb3f224">''[[:d:Q93208141|Genomics of New Ciliate Lineages Provides Insight into the Evolution of Obligate Anaerobiosis]]''</ref> | [[Muranotrichea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123523632|Q123523632]] | [[Thermodesulfovibrionales]] | Thermodesulfovibrionales | [[Thermodesulfovibrionia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123524214|Q123524214]] | [[Brocadiales]] | Brocadiales | [[Brocadiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123537708|Q123537708]] | [[Isosphaerales]] | Isosphaerales | [[Planctomycetia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123590018|Q123590018]] | [[Terriglobales]] | Terriglobales | [[Terriglobia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Acidobacterium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q123592781|Q123592781]] | [[Thermoanaerobaculales]] | Thermoanaerobaculales | [[Thermoanaerobaculia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123593217|Q123593217]] | [[Vicinamibacterales]] | Vicinamibacterales | [[Vicinamibacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123688177|Q123688177]] | [[Limisphaerales]] | Limisphaerales<ref name="ref_834f9e97e5ddab2381d095c01c39d466ed0d416842b192b1f9fdef717eb324a6">''[[:d:Q120668617|Fontisphaera persica gen. nov., sp. nov., a thermophilic hydrolytic bacterium from a hot spring of Baikal lake region, and proposal of Fontisphaeraceae fam. nov., and Limisphaeraceae fam. nov. within the Limisphaerales ord. nov. (Verrucomicrobiota)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1045e61e26dec7c9940fe5454609d797064681d0abc53aa65203f829d34d9ac2">''[[:d:Q130298647|Validation List no. 213. Valid publication of new names and new combinations effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Verrucomicrobiota]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123932840|Q123932840]] | [[Nanobdellales]] | Nanobdellales<ref name="ref_abcb85a3fa14fffdbb2f8e6959709c12adea60c90e14ab4ef2c1195526ee3529">''[[:d:Q116817108|Nanobdella aerobiophila gen. nov., sp. nov., a thermoacidophilic, obligate ectosymbiotic archaeon, and proposal of Nanobdellaceae fam. nov., Nanobdellales ord. nov. and Nanobdellia class. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Nanobdellia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q124023211|Q124023211]] | [[Neoacanthocephala]] | Neoacanthocephala | [[Eoacanthocephala]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124047958|Q124047958]] | [[Habeliida]] | Habeliida<ref name="ref_3c6cc495c7bfac179e6f2ed2f0a32e30b8747f5126ee8bd6ba0b71b7c362bc92">''[[:d:Q47133622|Mandibulate convergence in an armoured Cambrian stem chelicerate]]''</ref> | [[Chelicerata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124326217|Q124326217]] | [[Miltoncostaeales]] | Miltoncostaeales | [[Thermoleophilia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124359266|Q124359266]] | [[saurischia]] | saurischia | [[dinosauria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124380515|Q124380515]] | [[Microcaldales]] | Microcaldales | [[Microcaldia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q124393703|Q124393703]] | [[ornithischia]] | Ornithischia | [[Dinosauria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124478344|Q124478344]] | [[Salsipaludibacterales]] | Salsipaludibacterales<ref name="ref_2fb8fe329035d3e80ca4c861f5ddd9238813295eb6c0028ff26ecbe37afce904">''[[:d:Q110951390|Salsipaludibacter albus gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel actinobacterial strain isolate from a Portuguese solar saltern and proposal of Salsipaludibacteraceae fam. nov. and Salsipaludibacterales ord. nov.]]''</ref> | [[Nitriliruptoria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q124545741|Q124545741]] | [[Cardiopteridales]] | Cardiopteridales | [[Magnoliopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124588115|Q124588115]] | [[Anaerosomatales]] | Anaerosomatales | | | |- | [[:d:Q124660536|Q124660536]] | [[Beggiatoales]] | Beggiatoales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Sulphide bacteria crop.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q124714645|Q124714645]] | [[Thermosulfidibacterales]] | Thermosulfidibacterales | [[Aquificia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q124751870|Q124751870]] | [[Colpodellales]] | Colpodellales | [[Colpodellophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q125360905|Q125360905]] | [[Franziozymales]] | Franziozymales | [[Basidiomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q125360919|Q125360919]] | [[Sistotremastrales]] | Sistotremastrales | [[Agaricomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q125685000|Q125685000]] | [[Polyplacotomea]] | Polyplacotomea | [[Polyplacotomia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q125685086|Q125685086]] | [[Trichoplacea]] | Trichoplacea | [[Uniplacotomia]] | [[File:Trichoplax mic.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q125937853|Q125937853]] | [[Orthogonidectes]] | Orthogonidectes | [[Occlupanida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126200321|Q126200321]] | [[Vetulicolata]] | Vetulicolata | [[Vetulicolida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126200492|Q126200492]] | [[Banffiata]] | Banffiata | [[Banffozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126476679|Q126476679]] | [[Isospondyli]] | Isospondyli | [[Teleostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126489608|Q126489608]] | [[Adiutricales]] | Adiutricales | [[Desulfarculia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q126490606|Q126490606]] | [[Candidatus Comchoanobacterales]] | Candidatus Comchoanobacterales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126490615|Q126490615]] | [[Candidatus Babeliales]] | Candidatus Babeliales | [[Candidatus Babeliae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126544223|Q126544223]] | [[Alphadontia]] | Alphadontia | [[Marsupialiformes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126546367|Q126546367]] | [[Peradectia]] | Peradectia | [[Metatheria]]<br/>[[Marsupialiformes]] | [[File:Peradectes sp 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q126687096|Q126687096]] | [[Procreodi]] | Procreodi | [[Placentarios]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126920760|Q126920760]] | [[Yixianornithiformes]] | Yixianornithiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126920807|Q126920807]] | [[Sinornithiformes]] | Sinornithiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q126920809|Q126920809]] | [[Chaoyangiformes]] | Chaoyangiformes | [[ave]] | | |- | [[:d:Q127225076|Q127225076]] | [[Cecomorphae]] | Cecomorphae | [[Euornithes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q127278053|Q127278053]] | [[Panameriungulata]] | Panameriungulata | [[Panperissodactyla]] | [[File:Didolodusfinal.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q127433091|Q127433091]] | [[Candidatus Termititenacales]] | Candidatus Termititenacales<ref name="ref_c7c0bafd02da86cb6d290b3e908ecef39488f36da285b225331d7e19f51a2b39">''[[:d:Q57027668|Genome analyses of uncultured TG2/ZB3 bacteria in 'Margulisbacteria' specifically attached to ectosymbiotic spirochetes of protists in the termite gut]]''</ref> | [[Candidatus Termititenacia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q127687022|Q127687022]] | [[Nebulidida]] | Nebulidida | [[Nebulidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128147965|Q128147965]] | [[Spiromastixales]] | Spiromastixales<ref name="ref_62c44d7d7909c400e17f44535400bfc3ee8d6a974965fff4ae5dab6cd07b8aca">''[[:d:Q30775768|Isolation and characterisation of the fungus Spiromastix asexualis sp. nov. from discospondylitis in a German Shepherd dog, and review of Spiromastix with the proposal of the new order Spiromastixales (Ascomycota).]]''</ref> | [[Ascomycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128214849|Q128214849]] | [[Trivalvulariida]] | Trivalvulariida<ref name="ref_361de9d672b2f11a7b97947e37a5f91001fdf76d3180fb70d1f3c017402b33a3">''[[:d:Q92750022|SSU rDNA Phylogeny Indicates the Scale-lacking Trivalvulariida ord. nov. as a Sister Group to the Euglyphida (Cercozoa, Rhizaria)]]''</ref> | [[Cercozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128242777|Q128242777]] | [[Orodaria]] | Orodaria<ref name="ref_2c9bc4eaaebdd2926118db2fab62c177273e375c919ff9d0e07f2ca0922cb172">''[[:d:Q110668597|Ecology, Morphology, Phylogeny and Taxonomic Revision of Giant Radiolarians, Orodaria ord. nov. (Radiolaria; Rhizaria; SAR)]]''</ref> | [[Radiolaria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128246219|Q128246219]] | [[Obscuribacterales]] | Obscuribacterales | [[Vampirovibrionophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128246315|Q128246315]] | [[Tenderiales]] | Tenderiales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128246372|Q128246372]] | [[Kapaibacteriales]] | Kapaibacteriales | | | |- | [[:d:Q128247272|Q128247272]] | [[Cloacimonadales]] | Cloacimonadales | [[Cloacimonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128247424|Q128247424]] | [[Saccharimonadales]] | Saccharimonadales | [[Saccharimonadia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128247663|Q128247663]] | [[Bathyarchaeales]] | Bathyarchaeales | [[Bathyarchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128247826|Q128247826]] | [[Panguiarchaeales]] | Panguiarchaeales | [[Korarchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128248205|Q128248205]] | [[Kryptoniales]] | Kryptoniales | [[Kryptoniia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128248638|Q128248638]] | [[Muiribacteriales]] | Muiribacteriales | | | |- | [[:d:Q128248992|Q128248992]] | [[Palauibacterales]] | Palauibacterales | [[Gemmatimonadetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128249297|Q128249297]] | [[Elulimicrobiales]] | Elulimicrobiales | | | |- | [[:d:Q128249304|Q128249304]] | [[Thermobaculales]] | Thermobaculales | [[Chloroflexia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128249415|Q128249415]] | [[Ammonificales]] | Ammonificales | | | |- | [[:d:Q128263668|Q128263668]] | [[Cavernulicolales]] | Cavernulicolales<ref name="ref_3aeb5d457fa31fd0b12d571b30a71d60b71351915ea42573f6ff35bb88619df1">''[[:d:Q119500298|Revised classification of the Cyanidiophyceae based on plastid genome data with descriptions of the Cavernulicolales ord. nov. and Galdieriales ord. nov. (Rhodophyta)]]''</ref> | [[Cyanidiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128263670|Q128263670]] | [[Corallinapetrales]] | Corallinapetrales<ref name="ref_6a37a27a0fb16274528d60d926ae94e83376d81792c013e5db2c5aed2b2fe305">''[[:d:Q104284064|Corallinapetrales and Corallinapetraceae: A new order and family of coralline red algae including Corallinapetra gabrielii comb. nov]]''</ref> | [[Corallinophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128263694|Q128263694]] | [[Galdieriales]] | Galdieriales<ref name="ref_3aeb5d457fa31fd0b12d571b30a71d60b71351915ea42573f6ff35bb88619df1">''[[:d:Q119500298|Revised classification of the Cyanidiophyceae based on plastid genome data with descriptions of the Cavernulicolales ord. nov. and Galdieriales ord. nov. (Rhodophyta)]]''</ref> | [[Cyanidiophyceae]] | [[File:41467 2023 40657 Fig1d.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q128504401|Q128504401]] | [[Hadarchaeales]] | Hadarchaeales | [[Hadarchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128504526|Q128504526]] | [[Hydrothermarchaeales]] | Hydrothermarchaeales | [[Hydrothermarchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128504546|Q128504546]] | [[Johnevansiales]] | Johnevansiales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128506145|Q128506145]] | [[Caldarchaeales]] | Caldarchaeales | [[Nitrososphaeria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128587084|Q128587084]] | [[Costitxiales]] | Costitxiales | [[Costitxiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128598590|Q128598590]] | [[Methylomirabilales]] | Methylomirabilales | [[Methylomirabilia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128598597|Q128598597]] | [[Methanotrichales]] | Methanotrichales | [[Methanosarcinia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128598615|Q128598615]] | [[Hydrothermales]] | Hydrothermales | | | |- | [[:d:Q128598651|Q128598651]] | [[Binatales]] | Binatales | | | |- | [[:d:Q128598664|Q128598664]] | [[Bipolaricaulales]] | Bipolaricaulales | [[Bipolaricaulia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128598682|Q128598682]] | [[Spongiisociales]] | Spongiisociales | [[Acidimicrobiia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128635834|Q128635834]] | [[Asgardarchaeales]] | Asgardarchaeales | [[Asgardarchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128635859|Q128635859]] | [[Desulfobales]] | Desulfobales | | | |- | [[:d:Q128636469|Q128636469]] | [[Porifericomitales]] | Porifericomitales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128636950|Q128636950]] | [[Promethearchaeales]] | Promethearchaeales | [[Promethearchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128788669|Q128788669]] | [[Puniceispirillales]] | Puniceispirillales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128788792|Q128788792]] | [[Tethybacterales]] | Tethybacterales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128788799|Q128788799]] | [[Promineifilales]] | Promineifilales | [[Anaerolineae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q130278711|Q130278711]] | [[Anguilluloidea]] | Anguilluloidea | [[Secernentea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q130287987|Q130287987]] | [[Pseudodendromonadales]] | Pseudodendromonadales | [[Bicosoecophycidae]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q130387462|Q130387462]] | [[Pyrosomida]] | Pyrosomida | [[Thaliacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q130736463|Q130736463]] | [[Cyanidioschyzonales]] | Cyanidioschyzonales | [[Cyanidiophyceae]] | [[File:EM image of C. merolae, courtesy of Prof. Ursula Goodenough.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131104364|Q131104364]] | [[Khmeriamorpha]] | Khmeriamorpha | [[Ascidiacea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131275944|Q131275944]] | [[Piciformes sensu stricto]] | Piciformes | [[Piciformes]] | [[File:Barbudo cabecirrojo (Trachyphonus erythrocephalus), parque nacional Serengueti, Tanzania, 2024-05-26, DD 69.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131299950|Q131299950]] | [[Rhabdoweisiales]] | Rhabdoweisiales<ref name="ref_79290711380c9af6dd6067ad849d50a0f4e9277392b23c0cdfd7bd9f3fb20635">https://www.bryonames.org/nomenclator?group=Bryophyta</ref> | [[Dicranidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131300602|Q131300602]] | [[Eustichiales]] | Eustichiales | [[Dicranidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131304463|Q131304463]] | [[Sorapillales]] | Sorapillales | [[Dicranidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131349736|Q131349736]] | [[Epilineales]] | Epilineales | [[Anaerolineae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131349787|Q131349787]] | [[Tepidiformales]] | Tepidiformales | [[Tepidiformia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131349789|Q131349789]] | [[Dientamoebida]] | Dientamoebida | | | |- | [[:d:Q131349816|Q131349816]] | [[Aggregatilineales]] | Aggregatilineales | [[Anaerolineae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131349820|Q131349820]] | [[Simplicimonadida]] | Simplicimonadida | | | |- | [[:d:Q131349851|Q131349851]] | [[Monocercomonadida]] | Monocercomonadida | | | |- | [[:d:Q131349882|Q131349882]] | [[Methanoliparales]] | Methanoliparales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131353614|Q131353614]] | [[Amphidiales]] | Amphidiales<ref name="ref_888c9f53a3ca1ffce9b4fa9263f12c6c8cbe00a7f8c0c05c553cddfe851b9a89">https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4100003781</ref> | [[Dicranidae]]<ref name="ref_888c9f53a3ca1ffce9b4fa9263f12c6c8cbe00a7f8c0c05c553cddfe851b9a89">https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4100003781</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131356788|Q131356788]] | [[Lucifugimonadales]] | Lucifugimonadales | [[Dehalococcoidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131356811|Q131356811]] | [[Foliamicales]] | Foliamicales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131356866|Q131356866]] | [[Holomastigotoidida]] | Holomastigotoidida | [[Spirotrichonymphea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131356889|Q131356889]] | [[Poseidoniales]] | Poseidoniales | [[Poseidoniia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131362499|Q131362499]] | [[Cononymphida]] | Cononymphida | [[Spirotrichonymphea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131371229|Q131371229]] | [[Caecitellales]] | Caecitellales | [[Cyathobodoniae]] | [[File:Bodo parvulus Griessmann, 1913.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131385989|Q131385989]] | [[Bruchiales]] | Bruchiales<ref name="ref_12fba5c9f58ac04954765e2df1aa60ab69f022cd472f8bec90160d209b57c675">https://www.bryonames.org/nomenclator?group=Dicranidae</ref><ref name="ref_29dded843d352bcaf89d1ca8884e382f772818b9fd821f12956253cc5b2f87cd">https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4100003786</ref> | [[Dicranidae]]<ref name="ref_29dded843d352bcaf89d1ca8884e382f772818b9fd821f12956253cc5b2f87cd">https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4100003786</ref><ref name="ref_12fba5c9f58ac04954765e2df1aa60ab69f022cd472f8bec90160d209b57c675">https://www.bryonames.org/nomenclator?group=Dicranidae</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131386129|Q131386129]] | [[Erpodiales]] | Erpodiales | [[Dicranidae]]<ref name="ref_abec42fa29b284926f70cf926f91fc6795403fc4e599a01f8574dfce3e4eb432">https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4100003787</ref><ref name="ref_12fba5c9f58ac04954765e2df1aa60ab69f022cd472f8bec90160d209b57c675">https://www.bryonames.org/nomenclator?group=Dicranidae</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131390170|Q131390170]] | [[Eutrophobiales]] | Eutrophobiales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131390181|Q131390181]] | [[Australimonadales]] | Australimonadales | [[Dehalococcoidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131397518|Q131397518]] | [[Freyarchaeales]] | Freyarchaeales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131397909|Q131397909]] | [[Atabeyarchaeales]] | Atabeyarchaeales | [[Atabeyarchaeia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131414257|Q131414257]] | [[Velesiimonadales]] | Velesiimonadales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131414280|Q131414280]] | [[Aquiviventales]] | Aquiviventales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131414288|Q131414288]] | [[Aeolococcales]] | Aeolococcales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131414294|Q131414294]] | [[Fervidibacterales]] | Fervidibacterales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131418477|Q131418477]] | [[Aneurales]] | Aneurales | [[Jungermanniopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131418504|Q131418504]] | [[Jubulales]] | Jubulales | [[Jungermanniopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131418552|Q131418552]] | [[Radulales]] | Radulales | [[Jungermanniopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131419655|Q131419655]] | [[Omnitrophales]] | Omnitrophales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131439378|Q131439378]] | [[Aquitaenariimonadales]] | Aquitaenariimonadales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131444655|Q131444655]] | [[Taenaricolales]] | Taenaricolales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131444711|Q131444711]] | [[Pluralincolimonadales]] | Pluralincolimonadales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131449521|Q131449521]] | [[Gigantomonadida]] | Gigantomonadida | | | |- | [[:d:Q131449563|Q131449563]] | [[Devescovinida]] | Devescovinida | | | |- | [[:d:Q131449570|Q131449570]] | [[Calonymphida]] | Calonymphida | | | |- | [[:d:Q131585420|Q131585420]] | [[Sysuimicrobiales]] | Sysuimicrobiales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131688370|Q131688370]] | [[Hexapterospermales]] | Hexapterospermales | [[Lyginopteridopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131688484|Q131688484]] | [[Moresnetiales]] | Moresnetiales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131688514|Q131688514]] | [[Pullarithecales]] | Pullarithecales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131688515|Q131688515]] | [[Phasmatocycadales]] | Phasmatocycadales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131688538|Q131688538]] | [[Codonospermales]] | Codonospermales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131698593|Q131698593]] | [[Hyeniales]] | Hyeniales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131698683|Q131698683]] | [[Cladoxylales]] | Cladoxylales | | | |- | [[:d:Q131704706|Q131704706]] | [[Calamophytales]] | Calamophytales | [[Cladoxylopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131743991|Q131743991]] | [[Yarraviales]] | Yarraviales | [[Rhyniopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131754693|Q131754693]] | [[Oligocarpiales]] | Oligocarpiales | [[Polypodiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131754700|Q131754700]] | [[Hydropteridiales]] | Hydropteridiales | [[Polypodiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131822315|Q131822315]] | [[Parvarchaeales]] | Parvarchaeales | [[Parvarchaeota]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131927721|Q131927721]] | [[Gorgyraeales]] | Gorgyraeales | [[Gorgyraia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q132124566|Q132124566]] | [[Apolithabatiformes]] | Apolithabatiformes | [[Batomorphii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q132133678|Q132133678]] | [[Disceliales]] | Disceliales | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q132175493|Q132175493]] | [[Syntrophorhabdales]] | Syntrophorhabdales | [[Syntrophorhabdia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q132201566|Q132201566]] | [[Catoscopiales]] | Catoscopiales | [[Bryophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q132554467|Q132554467]] | [[Desulfobulbales]] | Desulfobulbales | [[Desulfobulbia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q132716602|Q132716602]] | [[Polymorphinida]] | Polymorphinida | [[Nodosariana]] | | |- | [[:d:Q132852525|Q132852525]] | [[Minisyncoccales]] | Minisyncoccales | [[Minisyncoccia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q132974105|Q132974105]] | [[Deferrisomatales]] | Deferrisomatales | [[Deferrisomatia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q132975645|Q132975645]] | [[Dissulfuribacterales]] | Dissulfuribacterales | [[Dissulfuribacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q133233685|Q133233685]] | [[Polyangiales]] | Polyangiales | [[Myxococcota]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q133265090|Q133265090]] | [[Azoamicales]] | Azoamicales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q133290958|Q133290958]] | [[Graniferales]] | Graniferales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q133293199|Q133293199]] | [[Patescibacteriales]] | Patescibacteriales | | | |- | [[:d:Q133766344|Q133766344]] | [[Gygaellales]] | Gygaellales | | | |- | [[:d:Q133766395|Q133766395]] | [[Tantalellales]] | Tantalellales | | | |- | [[:d:Q133766421|Q133766421]] | [[Zapsychrales]] | Zapsychrales | [[Velaminicoccia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q133766484|Q133766484]] | [[Kaelpiales]] | Kaelpiales | [[Omnitrophica]] | | |- | [[:d:Q133803834|Q133803834]] | [[Desulfatiglandales]] | Desulfatiglandales | [[Desulfobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q133803918|Q133803918]] | [[Desulfomonilales]] | Desulfomonilales | [[Desulfomonilia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q134028819|Q134028819]] | [[Nibbleridida]] | Nibbleridida | [[Nibbleridea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134057165|Q134057165]] | [[Abditibacteriales]] | Abditibacteriales | [[Abditibacteriia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q134359057|Q134359057]] | [[Entrophosporales]] | Entrophosporales | [[Glomeromycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134553606|Q134553606]] | [[Prochlorotrichales]] | Prochlorotrichales | [[Cyanophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134624563|Q134624563]] | [[Corynodactylales]] | Corynodactylales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134640312|Q134640312]] | [[Desulfitibacterales]] | Desulfitibacterales | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q134721295|Q134721295]] | [[Vulcanimicrobiales]] | Vulcanimicrobiales | [[Vulcanimicrobiia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q134729842|Q134729842]] | [[Callochitonida]] | Callochitonida | [[Neoloricata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134867071|Q134867071]] | [[Velaminicoccales]] | Velaminicoccales | [[Velaminicoccia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134889870|Q134889870]] | [[Nanopelagicales]] | Nanopelagicales | [[Actinomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134959734|Q134959734]] | [[Methanoflorentales]] | Methanoflorentales | | | |- | [[:d:Q134987109|Q134987109]] | [[Glissandrida]] | | [[CRuMs]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135009756|Q135009756]] | [[Amarolineales]] | Amarolineales | [[Anaerolineae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135275723|Q135275723]] | [[Jordiarchaeales]] | Jordiarchaeales | [[Jordiarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q92614483|Q92614483]] | [[Imitervirales]] | Imitervirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Megaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614528|Q92614528]] | [[Pimascovirales]] | Pimascovirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Megaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614577|Q92614577]] | [[Asfuvirales]] | Asfuvirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Pokkesviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92614616|Q92614616]] | [[Chitovirales]] | Chitovirales<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Pokkesviricetes]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92757642|Q92757642]] | [[Spirogloeales]] | Spirogloeales | [[Spirogloeophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q93437414|Q93437414]] | [[Siberiida]] | Siberiida | [[Lobopodia]]<br/>[[Xenusia]] | [[File:20191217 Siberiida Siberion Megadictyon Jianshanopodia.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q93790353|Q93790353]] | [[Chyridiopsida]] | Chyridiopsida | [[Microsporidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q93794238|Q93794238]] | [[Dissociodihaplophasida]] | Dissociodihaplophasida | [[Microsporidia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q94508056|Q94508056]] | [[Neopereziida]] | Neopereziida<ref name="ref_dcf7bca1ca9d71b72c9deed9817094a3f2ae875a153168a96e8a76c9309ed233">''[[:d:Q110003348|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Microsporidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q94686741|Q94686741]] | [[Prosomatifera]] | Prosomatifera | [[Chitinozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96107278|Q96107278]] | [[Shieliiformes]] | Shieliiformes | [[Thelodonti]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96126852|Q96126852]] | [[Amblyosporida]] | Amblyosporida<ref name="ref_dcf7bca1ca9d71b72c9deed9817094a3f2ae875a153168a96e8a76c9309ed233">''[[:d:Q110003348|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Microsporidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96127759|Q96127759]] | [[Heitmaniales]] | Heitmaniales | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96381504|Q96381504]] | [[Hymenocarina]] | Hymenocarina | [[Mandibulata]] | [[File:20211025 Waptia fieldensis.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q96400380|Q96400380]] | [[Pseudoditrichales]] | Pseudoditrichales | [[Dicranidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96484277|Q96484277]] | [[Poecillastrida]] | Poecillastrida | [[Heteroscleromorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96492975|Q96492975]] | [[Zygorhizidiales]] | Zygorhizidiales | [[Chytridiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96493388|Q96493388]] | [[Zygophlyctidales]] | Zygophlyctidales | [[Chytridiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96495211|Q96495211]] | [[Lembosinales]] | Lembosinales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96814542|Q96814542]] | [[Micraspidales]] | Micraspidales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q97180797|Q97180797]] | [[Commatiida]] | Commatiida | [[Raphopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q97206545|Q97206545]] | [[Podocarpales]] | Podocarpales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pinidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[File:Podocarpus macrophyllus inumaki.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q97341413|Q97341413]] | [[Mycosphaerellales]] | Mycosphaerellales | [[Dothideomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q97999751|Q97999751]] | [[Hypopterygiales]] | Hypopterygiales | [[Hypnanae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q98690745|Q98690745]] | [[Distoseptisporales]] | Distoseptisporales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | [[File:Distoseptispora bambusae (10.3897-BDJ.8.e53678) Figure 3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q98690746|Q98690746]] | [[Tracyllales]] | Tracyllales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q99232012|Q99232012]] | [[Loxsomatales]] | Loxsomatales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99232242|Q99232242]] | [[Platyzomatales]] | Platyzomatales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99232357|Q99232357]] | [[Parkeriales]] | Parkeriales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99232562|Q99232562]] | [[Plagiogyriales]] | Plagiogyriales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99232628|Q99232628]] | [[Matoniales]] | Matoniales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99233007|Q99233007]] | [[Stromatopteridales]] | Stromatopteridales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99233127|Q99233127]] | [[Hymenophyllopsidales]] | Hymenophyllopsidales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Polypodiidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99234338|Q99234338]] | [[Sciadopityales]] | Sciadopityales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pinidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99234594|Q99234594]] | [[Cephalotaxales]] | Cephalotaxales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Pinidae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99293389|Q99293389]] | [[Cryptosporangiales]] | Cryptosporangiales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99299816|Q99299816]] | [[Mycobacteriales]] | Mycobacteriales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99300061|Q99300061]] | [[Sporichthyales]] | Sporichthyales | [[Actinomycetes]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99333963|Q99333963]] | [[Flagellariales]] | Flagellariales<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<br/>[[Juncanae]]<ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99394711|Q99394711]] | [[Platanales]] | Platanales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Proteanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99394766|Q99394766]] | [[Betulales]] | Betulales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Hamamelidanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99394804|Q99394804]] | [[Hypericales]] | Hypericales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Ericanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><br/>[[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99394896|Q99394896]] | [[Akaniales]] | Akaniales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Capparanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99394919|Q99394919]] | [[Anisophylleales]] | Anisophylleales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99394981|Q99394981]] | [[Chrysobalanales]] | Chrysobalanales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Rosanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99395095|Q99395095]] | [[Biebersteiniales]] | Biebersteiniales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rutanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99395105|Q99395105]] | [[Rousseales]] | Rousseales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Asteranae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99395180|Q99395180]] | [[Phellinales]] | Phellinales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Asteranae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99395634|Q99395634]] | [[Stemonales]] | Stemonales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Pandananae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99395723|Q99395723]] | [[Dasypogonales]] | Dasypogonales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref><br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99395781|Q99395781]] | [[Aextoxicales]] | Aextoxicales<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Violanae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99433496|Q99433496]] | [[Mitrastemonales]] | Mitrastemonales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Rafflesianae]]<ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99438639|Q99438639]] | [[Rapateales]] | Rapateales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99438727|Q99438727]] | [[Cannales]] | Cannales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | [[Liliales]]<br/>[[Lilianae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref><br/>[[Commelinanae]]<ref name="ref_793fa96b38ba606676c280023b7166d5dd46b9c63ee2a25b32e804b70f25a538">''[[:d:Q22338324|An Updated Classification of the Class Magnoliopsida (“Angiospermae”)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99455827|Q99455827]] | [[Peridiscales]] | Peridiscales<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | [[Saxifraganae]]<ref name="ref_69b50a399407f05f4fa737e9d26f700dff76ffc8db376521051abb69751a5735">''[[:d:Q21994487|Summary of recent systems of angiosperm classification]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q100582257|Q100582257]] | [[Rosettozymales]] | Rosettozymales | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q100708599|Q100708599]] | [[Archaegladiopsidales]] | Archaegladiopsidales | [[Archaegladiopsophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q100709016|Q100709016]] | [[Gladiales]] | Gladiales | [[Archaegladiopsophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q100709334|Q100709334]] | [[Stephanopyxales]] | Stephanopyxales<ref name="ref_6853a4f142dddad620ec39e1bbc0db13dc9e9de30b03d9b5015932c5905d84c2">https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11917638</ref> | [[Coscinodiscophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q100907160|Q100907160]] | [[Erdtmanithecales]] | Erdtmanithecales | [[Spermatophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q101246682|Q101246682]] | [[Sareales]] | Sareales | [[Sareomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q103199976|Q103199976]] | [[Cintractiellales]] | Cintractiellales | [[Ustilaginomycotina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q103496062|Q103496062]] | [[Ovavesiculida]] | Ovavesiculida<ref name="ref_dcf7bca1ca9d71b72c9deed9817094a3f2ae875a153168a96e8a76c9309ed233">''[[:d:Q110003348|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Microsporidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q103837648|Q103837648]] | [[Nosematida]] | Nosematida | [[Microsporidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104065093|Q104065093]] | [[Lichinodiales]] | Lichinodiales | [[Leotiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104098992|Q104098992]] | [[Catabotryales]] | Catabotryales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104177787|Q104177787]] | [[Turniniida]] | Turniniida | [[Thelodonti]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104833396|Q104833396]] | [[Turquoiseomycetales]] | Turquoiseomycetales | [[Lecanoromycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104848000|Q104848000]] | [[Mongolepidida]] | Mongolepidida | [[Chondrichthyes]]<ref name="ref_a1124a05085e8e67b885c938b41aee816fe4842bcd30c63b608a16efbee76a6a">''[[:d:Q89695558|Early Silurian chondrichthyans from the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang, China)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q105273095|Q105273095]] | [[Cribrariida]] | Cribrariida | [[Myxogastria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105427417|Q105427417]] | [[Zamiales]] | Zamiales | [[Cycadopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105627017|Q105627017]] | [[Ceratiomyxales]] | Ceratiomyxales | [[Ceratiomyxomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105753079|Q105753079]] | [[Idiosepida]] | Idiosepida | [[Decapodiformes]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q105754163|Q105754163]] | [[Bathyteuthida]] | Bathyteuthida | [[Decapodiformes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105837852|Q105837852]] | [[Siedleckiida]] | Siedleckiida<ref name="ref_e559179bbf7c34e4eb906226587d66f12193e593195b418ef66ccefc2584d669">''[[:d:Q91041434|First Ultrastructural and Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence from the Blastogregarines, an Early Branching Lineage of Plesiomorphic Apicomplexa]]''</ref> | [[Blastogregarinea]]<ref name="ref_e559179bbf7c34e4eb906226587d66f12193e593195b418ef66ccefc2584d669">''[[:d:Q91041434|First Ultrastructural and Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence from the Blastogregarines, an Early Branching Lineage of Plesiomorphic Apicomplexa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q105839953|Q105839953]] | [[Cephalothecales]] | Cephalothecales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105995016|Q105995016]] | [[Neodactylariales]] | Neodactylariales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | [[File:Neodactylaria simaoensis (10.3897-mycokeys.73.54054) Figure 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q106291961|Q106291961]] | [[Chlorokybales]] | Chlorokybales | [[Chlorokybophyceae]] | [[File:Chlorokybus atmophyticus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q106355196|Q106355196]] | [[Crustoidea]] | Crustoidea | [[Graptolithoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q106356267|Q106356267]] | [[Tuboidea]] | Tuboidea | [[Graptolithoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q106453428|Q106453428]] | [[Kilbuchophyllida]] | Kilbuchophyllida | [[Hexacorallia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q106548585|Q106548585]] | [[Icosteiformes]] | Icosteiformes | [[Percomorpha]]<ref name="ref_e15368fd420c777ba2608cb300ef96bc5cf521014a821d17ae2db180d989550d">''[[:d:Q60731916|Fishes of the World]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q106938595|Q106938595]] | [[Primavirales]] | Primavirales<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tokiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q106938620|Q106938620]] | [[Norzivirales]] | Norzivirales<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Leviviricetes]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q106938621|Q106938621]] | [[Timlovirales]] | Timlovirales<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Leviviricetes]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q106938630|Q106938630]] | [[Orthopolintovirales]] | Orthopolintovirales<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Polintoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q106951805|Q106951805]] | [[Lefavirales]] | Lefavirales<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Naldaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q107012596|Q107012596]] | [[Acytosteliales]] | Acytosteliales | [[Dictyostelia]]<br/>[[Dictyosteliomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107096374|Q107096374]] | [[Holosporales]] | Holosporales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q107122642|Q107122642]] | [[Cirratulida]] | Cirratulida | [[Polychaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107122700|Q107122700]] | [[Opheliida]] | Opheliida | [[Polychaeta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107126537|Q107126537]] | [[Leptolaimida]] | Leptolaimida | [[Chromadorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107183004|Q107183004]] | [[Ischnochitonida]] | Ischnochitonida | [[Polyplacophora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107183184|Q107183184]] | [[Coloniales]] | Coloniales | [[Kamptozoa]] | [[File:Colonial anemone zebra.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q107353470|Q107353470]] | [[Taeniocradales]] | Taeniocradales | [[Rhyniophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107454691|Q107454691]] | [[Peronosporomycetidae]] | Peronosporomycetidae | [[Peronosporomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107816949|Q107816949]] | [[Schistostegiales]] | Schistostegiales<ref name="ref_a5cb691fd2a2b68bd3f1f4fdd86e8363d0afaafce9c9a45fe2e1fcfcae264a67">''[[:d:Q1531570|Global Biodiversity Information Facility]]''</ref> | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q107999234|Q107999234]] | [[Pachytestales]] | Pachytestales | [[Pteridospermopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108072698|Q108072698]] | [[Catinellales]] | Catinellales<ref name="ref_30bde4718a16fdb75d458578fb423f643403647eb98181f89ef517c22091e4bb">''[[:d:Q110854594|Refined families of Dothideomycetes: orders and families incertae sedis in Dothideomycetes]]''</ref> | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108072701|Q108072701]] | [[Caulochytriales]] | Caulochytriales | [[Caulochytriomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q115243179|Q115243179]] | [[Synaptida]] | Synaptida<ref name="ref_00af72671938f120790cf7681f89388de951e797520d24ea107b6576a8085d96">''[[:d:Q104465342|First record of genus Paradota Ludwig & Heding in New Zealand waters and description of a new species (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea: Synaptida)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fb22830d9beb22e179fac4bb924bfc98bf12b977f45b7533bbaf1dff3c266e71">''[[:d:Q56035103|New apodid species from southern Australia (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea: Apodida)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb1f58b891e5a3da2a5c5a4fde12304f4d8bd3c03971240573721618e8bc4f85">''[[:d:Q29455459|New taeniogyrinid species of sea cucumber from the Weddell Sea (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea: Synaptida)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ab8f5befdaba470dc39d4533fe267f18bc989c07b552ff91a2be0115ebde20e5">''[[:d:Q29455457|New Prototrochus species of sea cucumber from Australia (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea: Synaptida: Myriotrochidae)]]''</ref> | [[Holothuroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q115967394|Q115967394]] | [[Malacalcyonacea]] | Malacalcyonacea | [[Octocorallia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116136254|Q116136254]] | [[Crassvirales]] | Crassvirales<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Caudoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116136255|Q116136255]] | [[Kirjokansivirales]] | Kirjokansivirales<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Caudoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116136259|Q116136259]] | [[Methanobavirales]] | Methanobavirales<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Caudoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116136260|Q116136260]] | [[Thumleimavirales]] | Thumleimavirales<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Caudoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116136275|Q116136275]] | [[Rivendellvirales]] | Rivendellvirales<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Arfiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116136277|Q116136277]] | [[Rohanvirales]] | Rohanvirales<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Arfiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116136292|Q116136292]] | [[Yadokarivirales]] | Yadokarivirales<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Pisuviricota]]<ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116237046|Q116237046]] | [[Seligerales]] | Seligerales<ref name="ref_a5cb691fd2a2b68bd3f1f4fdd86e8363d0afaafce9c9a45fe2e1fcfcae264a67">''[[:d:Q1531570|Global Biodiversity Information Facility]]''</ref> | [[Bryopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116237549|Q116237549]] | [[Chlorarachniales]] | Chlorarachniales<ref name="ref_012eba0dbe37c7aa40587f8eabee8d9593a81bb50a0f2eb0ad19456c16f84c79">''[[:d:Q16958215|iNaturalist]]''</ref> | [[Chlorarachnea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116697921|Q116697921]] | [[Thiomicrospirales]] | Thiomicrospirales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116698041|Q116698041]] | [[Eubacteriales]] | Eubacteriales | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q116761631|Q116761631]] | [[Kyphosichthyiformes]] | Kyphosichthyiformes | [[Ginglymodi]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116770921|Q116770921]] | [[Mixosiphonata]] | Mixosiphonata<ref name="ref_12eb2ee189f9a1ea97982bb3c98181c898d96bb7cfc0ca3e9b521e1a367c54ed">''[[:d:Q57277043|The new order Mixosiphonata (Cephalopoda: Nautiloidea) and related taxa; estimations of habitat depth based on shell structure]]''</ref> | [[Nautiloid]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116788191|Q116788191]] | [[Ankylophoriformes]] | Ankylophoriformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116788199|Q116788199]] | [[Majokiiformes]] | Majokiiformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117072355|Q117072355]] | [[Emcibacterales]] | Emcibacterales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q117073949|Q117073949]] | [[Vegaviiformes]] | Vegaviiformes | [[Galloanserae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117075974|Q117075974]] | [[Saurischipedida]] | Saurischipedida | [[Dinosauripedidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117076089|Q117076089]] | [[Dorsetichthyiformes]] | Dorsetichthyiformes | [[Teleostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117204802|Q117204802]] | [[Brachydiniales]] | Brachydiniales | [[Dinophyceae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q117204886|Q117204886]] | [[Chloromonadales]] | Chloromonadales | | | |- | [[:d:Q117204893|Q117204893]] | [[Chordariales]] | Chordariales | [[Phaeophyceae]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q117527140|Q117527140]] | [[Hoilungea]] | Hoilungea | [[Uniplacotomia]] | [[File:Hoilungia hongkongensis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q117527221|Q117527221]] | [[Cladhexea]] | Cladhexea | [[Uniplacotomia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117528917|Q117528917]] | [[Moroniformes]] | Moroniformes | [[Percomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117853288|Q117853288]] | [[Isoxyida]] | Isoxyida | [[arthropodo]] | [[File:Isoxys acutangulus 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q118114363|Q118114363]] | [[Unipolarina]] | Unipolarina | [[Myxosporea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118114364|Q118114364]] | [[Helicosporida]] | Helicosporida | [[Myxosporea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118114365|Q118114365]] | [[Actinomyxida]] | Actinomyxida | [[Myxosporea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118114367|Q118114367]] | [[Paleonemertea]] | Paleonemertea | [[Anopla]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118115739|Q118115739]] | [[Apodadrilida]] | Apodadrilida | [[Clitellata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118433948|Q118433948]] | [[Maximonvirales]] | Maximonvirales<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tokiviricetes]]<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118433949|Q118433949]] | [[Juravirales]] | Juravirales<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Caudoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118433950|Q118433950]] | [[Magrovirales]] | Magrovirales<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Caudoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118433951|Q118433951]] | [[Nakonvirales]] | Nakonvirales<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Caudoviricetes]]<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118433955|Q118433955]] | [[Atroposvirales]] | Atroposvirales<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tectiliviricetes]]<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118433957|Q118433957]] | [[Coyopavirales]] | Coyopavirales<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Tectiliviricetes]]<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q118482741|Q118482741]] | [[Lautamovirales]] | Lautamovirales<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Ainoaviricetes]]<ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119137366|Q119137366]] | [[Catenomycetales]] | Catenomycetales | [[Blastocladiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119137445|Q119137445]] | [[Kryptastrinales]] | Kryptastrinales | [[Cystobasidiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119137468|Q119137468]] | [[Rozellales]] | Rozellales | [[Rozellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119138305|Q119138305]] | [[Khangailitida]] | Khangailitida | [[Heliolitoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119138355|Q119138355]] | [[Ullmanniales]] | Ullmanniales | [[Voltziopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119138389|Q119138389]] | [[Coccoseridida]] | Coccoseridida | [[Heliolitoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119138550|Q119138550]] | [[Cancellidiales]] | Cancellidiales | [[Hypocreomycetidae]] | [[File:Cancellidium applanatum 1690701.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q119138761|Q119138761]] | [[Zygnemomycetales]] | Zygnemomycetales | [[Kickxellomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119138777|Q119138777]] | [[Curvibasidiales]] | Curvibasidiales | [[Microbotryomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119139000|Q119139000]] | [[Zygochytriales]] | Zygochytriales | [[Chytridiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119139131|Q119139131]] | [[Plasmoporida]] | Plasmoporida | [[Heliolitoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119139653|Q119139653]] | [[Batistiales]] | Batistiales | [[Sordariomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119139745|Q119139745]] | [[Zoophagales]] | Zoophagales | [[Zoopagomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119140343|Q119140343]] | [[Pteriida]] | Pteriida | [[Pteriomorphia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119140371|Q119140371]] | [[Vojnovskyales]] | Vojnovskyales | [[Vojnovskyopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119140500|Q119140500]] | [[Urnatopteridales]] | Urnatopteridales | [[Urnatopteridopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119140659|Q119140659]] | [[Odontotrematales]] | Odontotrematales | [[Ostropomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119140862|Q119140862]] | [[Walchiales]] | Walchiales | [[Voltziopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119171108|Q119171108]] | [[Trichopityales]] | Trichopityales | | | |- | [[:d:Q119443069|Q119443069]] | [[Acreodi]] | Acreodi | [[Scrotifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119450983|Q119450983]] | [[Chionasterales]] | Chionasterales | [[Agaricomycotina]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119785994|Q119785994]] | [[Commatiales]] | Commatiales | [[Actinophryophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119788620|Q119788620]] | [[Bipolarina]] | Bipolarina | [[Myxosporea]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119788786|Q119788786]] | [[Collembola]] | Collembola | | | |- | [[:d:Q119806346|Q119806346]] | [[Spironematellales]] | Spironematellales | [[Spironematellophyceae]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119807098|Q119807098]] | [[Leclercqiales]] | Leclercqiales | [[Leclercqiopsida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119808841|Q119808841]] | [[Rictales]] | Rictales | [[Rictophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119819964|Q119819964]] | [[Baragwanathiales]] | Baragwanathiales | [[Asteroxylidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119822571|Q119822571]] | [[Diplosonematales]] | Diplosonematales | [[Diplosonematophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q119982998|Q119982998]] | [[Oxytrichida]] | Oxytrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Hypotrichea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q120083798|Q120083798]] | [[Spathidiida]] | Spathidiida<ref name="ref_50c212ffb02415049fe476017fe10b81b0115a3a4ed31e333d3eeed1a9a73428">''[[:d:Q104048872|The Fine Structure of Fuscheria terricola Berger et al., 1983 and a Proposed New Classification of the Subclass Haptoria Corliss, 1974 (Ciliophora, Litostomatea)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Gymnostomatea]]<br/>[[Haptoria]]<ref name="ref_50c212ffb02415049fe476017fe10b81b0115a3a4ed31e333d3eeed1a9a73428">''[[:d:Q104048872|The Fine Structure of Fuscheria terricola Berger et al., 1983 and a Proposed New Classification of the Subclass Haptoria Corliss, 1974 (Ciliophora, Litostomatea)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q120278768|Q120278768]] | [[Aspidoneuridae]] | Aspidoneuridae | [[Caloneurodea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q120378651|Q120378651]] | [[Cyclotrichida]] | Cyclotrichida<ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Gymnostomatea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121031709|Q121031709]] | [[Macropodiniida]] | Macropodiniida | [[Trichostomatia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q121031776|Q121031776]] | [[Colpodidiida]] | Colpodidiida<ref name="ref_03b6cb84856e1b3ee0e98613f42f046cae1bcbfd23b0766651198519b0048093">''[[:d:Q121360532|Soil Ciliates (Protozoa, Ciliophora) from Namibia (Southwest Africa), with Emphasis on two Contrasting Environments, the Etosha Region and the Namib Desert.]]''</ref> | [[Nassophorea]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref><ref name="ref_03b6cb84856e1b3ee0e98613f42f046cae1bcbfd23b0766651198519b0048093">''[[:d:Q121360532|Soil Ciliates (Protozoa, Ciliophora) from Namibia (Southwest Africa), with Emphasis on two Contrasting Environments, the Etosha Region and the Namib Desert.]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q121031786|Q121031786]] | [[Urocentrida]] | Urocentrida | [[Peniculia]]<ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q121077953|Q121077953]] | [[Ancylistales]] | Ancylistales | [[Entomophthoromycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121215451|Q121215451]] | [[Parablepharismida]] | Parablepharismida<ref name="ref_b0abbd385dec5e6abacb3ba4a75e45a9ac086772ec47027bdb56c1c68eb3f224">''[[:d:Q93208141|Genomics of New Ciliate Lineages Provides Insight into the Evolution of Obligate Anaerobiosis]]''</ref> | [[Parablepharismea]]<ref name="ref_b0abbd385dec5e6abacb3ba4a75e45a9ac086772ec47027bdb56c1c68eb3f224">''[[:d:Q93208141|Genomics of New Ciliate Lineages Provides Insight into the Evolution of Obligate Anaerobiosis]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q121239859|Q121239859]] | [[Scleralcyonacea]] | Scleralcyonacea | [[Octocorallia]] | [[File:Corallium rubrum (Linnaeus, 1758) 6.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q121501919|Q121501919]] | [[Metopida]] | Metopida | [[Armophorea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121505224|Q121505224]] | [[Pseudoholophryida]] | Pseudoholophryida<ref name="ref_50c212ffb02415049fe476017fe10b81b0115a3a4ed31e333d3eeed1a9a73428">''[[:d:Q104048872|The Fine Structure of Fuscheria terricola Berger et al., 1983 and a Proposed New Classification of the Subclass Haptoria Corliss, 1974 (Ciliophora, Litostomatea)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_eaf476f356c0800c6da244744f2d14925dc2c244e77891e44404f2759d1231e6">''[[:d:Q121096588|The World Ciliate Catalog]]''</ref> | [[Haptoria]]<ref name="ref_50c212ffb02415049fe476017fe10b81b0115a3a4ed31e333d3eeed1a9a73428">''[[:d:Q104048872|The Fine Structure of Fuscheria terricola Berger et al., 1983 and a Proposed New Classification of the Subclass Haptoria Corliss, 1974 (Ciliophora, Litostomatea)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q121887886|Q121887886]] | [[Unionida]] | Unionida | [[Palaeoheterodonta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121887890|Q121887890]] | [[Limida]] | Limida | [[Pteriomorphia]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:File Shell - Limaria Fragilis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q121887896|Q121887896]] | [[Manzanellida]] | Manzanellida | [[Protobranchia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121887905|Q121887905]] | [[Nacellida]] | Nacellida | [[Patellogastropoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121913661|Q121913661]] | [[Gnathophiurida]] | Gnathophiurida<ref name="ref_a077257c597e33dddebdb0857a145de5cb762b8682eb2e745884762bc0cece9c">''[[:d:Q59329990|A new classification of the Ophiuroidea: with descriptions of new genera and species]]''</ref> | [[Ophiuroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121933710|Q121933710]] | [[Chilophiurida]] | Chilophiurida<ref name="ref_a077257c597e33dddebdb0857a145de5cb762b8682eb2e745884762bc0cece9c">''[[:d:Q59329990|A new classification of the Ophiuroidea: with descriptions of new genera and species]]''</ref> | [[Ophiuroidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122171876|Q122171876]] | [[Bruta]] | Bruta<ref name="ref_5bdbf8eee19b105ff04d66d13ee4f654eec1e2e0dd7692808ebb15629415fb16">''[[:d:Q21608408|Systema Naturae. 10th edition, Volume 1]]''</ref> | [[Mammiferos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122180166|Q122180166]] | [[Pecora]] | Pecora<ref name="ref_5bdbf8eee19b105ff04d66d13ee4f654eec1e2e0dd7692808ebb15629415fb16">''[[:d:Q21608408|Systema Naturae. 10th edition, Volume 1]]''</ref> | [[Mammiferos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122180423|Q122180423]] | [[Belluae]] | Belluae<ref name="ref_5bdbf8eee19b105ff04d66d13ee4f654eec1e2e0dd7692808ebb15629415fb16">''[[:d:Q21608408|Systema Naturae. 10th edition, Volume 1]]''</ref> | [[Mammiferos]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122180628|Q122180628]] | [[Cete]] | Cete<ref name="ref_5bdbf8eee19b105ff04d66d13ee4f654eec1e2e0dd7692808ebb15629415fb16">''[[:d:Q21608408|Systema Naturae. 10th edition, Volume 1]]''</ref> | | | |- | [[:d:Q122252506|Q122252506]] | [[Decapoda]] | Decapoda | [[Eucarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122252507|Q122252507]] | [[Euphausiacea]] | Euphausiacea | [[Eucarida]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122463043|Q122463043]] | [[Polycladida]] | Polycladida | [[Trepaxonemata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122740172|Q122740172]] | [[Cladosporiales]] | Cladosporiales | [[Dothideomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122794925|Q122794925]] | [[Novakomycetales]] | Novakomycetales | [[Novakomycetes]] | [[File:Ascosporulating culture of Novakomyces olei.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q122804018|Q122804018]] | [[Acaryochloridales]] | Acaryochloridales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122811582|Q122811582]] | [[Platyonychae]] | Platyonychae<ref name="ref_344df28ed524ed898c535d378e0cf305e0c325bbe602254fa1219ac89493943f">https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044103082087&seq=309</ref> | [[Quadrumanes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122817572|Q122817572]] | [[Coleofasciculales]] | Coleofasciculales | [[Cyanophyceae]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q122818818|Q122818818]] | [[Receptaculitales]] | Receptaculitales | [[Ulvophyceae]] | [[File:Estonian Museum of Natural History Specimen No 171759 photo (g1 g1-477 jpg).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135437892|Q135437892]] | [[Caedimonadales]] | Caedimonadales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135476875|Q135476875]] | [[Serinales]] | Serinales<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Pichiomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:Candida 2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135476956|Q135476956]] | [[Pichiales]] | Pichiales<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Pichiomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:Pichia pastoris (Zhang 2017).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135478288|Q135478288]] | [[Dipodascales]] | Dipodascales<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Dipodascomycetes]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:A gossypii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q135489806|Q135489806]] | [[Peptostreptococcales]] | Peptostreptococcales | [[Clostridia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135553412|Q135553412]] | [[Polarisedimenticolales]] | Polarisedimenticolales | | | |- | [[:d:Q135657004|Q135657004]] | [[Baltobacterales]] | Baltobacterales | [[Eremiobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657038|Q135657038]] | [[Dormibacteria]] | Candidatus Dormibacteria | [[Dormibacterota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657039|Q135657039]] | [[Dormibacterales]] | Candidatus Dormibacterales | [[Dormibacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657071|Q135657071]] | [[Duberdicusellales]] | Candidatus Duberdicusellales | [[Velamenicoccia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657082|Q135657082]] | [[Eremiobacterales]] | Candidatus Eremiobacterales | [[Eremiobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657087|Q135657087]] | [[Ghiorseimicrobiales]] | Ghiorseimicrobiales | [[Velamenicoccia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657211|Q135657211]] | [[Cyanobacteriales]] | Cyanobacteriales | [[Cyanobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657449|Q135657449]] | [[Velamenicoccales]] | Candidatus Velamenicoccales | [[Velamenicoccia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135657456|Q135657456]] | [[Xenobiales]] | Candidatus Xenobiales | [[Xenobiia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135658650|Q135658650]] | [[Incertae sedis (Microsporidea Ordo)]] | Incertae sedis | [[Microsporidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135676714|Q135676714]] | [[Ottiales]] | Ottiales | [[Nemaliophycidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135686949|Q135686949]] | [[Muellerivitales]] | Muellerivitales | | | |- | [[:d:Q135686953|Q135686953]] | [[Benthobacterales]] | Benthobacterales | [[Acidimicrobiia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135686991|Q135686991]] | [[Oederibacteriales]] | Oederibacteriales | | | |- | [[:d:Q135748014|Q135748014]] | [[Macroscelidia]] | Macroscelidia | | | |- | [[:d:Q135855584|Q135855584]] | [[Septemchitonida]] | Septemchitonida | [[Palaeoloricata]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135864670|Q135864670]] | [[Phenacodonta]] | Phenacodonta | [[Perissodactylomorpha]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135900198|Q135900198]] | [[Mathanobavirales]] | Mathanobavirales | [[Caudoviricetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135971173|Q135971173]] | [[Galeaspiformes]] | Galeaspiformes | | | |- | [[:d:Q136031403|Q136031403]] | [[Penumbrarchaeales]] | Penumbrarchaeales | | | |- | [[:d:Q136084444|Q136084444]] | [[Phycocordibacterales]] | Phycocordibacterales | | | |- | [[:d:Q136099461|Q136099461]] | [[Desulfobaccales]] | Desulfobaccales | [[Desulfobaccia]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q136259844|Q136259844]] | [[Izemoplasmatales]] | Izemoplasmatales | [[Bacilli]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136305345|Q136305345]] | [[Tepidihabitantales]] | Tepidihabitantales | | | |- | [[:d:Q136334483|Q136334483]] | [[Kuafuiibacteriales]] | Kuafuiibacteriales | | | |- | [[:d:Q136335065|Q136335065]] | [[Candidatus Yangjianarchaeales]] | Yangjianarchaeales | [[Odinarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136335066|Q136335066]] | [[Wenzhongarchaeales]] | Wenzhongarchaeales | [[Heimdallarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136429797|Q136429797]] | [[Incertae sedis (Cephalopoda)]] | Incertae sedis (Cephalopoda) | [[Cephalopode]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136430116|Q136430116]] | [[Antarcticerida]] | Antarcticerida | [[Paracoleoidea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136441287|Q136441287]] | [[Desulfocorpusculales]] | Desulfocorpusculales | | | |- | [[:d:Q136458621|Q136458621]] | [[Magnimaribacterales]] | Magnimaribacterales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136464615|Q136464615]] | [[Methylaequorales]] | Methylaequorales | [[Alphaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136514434|Q136514434]] | [[Cryptocaliciales]] | Cryptocaliciales<ref name="ref_3f68b6e196efae727e60b1d8b84a2ab4b6c2e8fd94d9e4b9ae6162c720c0c9f2">''[[:d:Q118163261|A new lineage of mazaediate fungi in the Eurotiomycetes: Cryptocaliciomycetidae subclass. nov., based on the new species Cryptocalicium blascoi and the revision of the ascoma evolution]]''</ref> | [[Cryptocaliciomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136956231|Q136956231]] | [[Ryujiniales]] | Ryujiniales | | | |- | [[:d:Q137217933|Q137217933]] | [[Anstonellales]] | Anstonellales | | | |- | [[:d:Q137217953|Q137217953]] | [[Norongarragalinales]] | Norongarragalinales | | | |- | [[:d:Q137217967|Q137217967]] | [[Gugararchaeales]] | Gugararchaeales | [[Microcaldia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137217973|Q137217973]] | [[Tiddalikarchaeales]] | Tiddalikarchaeales | [[Nanobdellia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137217977|Q137217977]] | [[Burarchaeales]] | Burarchaeales | | | |- | [[:d:Q137272480|Q137272480]] | [[Shennongiarchaeales]] | Shennongiarchaeales | | | |- | [[:d:Q137301147|Q137301147]] | [[Mixodontia]] | Mixodontia | [[Simplicidentata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137380698|Q137380698]] | [[Acidiferrales]] | Acidiferrales | [[Terriglobia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137401779|Q137401779]] | [[Vilesida]] | Vilesida<ref name="ref_f1ac3fd2b3632ceb4085c99857d8b7ddb5c4d23101b3d3e948c0edb584b09da3">https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/205/3/zlaf163/8329369?login=false</ref><ref name="ref_453c4ec3432b22352d31ee2f8b2bf75e2dc53023972bb905c46208bd086b7b40">''[[:d:Q137610115|Vilesida, a new order of demosponges revealed by molecular phylogeny and abundant 24-isopropylcholesterols (24-ipc sterols)]]''</ref> | [[Heteroscleromorpha]]<ref name="ref_f1ac3fd2b3632ceb4085c99857d8b7ddb5c4d23101b3d3e948c0edb584b09da3">https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/205/3/zlaf163/8329369?login=false</ref><ref name="ref_453c4ec3432b22352d31ee2f8b2bf75e2dc53023972bb905c46208bd086b7b40">''[[:d:Q137610115|Vilesida, a new order of demosponges revealed by molecular phylogeny and abundant 24-isopropylcholesterols (24-ipc sterols)]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q137453525|Q137453525]] | [[Pterista]] | Pterista<ref name="ref_a572976296b3322a025a15b9f7707343610884cf501c5bc9fdb9376880137ea6">''[[:d:Q137453680|Clypifer cribrifer gen. nov., sp. nov. (Clypiferidae fam. nov., Pterocystida, Centroplasthelida), with notes on evolution of centrohelid siliceous coverings]]''</ref> | [[Pterocystida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137460473|Q137460473]] | [[Stemonitida]] | Stemonitida | [[Myxogastria]] | [[File:Stemonitis fusca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137582635|Q137582635]] | [[Liceda]] | Liceida<ref name="ref_d2c68a5c6d873e987bc8e56d7ac35416cfc37e39bd6d5c281a522efe25929266">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/datasets/taxonomy/211104/names/</ref> | [[Lucisporidia]]<ref name="ref_d2c68a5c6d873e987bc8e56d7ac35416cfc37e39bd6d5c281a522efe25929266">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/datasets/taxonomy/211104/names/</ref> | [[File:Lycogala epidendrum - Pink and brown slime molds.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137769490|Q137769490]] | [[Aridivitales]] | Aridivitales | | | |- | [[:d:Q137782707|Q137782707]] | [[Alaninales]] | Alaninales | [[Pichiomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137787554|Q137787554]] | [[Phaffomycetales]] | Phaffomycetales | [[Saccharomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137787690|Q137787690]] | [[Ascoideales]] | Ascoideales | [[Saccharomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137796613|Q137796613]] | [[Lipomycetales]] | Lipomycetales | | | |- | [[:d:Q137807329|Q137807329]] | [[Afredentata]] | Afredentata | [[Pholidotamorpha]] | [[File:Eurotamandua NT small.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137971868|Q137971868]] | [[Spongiifermentales]] | Spongiifermentales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137971878|Q137971878]] | [[Rariloculales]] | Rariloculales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q137997875|Q137997875]] | [[Spirogyrales]] | Spirogyrales | [[Zygnematophyceae]] | [[File:The freshwater alga Spirogyra.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138024543|Q138024543]] | [[Palaeoannelida]] | Palaeoannelida | [[Annelida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138301885|Q138301885]] | [[Palaeoryctida]] | Palaeoryctida | [[Placentarios]] | [[File:Palaeoryctes puercensis 3.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138327040|Q138327040]] | [[Elegestolepidida]] | Elegestolepidida | [[Chondrichthyes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138370283|Q138370283]] | [[Acidulidesulfobacteriales]] | Acidulidesulfobacteriales | | | |- | [[:d:Q138463936|Q138463936]] | [[Lachnospirales]] | Lachnospirales | [[Clostridia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138463995|Q138463995]] | [[Chloracidobacteriales]] | Chloracidobacteriales | [[Blastocatellia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138528424|Q138528424]] | [[Methanosuratincolales]] | Methanosuratincolales | | | |- | [[:d:Q138642109|Q138642109]] | [[Discocephalida]] | Discocephalida | [[Hypotrichea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138648830|Q138648830]] | [[Kirengellida]] | Kirengellida | [[Tergomya]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138732826|Q138732826]] | [[Acididesulfobacterales]] | Acididesulfobacterales | | | |- | [[:d:Q138737458|Q138737458]] | [[Serritaeniales]] | Serritaeniales | [[Zygnematophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138775192|Q138775192]] | [[Hormidiellales]] | Hormidiellales | [[Klebsormidiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138775558|Q138775558]] | [[Entransiales]] | Entransiales | [[Klebsormidiophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138784406|Q138784406]] | [[Sigyniarchaeales]] | Sigyniarchaeales | [[Lokiarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138840732|Q138840732]] | [[Cordanales]] | Cordanales | [[Sordariomycetes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139189658|Q139189658]] | [[Actinosomnolentales]] | Actinosomnolentales | [[Aridivitia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139190234|Q139190234]] | [[Actinopolaridales]] | Actinopolaridales | [[Aridivitia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139190676|Q139190676]] | [[Barbatosphaeriales]] | Barbatosphaeriales | [[Diaporthomycetidae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139191136|Q139191136]] | [[Bungeriellales]] | Bungeriellales | [[Aridivitia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139382101|Q139382101]] | [[Cryogemmatales]] | Cryogemmatales | | | |- | [[:d:Q139414544|Q139414544]] | [[Nanosomnibacterales]] | Nanosomnibacterales | [[Nanosomnibacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139414672|Q139414672]] | [[Dormimicrobiales]] | Dormimicrobiales | [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139546348|Q139546348]] | [[Sellaphorales]] | Sellaphorales | [[Diatomea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139550808|Q139550808]] | [[Solitaria]] | Solitaria | [[Entoprocta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139577764|Q139577764]] | [[Mulliformes]] | Mulliformes | [[Actinopterygii]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139600805|Q139600805]] | [[Apogoniformes]] | Apogoniformes | [[Teleostei]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139601190|Q139601190]] | [[Doridida]] | Doridida | [[Nudipleura]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139849645|Q139849645]] | [[Chuariales]] | Chuariales | [[Chuariophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139917825|Q139917825]] | [[Nanosynbacterales]] | Nanosynbacterales | [[Nanosynbacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139973659|Q139973659]] | [[Aegeococcales]] | Aegeococcales | [[Chroococcophyceae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140089090|Q140089090]] | [[Heimdallarchaeales]] | Heimdallarchaeales<ref name="ref_ec6c76bc9aee6a3734f129bf57153b1a64fe4dc1751d7e55fca2c3f58e8c7f5c">https://lpsn.dsmz.de/class/heimdallarchaeia</ref> | | | |- | [[:d:Q140155558|Q140155558]] | [[Echinorhagata]] | Echinorhagata | [[Cyclorhagida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140216662|Q140216662]] | [[Keeunamorphia]] | Keeunamorphia | [[Australidelphia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140370192|Q140370192]] | [[Gerdarchaeales]] | Gerdarchaeales<ref name="ref_3f54ba65ca252554a1eaa7223a125e678c0be18df510d0585ce96eb9c1862cd1">https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11427-020-1679-1</ref> | [[Heimdallarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140426186|Q140426186]] | [[Hodarchaeales]] | Hodarchaeales | [[Heimdallarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140573509|Q140573509]] | [["Candidatus Jordarchaeales" Sun et al. 2021]] | "Candidatus Jordarchaeales" | [["Candidatus Jordarchaeia" Sun et al. 2021]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140577200|Q140577200]] | [["Candidatus Korarchaeales" Rinke et al. 2021]] | "Candidatus Korarchaeales" | [[Korarchaeia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140577354|Q140577354]] | [["Candidatus Njordarchaeales" Xie et al. 2022]] | "Candidatus Njordarchaeales" | [[Korarchaeia]] | | |} {{Wikidata list end}} bows1alyupbq4mh6x90b3edy15540su 102 39840 698182 698050 2026-08-03T21:45:54Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 698182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q15617994 } |wdq= |columns=item,label,P279,P31,description |thumb=32 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! subclasse de ! instantia de ! description |- | [[:d:Q5084|Q5084]] | ''[[:d:Q5084|hamlet]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3055118|single entity of population]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11939023|populated place nucleus]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1497375|architectural ensemble]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4632675|dwelling place]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q98966309|classification of human settlements]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6256|Q6256]] | [[pais]] | ''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7275|Q7275]] | [[stato]] | ''[[:d:Q155076|juridical person]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1896989|subject of international law]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q96196009|former or current state]]'' | ''[[:d:Q211606|social structure]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | organisation politic e juridic de un territorio delimitate |- | [[:d:Q7688|Q7688]] | ''[[:d:Q7688|raion]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12829|Q12829]] | ''[[:d:Q12829|comarca]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<ref name="ref_fb1f64d34c5132f5694317071ca178ed1972feacbb7953a7f9690398b08c1731">''[[:d:Q13219454|Library of Congress Authorities]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15284|Q15284]] | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2659904|government organization]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | division administrative |- | [[:d:Q19576|Q19576]] | ''[[:d:Q19576|wilaya]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q23058|Q23058]] | [[cantones de Switza]] | ''[[:d:Q7631075|entitate territorial administrative de Switza]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q107390|stato federate]]''<br/>[[canton]]<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | entitates administrative constituente de Switza |- | [[:d:Q24764|Q24764]] | ''[[:d:Q24764|municipality of the Philippines]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1350310|administrative territorial entity of the Philippines]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3957|burgo]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27002|Q27002]] | ''[[:d:Q27002|selsoviet]]'' | ''[[:d:Q211201|Soviet]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4204491|administrative territorial entity of the Soviet Union]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31749783|selsoviet]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14757767|fourth-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q28575|Q28575]] | ''[[:d:Q28575|county]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>[[region]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30059|Q30059]] | ''[[:d:Q30059|arrondissement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q34876|Q34876]] | [[provincia]] | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q42132|Q42132]] | ''[[:d:Q42132|eup]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q44753|Q44753]] | ''[[:d:Q44753|province of Argentina]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3042547|administrative territorial entity of Argentina]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q46169|Q46169]] | [[parco national]] | [[parco]]<ref name="ref_420055a4825d3d507a1b1bab63ea8356b7d9c4b38be8887d8bcf27ff32cf86f6">''[[:d:Q52441805|Thesaurus for Graphic Materials]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fb1f64d34c5132f5694317071ca178ed1972feacbb7953a7f9690398b08c1731">''[[:d:Q13219454|Library of Congress Authorities]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]''<ref name="ref_fb1f64d34c5132f5694317071ca178ed1972feacbb7953a7f9690398b08c1731">''[[:d:Q13219454|Library of Congress Authorities]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q62059246|public reserve]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q386426|natural heritage]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q137393561|type of park]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q108028209|designation type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q57318|Q57318]] | ''[[:d:Q57318|free imperial city]]'' | [[citate]]<br/>''[[:d:Q26830017|state in the Holy Roman Empire]]''<br/>[[Citate-stato]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q61878|Q61878]] | [[barangay]] | ''[[:d:Q1350310|administrative territorial entity of the Philippines]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1761572|barrio]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q86622|Q86622]] | ''[[:d:Q86622|governorate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17310396|administrative territorial entity of the Russian Empire]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1798622|governorate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4204491|administrative territorial entity of the Soviet Union]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102496|Q102496]] | ''[[:d:Q102496|parish]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q112099|Q112099]] | [[stato insular]] | [[stato]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q111018943|habited island]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q127448|Q127448]] | ''[[:d:Q127448|communa svedese]]'' | ''[[:d:Q914262|administrative territorial entity of Sweden]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10541491|legal form]]''<ref name="ref_5b5ad8eccbd23d32f8151624d3a14f5e5e47154a2fa1fe282807b0648f6c1a3e">https://www.skatteverket.se/foretag/drivaforetag/startaochregistrera/organisationsnummer.4.361dc8c15312eff6fd235d1.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | municipalitate in Svedia |- | [[:d:Q131401|Q131401]] | ''[[:d:Q131401|califato]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4204060|stato islamic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1250464|realm]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1307214|forma de governamento]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q148837|Q148837]] | ''[[:d:Q148837|polis]]'' | [[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q15661340|ancient city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q149621|Q149621]] | ''[[:d:Q149621|district]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q154547|Q154547]] | [[ducato]] | [[stato]]<br/>[[monarchia]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q161243|Q161243]] | ''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q618123|geographical feature]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q165116|Q165116]] | ''[[:d:Q165116|grand duchy]]'' | [[ducato]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q171308|Q171308]] | [[oblast]] | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q182547|Q182547]] | [[provincia del Imperio Roman]] | ''[[:d:Q100205512|administrative territorial entity of ancient Rome]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q183366|Q183366]] | [[Territorio]] | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>[[region]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q191093|Q191093]] | ''[[:d:Q191093|province of South Africa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4683555|administrative territorial entity of South Africa]]''<br/>[[provincia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q196068|Q196068]] | ''[[:d:Q196068|lordship]]'' | ''[[:d:Q188063|fiefdom]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1550557|manorialism]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19944802|government structure]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q208500|Q208500]] | [[Principato]] | [[stato]]<br/>[[monarchia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1550557|manorialism]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q188063|fiefdom]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1307214|forma de governamento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q223573|Q223573]] | ''[[:d:Q223573|barony]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q264441|Q264441]] | ''[[:d:Q264441|Bezirk]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q285181|Q285181]] | ''[[:d:Q285181|eparchy]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1492823|ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q94670589|Christian organization]]'' | ''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q104098715|territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q313354|Q313354]] | ''[[:d:Q313354|hundred]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q353344|Q353344]] | ''[[:d:Q353344|countship]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q373074|Q373074]] | ''[[:d:Q373074|suffragan diocese]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q665487|diocese]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q374614|Q374614]] | ''[[:d:Q374614|urban district of Great Britain and Ireland]]'' | ''[[:d:Q717478|administrative territorial entity of the United Kingdom]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q398141|Q398141]] | ''[[:d:Q398141|school district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q149621|district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2385804|educational institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q6663997|local education agency]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q399445|Q399445]] | ''[[:d:Q399445|amt]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q451019|Q451019]] | ''[[:d:Q451019|gutsbezirk]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q837766|local authority]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q475050|Q475050]] | [[Districto federal]] | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5214867|federal territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q482810|Q482810]] | ''[[:d:Q482810|Special City of Korea]]'' | [[citate]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q483515|Q483515]] | ''[[:d:Q483515|myeon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q483519|Q483519]] | ''[[:d:Q483519|ri]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>[[village]]<br/>''[[:d:Q14757767|fourth-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q485258|Q485258]] | ''[[:d:Q485258|Statos de Brasil]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10374536|administrative territorial entity of Brazil]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | entitates federative de Brasil |- | [[:d:Q490933|Q490933]] | ''[[:d:Q490933|local community]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q177634|community]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q137018865|type of place]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q499073|Q499073]] | ''[[:d:Q499073|direct-controlled municipality]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15092400|independent city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q515483|Q515483]] | ''[[:d:Q515483|baladiyya]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q515716|Q515716]] | ''[[:d:Q515716|prefecture]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q517267|Q517267]] | ''[[:d:Q517267|commandery]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41761295|administrative territorial entity of China]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q562061|Q562061]] | ''[[:d:Q562061|market municipality]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q18511725|urbe de mercato]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q562644|Q562644]] | ''[[:d:Q562644|Deidesheim (Verbandsgemeinde)]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q23006|Verbandsgemeinde]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q609042|Q609042]] | ''[[:d:Q609042|shtetl]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3374262|miasteczko]]''<br/>[[village]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q620225|Q620225]] | ''[[:d:Q620225|apostolic vicariate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q12778511|vicariate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1492823|ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118905629|type of Roman Catholic institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17197366|type of organization]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q625160|Q625160]] | ''[[:d:Q625160|ecclesiastical province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]''<br/>[[provincia]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q643589|Q643589]] | ''[[:d:Q643589|departimento]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q687121|Q687121]] | ''[[:d:Q687121|Volost]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q688385|Q688385]] | ''[[:d:Q688385|Talschaft]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q718570|Q718570]] | ''[[:d:Q718570|circuit]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q770948|Q770948]] | ''[[:d:Q770948|okres]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q771444|Q771444]] | ''[[:d:Q771444|aul]]'' | ''[[:d:Q136678713|fortified village]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q98966309|classification of human settlements]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q782614|Q782614]] | ''[[:d:Q782614|autonomous region]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q788176|autonomous administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q788176|Q788176]] | ''[[:d:Q788176|autonomous administrative territorial entity]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q817477|Q817477]] | ''[[:d:Q817477|tehsil]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q839328|Q839328]] | ''[[:d:Q839328|fu]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q905280|Q905280]] | ''[[:d:Q905280|pyatina]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q914262|Q914262]] | ''[[:d:Q914262|administrative territorial entity of Sweden]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q923805|Q923805]] | ''[[:d:Q923805|trittys]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q935921|Q935921]] | ''[[:d:Q935921|kaza]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1070912|Q1070912]] | ''[[:d:Q1070912|zhou]]'' | ''[[:d:Q515716|prefecture]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q41761295|administrative territorial entity of China]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1087624|Q1087624]] | ''[[:d:Q1087624|nahiyah]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1093829|Q1093829]] | ''[[:d:Q1093829|citate del Statos Unite de America]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3327870|municipality in the United States]]''<br/>[[citate]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5951278|urban area of the United States]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1122846|Q1122846]] | ''[[:d:Q1122846|district of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1850442|administrative territorial entity of Japan]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q149621|district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q517267|commandery]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1138414|Q1138414]] | ''[[:d:Q1138414|isolated settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4632675|dwelling place]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2887356|farmyard]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1497364|building complex]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1141653|Q1141653]] | ''[[:d:Q1141653|prowincja]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>[[provincia]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1205915|Q1205915]] | ''[[:d:Q1205915|German Reich within the borders of 31 December 1937]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q17524420|aspect of history]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1209783|Q1209783]] | ''[[:d:Q1209783|shukuba]]'' | ''[[:d:Q786014|rest area]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63987304|stage station]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1850442|administrative territorial entity of Japan]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120922181|postal station]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1210300|Q1210300]] | ''[[:d:Q1210300|Mkhare]]'' | ''[[:d:Q244339|administrative territorial entity of Georgia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1273945|Q1273945]] | ''[[:d:Q1273945|pashalik]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1288520|Q1288520]] | ''[[:d:Q1288520|local council in Israel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2762194|local government in Israel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q98966309|classification of human settlements]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1336152|Q1336152]] | ''[[:d:Q1336152|princely state]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15646492|administrative territorial entity of British India]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1371288|vassal state]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1345234|Q1345234]] | ''[[:d:Q1345234|comarca of Spain]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3183364|entitate territorial administrative de Espania]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12829|comarca]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>[[Territorio]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1350181|Q1350181]] | ''[[:d:Q1350181|shire of Scotland]]'' | ''[[:d:Q461231|administrative territorial entity of Scotland]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q67376938|historic county of the United Kingdom]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1364324|Q1364324]] | ''[[:d:Q1364324|uezd]]'' | ''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1367821|Q1367821]] | ''[[:d:Q1367821|subprefecture]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1427085|Q1427085]] | ''[[:d:Q1427085|okrug]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1462047|Q1462047]] | ''[[:d:Q1462047|vilayet]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19576|wilaya]]'' | ''[[:d:Q28872924|designation for an administrative territorial entity of a single country]]''<ref name="ref_91c7c23bff8c4dcbdbe5d51fa021788763682add9ec85294b192cf219b99e5bb">https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/vilayet</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1503467|Q1503467]] | ''[[:d:Q1503467|Unrechtsstaat]]'' | [[stato]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1506541|Q1506541]] | ''[[:d:Q1506541|Roman Catholic ecclesiastical region]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>[[region]]<br/>''[[:d:Q23955632|Catholic organization]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118905629|type of Roman Catholic institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1541735|Q1541735]] | ''[[:d:Q1541735|former province of Hokkaidō]]'' | ''[[:d:Q860290|province of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1564271|Q1564271]] | ''[[:d:Q1564271|nahiye]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14757767|fourth-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1087624|nahiyah]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1584957|Q1584957]] | ''[[:d:Q1584957|district of Palermo]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3976662|subdivision of Palermo]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q13582281|circoscrizione di decentramento comunale in Italy]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1631226|Q1631226]] | ''[[:d:Q1631226|settlement council]]'' | ''[[:d:Q948571|organ of state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q211201|Soviet]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1633408|Q1633408]] | ''[[:d:Q1633408|concelho]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1683373|Q1683373]] | ''[[:d:Q1683373|Edo-period village]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4174776|village of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1761072|Q1761072]] | ''[[:d:Q1761072|state park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]''<br/>[[parco]]<ref name="ref_420055a4825d3d507a1b1bab63ea8356b7d9c4b38be8887d8bcf27ff32cf86f6">''[[:d:Q52441805|Thesaurus for Graphic Materials]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q137393561|type of park]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16118675|Q16118675]] | ''[[:d:Q16118675|حي شعبي]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15642541|human-geographic territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16142566|Q16142566]] | ''[[:d:Q16142566|city planning (Japan)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q69883|urbanistica]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q69883|urbanistica]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16181672|Q16181672]] | ''[[:d:Q16181672|special autonomous city in South Korea]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>[[citate]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16638537|Q16638537]] | ''[[:d:Q16638537|мястэчка]]'' | ''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16646034|Q16646034]] | ''[[:d:Q16646034|episcopal vicariate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12778511|vicariate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16652878|Q16652878]] | ''[[:d:Q16652878|zaimka]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3257686|localitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16915726|Q16915726]] | ''[[:d:Q16915726|mesoregion]]'' | [[region]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17051044|Q17051044]] | ''[[:d:Q17051044|mahalle]]'' | ''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2916486|administrative territorial entity type of Turkey]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17130641|Q17130641]] | ''[[:d:Q17130641|syssel]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17143723|Q17143723]] | ''[[:d:Q17143723|Catholic parish]]'' | ''[[:d:Q102496|parish]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<ref name="ref_077f98c9b6834479313df83a5999c3486ebb74fd613105ca4b4d0d994ab4f2d8">''[[:d:Q7005198|New Advent]]''</ref><ref name="ref_077f98c9b6834479313df83a5999c3486ebb74fd613105ca4b4d0d994ab4f2d8">''[[:d:Q7005198|New Advent]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q13358519|parish]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q23955632|Catholic organization]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118905629|type of Roman Catholic institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17147958|Q17147958]] | ''[[:d:Q17147958|intendency]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17208868|Q17208868]] | ''[[:d:Q17208868|都市再生緊急整備地域]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17217734|Q17217734]] | ''[[:d:Q17217734|tenaga]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17299748|Q17299748]] | ''[[:d:Q17299748|Vulka]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17319258|Q17319258]] | ''[[:d:Q17319258|presidency of British India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2385925|presidencies and provinces in British India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3558349|presidency]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17361443|Q17361443]] | ''[[:d:Q17361443|administrative territorial entity of a state of the United States]]'' | [[divisiones politic del Statos Unite]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q17990737|Q17990737]] | ''[[:d:Q17990737|Landscape Districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q18199255|Q18199255]] | ''[[:d:Q18199255|Amtskommune]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q18658990|Q18658990]] | ''[[:d:Q18658990|Ke-tsng-siā-hiunn]]'' | ''[[:d:Q18652293|Pó-lí-hiong-ò]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | ''[[:d:Q18658211|administrative territorial entity of Taiwan under Qing rule]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10915529|administrative division of Taiwan under Japanese rule]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q18729324|Q18729324]] | ''[[:d:Q18729324|razyezd]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19563262|Q19563262]] | ''[[:d:Q19563262|county of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q64606162|administrative territorial entity of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q26654367|former county]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19610511|Q19610511]] | ''[[:d:Q19610511|township]]'' | ''[[:d:Q27096235|artificial geographic entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19703730|Q19703730]] | ''[[:d:Q19703730|district-notary office]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19832689|Q19832689]] | ''[[:d:Q19832689|îlot]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15642541|human-geographic territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19868905|Q19868905]] | ''[[:d:Q19868905|administrative territorial entity of Minas Gerais]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10374536|administrative territorial entity of Brazil]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19905455|Q19905455]] | ''[[:d:Q19905455|borough]]'' | ''[[:d:Q688718|administrative territorial entity of Quebec]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14757767|fourth-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5195043|borough]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q30059|arrondissement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19939940|Q19939940]] | ''[[:d:Q19939940|ban]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15640612|fifth-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5084|hamlet]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q19941361|Q19941361]] | ''[[:d:Q19941361|tong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14757767|fourth-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q20113851|Q20113851]] | ''[[:d:Q20113851|gun]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q20180964|Q20180964]] | ''[[:d:Q20180964|franciscan custody]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q20203616|Q20203616]] | ''[[:d:Q20203616|Indian reservation]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1839674|lands inhabited by indigenous peoples]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q57237926|reservation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25380035|ethnic community]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q20541692|Q20541692]] | ''[[:d:Q20541692|settlement in Galicia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3257686|localitate]]''<br/>[[village]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3183364|entitate territorial administrative de Espania]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<ref name="ref_1fbd72c043ce0480eaea53a397388f5226d3cd78ac056c09e7b89586971eb320">''[[:d:Q3306957|Galician Statute of Autonomy of 1981]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<ref name="ref_1fbd72c043ce0480eaea53a397388f5226d3cd78ac056c09e7b89586971eb320">''[[:d:Q3306957|Galician Statute of Autonomy of 1981]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q20826981|Q20826981]] | ''[[:d:Q20826981|Rural community (local government)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q387917|administrative divisions of Germany]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q175185|rural area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q20986707|Q20986707]] | ''[[:d:Q20986707|cantred]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q21039427|Q21039427]] | ''[[:d:Q21039427|boma]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15623929|administrative territorial entity of South Sudan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q21619677|Q21619677]] | ''[[:d:Q21619677|amanate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q6501447|local government]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q21824758|Q21824758]] | ''[[:d:Q21824758|ga]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q21824871|Q21824871]] | ''[[:d:Q21824871|ro]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q22085013|Q22085013]] | ''[[:d:Q22085013|eparchy]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q22693483|Q22693483]] | ''[[:d:Q22693483|Pflegamt]]'' | ''[[:d:Q643589|departimento]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q23827464|Q23827464]] | ''[[:d:Q23827464|centre of Saudi Arabia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15623255|administrative territorial entity of Saudi Arabia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q24024848|Q24024848]] | ''[[:d:Q24024848|eup of South Korea]]'' | ''[[:d:Q42132|eup]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q24026248|Q24026248]] | ''[[:d:Q24026248|участок]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q24859699|Q24859699]] | ''[[:d:Q24859699|総合区]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1850442|administrative territorial entity of Japan]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q29925520|borough of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q24949989|Q24949989]] | ''[[:d:Q24949989|Zonal Council]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q24953176|Q24953176]] | ''[[:d:Q24953176|special administrative region]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25377531|Q25377531]] | ''[[:d:Q25377531|Territorial Authority]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25532202|Q25532202]] | ''[[:d:Q25532202|amlak]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25537045|Q25537045]] | ''[[:d:Q25537045|khaganate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17362920|Wikimedia duplicated page]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q26262476|Q26262476]] | ''[[:d:Q26262476|third-level administrative country subdivision in Indonesia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1434505|administrative territorial entity of Indonesia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q26912005|Q26912005]] | ''[[:d:Q26912005|regio]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15642541|human-geographic territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27254663|Q27254663]] | ''[[:d:Q27254663|Station village]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27254666|Q27254666]] | ''[[:d:Q27254666|urban-type settlement by the railway station]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27295972|Q27295972]] | ''[[:d:Q27295972|посёлок железнодорожной платформы]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27517998|Q27517998]] | ''[[:d:Q27517998|маяк]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27518087|Q27518087]] | ''[[:d:Q27518087|казарма]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27518260|Q27518260]] | ''[[:d:Q27518260|монтёрский пункт]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27518266|Q27518266]] | ''[[:d:Q27518266|метеостанция]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27518282|Q27518282]] | ''[[:d:Q27518282|гидрологический пост]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27518287|Q27518287]] | ''[[:d:Q27518287|контрольный пункт связи]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27518793|Q27518793]] | ''[[:d:Q27518793|железнодорожный блокпост]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27526294|Q27526294]] | ''[[:d:Q27526294|железнодорожный пост]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27526303|Q27526303]] | ''[[:d:Q27526303|лесной посёлок]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27531730|Q27531730]] | ''[[:d:Q27531730|kordon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27532791|Q27532791]] | ''[[:d:Q27532791|railway booth]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27532818|Q27532818]] | ''[[:d:Q27532818|railway barracks]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27537456|Q27537456]] | ''[[:d:Q27537456|железнодорожный дом]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27537502|Q27537502]] | ''[[:d:Q27537502|посёлок лесоучастка]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27566198|Q27566198]] | ''[[:d:Q27566198|остановочная платформа]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27577201|Q27577201]] | ''[[:d:Q27577201|железнодорожная платформа]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27587207|Q27587207]] | ''[[:d:Q27587207|city municipality]]'' | ''[[:d:Q192287|administrative divisions of Russia]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27587491|Q27587491]] | ''[[:d:Q27587491|urban-type settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15078955|urban-type settlement in Russia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27588300|Q27588300]] | ''[[:d:Q27588300|железнодорожная площадка]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27588331|Q27588331]] | ''[[:d:Q27588331|state farm settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q28081313|Q28081313]] | ''[[:d:Q28081313|municipality section]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q28517354|Q28517354]] | ''[[:d:Q28517354|sesma]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q28683636|Q28683636]] | ''[[:d:Q28683636|High-rise residential Attraction District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q28754498|Q28754498]] | ''[[:d:Q28754498|chōme]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5327369|chōchō]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q29925520|Q29925520]] | ''[[:d:Q29925520|borough of Japan]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q29946056|Q29946056]] | ''[[:d:Q29946056|highly urbanized city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q104157|city of the Philippines]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30674761|Q30674761]] | ''[[:d:Q30674761|Australian marine park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2616170|marine reserve]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30749622|Q30749622]] | ''[[:d:Q30749622|archpriesthood]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q385337|deanery]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30928563|Q30928563]] | ''[[:d:Q30928563|邑]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q7884789|toponym]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30943418|Q30943418]] | ''[[:d:Q30943418|城]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q31835971|Q31835971]] | ''[[:d:Q31835971|Munizipalität]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q31883575|Q31883575]] | ''[[:d:Q31883575|amt]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q33146843|Q33146843]] | ''[[:d:Q33146843|municipality of Catalonia]]'' | [[municipalitates de Espania]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11917457|subdivisions of Catalonia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q42692874|Q42692874]] | ''[[:d:Q42692874|Verwaltungsbezirk]]'' | ''[[:d:Q264441|Bezirk]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q47795905|Q47795905]] | ''[[:d:Q47795905|Piarist province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q109612062|territorial demarcation of the Pious Schools]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q48760287|Q48760287]] | ''[[:d:Q48760287|Countryside Residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q48784221|Q48784221]] | ''[[:d:Q48784221|collación]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1761572|barrio]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1626455|parroquia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q48816145|Q48816145]] | ''[[:d:Q48816145|sector of Islamabad]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7444705|sector]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q51041800|Q51041800]] | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1530022|organisation religiose]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q52063214|Q52063214]] | ''[[:d:Q52063214|provincial park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]''<br/>[[parco]]<br/>''[[:d:Q728904|nature park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q137393561|type of park]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q52226526|Q52226526]] | ''[[:d:Q52226526|Roede van Harelbeke]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>[[canton]] | |- | [[:d:Q55237813|Q55237813]] | ''[[:d:Q55237813|village of New York]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q751708|village in the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q47682|administrative territorial entity of New York]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q55998242|Q55998242]] | ''[[:d:Q55998242|administrative region of Quebec]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3455524|region administrative]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q56205755|Q56205755]] | ''[[:d:Q56205755|district of Rotuma]]'' | ''[[:d:Q149621|district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q56271507|Q56271507]] | ''[[:d:Q56271507|鎮]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q58446572|Q58446572]] | ''[[:d:Q58446572|electoral division of County Galway]]'' | ''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5639312|Q5639312]] | [[voivodato]] | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5811429|Q5811429]] | ''[[:d:Q5811429|district in Managua]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15633191|distrito]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5942455|Q5942455]] | ''[[:d:Q5942455|keverang]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6014817|Q6014817]] | ''[[:d:Q6014817|karye]]'' | | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6024226|Q6024226]] | ''[[:d:Q6024226|metropolitan municipality]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q200250|metropole]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1907114|area metropolitan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6026936|Q6026936]] | ''[[:d:Q6026936|liva]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q176799|military unit]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6063891|Q6063891]] | ''[[:d:Q6063891|partido]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6100739|Q6100739]] | ''[[:d:Q6100739|administrative territorial entity of Istanbul]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6104039|Q6104039]] | ''[[:d:Q6104039|región socioeconómica de Costa Rica]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6106059|Q6106059]] | ''[[:d:Q6106059|Indian republics]]'' | ''[[:d:Q25380035|ethnic community]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1839674|lands inhabited by indigenous peoples]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q6972919|Q6972919]] | ''[[:d:Q6972919|National Government Park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q22746|urban park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q137393561|type of park]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7194321|Q7194321]] | ''[[:d:Q7194321|has]]'' | ''[[:d:Q975783|estate in land]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5473816|Crown land]]''<ref name="ref_268b7068665b16c80a5ae4117de3e05654b47632163243a2af084b0f27b515d0">https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/has--arazi</ref> | ''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]''<ref name="ref_268b7068665b16c80a5ae4117de3e05654b47632163243a2af084b0f27b515d0">https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/has--arazi</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7251287|Q7251287]] | ''[[:d:Q7251287|protected area of Wales]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7251293|protected area of the United Kingdom]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7251291|Q7251291]] | ''[[:d:Q7251291|protected area of the Northern Territory]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q13406463|lista de Wikimedia]]'' | lista de un projecto de Wikimedia |- | [[:d:Q7375078|Q7375078]] | ''[[:d:Q7375078|royal manor]]'' | ''[[:d:Q196068|lordship]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1550557|manorialism]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q188063|fiefdom]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7380054|Q7380054]] | ''[[:d:Q7380054|Luak Tanah Mengandung]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118594136|luak]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7425963|Q7425963]] | ''[[:d:Q7425963|Satavado]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7432341|Q7432341]] | ''[[:d:Q7432341|school division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q398141|school district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7444705|Q7444705]] | ''[[:d:Q7444705|sector]]'' | ''[[:d:Q219858|zone]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7495728|Q7495728]] | ''[[:d:Q7495728|shiyakha]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15044339|administrative territorial entity of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7551933|Q7551933]] | ''[[:d:Q7551933|mahalla]]'' | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5084|hamlet]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q4286337|city district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7631923|Q7631923]] | ''[[:d:Q7631923|subregion]]'' | [[region]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7703797|Q7703797]] | ''[[:d:Q7703797|territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3253485|administrative territorial entity of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7886462|Q7886462]] | ''[[:d:Q7886462|moshav shitufi]]'' | ''[[:d:Q917146|moshav]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161387|kibbutz]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7888177|Q7888177]] | ''[[:d:Q7888177|United Kingdom military aircraft registration mark]]'' | ''[[:d:Q838849|aircraft registration]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q216916|military aircraft]]'' | ''[[:d:Q140396411|military aircraft registration mark]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q8071905|Q8071905]] | ''[[:d:Q8071905|Zillah]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q8242634|Q8242634]] | ''[[:d:Q8242634|Baronía de Cárcer]]'' | | [[Territorio]]<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q8501237|Q8501237]] | ''[[:d:Q8501237|large city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q50231|administrative territorial entity of the People's Republic of China]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q9367715|Q9367715]] | ''[[:d:Q9367715|ulus]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10139375|Q10139375]] | ''[[:d:Q10139375|Eastern Catholic ecclesiastical province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q625160|ecclesiastical province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427961|metropolis]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118905629|type of Roman Catholic institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10296503|Q10296503]] | ''[[:d:Q10296503|župa]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10433151|Q10433151]] | ''[[:d:Q10433151|civic municipality]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1969448|term]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10466601|Q10466601]] | ''[[:d:Q10466601|Danske grevskaber og baronier]]'' | ''[[:d:Q353344|countship]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10545864|Q10545864]] | ''[[:d:Q10545864|kism]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15044339|administrative territorial entity of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10551473|Q10551473]] | ''[[:d:Q10551473|parish union]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10666776|Q10666776]] | ''[[:d:Q10666776|setting]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10861243|Q10861243]] | ''[[:d:Q10861243|stamp territory]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10910840|Q10910840]] | ''[[:d:Q10910840|Ting]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11183787|Q11183787]] | ''[[:d:Q11183787|Ortschaft]]'' | ''[[:d:Q253019|Ortsteil]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11385643|Q11385643]] | ''[[:d:Q11385643|ho]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q29428403|pentad]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11396088|Q11396088]] | ''[[:d:Q11396088|bunkoku]]'' | ''[[:d:Q860290|province of Japan]]''<br/>[[Territorio]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11414697|Q11414697]] | ''[[:d:Q11414697|myō]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11424278|Q11424278]] | ''[[:d:Q11424278|autonomous ward (Japan)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1850442|administrative territorial entity of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11479488|Q11479488]] | ''[[:d:Q11479488|Industrial District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1662024|industrial district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11479490|Q11479490]] | ''[[:d:Q11479490|Exclusive Industrial District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11480694|Q11480694]] | ''[[:d:Q11480694|urbanization promotion area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11643682|city planning area of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q16142566|city planning (Japan)]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q116691874|area classification (Japan)]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11480695|Q11480695]] | ''[[:d:Q11480695|urbanization control area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11643682|city planning area of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q116691874|area classification (Japan)]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q16142566|city planning (Japan)]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11488831|Q11488831]] | ''[[:d:Q11488831|mikuriya]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1887569|shōen]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11564383|Q11564383]] | ''[[:d:Q11564383|Quasi-residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11564397|Q11564397]] | ''[[:d:Q11564397|Quasi-industrial District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11564414|Q11564414]] | ''[[:d:Q11564414|quasi-city planning area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q28692710|state territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11564415|Q11564415]] | ''[[:d:Q11564415|Quasi-fire Prevention District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11570788|Q11570788]] | ''[[:d:Q11570788|special use district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11570918|Q11570918]] | ''[[:d:Q11570918|Specified Block]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11602099|Q11602099]] | ''[[:d:Q11602099|Category 1 Medium-to-high-rise Exclusive Residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11602100|Q11602100]] | ''[[:d:Q11602100|Category 1 Residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11602101|Q11602101]] | ''[[:d:Q11602101|Category 1 Low-rise Exclusive Residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11602320|Q11602320]] | ''[[:d:Q11602320|Category 2 Medium-to-high-rise Exclusive Residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11602321|Q11602321]] | ''[[:d:Q11602321|Category 2 Low-rise Exclusive Residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11602322|Q11602322]] | ''[[:d:Q11602322|Category 2 Residential District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11602738|Q11602738]] | ''[[:d:Q11602738|suji]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11607807|Q11607807]] | ''[[:d:Q11607807|Ryokuchi hozen chiiki]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5162954|conservation designation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11631303|Q11631303]] | ''[[:d:Q11631303|hyō]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11639125|Q11639125]] | ''[[:d:Q11639125|Neighborhood Commercial District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11643597|Q11643597]] | ''[[:d:Q11643597|Special Districts for Urban Renaissance]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11643682|Q11643682]] | ''[[:d:Q11643682|city planning area of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q28692710|state territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11649786|Q11649786]] | ''[[:d:Q11649786|railway zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1192403|concession]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11657023|Q11657023]] | ''[[:d:Q11657023|Fire Prevention District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11664885|Q11664885]] | ''[[:d:Q11664885|ryō]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11665558|Q11665558]] | ''[[:d:Q11665558|Scenic districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q858308|Cultural Property of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11668267|Q11668267]] | ''[[:d:Q11668267|駐車場整備地区]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11669892|Q11669892]] | ''[[:d:Q11669892|High-level Use District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11669894|Q11669894]] | ''[[:d:Q11669894|Height Control District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11916810|Q11916810]] | ''[[:d:Q11916810|Deli en Serdang]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11970574|Q11970574]] | ''[[:d:Q11970574|Country (Norwegian history)]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12033861|Q12033861]] | ''[[:d:Q12033861|Lokalie]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12039398|Q12039398]] | ''[[:d:Q12039398|městská část]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4286337|city district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12132320|Q12132320]] | ''[[:d:Q12132320|Енпуç ен]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12409827|Q12409827]] | ''[[:d:Q12409827|Territory of the Tribe of Manasseh]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q104442652|territory of a tribe]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12479773|Q12479773]] | ''[[:d:Q12479773|first-level administrative country subdivision in Indonesia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1434505|administrative territorial entity of Indonesia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12479774|Q12479774]] | ''[[:d:Q12479774|second-level administrative country subdivision in Indonesia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1434505|administrative territorial entity of Indonesia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3299260|local government area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12724246|Q12724246]] | ''[[:d:Q12724246|cnezat]]'' | [[Principato]] | ''[[:d:Q1307214|forma de governamento]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12778511|Q12778511]] | ''[[:d:Q12778511|vicariate]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1492823|ecclesiastical district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12910663|Q12910663]] | ''[[:d:Q12910663|srez]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12978349|Q12978349]] | ''[[:d:Q12978349|Special Grade Municipalities]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q13058507|Q13058507]] | ''[[:d:Q13058507|subdivision of West Bengal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q13358528|Q13358528]] | ''[[:d:Q13358528|fiscal district]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q10947702|administrative territorial entity of Song dynasty]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q16077826|administrative territorial entity of Jin dynasty]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11387891|administrative territorial entity of the Yuan Empire]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q718570|circuit]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q13526752|Q13526752]] | ''[[:d:Q13526752|lugar]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11939023|populated place nucleus]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3257686|localitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3055118|single entity of population]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q98966309|classification of human settlements]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q13646349|Q13646349]] | ''[[:d:Q13646349|Government (Dutch East Indies)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q14916058|Q14916058]] | ''[[:d:Q14916058|territory]]'' | [[Territorio]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15253706|Q15253706]] | ''[[:d:Q15253706|city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7930989|city or town]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15630906|Q15630906]] | ''[[:d:Q15630906|rural district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q149621|district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15637757|Q15637757]] | ''[[:d:Q15637757|mahakuma]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15649504|Q15649504]] | ''[[:d:Q15649504|satrapy]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1371288|vassal state]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15725677|Q15725677]] | ''[[:d:Q15725677|pedanía]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q98966309|classification of human settlements]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15727673|Q15727673]] | ''[[:d:Q15727673|city district of Hanover]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2740635|Stadtbezirk]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15728204|Q15728204]] | ''[[:d:Q15728204|province of Saudi Arabia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15623255|administrative territorial entity of Saudi Arabia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1771656|mintaqa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15894786|Q15894786]] | ''[[:d:Q15894786|United States administrative division type]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15901936|Q15901936]] | ''[[:d:Q15901936|district of South Korea (autonomous)]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q149621|district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15903862|Q15903862]] | ''[[:d:Q15903862|縣轄區]]'' | ''[[:d:Q149621|district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q28872924|designation for an administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125352368|Q125352368]] | ''[[:d:Q125352368|村镇]]'' | ''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125626392|Q125626392]] | ''[[:d:Q125626392|revenue division in Tamil Nadu]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125626445|Q125626445]] | ''[[:d:Q125626445|revenue division in Andhra Pradesh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125626476|Q125626476]] | ''[[:d:Q125626476|revenue division in Telangana]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125627541|Q125627541]] | ''[[:d:Q125627541|revenue division in Kerala]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125631936|Q125631936]] | ''[[:d:Q125631936|subdivision of Bihar]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125631953|Q125631953]] | ''[[:d:Q125631953|subdivision of Uttar Pradesh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907346|Q125907346]] | ''[[:d:Q125907346|division of Uttar Pradesh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907347|Q125907347]] | ''[[:d:Q125907347|division of Jharkhand]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907349|Q125907349]] | ''[[:d:Q125907349|division of Chhattisgarh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907350|Q125907350]] | ''[[:d:Q125907350|division of Rajasthan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907351|Q125907351]] | ''[[:d:Q125907351|division of Haryana]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907352|Q125907352]] | ''[[:d:Q125907352|division of Jammu And Kashmir]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907353|Q125907353]] | ''[[:d:Q125907353|division of Bihar]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907354|Q125907354]] | ''[[:d:Q125907354|division of Assam]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907355|Q125907355]] | ''[[:d:Q125907355|division of Odisha]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907356|Q125907356]] | ''[[:d:Q125907356|division of Delhi]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907357|Q125907357]] | ''[[:d:Q125907357|division of Maharashtra]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907359|Q125907359]] | ''[[:d:Q125907359|division of Himachal Pradesh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907360|Q125907360]] | ''[[:d:Q125907360|division of Karnataka]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907362|Q125907362]] | ''[[:d:Q125907362|division of Meghalaya]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907363|Q125907363]] | ''[[:d:Q125907363|division of Arunachal Pradesh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907364|Q125907364]] | ''[[:d:Q125907364|division of Ladakh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907365|Q125907365]] | ''[[:d:Q125907365|division of Punjab]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907368|Q125907368]] | ''[[:d:Q125907368|division of Uttarakhand]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125907369|Q125907369]] | ''[[:d:Q125907369|division of Nagaland]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125918906|Q125918906]] | ''[[:d:Q125918906|subdivision of Maharashtra]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125919325|Q125919325]] | ''[[:d:Q125919325|subdivision of Uttarakhand]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125919353|Q125919353]] | ''[[:d:Q125919353|subdivision of Jharkhand]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q125923559|Q125923559]] | ''[[:d:Q125923559|subdivsion of Gujarat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q126896673|Q126896673]] | ''[[:d:Q126896673|district of South Korea (non-autonomous)]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q149621|district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q127229284|Q127229284]] | ''[[:d:Q127229284|Ammanie of Brussels]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q127378230|Q127378230]] | ''[[:d:Q127378230|isolated dwelling in Latvia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q109779065|human settlement in Latvia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q128477938|Q128477938]] | ''[[:d:Q128477938|haengjeongmyeon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q483515|myeon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q128807925|Q128807925]] | ''[[:d:Q128807925|арбан]]'' | [[village]]<br/>''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q98966309|classification of human settlements]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q130241638|Q130241638]] | ''[[:d:Q130241638|каймаканство]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q130376174|Q130376174]] | ''[[:d:Q130376174|ri (administrative)]]'' | [[village]]<br/>''[[:d:Q41156|administrative territorial entity of South Korea]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q130458414|Q130458414]] | ''[[:d:Q130458414|郷]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q130616842|Q130616842]] | ''[[:d:Q130616842|circoscrizione di Ravenna]]'' | ''[[:d:Q13582281|circoscrizione di decentramento comunale in Italy]]''<ref name="ref_dd65dee6a537ba0e05d1f1ed5316bd12d7968992a988c0fc93b55df5d013f4e0">https://www.comune.ra.it/il-comune/decentramento/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q132730984|Q132730984]] | ''[[:d:Q132730984|commune of Burundi]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3266850|commune]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q132732881|Q132732881]] | ''[[:d:Q132732881|administrative territorial entity of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q133800978|Q133800978]] | ''[[:d:Q133800978|praefectura]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15644911|administrative territorial entity of the Roman Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q134552029|Q134552029]] | ''[[:d:Q134552029|Pana (Meitei culture)]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135009855|Q135009855]] | ''[[:d:Q135009855|sub-tehsil]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135111350|Q135111350]] | ''[[:d:Q135111350|district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135112192|Q135112192]] | ''[[:d:Q135112192|parish annex]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135299026|Q135299026]] | ''[[:d:Q135299026|microdistrict of Tbilisi]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135415335|Q135415335]] | ''[[:d:Q135415335|Hêm]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135437929|Q135437929]] | ''[[:d:Q135437929|hetmanate]]'' | [[stato]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135447139|Q135447139]] | ''[[:d:Q135447139|Verbrecherstaat]]'' | [[stato]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135451523|Q135451523]] | ''[[:d:Q135451523|mezraa]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135455595|Q135455595]] | ''[[:d:Q135455595|kasaba]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q135512166|Q135512166]] | ''[[:d:Q135512166|gospodarlık]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q136098733|Q136098733]] | ''[[:d:Q136098733|paşa livası]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q136431832|Q136431832]] | ''[[:d:Q136431832|Ortschaft (Niedersachsen)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11183787|Ortschaft]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q136442176|Q136442176]] | ''[[:d:Q136442176|Zone police]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q136442212|Q136442212]] | ''[[:d:Q136442212|Zone gendarmerie]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q136534136|Q136534136]] | ''[[:d:Q136534136|поссовет в СССР]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1631226|settlement council]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q211201|Soviet]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4204491|administrative territorial entity of the Soviet Union]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q136534923|Q136534923]] | ''[[:d:Q136534923|горсовет в СССР]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3154693|city council]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q211201|Soviet]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4204491|administrative territorial entity of the Soviet Union]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q136935588|Q136935588]] | ''[[:d:Q136935588|Guinean neighborhood]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q137211599|Q137211599]] | ''[[:d:Q137211599|aksakal]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q137211677|Q137211677]] | ''[[:d:Q137211677|tuman (Bukhara Emirate)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q137211923|Q137211923]] | ''[[:d:Q137211923|qūrğancha]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q137260405|Q137260405]] | ''[[:d:Q137260405|SS-Abschnitt XXXIX]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q18332808|SS-Abschnitt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q207320|paramilitary organization]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q153936|militia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q138388710|Q138388710]] | ''[[:d:Q138388710|consiglio di zona of Livorno]]'' | ''[[:d:Q13582281|circoscrizione di decentramento comunale in Italy]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q138823494|Q138823494]] | ''[[:d:Q138823494|federated region]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3455524|region administrative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q138823699|Q138823699]] | ''[[:d:Q138823699|federated community]]'' | ''[[:d:Q138823755|administrative community]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q138823755|Q138823755]] | ''[[:d:Q138823755|administrative community]]'' | ''[[:d:Q177634|community]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q140039150|Q140039150]] | ''[[:d:Q140039150|presbytery]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q140835258|Q140835258]] | ''[[:d:Q140835258|arrondissement municipal du Gabon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q837766|local authority]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q140835651|Q140835651]] | ''[[:d:Q140835651|commune gabonaise]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3266850|commune]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q58872171|Q58872171]] | ''[[:d:Q58872171|baronía]]'' | ''[[:d:Q9008644|Ancient Regime of Spain]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q188063|fiefdom]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223573|barony]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q61478101|administrative territorial entity of the Crown of Castile]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q60843390|Q60843390]] | ''[[:d:Q60843390|subdivision of Odisha]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q61089180|Q61089180]] | ''[[:d:Q61089180|municipal part of the Czech Republic]]'' | ''[[:d:Q115252541|part of a municipality in Czech Republic and Slovakia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3507889|administrative territorial entity of the Czech Republic]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q61763780|Q61763780]] | ''[[:d:Q61763780|administrative territorial entity of Aragon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3183364|entitate territorial administrative de Espania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q63645004|Q63645004]] | ''[[:d:Q63645004|territorial autonomy]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1307214|forma de governamento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q65251207|Q65251207]] | ''[[:d:Q65251207|Territory of the Tribe of Benjamin]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q104442652|territory of a tribe]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q65281628|Q65281628]] | ''[[:d:Q65281628|行政区]]'' | ''[[:d:Q137773|ward of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q65522058|Q65522058]] | ''[[:d:Q65522058|府藩県]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1850442|administrative territorial entity of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q66661665|Q66661665]] | ''[[:d:Q66661665|governorate of Saudi Arabia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15623255|administrative territorial entity of Saudi Arabia]]''<ref name="ref_80b3aaf6e6432e022cda75644619f938b777b2cf758fa0e768d75257f71be855">''[[:d:Q105518758|Law of Provinces]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1798622|governorate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1764608|muhafazah]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q28872924|designation for an administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q66980180|Q66980180]] | ''[[:d:Q66980180|macrohood]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q66980952|Q66980952]] | ''[[:d:Q66980952|microhood]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15642541|human-geographic territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q69935452|Q69935452]] | ''[[:d:Q69935452|town of Taiwan under Japanese rule]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10915529|administrative division of Taiwan under Japanese rule]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q69936911|county of Taiwan under Japanese rule]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10910840|Ting]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q69935538|Q69935538]] | ''[[:d:Q69935538|village of Taiwan under Japanese rule]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10915529|administrative division of Taiwan under Japanese rule]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q69936911|county of Taiwan under Japanese rule]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10910840|Ting]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q85882297|Q85882297]] | ''[[:d:Q85882297|Exceptional Floor Area Ratio District]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q86725643|Q86725643]] | ''[[:d:Q86725643|fumoto]]'' | ''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q86726256|Q86726256]] | ''[[:d:Q86726256|province cartusienne]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q90511324|Q90511324]] | ''[[:d:Q90511324|Franciscan province (O.F.M.)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q92157630|Q92157630]] | ''[[:d:Q92157630|school sector]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q93389881|Q93389881]] | ''[[:d:Q93389881|región sanitaria de Cataluña]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q96196009|Q96196009]] | ''[[:d:Q96196009|former or current state]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1063239|polity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q97344267|Q97344267]] | ''[[:d:Q97344267|Поселение]]'' | ''[[:d:Q192287|administrative divisions of Russia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102104752|Q102104752]] | ''[[:d:Q102104752|city of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]'' | ''[[:d:Q843752|political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102131920|Q102131920]] | ''[[:d:Q102131920|thikana]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1336152|princely state]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104442652|Q104442652]] | ''[[:d:Q104442652|territory of a tribe]]'' | [[region]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104530683|Q104530683]] | ''[[:d:Q104530683|Pusta]]'' | ''[[:d:Q175185|rural area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104711456|Q104711456]] | ''[[:d:Q104711456|Трудовая коммуна (РСФСР)]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q105063846|Q105063846]] | ''[[:d:Q105063846|part of the municipality part]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3507889|administrative territorial entity of the Czech Republic]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q105985227|Q105985227]] | ''[[:d:Q105985227|省]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106078286|Q106078286]] | ''[[:d:Q106078286|component city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q104157|city of the Philippines]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106079704|Q106079704]] | ''[[:d:Q106079704|independent component city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q104157|city of the Philippines]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106458883|Q106458883]] | ''[[:d:Q106458883|state]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q107390|stato federate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106458918|Q106458918]] | ''[[:d:Q106458918|parish]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106531650|Q106531650]] | ''[[:d:Q106531650|province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<br/>[[provincia]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106532582|Q106532582]] | ''[[:d:Q106532582|territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106533981|Q106533981]] | ''[[:d:Q106533981|district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106534046|Q106534046]] | ''[[:d:Q106534046|dependency]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106592151|Q106592151]] | ''[[:d:Q106592151|national nature park]]'' | [[parco national]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106698210|Q106698210]] | ''[[:d:Q106698210|arrondissement of Cameroon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3360771|administrative territorial entity of Cameroon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q106889447|Q106889447]] | ''[[:d:Q106889447|ardiaconate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q107484850|Q107484850]] | ''[[:d:Q107484850|alcaldía mayor]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q107759421|Q107759421]] | ''[[:d:Q107759421|mountain hamlet]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5084|hamlet]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q107918234|Q107918234]] | ''[[:d:Q107918234|městský obvod]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4286337|city district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q108000498|Q108000498]] | ''[[:d:Q108000498|part of municipality in Czechoslovakia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20724760|administrative territorial entity of Czechoslovakia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q108379543|Q108379543]] | ''[[:d:Q108379543|Fauna and Flora Sanctuary]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1790016|protected area of Colombia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179049|nature reserve]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q108494671|Q108494671]] | ''[[:d:Q108494671|Greek catholic parish]]'' | ''[[:d:Q102496|parish]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q163740|nonprofit organization]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1530022|organisation religiose]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109562558|Q109562558]] | ''[[:d:Q109562558|salesian province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109586943|Q109586943]] | ''[[:d:Q109586943|Capuchin province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109587150|Q109587150]] | ''[[:d:Q109587150|Conventual Franciscan province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109593182|Q109593182]] | ''[[:d:Q109593182|province of the Order of Preachers]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<ref name="ref_11f0eddf37fa068d6459534293196ef29db5f4ec33a8062b36139827c576f973">https://www.op.org/provincias/?lang=es#1559123084713-8a1110dd-2fca</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q109612062|Q109612062]] | ''[[:d:Q109612062|territorial demarcation of the Pious Schools]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1492823|ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109612325|Q109612325]] | ''[[:d:Q109612325|vice-province]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110158634|Q110158634]] | ''[[:d:Q110158634|Сєлѥниѥ градьска тѷпа]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2989457|urban-type settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110256042|Q110256042]] | ''[[:d:Q110256042|police-administered area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15044339|administrative territorial entity of Egypt]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q114839325|police administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110256333|Q110256333]] | ''[[:d:Q110256333|new city of Egypt]]'' | ''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1074523|planned community]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15044339|administrative territorial entity of Egypt]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110390579|Q110390579]] | ''[[:d:Q110390579|city of United Kingdom]]'' | [[citate]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110946229|Q110946229]] | ''[[:d:Q110946229|dong]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q111081341|Q111081341]] | ''[[:d:Q111081341|waterfront district (Japan)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q111264878|Q111264878]] | ''[[:d:Q111264878|demarcación paisajística]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15642541|human-geographic territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q111737478|Q111737478]] | ''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1492823|ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q23955632|Catholic organization]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118905629|type of Roman Catholic institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q112245920|Q112245920]] | ''[[:d:Q112245920|полицейская часть]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17310396|administrative territorial entity of the Russian Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q112945489|Q112945489]] | ''[[:d:Q112945489|circaria]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113386230|Q113386230]] | ''[[:d:Q113386230|independent subprovince]]'' | ''[[:d:Q330425|sanjak]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113388921|Q113388921]] | ''[[:d:Q113388921|privileged Ottoman province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113389351|Q113389351]] | ''[[:d:Q113389351|mutasarrifate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113389576|Q113389576]] | ''[[:d:Q113389576|nahiye seat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q470540|seat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113390156|Q113390156]] | ''[[:d:Q113390156|kaza seat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q470540|seat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113390205|Q113390205]] | ''[[:d:Q113390205|sanjak seat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q470540|seat]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1306755|centro administrative]]''<ref name="ref_8f744e3de8e53df3722302465cf1f48e542fd72eabe15b2c2796f7dfba6618c6">''[[:d:Q61720929|Encyclopaedia of Islam, 3rd edition]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113390253|Q113390253]] | ''[[:d:Q113390253|vilayet seat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q470540|seat]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q113660981|Q113660981]] | ''[[:d:Q113660981|Otok (administrative unit)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q946868|Tumen]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q115252541|Q115252541]] | ''[[:d:Q115252541|part of a municipality in Czech Republic and Slovakia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q115916908|Q115916908]] | ''[[:d:Q115916908|electoral area of British Columbia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q175185|rural area]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17457753|census subdivision in Canada]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q115943990|Q115943990]] | ''[[:d:Q115943990|Colonias of Cuautitlan Izcalli]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5148198|colonia of Mexico]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q116007761|Q116007761]] | ''[[:d:Q116007761|land district of British Columbia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3750285|administrative territorial entity of Canada]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q18346622|cadastral division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q116215373|Q116215373]] | ''[[:d:Q116215373|imperial city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q57318|free imperial city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q116215378|Q116215378]] | ''[[:d:Q116215378|free city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q57318|free imperial city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q13218276|free city]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q116691874|Q116691874]] | ''[[:d:Q116691874|area classification (Japan)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11643682|city planning area of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q117209621|Q117209621]] | ''[[:d:Q117209621|commune of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3253485|administrative territorial entity of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q117350247|Q117350247]] | ''[[:d:Q117350247|Commercial District in Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30921518|use districts]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5152545|commercial area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1133961|commercial district]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q117351014|Q117351014]] | ''[[:d:Q117351014|災害危険区域]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q117351402|Q117351402]] | ''[[:d:Q117351402|歴史的風土特別保存地区]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q117351444|Q117351444]] | ''[[:d:Q117351444|第一種歴史的風土保存地区]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q118593746|Q118593746]] | ''[[:d:Q118593746|Luak Berundang]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q118594136|Q118594136]] | ''[[:d:Q118594136|luak]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q118601355|Q118601355]] | ''[[:d:Q118601355|Luak Beradat]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q119146498|Q119146498]] | ''[[:d:Q119146498|Colonias of State of Mexico]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5148198|colonia of Mexico]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q120410026|Q120410026]] | ''[[:d:Q120410026|Local Educational Management Unit]]'' | ''[[:d:Q149621|district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2385804|educational institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q6663997|local education agency]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q122146132|Q122146132]] | ''[[:d:Q122146132|special green space conservation districts]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11424233|district and zone]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q23790|natural monument]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179049|nature reserve]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5162954|conservation designation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q122911647|Q122911647]] | ''[[:d:Q122911647|territorial episcopal vicariate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q16646034|episcopal vicariate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12778511|vicariate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118905629|type of Roman Catholic institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q122955538|Q122955538]] | ''[[:d:Q122955538|treding]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q122956696|Q122956696]] | ''[[:d:Q122956696|subdivision of Sikkim]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q105626471|subdistrict of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q122987727|Q122987727]] | ''[[:d:Q122987727|subdivision of Lakshadweep]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q105626471|subdistrict of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q122987729|Q122987729]] | ''[[:d:Q122987729|subdivision of Manipur]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7631016|subdivision of India]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q105626471|subdistrict of India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q123009250|Q123009250]] | ''[[:d:Q123009250|community development block of Tamil Nadu]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2775236|community development block in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q123340192|Q123340192]] | ''[[:d:Q123340192|pobláu]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3257686|localitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q123553915|Q123553915]] | ''[[:d:Q123553915|part of National Government Park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q6972919|National Government Park]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q124022543|Q124022543]] | ''[[:d:Q124022543|Kotar]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q124098638|Q124098638]] | ''[[:d:Q124098638|Roman Catholic ecclesiastical province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q625160|ecclesiastical province]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q23955632|Catholic organization]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118905629|type of Roman Catholic institution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q124466626|Q124466626]] | ''[[:d:Q124466626|Gokusho Urban Landscape Formation District]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q676050|old town]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2221906|geographic location]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q124474738|Q124474738]] | ''[[:d:Q124474738|Jōtenji-dōri Urban Landscape Formation District]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2221906|geographic location]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q124669069|Q124669069]] | ''[[:d:Q124669069|division of Madhya Pradesh]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1761350|Q1761350]] | ''[[:d:Q1761350|sum]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1761572|Q1761572]] | ''[[:d:Q1761572|barrio]]'' | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1764608|Q1764608]] | ''[[:d:Q1764608|muhafazah]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1798622|governorate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1771656|Q1771656]] | ''[[:d:Q1771656|mintaqa]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1780506|Q1780506]] | ''[[:d:Q1780506|commune of Benin]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3502443|administrative territorial entity of Benin]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1782540|Q1782540]] | ''[[:d:Q1782540|railway town]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1787683|Q1787683]] | ''[[:d:Q1787683|Kreishauptmannschaft]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1790016|Q1790016]] | ''[[:d:Q1790016|protected area of Colombia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1798622|Q1798622]] | ''[[:d:Q1798622|governorate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1839674|Q1839674]] | ''[[:d:Q1839674|lands inhabited by indigenous peoples]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1887569|Q1887569]] | ''[[:d:Q1887569|shōen]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2478141|aristocrate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q178706|institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2116450|manor estate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1850442|administrative territorial entity of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1990968|Q1990968]] | ''[[:d:Q1990968|Divisional Secretariat of Sri Lanka]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15313532|administrative territorial entity of Sri Lanka]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q859482|secretariat]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357920|third-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2023000|Q2023000]] | ''[[:d:Q2023000|khutor]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q72030539|farmstead]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2029182|Q2029182]] | ''[[:d:Q2029182|province of a religious order]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1435020|General Curia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q124098638|Roman Catholic ecclesiastical province]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121144515|type of religious institution]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q104098715|territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2029618|Q2029618]] | ''[[:d:Q2029618|markaz]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1306755|centro administrative]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2034632|Q2034632]] | ''[[:d:Q2034632|starostwo]]'' | ''[[:d:Q64606162|administrative territorial entity of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2083380|Q2083380]] | ''[[:d:Q2083380|parish union]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51041800|religious administrative entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q111737478|Catholic ecclesiastical district]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q124964|coalition]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2113743|Q2113743]] | ''[[:d:Q2113743|magiri]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q75020334|administrative division of the Ryukyu Kingdom]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1850442|administrative territorial entity of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2139516|Q2139516]] | ''[[:d:Q2139516|riksintresse (Sweden)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q96211395|heritage site in Sweden]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2177636|Q2177636]] | ''[[:d:Q2177636|municipality of Denmark]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11618279|LAU 1]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3976655|administrative territorial entity of Denmark]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3266850|commune]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10541491|legal form]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2225692|Q2225692]] | ''[[:d:Q2225692|fourth-level administrative division in Indonesia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1434505|administrative territorial entity of Indonesia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14757767|fourth-level administrative division]]''<br/>[[village]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2246189|Q2246189]] | ''[[:d:Q2246189|justiciarate]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2298529|Q2298529]] | ''[[:d:Q2298529|corregimiento]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17147964|administrative territorial entity of the Spanish Empire]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2311958|Q2311958]] | [[canton]] | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | unitate administrative in varie paises |- | [[:d:Q2330190|Q2330190]] | ''[[:d:Q2330190|subprefecture in Hokkaidō]]'' | ''[[:d:Q850450|subprefecture of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2349866|Q2349866]] | ''[[:d:Q2349866|Stimmkreis]]'' | ''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2385925|Q2385925]] | ''[[:d:Q2385925|presidencies and provinces in British India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15646492|administrative territorial entity of British India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2401504|Q2401504]] | ''[[:d:Q2401504|darugha]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2460358|Q2460358]] | ''[[:d:Q2460358|municipality of Turkey]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2916486|administrative territorial entity type of Turkey]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2500304|Q2500304]] | ''[[:d:Q2500304|electoral division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3356092|administrative territorial entity of Ireland]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2513212|Q2513212]] | ''[[:d:Q2513212|županija]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2514025|Q2514025]] | ''[[:d:Q2514025|posyolok]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2543447|Q2543447]] | ''[[:d:Q2543447|region of Nunavut]]'' | ''[[:d:Q12357832|division administrative del secunde nivello]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1414991|area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | lista de un projecto de Wikimedia |- | [[:d:Q2576151|Q2576151]] | ''[[:d:Q2576151|daïra]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2577883|Q2577883]] | ''[[:d:Q2577883|occupied territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123614767|occupied location]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2615343|Q2615343]] | ''[[:d:Q2615343|region]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3455524|region administrative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2631496|Q2631496]] | ''[[:d:Q2631496|constituency of the European Parliament]]'' | ''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2695008|Q2695008]] | ''[[:d:Q2695008|administrative territorial entity of Luxembourg]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2706826|Q2706826]] | ''[[:d:Q2706826|sheikhdom]]'' | [[Principato]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1307214|forma de governamento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2738486|Q2738486]] | ''[[:d:Q2738486|krai]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2880091|Q2880091]] | ''[[:d:Q2880091|bayrak]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2135465|legal term or legal concept]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2885819|Q2885819]] | ''[[:d:Q2885819|ledanía]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2944629|Q2944629]] | ''[[:d:Q2944629|Arrotxapea]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2944644|Q2944644]] | ''[[:d:Q2944644|Ezcaba]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2944651|Q2944651]] | ''[[:d:Q2944651|Buztintxuri]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2944737|Q2944737]] | ''[[:d:Q2944737|Iturrama]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2991489|Q2991489]] | ''[[:d:Q2991489|county palatine]]'' | ''[[:d:Q28575|county]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q353344|countship]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3012073|Q3012073]] | ''[[:d:Q3012073|daikansho]]'' | ''[[:d:Q481289|residentia official]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19953632|former administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3015636|Q3015636]] | ''[[:d:Q3015636|Txantrea]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3025553|Q3025553]] | ''[[:d:Q3025553|Diputación Foral de Navarra]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q3044930|provincial deputation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3183364|Q3183364]] | ''[[:d:Q3183364|entitate territorial administrative de Espania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3187075|Q3187075]] | ''[[:d:Q3187075|aimag]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3252884|Q3252884]] | ''[[:d:Q3252884|Gau]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3266850|Q3266850]] | ''[[:d:Q3266850|commune]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2221906|geographic location]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3268571|Q3268571]] | ''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3327874|Q3327874]] | ''[[:d:Q3327874|rural municipality of Canada]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3788231|municipal government in Canada]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3750285|administrative territorial entity of Canada]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17457753|census subdivision in Canada]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15284|municipalitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3333989|Q3333989]] | ''[[:d:Q3333989|minor local entity of Spain]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10854310|administrative territorial entity below municipality in Spain]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14757767|fourth-level administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3360771|Q3360771]] | ''[[:d:Q3360771|administrative territorial entity of Cameroon]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3373237|Q3373237]] | ''[[:d:Q3373237|payam]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15623929|administrative territorial entity of South Sudan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3434769|Q3434769]] | ''[[:d:Q3434769|macroregion]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q137022846|type of region]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3455524|Q3455524]] | ''[[:d:Q3455524|region administrative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q18810687|political institution]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q137022846|type of region]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1969448|term]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3477348|Q3477348]] | ''[[:d:Q3477348|urban area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15642541|human-geographic territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3491994|Q3491994]] | ''[[:d:Q3491994|subdistrict]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3518810|Q3518810]] | ''[[:d:Q3518810|unorganized area of Canada]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3750285|administrative territorial entity of Canada]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17457753|census subdivision in Canada]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q269528|unincorporated area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3532042|Q3532042]] | ''[[:d:Q3532042|block]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3642453|Q3642453]] | ''[[:d:Q3642453|Borgate officielles de Rome]]'' | ''[[:d:Q702492|area urban]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3677901|Q3677901]] | ''[[:d:Q3677901|circunscripción]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q21286738|Wikimedia permanent duplicate item]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3689003|Q3689003]] | ''[[:d:Q3689003|contrada]]'' | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3772949|Q3772949]] | ''[[:d:Q3772949|subah]]'' | [[provincia]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3818638|Q3818638]] | ''[[:d:Q3818638|mudiriyah]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3826458|Q3826458]] | ''[[:d:Q3826458|Lamidat]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43229|organisation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4008486|Q4008486]] | ''[[:d:Q4008486|Borgo Vanchiglia]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4024737|Q4024737]] | ''[[:d:Q4024737|pastoral zone]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20926517|religious administrative territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4129217|Q4129217]] | ''[[:d:Q4129217|vyselok]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10354598|rural settlement]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4165160|Q4165160]] | ''[[:d:Q4165160|ドーリャ]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4208486|Q4208486]] | ''[[:d:Q4208486|qadiyat]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4313916|Q4313916]] | ''[[:d:Q4313916|Nasleg]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4204491|administrative territorial entity of the Soviet Union]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1192440|history of the administrative division of Russia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1376945|Administrative divisions of the Sakha Republic]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4315043|Q4315043]] | ''[[:d:Q4315043|district national]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3268571|administrative territorial entity of a single country]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1427085|okrug]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4332636|Q4332636]] | ''[[:d:Q4332636|Кас]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4377540|Q4377540]] | ''[[:d:Q4377540|praetorian prefecture]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15644911|administrative territorial entity of the Roman Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4388751|Q4388751]] | ''[[:d:Q4388751|razryad]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4393587|Q4393587]] | ''[[:d:Q4393587|republic]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4425709|Q4425709]] | ''[[:d:Q4425709|sō]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4174776|village of Japan]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4456179|Q4456179]] | ''[[:d:Q4456179|territorial unit with special status of Moscow]]'' | ''[[:d:Q462667|administrative territorial entity of Moscow]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4535144|Q4535144]] | ''[[:d:Q4535144|yurt]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4691989|Q4691989]] | ''[[:d:Q4691989|agency]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4856913|Q4856913]] | ''[[:d:Q4856913|banner]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4897108|Q4897108]] | ''[[:d:Q4897108|partida]]'' | ''[[:d:Q175185|rural area]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4899885|Q4899885]] | ''[[:d:Q4899885|beylerbeylik]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1993723|administrative territorial entity of the Ottoman Empire]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | |- | [[:d:Q4976993|Q4976993]] | ''[[:d:Q4976993|parish]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5121385|Q5121385]] | ''[[:d:Q5121385|circle]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5144960|Q5144960]] | ''[[:d:Q5144960|microregion]]'' | [[region]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5148433|Q5148433]] | ''[[:d:Q5148433|Mexico City colonia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5148198|colonia of Mexico]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5154611|Q5154611]] | ''[[:d:Q5154611|community]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5195043|Q5195043]] | ''[[:d:Q5195043|borough]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5284423|Q5284423]] | ''[[:d:Q5284423|division]]'' | [[entitate territorial administrative]] | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5284624|Q5284624]] | ''[[:d:Q5284624|division of West Bengal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1230708|division in India]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5434436|Q5434436]] | ''[[:d:Q5434436|fanzhen]]'' | ''[[:d:Q10922837|administrative territorial entity of the Tang dynasty]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1197588|military government]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5473816|Q5473816]] | ''[[:d:Q5473816|Crown land]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19832712|historical administrative division]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5571369|Q5571369]] | ''[[:d:Q5571369|quarter of a city in Italy]]'' | ''[[:d:Q123705|vicinitate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2824645|divisiones administrative de Italia]]'' | ''[[:d:Q15617994|administrative territorial entity type]]'' | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 3xsk4if1yd36iz5aasfm0jiw5766g73 0 40570 698285 698133 2026-08-04T03:14:32Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 698285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P580 ?dtstart . ?item wdt:P582 ?dtend . FILTER (?dtstart < "1942-04-01T00:00:00Z"^^xsd:dateTime) FILTER (?dtstart > "1942-03-01T00:00:00Z"^^xsd:dateTime) } |wdq= |columns=item,P580,P582,label,P31,description |sort=P580 |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! data de initio ! data de fin ! label ! instantia de ! description |- | [[:d:Q425954|Q425954]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-07 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-17 | ''[[:d:Q425954|South American Basketball Championship 1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2454570|South American Basketball Championship]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q27020041|sports season]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q757871|Q757871]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-10 | ''[[:d:Q757871|Indian Ocean raid]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1261499|naval battle]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1361210|Q1361210]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-01 | ''[[:d:Q1361210|Battle of Christmas Island]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q2996456|Q2996456]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-27 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-28<ref name="ref_0fc91d8e7afdd1d8c1cb34227f020d50d552bcbf8f914b7df1f2727538372bf2">https://deportation.yadvashem.org/index.html?language=en&itemId=5092580</ref> | ''[[:d:Q2996456|Transport 1 from Drancy to Auschwitz Birkenau on 27/03/1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q3354645|Q3354645]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-26 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-06 | ''[[:d:Q3354645|Operation Bamberg]]'' | ''[[:d:Q582956|punitive expedition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q645883|military operation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3636629|Q3636629]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-26 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-02 | ''[[:d:Q3636629|Battle of Suursaari]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q4871936|Q4871936]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-20 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-23 | ''[[:d:Q4871936|Battle of Oktwin]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q4872484|Q4872484]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-18 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-19 | ''[[:d:Q4872484|Battle of Tachiao]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q5301756|Q5301756]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-11 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-21 | ''[[:d:Q5301756|Douglas MacArthur's escape from the Philippines]]'' | ''[[:d:Q12373086|escape]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q61509|travel]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5935403|Q5935403]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-29 | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-05-17 | ''[[:d:Q5935403|Hukbalahap Rebellion]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29502|proletarian revolution]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7210018|Q7210018]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-24 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-09 | ''[[:d:Q7210018|evacuation of Polish people from the USSR in World War II]]'' | ''[[:d:Q606332|evacuation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q7688704|Q7688704]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-07 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-08 | ''[[:d:Q7688704|Taukkyan Roadblock]]'' | ''[[:d:Q180684|conflict]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q15852167|Q15852167]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-03 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-06 | ''[[:d:Q15852167|Unternehmen Anton I]]'' | ''[[:d:Q645883|military operation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q582956|punitive expedition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16822683|Q16822683]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-30 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-02 | ''[[:d:Q16822683|Battle of Prome]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q56313247|Q56313247]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-06 | ''[[:d:Q56313247|Danish Chess Championship 1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3775620|Danish Chess Championship]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q76356442|Q76356442]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-11<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref><ref name="ref_f6f9068b9ee774619c1ad6596ed2df4039beae49b819774990b1750dd875195c">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-transportu-z-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-13<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356442|Transport von Ghetto Theresienstadt nach Ghetto Izbica am 11.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356446|Q76356446]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-17<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref><ref name="ref_f6f9068b9ee774619c1ad6596ed2df4039beae49b819774990b1750dd875195c">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-transportu-z-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-19<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356446|Transport von Ghetto Theresienstadt nach Ghetto Izbica am 17.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356451|Q76356451]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-22<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-25<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356451|Transport von Koblenz nach Ghetto Izbica am 22.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356458|Q76356458]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-24<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-27<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356458|Transport von Nürnberg nach Ghetto Izbica am 24.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356465|Q76356465]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-28<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-30<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356465|11th transport from Berlin to Trawniki on March 28, 1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478939|Q79478939]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-09<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-22<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478939|Emilie S. Weinberg]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478943|Q79478943]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-10<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478943|100 Print Traveling Salon of the Photographic Society of America]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478945|Q79478945]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-12<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-26<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478945|Group from the Carnegie Institute's Directions in American Painting]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478949|Q79478949]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-15<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-29<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478949|Fantastic War Machines and Guerragraphs]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478953|Q79478953]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-17<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-29<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478953|Red Cross Posters]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478956|Q79478956]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-23<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-05<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478956|Allela Cornell]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478960|Q79478960]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-12<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478960|Designs for Children]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478964|Q79478964]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-14<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478964|Richard Guy Walton]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478967|Q79478967]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-12<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478967|Three Artists from Cuba]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q80944833|Q80944833]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-23 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-26 | ''[[:d:Q80944833|Transport vom KZ Ravensbrück in das KZ Auschwitz am 23.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q83834887|Q83834887]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-05 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-07 | ''[[:d:Q83834887|Battle of Tjiater Pass]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q85761082|Q85761082]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-25 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-26 | ''[[:d:Q85761082|First mass transport of Jews to Auschwitz concentration camp]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q100530480|Q100530480]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-19 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-19<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100530480|Transport von Brünn in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 19.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q100530599|Q100530599]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-21 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-21<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100530599|Transport von Prag in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 21.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102148936|Q102148936]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-21 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-25 | ''[[:d:Q102148936|Transport von Darmstadt nach Piaski am 21.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q102149117|Q102149117]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-23 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-23<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q102149117|Transport von Brünn in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 23.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102149631|Q102149631]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-26 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-26<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q102149631|Transport von Prag in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 26.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102151135|Q102151135]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-28 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-28<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q102151135|Transport von Prag in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 28.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102151404|Q102151404]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-29 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-29<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q102151404|Transport von Brünn in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 29.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q102152451|Q102152451]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q102152451|Transport Af of Jews from Brno to Terezin (March 31, 1942)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055172|Q104055172]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-18 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-18<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055172|Transport Ez-St 05]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104244970|Q104244970]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-02 | ''[[:d:Q104244970|Transport von Gelsenkirchen über Münster und Hannover nach Warschau am 31.03.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q104632766|Q104632766]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-28 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-22 | ''[[:d:Q104632766|Etsen A. Schotel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109467695|Q109467695]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-07<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-06<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q109467695|Ossian Elgströms målningssviter Eddan och Ragnarök]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109467696|Q109467696]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-10<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-08<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q109467696|Spetsar - gamla och nya, utländska och svenska]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109467697|Q109467697]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-21<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-19<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q109467697|Arkitekturritningar, planer och teckningar ur Carl Johan Cronstedts Fullerösamling]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109467698|Q109467698]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-26<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-12<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q109467698|Finlands konst till förmån för Norges konstnärer]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890685|Q110890685]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-03 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-05 | ''[[:d:Q110890685|Photographs of the Civil War and the American Frontier]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890686|Q110890686]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-11 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-10 | ''[[:d:Q110890686|Children's Festival of Modern Art]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890687|Q110890687]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-13 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-25 | ''[[:d:Q110890687|Art in War: OEM Purchases from a National Competition]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890688|Q110890688]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-18 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-03 | ''[[:d:Q110890688|Henri Rousseau]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890689|Q110890689]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-25 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-03 | ''[[:d:Q110890689|New Acquisitions and Extended Loans: Cubist and Abstract Art]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q111943202|Q111943202]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-08 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-12 | ''[[:d:Q111943202|1942 World Professional Basketball Tournament]]'' | | |- | [[:d:Q126046681|Q126046681]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-18<br/>1942-03-17 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-17<br/>1942-04-16 | ''[[:d:Q126046681|Rabi' al-Awwal 1361 AH]]'' | ''[[:d:Q125390868|hijri month of a given year]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q133041164|Q133041164]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-18 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-12 | ''[[:d:Q133041164|Jan Voerman 1857-1941]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q133827996|Q133827996]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-03 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-28 | ''[[:d:Q133827996|Artists in Exile]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]'' | |} {{Wikidata list end}} dudki1fel6lhdwlbqzsnvm0dmmiqc1q 0 40648 698276 639594 2026-08-04T00:13:19Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/biota}} Le '''cattos'''{{linfo}} es le membros de un [[genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] (''Felis'') de [[felinos]] a dimension minor o medie. Lor habitat original comprehende le major parte de [[Africa]] e le area al sud de 60° de [[latitude]] in [[Europa]] e [[Asia]] verso [[Indochina]].<ref name=Pocock1951>{{cite book |author=Pocock, R. I. |year=1951 |title= Catalogue of the genus ''Felis'' |publisher=British Museum (Natural History) |location= London}}</ref> Le resultatos de studios genetic ha indicate que ''Felis'', ''[[Otocolobus]]'' e ''[[Prionailurus]]'' divergeva ab un progenitor eurasiatic circa 6.2 milliones de annos retro, e que le species de ''Felis'' se separava 3,04 a 0,99 milliones de annos retro.<ref name="Johnson">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1122277 |volume=311 |issue=5757 |pages=73–77 |title=The Late Miocene Radiation of Modern Felidae: A Genetic Assessment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-01-06_311_5757/page/73 |journal=Science |year=2006 |pmid=16400146 |last=Johnson |first=W. E. |last2=Eizirik |first2=E. |last3=Pecon-Slattery |first3=J. |last4=Murphy |first4=W. J. |last5=Antunes |first5=A. |last6=Teeling |first6=E. |last7=O'Brien |first7=S. J. |bibcode = 2006Sci...311...73J }}</ref><ref name=Pecon-Slattery>{{cite journal |author1=Pecon-Slattery, J. |author2=O'Brien, S. J. | year = 1998 | title = Patterns of Y and X chromosome DNA sequence divergence during the Felidae radiation | journal = Genetics | volume = 148 | issue = 3 | url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/148/3/1245 | pages = 1245–1255 | pmid = 9539439 | pmc = 1460026}}</ref> Iste genere include etiam le [[catto domestic]]. Le specie le plus micre de ''Felis'' es le [[catto a pedes nigre]] con un longitude de capite e corpore de 38 a 42 cm. Le plus grande es le [[chaus]] con un longitude de capite e corpore de 62 a 76 cm.<ref name=Pocock1951/> Le species de ''Felis'' habita un grande varietate de areas, de [[palude]]s a [[deserto]]s, e generalmente chassa [[rodente]]s, [[ave]]s e altere parve animales, dependente de lor ambiente local. ==Classification== ===Rango taxonomic=== * genere ===Supertaxones=== * classe [[Mammalia]] * ordine [[Carnivora]] * familia [[Felidae]] ===Subtaxones=== * specie [[Felis silvestris]] ** subspecie [[Felis silvestris catus]] * specie [[Felis margarita]] * specie [[Felis chaus]] * specie [[Felis nigripes]] == Referentias == <references/> {{Traduction a completar|en|Felis|780745139}} [[Categoria:Felidae]] qwspyl0wvxuz1jvs60mm0v6pbzt0dyj 0 40996 698264 663030 2026-08-03T23:58:37Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698264 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = ''Tullimonstrum'' | fossil_range = [[Pennsylvanian (geology)|Pennsylvanian]]<br>(del [[Moscovian (Carboniferous)|Moscovian]] al [[Kasimovian]])<br> {{fossil range|311|306}} | image = Tullimonstrum gregarium 4334.JPG | image_upright = 1.2 | image_caption = Specimen de<br>''Tullimonstrum gregarium'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | subregnum = [[Eumetazoa]] | infraregnum = [[Bilateria]] | phylum = ''non definite'' | taxon = ''Tullimonstrum'' | taxon_rank = [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|Genere]] | authority = Richardson, 1966 | binomial = ''Tullimonstrum gregarium'' | binomial_authority = Richardson, 1966 }} [[File:Tullimonstrum gregarium 343.JPG|thumb|''T. gregarium'' fossile (parte e contreparte)]] '''''Tullimonstrum ''''', anque appellate "'''monstro de Tully'''", es un [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] extincte de [[animal]] [[bilateria]]n de {{Ill|en|corpore molle|Soft-bodied organism}} que viveva durante le {{Ill|en|Pennsylvanian}}, antea circa 300 milliones de annos. '''''T. gregarium''''' es le unic [[specie]] cognite del genere. Su morphologia atypic non permitte un [[Classification biologic|classification]] precise. Solmente se pote decir que es non-[[Vertebrata|vertebrate]] (potentialmente [[Chordata|chordate]] o [[Protostomia|protostomate]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mikami |first=Tomoyuki |last2=Ikeda |first2=Takafumi |last3=Muramiya |first3=Yusuke |last4=Hirasawa |first4=Tatsuya |last5=Iwasaki |first5=Wataru |date=2023 |editor-last=Cherns |editor-first=Lesley |title=Three‐dimensional anatomy of the Tully monster casts doubt on its presumed vertebrate affinities |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.12646 |journal=Palaeontology |language=en |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=e12646 |doi=10.1111/pala.12646 |issn=0031-0239}}</ref> == Description == Le animal es longe de 8 ad 35 centimetros.<ref name="Johnson1969">{{cite journal |url=https://archive.org/details/pennsylvanianinv128john |title=Pennsylvanian Invertebrates of the Mazon Creek Area, Illinois: The Morphology and Affinities of ''Tullimonstrum'' |journal=[[Fieldiana|Fieldiana Geology]] |first1=Ralph Gordon |last1=Johnson |first2=Eugene Stanley |last2=Richardson, Jr. |name-list-style=amp |volume=12 |issue=8 |date=March 24, 1969 |pages=119–149 |oclc=86328}}</ref> Iste creature ha un corpore in forma de [[cigarro]], con un par de [[pinna]]s [[cauda]]l (evocante {{Ill|en|Calmar|Squid|calmares}}), duo [[oculo]]s al extremitate de longe {{Ill|en|Pedunculo ocular|Eyestalk|pedunculos}} super la parte avante del corpore e un longe {{Ill|it|proboscide}} se terminante per un [[bucca]] con usque octo parve "[[dente]]s" acute de cata latere. Illo pare esser un [[predation|predator]] [[Natation|nectonic]]. Le absentia de parte {{Ill|en|Duritate|Hardness|dur}} in le fossiles indica que le animal non possede de [[osso]] o [[armatura]] de {{Ill|it|chitina}} o {{Ill|es|carbonato de calcio}}.<ref name="Johnson1969" /> <!--There is evidence of serially repeated internal structures.[1] Its head is poorly differentiated.[1] A transverse bar-shaped structure, which was either dorsal or ventral, terminates in two round organs[1][2] which are associated with dark material which have been identified as melanosomes (containing the pigment melanin).[3] Their form and structure is suggestive of a camera-type eye.[1][3] Tullimonstrum possessed structures which have been interpreted as gills, and a possible notochord or rudimentary spinal cord.[4][5] --> == Discoperta == Le [[fossile]] essava trovate in 1955 per [[Francis Tully]] intra pilas de [[schisto]] e de [[carbon]] in le {{Ill|en|formation de Mazon Creek|Mazon Creek fossil beds}} in [[Illinois]].<ref>https://fr.findagrave.com/memorial/106545953/francis-tully</ref> La formation de {{Ill|en|siderite}} permitteva la preservation de multe [[animal]]es o [[planta]]s cadite in le [[fango]] del sitio. In 1989, ''Tullimonstrum gregarium'' deveniva 'Fossile official des Stato del Illinois' (''State fossil of Illinois'', in anglese). == Etymologia == Le genere es nominate depost su inventor F. Tully<ref name="Johnson1969" /> e es definite como un "[[monstro]]" a causa de su apparentia peculiar. Le specie es qualificate de 'gregari' debite a su abundantia.<ref name="geobit5">{{cite journal |url=http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/geobits/geobit5.pdf |title=Illinois' State Fossil—''Tullimonstrum gregarium'' |journal=Geobit |first1=Donald G. |last1=Mikulic |first2=Joanne |last2=Kluessendorf |name-list-style=amp |volume=5 |year=1997 |oclc=38563956 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222053021/http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/geobits/geobit5.pdf |archive-date=February 22, 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222053021/http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/geobits/geobit5.pdf |date=February 22, 2014 }}</ref> == Publication original == * {{cite journal |title=Wormlike Fossil from the Pennsylvanian of Illinois |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1966-01-07_151_3706/page/75 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |first=Eugene Stanley |last=Richardson, Jr. |volume=151 |issue=3706 |pages=75–76 |date=January 7, 1966 |doi=10.1126/science.151.3706.75-a |bibcode=1966Sci...151...75R |pmid=17842092 |s2cid=40136008}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Taxon fossile de bilaterian]] [[Categoria:Generes de bilaterian prehistoric]] tb1po12t02q4qrso6ivbdt6z0x78vpp 0 41253 698227 579313 2026-08-03T23:04:27Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698227 wikitext text/x-wiki Le '''effecto Dunning–Kruger''' es un [[preoccupation cognitive]] in le qual personas suffre de un [[superioritate illusori]], evalutante lor competentia in error como multo plus alte que illo realmente es. Le psychologos [[David Dunning]] e [[Jared Kruger]] attribue iste preoccupation a un incapacitate [[metacognition|metacognitive]] in homines de competentia basse pro recognoscer su ineptitude e correctemente evalutar su competentia. Lor recerca etiam suggere [[corollario]]s: personas de capacitate alte pote subestimar su competentia e pote assumer in error que le cargas facile pro illes son facile etiam pro alteres.<ref name="Kruger">{{Cite journal|title=Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One's Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1999-12_77_6/page/1121 |first=Justin |last=Kruger |first2=David |last2=Dunning |journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=1121–34 |year=1999 |pmid=10626367 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121 |citeseerx=10.1.1.64.2655 }}</ref> Dunning e Kruger ha postulate que iste effecto es le resultate de un illusion internal in personas de habilitate basse, ma un misperception external in personas de habilitate alte: "Le miscalibration del personas incompetente se deriva de un error que illes face super se mesme, ma le miscalibration del personas multo competente se deriva de un error que illes face super altere personas."<ref name="Kruger"/> ==Referentias== <references/> [[Categoria:Psychologia]] bseer5eodajoxhm0n7jbvz4c4cb7ex6 0 42215 698228 658643 2026-08-03T23:05:45Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698228 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Richard Bright, "Reports of medical cases" Wellcome L0013468.jpg|thumb|Un [[Ren (organo)|ren]] con [[inflamation]], id es [[nephrite]], e un san ren ex libro ''Reports of Medical Cases'' Longman, London (1827–1831) ab Richard Bright.]] Le '''maladia de Bright''' es un classification historic del [[morbo]] [[Ren (organo)|renal]] que es appellate hodie [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] o [[chronic]] [[nephrite]]. Le [[symptoma]] principal es le presentia de [[albumina]] in le [[urina]] e frequentemente accompaniate con [[edema]] e [[hypertension]]. Le termino es foras de uso e nunc su causas es melio cognoscite.<ref name="pmid4562073">{{cite journal |author=Cameron JS |title=Bright's disease today: the pathogenesis and treatment of glomerulonephritis--I |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=4 |issue=5832 |pages=87–90 contd |date=1972 |pmid=4562073 |pmc=1786202 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.4.5832.87|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-journal_1972-10-14_4_5832/page/n40}}</ref> == Referentias == {{reflist}} [[Category:Morbo renal]] 2xri4sq4i9w39zvczbqu27fea0vwy64 0 42833 698191 672851 2026-08-03T21:57:51Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698191 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Descartes-reflex.JPG|thumb|right|Illustration de como le [[dolor]] se move al cerebro, del ''tractato del Homine per [[René Descartes]]]] Le '''systema nervose''' es un [[systema]] in le [[corpore (anatomia)|corpore]] que invia signales circa le corpore. Illo lassa gente e animales responder a lo que es circa illos. Le ''[[systema nervose central]]'' es le [[cerebro]] e le [[medulla spinal]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/organization/ |title=Organization of the Nervous System |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date= |website=Cancer.gov |publisher=National Cancer Institute |accessdate=January 20, 2016 |quote=}}</ref> Illo existe in le majoritate del [[animal]]es pro coordinar le movimento e processar le entrata del sensos e face que le animal age in un certe maniera.<ref name=KandelCh17>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 17: The anatomical organization of the central nervous system |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref> Se compone de [[neuron]]es e cellulas appellate [[glia]] inter alia. Le [[Cellula glial|cellulas glial]] conserva le neurones san e salve.<ref name=Allen2009>{{Cite journal|author=Allen NJ, Barres BA |title=Neuroscience: Glia - more than just brain glue |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-02-05_457_7230/page/675 |journal=Nature |volume=457 |pages=675–7 |year=2009 |pmid=19194443 |doi=10.1038/457675a |issue=7230}}</ref> Le structura del systema nervose human include le [[cerebro]] e le [[medulla spinal|medulla]], que simul es appellate le ''systema nervose central.''<ref name=KandelCh17 /> Le cerebro ha [[milliardo]]s de cellulas nervose pro adjutar a pensar, ambular, e spirar.<ref name=KandelCh2>{{Cite book| editors= Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| chapter=Ch. 2: Nerve cells and behavior |title = Principles of Neural Science| year = 2000| publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1}}</ref> Le systema nervose pote reager in 1/100 secunda a un [[stimulo]], como un signal de [[dolor]].<ref name=KandelCh2 /> In [[Vertebrata|vertebratos]], le anatomia de systemas nervose pote esser subdividite como le sequente:<ref name=KandelCh17 /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/organization/pns.html |title=The Peripheral Nervous System |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date= |website=Cancer.gov |publisher=National Cancer Institute |accessdate=January 20, 2016 |quote=}}</ref> *[[Systema nervose central]] **[[Cerebro]] **[[Medulla spinal]] *[[Systema nervose peripheric]] **[[Systema nervose autonome]] ***[[Systema nervose sympathic]] ***[[Systema nervose parasympathic]] **[[Systema nervose somatic]] == Referentias == {{Commonscat|Nervous system}} <references /> {{traduction|simple|Nervous system|6549669}} [[Categoria:Systema nervose| ]] ajqvtp0mdxhqee85o3j1agfaopbrc2x 0 42969 698204 665818 2026-08-03T22:34:20Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698204 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} {{Taxobox | name = ''Orthoebolavirus zairense'' | image = Ebola Virus - Electron Micrograph.tiff | image_alt = | image_caption = Electron micrographia (magnificate 20'000x) de ''O. zairense'' (verde), al vice como extracellular e gemmante particulas, sur un ren cellula (blau) de ''[[Chlorocebus sabaeus]]''. | domain = [[Riboviria]] | regnum = [[Orthornavirae]] | phylum = [[Negarnaviricota]] | subphylum = [[Haploviricotina]] | classis = [[Monjiviricetes]] | ordo= [[Mononegavirales]] | familia = [[Filoviridae]] | genus = ''[[Orthoebolavirus]]'' | binomial = ''Orthoebolavirus zairense'' | binomial_authority = [[ICTV]], 2022 | subdivision_ranks = | subdivision_ref = | subdivision = | synonyms = *''Zaire ebolavirus'' <small>ICTV, 2002</small> * ''Ebola virus Zaire'' <small>ICTV, 1995</small> }} '''''Orthoebolavirus zairense''''' ex '''virus Ebola''' es un [[specie]] de [[virus]] periculose. Ille pertine al familia [[Filoviridae]] e es responsabile de sever morbo characterisate per subito initio de febre hemorrhagic accompaniate per altere signos e symptomas non specific. "Hemorrhagic" significa que le victima sanguina copia, intra e extra su corpore. Le [[virus]] affecta quasi tote [[organo]]s e [[texito]]s del corpore human resultante in dysfunction de plure organos. Illo es trovate in [[Africa]], con multe poc casos in [[Europa]] o [[Statos Unite de America]]. Secundo le [[Organisation Mundial del Sanitate]]:<ref name=WHO2023 /> le rata de mortalitate es approximatemente 50% in general ma varia in differente [[epidemia]]s inter 25% e 90%. == Transmission == [[File:SAG Ebola.jpg|thumb|Un animation 3D de virus ebola.]] [[File:What you should know about Ebola.webm|thumb|Un video explanation simple de Ebola virus]] Se pensa que [[vespertilion]]es [[Fructo|fructivore]] del familia [[Pteropodidae]] son [[hospite]]s natural de ''Orthoebolavirus zairensis''. Human pote contaminar se per contact con [[sanguine]], secretiones, [[Organo (anatomia)|organos]] o altere fluidos biologic del animal infectate, como vespertiliones fructivore, [[chimpanze]]s, [[gorilla]]s, [[simia]]s, [[Cephalophini|foreste antilopas]] o [[Hystricidae|porcospino]]s trovate [[Maladia|malade]] o [[morte]] o in le [[Foreste pluvial tropical|foreste tropical]].<ref name=WHO2023>{{cite web|title=Ebola virus disease|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease|work=World Health Organization|date=2023-04-20}}</ref> ==Classification== Il ha sex species in le [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] ''[[Orthoebolavirus]]'' e tres de illos son associate con epidemias de febre hemorrhagic. Le prime vice que le virus ha apparite esseva in 1976 in duo epidemias simultanee, uno in le [[Republica Democratic del Congo]] in un village proxime al Riviera Ebola (del qual le nomine del virus veni) e le altere in un region que hodie es in le [[Sudan del Sud]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/19/2/12-0524_article|title=Ebola virus antibodies in fruit bats, Bangladesh|publisher=CDC|year=2013|journal=Emerging Infectious Disease|volume=19|issue=2|authors=Kevin J. Olival ''et al'' |doi=10.3201/eid1902.120524}}</ref> Le prime epidemia es causate per le specie le plus virulente ''O. zairensis'', le secunde per un specie proxime ''[[Orthoebolavirus sudanense]]''. ==Evolution== ''Orthoebolavirus zairense'' divergeva de su ancestores inter 1960 e 1976.<ref name=EVOL>{{Cite journal|author=Serena A. Carroll, Jonathan S. Towner, Tara K. Sealy, Laura K. McMullan, Marina L. Khristova, Felicity J. Burt, Robert Swanepoel, Pierre E. Rollin & Stuart T. Nichol |date=2013-03-01 |title=Molecular Evolution of Viruses of the Family Filoviridae Based on 97 Whole-Genome Sequences |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-virology_2013-03_87_5/page/2608 |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=2608–2616 |doi=10.1128/JVI.03118-12 |pmid=23255795|pmc=3571414}}</ref> Un evento de [[Recombination genetic|recombination]] inter differente cippos occurerea inter 1996 e 2001 in [[Homininae]]. Iste recombinant cippos serea responsibile de un serie de human epidemia in Central Africa in 2001–2003.<ref name = Wittmann2007>Wittmann TJ, Biek R, Hassanin A, Rouquet P, Reed P, Yaba P, Pourrut X, Real LA, Gonzalez JP, Leroy EM. "Isolates of Zaire ebolavirus from wild apes reveal genetic lineage and recombinants". ''Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A''. 2007 Oct 23;104(43):17123–17127. Epub 2007 Oct 17. "Erratum" in: ''Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A''. 2007 Dec 4;104(49):19656. {{PMID|17942693}}</ref> Le ''Makona'' variant de ''O. zairensis'' causeva le epidemia de 2014 in West Africa.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/history/chronology.html|title=Outbreaks Chronology: Ebola Virus Disease|work= Ebola Hemorrhagic Feve|date=2017-08-02|publisher=CDC|language=en-us|access-date=2017-11-11}}</ref> Durante iste epidemia, le evolution del cippos permitte un plus grande transmission interhuman. ==Principal epidemias== Le principal altere epidemias causate per ''O. zairense'' son: * 2013-2016: West Africa (25'500 patientes; 11'000 mortes) * 2018-2020: [[Republica Democratic del Congo|RDC]] e [[Uganda]] (3'470 / 2'280) * 2022: [[Guinea]] (23/12) == Reference == {{reflist}} {{traduction|simple|Ebola virus|6145323}} [[Categoria:Filoviridae]] [[Categoria:Epidemia]] [[Categoria:Febre hemorrhagic]] t8hdzij3js0clke5yy2jh97pezi5q5f 0 43061 698194 658702 2026-08-03T22:05:55Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698194 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Translation|Simple|Multiple Myeloma}} [[File:Plasmacytoma ultramini1.jpg|200px|right|Plasmacytoma]] '''Myeloma multiple''' o simplemente '''myeloma''' es un typo de [[cancere]] del [[cellula plasmic B|cellulas plasmic]], un typo de [[leucocyto]]s que normalment produci [[anticorpore]]s.<ref name="Raab2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Raab MS, Podar K, Breitkreutz I, Richardson PG, Anderson KC | title = Multiple myeloma | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_july-25-31-2009_374_9686/page/324 | journal = Lancet | volume = 374 | issue = 9686 | pages = 324–339 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19541364 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60221-X | s2cid = 12906881 }}</ref> Sovente, in le principio, se notifica nulle symptoma.<ref name="NIH2016Pt" /> Postea, [[dolor oss|dolor ossee]], [[anemia]], [[deficientia renal]] o [[infection]]s recurrente pote occurrer.<ref name="NIH2016Pt">{{cite web |title=Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma)—Patient Version |url=http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloma |website=NCI |access-date=8 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234102/http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloma |archive-date=27 July 2016 |date=1980-01-01}}</ref> [[Amyloidose]] pote esser un complication.<ref name="NIH2016Pro">{{cite web |title=Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version |url=http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloma/hp/myeloma-treatment-pdq |website=NCI |access-date=8 August 2016 |date=July 29, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704233112/http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloma/hp/myeloma-treatment-pdq |archive-date=4 July 2016}}</ref> Causas del multiple myeloma remane incognoscite.<ref name="WCR2014Cp513">{{cite book |title=World Cancer Report 2014 |date=2014 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-832-0429-9 |pages=Chapter 5.13}}</ref> Le factors de risco include [[obesitate]], exposition al [[radiation]]s, hereditate e alcun substantias chimic.<ref name="WCR2014Cp2">{{cite book |title=World Cancer Report 2014 |date=2014 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-832-0429-9 |pages=Chapter 2.3 and 2.6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment |url=https://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloma/patient/myeloma-treatment-pdq#section/all |website=National Cancer Institute |access-date=28 November 2017 |date=1980-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Ferri FF |title=Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2014 E-Book: 5 Books in 1 |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-323-08431-4 |page=726 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H63KViNwsdcC&pg=PA726}}</ref> Le risco es augmentate in alcun empleos.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal | vauthors = Georgakopoulou R, Fiste O, Sergentanis TN, Andrikopoulou A, Zagouri F, Gavriatopoulou M, Psaltopoulou T, Kastritis E, Terpos E, Dimopoulos MA | display-authors = 6 | title = Occupational Exposure and Multiple Myeloma Risk: An Updated Review of Meta-Analyses | journal = Journal of Clinical Medicine | volume = 10 | issue = 18 | pages = 4179 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34575290 | pmc = 8469366 | doi = 10.3390/jcm10184179 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Es debite al exposition al solventes aromatic que poterea causar myelomas multiple.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal | vauthors = De Roos AJ, Spinelli J, Brown EB, Atanackovic D, Baris D, Bernstein L, Bhatti P, Camp NJ, Chiu BC, Clavel J, Cozen W, De Sanjosé S, Dosman JA, Hofmann JN, McLaughlin JR, Miligi L, Monnereau A, Orsi L, Purdue MP, Schinasi LH, Tricot GJ, Wang SS, Zhang Y, Birmann BM, Cocco P | display-authors = 6 | title = Pooled study of occupational exposure to aromatic hydrocarbon solvents and risk of multiple myeloma | journal = Occupational and Environmental Medicine | volume = 75 | issue = 11 | pages = 798–806 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30121582 | pmc = 9386620 | doi = 10.1136/oemed-2018-105154 }}</ref> Se cura con [[chemotherapia]]. Un regimen de chemotherapia que se usa commun es le [[vincristina]], [[adriamycina]] e [[dexamethasona]]. Le [[thalidomida]], [[velcade]], [[melphalan]], [[prednisona]] e [[interferon]]es etiam es utilisate. == Nota == *[https://www.medicinenet.com/multiple_myeloma/article.htm Articulo ex sitio medicinenet.com] {{Pecietta|biologia|medicina}} [[Categoria:Cancere]] [[Categoria:Neoplasma hematologic]] exbic0yabv2yqenc9wvvx9a8m95veka 0 43087 698180 636134 2026-08-03T16:33:33Z UrielAcosta 31278 /* */ Formato 698180 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox}} '''Jabberwocky''' (o '''Jabbervochia''' in interlingua; vide le traduction infra) es un poema absurde per [[Lewis Carroll]] in su romance ''[[Alicia a Traverso del Speculo]]''. Le poema usa multe parolas de nonsenso que le autor ha create, alcunos del qual son parolas [[portmanteau]], un termino que Carroll mesme ha inventate in le romance. Le significantias de alcunos del neologismos absurde son explicate in le libro per le character [[Humpty Dumpty]]: pro exemplo ''brillig'' (o ''brillico'' in interlingua) es le hora de 4:00 in le postmeridie; un ''wabe'' (''guabe'' in interlingua) es le area de herba circum un quadrante solar; e ''gyre'' (''gyrar'') es rotar como un gyroscopio. Infra es le poema traducite ab anglese a interlingua, sequite per alcun notas del traductor. {{Quote|'''JABBERVOCHIA''' Al brillico, le visctive tovos<br /> Gyrava e gimblava in le guabe;<br /> E migile era le borogovos,<br /> E le mome rathos exgrabe.<br /> "Mi filio, contra le Jabbervoc guarda,<br /> Cuje dentes morde e ungulas trappa!<br /> E contra le ave Jubjub, e alsi<br /> Le frumiose Bandersnappa!<br /> Ille iva, spada vorpal in le mano:<br /> Longemente le inimico manxe cercar-<br /> Tum restava al Tumtum-arbore,<br /> E stava longemente, in pensar.<br /> Dum in pensamento uffic ille stava,<br /> Le Jabbervoc, con oculos flammante,<br /> Trans le bosco tulgide vifflava<br /> E veniva, burbulante!<br /> Un duo! Un duo! E trans e trans<br /> Le spada vorpal snicker-snacco sonava!<br /> Ille lassa lo morte e con le capite<br /> Al domo galomphava.<br /> "E ha tu occidite le Jabbervoc?<br /> Embracia me, puero radicose!<br /> O die frabjose! Callú! Callé!"<br /> Ille rincdeva, gaudiose.<br /> Al brillico, le visctive tovos<br /> Gyrava e gimblava in le guabe;<br />E migile era le borogovos,<br />E le mome rathes exgrabe.}} '''NOTAS''': * '''Bandersnatch''' / '''Bandersnappa''': in su poema ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'', Lewis Carroll ha scripte que isto es un bestia veloce e feroce que pote extender su collo. * '''chortle / rincder''': un caso obvie de un parola portmanteau, isto combina le parolas anglese ''chuckle'' ("risetto" o "rider un poc") con ''snort'' ("ronco" o "roncar"). Nonobstante que Carroll ha originalmente create lo como un parola ridicule, "chortle" deveniva un parola commun in anglese contemporari. * '''frumious''' / '''frumiose''': in le prefatio de ''The Hunting of the Snark'' Carroll ha scripte que iste portmanteau es un combination del parolas anglese ''furious'' ("furiose") e ''fuming'' ("fumante"). * '''galumph''' / '''galumphar''': le parola pare ser un portmanteau de ''gallop'' ("galopar") e ''triumph'' ("triumphar"). * '''gimble''' / '''gimblar''': Humpty Dumpty dice que iste parola significa "facer foraturas como un ''gimlet''." Un gimlet es le utensile que in interlingua es appellate un "forator." * '''mimsy / migile''': Humpty Dumpty dice que le parolas anglese ''miserable'' ("miserabile") e ''flimsy'' ("fragile") son combinate in le portmanteau ''mimsy''. * '''slithy / visctive''': un altere portmanteau. Humpty Dumpty explica que ''slithy'' combina le parolas anglese ''slimy'' ("viscose") e ''lithe'' e ille dice que "lithe" es un synonymo pro "active." De facto, ''lithe'' in anglese refere a personas o altere animales non solmente active ma agil e flexibile alsi. [[Categoria:Lewis Carroll]][[Categoria:Monster]] [[Categoria:Poesia in interlingua]] == Ligamines externe == * Wikisource ha le texto del poema in anglese: [[:wikisource:Jabberwocky|''Jabberwocky'']] bovwvvbi3ve9kspv2tiw28xakfjkyyd 0 43318 698261 690226 2026-08-03T23:49:15Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698261 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} [[Image:Sir William Richard Gowers Parkinson Disease sketch 1886.jpg|thumb|Un schizzo per ''Sir William Richard Gowers'' de persona affectate per le maladia de Parkinson.]] '''Maladia de Parkinson'''{{linfo}} es un [[degenerative disordine]] del [[systema nervose central]] affectante principalmente le [[systema motor]]. In paises industrialisate, su [[prevalentia]] es de 1% del personas de plus de 60 annos e de 4% del personas de plus de 80 annos.<ref name="pmid16713924">{{cite journal|author=de Lau LM, Breteler MM|title=Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease|journal=The Lancet. Neurology|volume=5|issue=6|pages=525–535|date=June 2006|pmid=16713924|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70471-9|s2cid=39310242}}</ref> ==Signos e symptomas== [[Symptoma]]s apparece gradualmente, generalmente post le etate de 50 annos: [[tremor]]es, rigiditate, [[Bradykinesia|lentor del movimentos]], difficultate pro ambular.<ref name=NIH2016>{{cite web |title=Parkinson's Disease Information Page |url= https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Parkinsons-Disease-Information-Page |website=NINDS |access-date=18 July 2016 |date=30 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="pmid15172778">{{cite journal | author = Samii A, Nutt JG, Ransom BR | title = Parkinson's disease | journal = Lancet | volume = 363 | issue = 9423 | pages = 1783–1793 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15172778 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16305-8 | s2cid = 35364322 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259791 }}</ref> Le persona affectate pote devenir [[paralysate]]. [[Hypersalivation]] e [[dysphagia]] (difficultate pro [[deglution|deglutir]]) es alsi signalate<ref>https://www.marieclaire.fr/maladie-de-parkinson-symptomes,1437569.asp</ref>. Nonmotor symptomas apparece con le pejoramento del morbo.<ref name=NIH2016/><ref name=Lancet2015 /> Istos include symptomas [[Olfaction|olfactive]], [[Cognition|cognitive]], [[Disordine del comportamento|comportamental]], de [[somno]] o [[systema sensorial|sensorial]].<ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name="Han2018">{{cite journal | author = Han JW, Ahn YD, Kim WS, Shin CM, Jeong SJ, Song YS, Bae YJ, Kim JM | display-authors = 6 | title = Psychiatric Manifestation in Patients with Parkinson's Disease | journal = Journal of Korean Medical Science | volume = 33 | issue = 47 | pages = e300 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30450025 | pmc = 6236081 | doi = 10.3346/jkms.2018.33.e300 }}</ref><ref name="Sv2016">{{cite journal|author=Sveinbjornsdottir S|date=October 2016|title=The clinical symptoms of Parkinson's disease|journal=Journal of Neurochemistry|volume=139 | issue = Suppl 1|pages=318–324|doi=10.1111/jnc.13691|pmid=27401947|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Dementia]] es commun in stadios avantiate del morbo. [[Hallucination]]es minor, como le sensation de haber alicuno detra se (hallucination de presentia), serea un symptoma predictive del declino cognitive.<ref>{{Cite web|language=fr|author=Alexandra Bresson| url=https://www.femina.fr/article/cette-sensation-desagreable-pourrait-etre-un-signe-avant-coureur-de-la-maladie-de-parkinson-alerte-une-etude |title=Cette sensation désagréable pourrait être un signe avant-coureur de la maladie de Parkinson, alerte une étude |date=2023-06-30|publisher=Version Femina}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author= Bernasconi, F., Pagonabarraga, J., Bejr-Kasem, H. et al. |date=2023-06-29 |title=Theta oscillations and minor hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease reveal decrease in frontal lobe functions and later cognitive decline |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s44220-023-00080-6 |journal=Nature Mental Health|language=en|doi=10.1038/s44220-023-00080-6}}</ref> [[Epilepsia]] e perdita auditive pote esser observate usque 10 annos ante le diagnose.<ref>{{Doi|10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.0003}}</ref> ==Diagnose== Le [[morbo]] es generalmente [[Diagnose|diagnosticate]] post le apparition del prime symptomas. Signos precursor pote esser le [[fatiga]]bilitate e la difficultates de concentration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archive copy |url=https://www.franceparkinson.fr/questionsreponses/signes-avant-coureurs-maladie/ |accessdate=2023-07-04 |archivedate=2023-07-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704075915/https://www.franceparkinson.fr/questionsreponses/signes-avant-coureurs-maladie/ }}</ref> [[Dysphagia]], [[gastroparese]], [[syndroma de intestino irritabile]] sin [[diarrhea]] e [[constipation]] poterea esser predictive.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Bo Konings, Luisa Villatoro, Jef Van den Eynde, Guillermo Barahona, Robert Burns4, Megan McKnight, Ken Hui, Gayane Yenokyan, Jan Tack & Pankaj Jay Pasricha |title=Gastrointestinal syndromes preceding a diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease: testing Braak’s hypothesis using a nationwide database for comparison with Alzheimer’s disease and cerebrovascular diseases |journal=Gut |date=2023-07-12 |doi=10.1136/gutjnl-2023-329685}}</ref> Diminutiones de spissor del [[jacimento plexiforme interne del cellulas ganglionar]] (GCIPL) e del [[jacimento nuclear interne]] (INL) del [[retina]] pote esser observate in [[tomographia de coherentia optic]] (OCL) usque 7 annos ante le diagnose.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Siegfried Karl Wagner, David Romero-Bascones, Mario Cortina-Borja, Dominic J Williamson, Robbert R Struyven, Yukun Zhou, Salil Patel, Rimona S Weil, Chrystalina A Antoniades, Eric J Topol, Edward Korot, Paul J Foster, Konstantinos Balaskas, Unai Ayala, Maitane Barrenechea, Iñigo Gabilondo, Anthony HV Schapira, Anthony P Khawaja, Praveen J Patel, Jugnoo S Rahi, Alastair K Denniston, Axel Petzold & Pearse Andrew Keane |title=Retinal Optical Coherence Tomography Features Associated With Incident and Prevalent Parkinson Disease |journal=Neurology |date=2023-08-21 |doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000207727 }}</ref> [[Recerca]]tores labora pro identificar [[biomarkator]]es permittente un diagnose precoce del morbo per un simple {{Ill|es|examine de sanguine|Examen de sangre}}. [[Alpha-synucleina]]<ref>https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422(23)00109-6/fulltext</ref> o [[pyruvato]]<ref>https://www.inserm.fr/actualite/une-prise-de-sang-pour-diagnostiquer-precocement-la-maladie-de-parkinson/</ref> poterea esser candidatos. Plasmic ratio de DOPA decarboxylase augmenta in patientes suffrente de un carentia de [[dopamina]] e poterea contribuer al diagnose precoce del maladia.<ref>https://www.pourquoidocteur.fr/Articles/Question-d-actu/44985-Maladie-Parkinson-biomarqueur-sanguin-permet-de-l-identifier</ref> ==Pathophysiologia== Le symptomas motore del morbo resulta del [[Morte cellular|morte de nerval cellulas]] in le [[substantia nigre]] ([[parte compacte]]), un region del [[Cerebro human|cerebro]] medie qui forni [[dopamina]] (un [[neurotransmissor]]) al [[basal ganglion]]es.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Le causa de iste morte cellular es mal comprendite, sed implicarea le aggregation de [[alpha-synucleina]], constituente [[corpore de Lewy|corpores de Lewy]] al interior del [[neuron]]es.<ref name="VillarPique2016">{{cite journal | author = Villar-Piqué A, Lopes da Fonseca T, Outeiro TF | title = Structure, function and toxicity of alpha-synuclein: the Bermuda triangle in synucleinopathies | journal = Journal of Neurochemistry | volume = 139 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 240–255 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 26190401 | doi = 10.1111/jnc.13249 | s2cid = 11420411 }}</ref><ref name="Lancet2015" /> In maladia de Parkinson, proteinas alpha-synucleina deveni mal [[Plicamento de proteinas|plicate]] e se aggrega con altere alpha-synucleinas. Cellulas non pote eliminar iste aggregatos e se damnifica.<ref name="VillarPique2016" /> Le perta de neuron es accompaniate del morte de [[astrocyto]]s e de un augmentation del numero de [[microglia]] in le substantia nigre.<ref name="Jankovic_book-Neuropathology">{{cite book|title=Parkinson's disease and movement disorders|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7817-7881-7|veditors=Tolosa E, Jankovic JJ|location=Hagerstown, MD|pages=271–283|chapter=Neuropathology of movement disorders| vauthors = Dickson DV}}</ref> Le symptomas comencia quando le parte compacte del substantia nigre es affectate.<ref name="Armstrong2020">{{cite journal | author = Armstrong MJ, Okun MS | title = Diagnosis and Treatment of Parkinson Disease: A Review | journal = JAMA | volume = 323 | issue = 6 | pages = 548–560 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 32044947 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2019.22360 | s2cid = 211079287 }}</ref> Cinque major vias liga basal gangliones al altere cerebral areas. Iste vias son le circuitos [[Cortex motore|motor]], [[Frontal ocular campos|oculomotor]], [[Cortex cerebral#Association areas|associative]], [[Limbic systema|limbic]] e [[Cortex orbitofrontal|orbitofrontal]].<ref name="pmid18781672">{{cite journal|author=Obeso JA, Rodríguez-Oroz MC, Benitez-Temino B, Blesa FJ, Guridi J, Marin C, Rodriguez M|title=Functional organization of the basal ganglia: therapeutic implications for Parkinson's disease|journal=Movement Disorders|volume=23 |issue=Suppl 3|pages=S548–S559 | year = 2008|pmid=18781672|doi=10.1002/mds.22062|s2cid=13186083}}</ref> Le morbo affecta tote iste circuitos e affecta movimentos, attention e apprentissage, le melio studiate essente le circuito motore.<ref name="pmid18781672"/> Se pensa que basal gangliones exerce un rolo inhibitori sur multe systemas motore, impediente inappropriate movimentos. Le dopamina age facilitante le relaxamento del inhibition. In le maladia de Parkinson, le nivello de dopamina diminue e assi, ulle movimento es plus difficile a mandar, ducente al [[hypokinesia]] (reduction del movimentos).<ref name="pmid18781672"/> Medicamentos usate pro compensar dopamina depletion, inversemente, pote facilitater inappropriate movimentos, producente [[dyskinesia]].<ref name="pmid18781672"/> ===Mitochondrial ADN=== Le damnification del ADN del [[mitochondrio]]s poterea esser implicate in le pathophysiologia.<ref>{{Doi|10.1038/s41380-023-02251-4}}</ref> ==Etiologia== Le causas del morbo non es cognoscite, sed un combination de factores [[Genetica|genetic]] e [[Ambiente|ambiental]] es suspectate.<ref name=Lancet2015>{{cite journal|author=Kalia LV, Lang AE|s2cid=5502904|title=Parkinson's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_the-lancet_august-29-september-4-2015_386_9996/page/896|journal=Lancet|volume=386|issue=9996 |pages=896–912 |date=August 2015|pmid=25904081|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61393-3}}</ref> Le risco de cader malade es plus grande si un membro del familia es ja malade, alicun [[allele]]s essente cognoscite como factor de risco.<ref name="Quadri2018">{{cite journal | author = Quadri M, Mandemakers W, Grochowska MM, Masius R, Geut H, Fabrizio E, Breedveld GJ, Kuipers D, Minneboo M, Vergouw LJ, Carreras Mascaro A, Yonova-Doing E, Simons E, Zhao T, Di Fonzo AB, Chang HC, Parchi P, Melis M, Correia Guedes L, Criscuolo C, Thomas A, Brouwer RW, Heijsman D, Ingrassia AM, Calandra Buonaura G, Rood JP, Capellari S, Rozemuller AJ, Sarchioto M, Fen Chien H, Vanacore N, Olgiati S, Wu-Chou YH, Yeh TH, Boon AJ, Hoogers SE, Ghazvini M, IJpma AS, van IJcken WF, Onofrj M, Barone P, Nicholl DJ, Puschmann A, De Mari M, Kievit AJ, Barbosa E, De Michele G, Majoor-Krakauer D, van Swieten JC, de Jong FJ, Ferreira JJ, Cossu G, Lu CS, Meco G, Cortelli P, van de Berg WD, Bonifati V | display-authors = 6 | title = LRP10 genetic variants in familial Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies: a genome-wide linkage and sequencing study | journal = The Lancet. Neurology | volume = 17 | issue = 7 | pages = 597–608 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29887161 | doi = 10.1016/s1474-4422(18)30179-0 | s2cid = 47009438 | doi-access = free }}</ref> 15 genes serea implicate in formas hereditari del morbo. Intra illos, al minus 5 genes son responsabile de formas [[autosomal dominante transmission|autosomal dominante]]: SNCA (PARK1/4), {{Ill|en|LRRK2}} (PARK8), {{Ill|en|VPS35}} (PARK17), {{Ill|en|DNAJC13}} e {{Ill|en|CHCHD2}}. Le causa le plus frequente de forma monogenic es le mutation G2019S del gene codante le ''leucine-rich repeat kinase 2'' (LRRK2). Iste mutation originava 200 generationes (circa 4'000 annos) retro in un [[Berber]] ancestre in Nord-Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rafiqua Ben El Haj, Ayyoub Salmi, Wafa Regragui, Ahmed Moussa, Naima Bouslam, Houyam Tibar, Ali Benomar, Mohamed Yahyaoui & Ahmed Bouhouche |title=Evidence for prehistoric origins of the G2019S mutation in the North African Berber population |journal=PLOS |date=2017-07-19 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0181335}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal | author= Salles PA, Tirapegui JM, Chaná-Cuevas P |date=22 March 2024 |title=Genetics of Parkinson's disease: Dominant forms and GBA |journal=Neurology Perspectives |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=100153 |doi=10.1016/j.neurop.2024.100153 |issn=2667-0496|doi-access=free }}</ref> Risco ambiental include expositon al [[pesticido]]s e prior [[trauma]] al [[capite]]; recurrente exposition al [[trichloroethyleno]] es alsi suspectate.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dorsey ER, Zafar M, Lettenberger SE, et al |title=Trichloroethylene: An Invisible Cause of Parkinson's Disease? |journal=J Parkinsons Dis |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=203–218 |date=2023 |pmid=36938742 |doi=10.3233/JPD-225047 |pmc=10041423 }}</ref> Al contrario, [[caffeina]] e [[nicotina]] pare protective.<ref>{{Cite book | author = Kumar V |title=Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease |year=2021 |edition=10th}}</ref><ref name="Lancet2015" /><ref name="nutri2009">{{cite journal|author=Barranco Quintana JL, Allam MF, Del Castillo AS, Navajas RF|s2cid=26605333|title=Parkinson's disease and tea: a quantitative review|journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition |volume=28|issue=1|pages=1–6|date=February 2009|pmid=19571153|doi=10.1080/07315724.2009.10719754}}</ref> ==Tractamento== Il non ha remedio, sed multes usa L-dopa [[medicamento]]. {{refer}} == Altere ligamines == *[http://www.parkinson.org/ National Parkinson Foundation] *[http://www.aep-taray.org/ Asociacion Parkinson TARAY Aranjuez MADRID ESPAÑA] *[http://www.parkinsons.org.uk/ Parkinson's Disease Society of the United Kingdom] *[http://blechmanfoundation.org/ Blechman Foundation for Parkinson's Research] [[Categoria:Disordine neurodegenerative|Parkinson]] 6ekugsoln5oe1qwrjtydlisq4xwbbg5 0 44673 698278 676159 2026-08-04T00:15:04Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698278 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox}} Le '''Focos salvage del Amazon de 2019''' son un atypicamente forte serie de milles de incendios independente occurrente in le foreste pluvial del [[Fluvio Amazon]] in 2019 durante le saison sic tropical, que occideva al minus 2 personas<ref>{{cite web|url=https://g1.globo.com/ro/ariquemes-e-vale-do-jamari/noticia/2019/08/15/casal-morre-abracado-ao-tentar-fugir-de-queimada-em-ro.ghtml|title=Casal morre abraçado ao tentar fugir de queimada em RO|trans-title=Couple die hugged while trying to escape burnt out RO |first1=Rinaldo |last1=Moreira |first2=Jamari |last2=Valley |date=August 15, 2019 |work=[[G1 (website)|G1]]|access-date=August 22, 2019|language=portuguese|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815174641/https://g1.globo.com/ro/ariquemes-e-vale-do-jamari/noticia/2019/08/15/casal-morre-abracado-ao-tentar-fugir-de-queimada-em-ro.ghtml|archivedate=August 15, 2019|deadurl=no}}</ref>. Le major parte del focos ha occurrite in ''Amazônia Legal'' brasilian, le portion del foreste in [[Brasil]], ma le paises vicin de [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], e [[Paraguay]] ha etiam perdite grande areas,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news.com.au/technology/environment/nasa-releases-disturbing-photos-of-amazon-fire-captured-from-space/news-story/5d561932d4f3b9c8674ea33a5d80a4ff|title=Frightening images of Amazon fire taken from space|date=2019-08-25|website=NewsComAu|access-date=2019-08-25}}</ref> includente plus que 7,200 km² in Bolivia.<ref>https://www-cnn.com/2019/08/26/americas/bolivia-amazon-fires-intl/index.html.</ref> Ben que tal focos occurre annualmente durante le saison sic, le focos de 2019 era introducite al attention del communitate scientific e international in julio e augusto de 2019 quando le Instituto National pro Recerca Spatial brasilian (''Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais'', o ''INPE'') dispensava statisticas basate in observationes per satellite documentante al minus 75,336 focos salvage flagrante in le pais ab januario al 23 de augusto de 2019, con plus que 40,000 in le foreste pluvial del Amazon, le numero le plus alte desde le collection de datos ha comenciate in 2013.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-49433767|title=Amazon fires: How bad have they got?|last=Team|first=The Visual and Data Journalism|date=2019-08-23|access-date=2019-08-24|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="BBC_20190821">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-49415973|title='Record number of fires' in Brazilian rainforest|date=August 21, 2019|work=[[BBC News Online]]|access-date=August 21, 2019|publisher=[[BBC Online]]|agency=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref name="CTVNews_Rodriguez_20190822">{{Cite news | title = As the Amazon burns, Brazil's president draws global outrage | work = CTV News | access-date = August 22, 2019 | url = https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/as-the-amazon-burns-brazil-s-president-draws-global-outrage-1.4560481 | date = August 22, 2019 | first = Jeremiah | last = Rodriguez | accessdate = August 28, 2019 | archivedate = August 27, 2019 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20190827173049/https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/as-the-amazon-burns-brazil-s-president-draws-global-outrage-1.4560481 }}</ref><ref name="NYT_Andreoni_20190821">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/21/world/americas/amazon-rainforest.html|title=Fires in Amazon Rain Forest Have Surged This Year|last1=Andreoni|first1=Manuela|last2=Hauser|first2=Christine|date=August 21, 2019|location=Rio de Janeiro|access-date=August 21, 2019|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Imagines de satellite de [[NASA]] corroborava le conclusion de INPE que le foreste del Amazon ha focos salvage plus intense in 2019 que in annos previe.<ref>{{Cite web|quote=While drought has played a large role in exacerbating fires in the past, the timing and location of fire detections early in the 2019 dry season are more consistent with land clearing than with regional drought.|url=https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/145498/uptick-in-amazon-fire-activity-in-2019|title=Uptick in Amazon Fire Activity in 2019|date=2019-08-23|website=www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov|language=en|access-date=2019-08-25}}</ref> INPE e altere expertos ascribe le incendios al methodo de "sablar-e-incinerar" pro rasar terra pro ligno e agricultura pro appoiar exportation brasilian como bove. Le governamentos brasilian e bolivian ha recentemente adoptate politicas que permitte plus deforestation del areas de foreste pluvial in favor de agricultura e production de ligno.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2019/08/20/brazils-environmental-changes-under-a-far-right-climate-skeptic/|title=Brazil's environmental changes under a far-right climate skeptic|last=Press|first=Associated|date=2019-08-20|website=New York Post|language=en|access-date=2019-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paginasiete.bo/sociedad/2019/8/20/tras-incendios-en-santa-cruz-morales-justifica-los-chaqueos-228093.html|title=Tras incendios en Santa Cruz, Morales justifica los chaqueos - Diario Pagina Siete|website=www.paginasiete.bo|language=es|access-date=2019-08-25|accessdate=2019-08-28|archivedate=2019-08-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825215340/https://www.paginasiete.bo/sociedad/2019/8/20/tras-incendios-en-santa-cruz-morales-justifica-los-chaqueos-228093.html}}</ref> Brasil ha previemente adoptate alcun mesuras desde 2004 pro reducer le acceleration del deforestation del jungla del Amazon, ma le rata accrescente de deforestation in 2019 perturbava expertos ecologic a causa del importantia del Amazon bassino in le mitigation del cambio del climate.<ref name="Melillo">{{cite journal | last=Melillo | first=J.M. | author2=McGuire, A.D.|author3= Kicklighter, D.W.|author4= Moore III, B.|author5= Vörösmarty, C.J.|author6= Schloss, A.L. | title=Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1993-05-20_363_6426/page/234 | journal=Nature | date=20 May 1993 | volume=363 | pages=234–240 | doi=10.1038/363234a0 | issue=6426|bibcode = 1993Natur.363..234M}}</ref><ref name="Tian">{{cite journal | last=Tian | first=H. | author2=Melillo, J.M.|author3=Kicklighter, D.W.|author4=McGuire, A.D.|author5=Helfrich III, J.|author6=Moore III, B.|author7= Vörösmarty, C.J. | title=Climatic and biotic controls on annual carbon storage in Amazonian ecosystems | journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography |date=July 2000 | volume=9 | issue=4 | pages=315–335 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00198.x}}</ref> Additionalmente, le technicas de sablar-e-incinerar e le incendios subsequente menacia le terra protegite del populos indigene in Brazil in le foreste pluvial. Le focos salvage causava criticismo del governamento brasilian, in particular per organisationes ecologic<ref name="ENGO-Bolsonaro-claims"/> e per [[Francia]], que ha un frontiera con Brasil in su departamento ultramar de [[Guiana francese]],<ref name="theguardian_Phillips_20190822"/><ref name="bbc-mercosur-France-Ireland">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-49450495|title=Amazon fires: France and Ireland threaten to block EU trade deal|date=August 23, 2019|work=[[BBC]]|accessdate=August 23, 2019}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bfmtv.com/international/incendies-en-amazonie-bolsonaro-accuse-macron-d-avoir-unementalite-colonialiste-1754125.html BFMTV - Incendies en Amazonie: Bolsonaro accuse Macron d'avoir une "mentalité colonialiste", l'Elysée répond - 23/08/2019] - ''« La France est légitime en s'exprimant sur l'Amazonie car c'est un pays amazonien » ... « La Guyane a une frontière avec le Brésil et une partie de l’Amazonie est sur son territoire. »''</ref><ref>[https://mobile.twitter.com/AnnickGirardin/status/1164872869463175168?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw French Minister for Overseas Answer to Jair Bolsonaro] - ''La plus grande frontière terrestre de la France se partage avec le Brésil. La France est un pays amazonien. La forêt amazonienne, ce patrimoine écologique universel, dépasse les frontières des hommes. Nous avons le devoir d'agir, Monsieur Bolsonaro.''</ref><ref>[https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2019/05/16/emmanuel-macron-assure-le-chef-indigene-raoni-du-soutien-de-la-france_5463077_3244.html Le Monde - Emmanuel Macron assure le chef amazonien Raoni du soutien de la France - 16/5/2019] - ''« En tant que pays amazonien » avec la Guyane, « la France est naturellement engagée dans la lutte contre la déforestation » et « défend les droits des autochtones, notamment en tant qu’acteurs essentiels de la préservation des forêts et de la biodiversité, et par conséquent engagés dans la lutte contre les dérèglements climatiques »''</ref> in le septimana ante le 45e summitate del [[G7]]. Iste agentias assere que politias instituite per le nove presidente brasilian [[Jair Bolsonaro]] ha debilitate le protection pro le foreste pluvial. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Foreste tropical]] [[Categoria:Brasil]] 22zokp84rhk15ds7wv5m4qb46jiaqf7 0 44727 698190 618602 2026-08-03T21:56:52Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698190 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pecietta|biologia}}{{Traduction|en|Monophyly}} [[File:Monophyly, paraphyly, polyphyly.png|thumb|360px|Cladogramma del [[primate]]s que monstra un '''[[monophylia]]''' (le simianos in jalne), un '''[[paraphylia]]''' (le prosimianos, in cyan, includente le macula rubie), e un '''polyphylia''' (le primates active de nocte, le [[loris]]es e le [[tarsero]]s in rubie).]] [[File:Phylogenetic-Groups.svg|thumbnail|350px|Gruppos phylogenetic: Un taxon monophyletic (in jalne, le clado [[Sauropsida]] que comprende reptiles e aves) contine un ancestre commun e tote su descendentes. A taxon paraphyletic (in cyan, le reptiles) contine su plus recente ancestre commun, mais non tote le descendentes de ille. Un taxon polyphyletic (in rubie, le gruppo [[Haemothermia]] que contine [[Homeothermia|tetrapodes de sanguine calide]]) non contine le plus recente ancestre commun de tote su membros.]] Un gruppo '''polyphyletic''' es un collection de organismos o de altere elementos evolvente que ha essite gruppate insimul mais que non possede un ancestre commun immediate. Iste termino es sovente usate quando certe gruppos possede characteristicas commun que pare similar mais que non es le hereditage de ancestres commun; iste characteristicas es cognoscite como homoplasias, e le disveloppamento e phenomeno que es le homoplasias es cognoscite como [[evolution convergente]]. Le arrangiamento del membros de un gruppo polyphyletic es appellate un '''polyphylia'''. Alternativemente, le parola polyphyletic es simplemente usate pro describer un gruppo con membros que ha multe fontes ancestral differente, independentemente del similaritate inter le characteristicas. Per exemplo, le facto que e le ancestres del mammiferos e illos del aves esseva de sanguine calide non resulta de un evolution commun.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=VgkZBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|title=Aristotle's Ladder, Darwin's Tree: The Evolution of Visual Metaphors for Biological Order|last=Archibald|first=J. David|date=2014-07-15|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231164122|language=en}}</ref> Altere gruppos polyphyletic es per exemplo le [[alga]]s, le plantas photosynthetic C4<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sage|first=Rowan F.|date=2004-02-01|title=The evolution of C4 photosynthesis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-phytologist_2004-02_161_2/page/341|journal=New Phytologist|language=en|volume=161|issue=2|pages=341–370|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.00974.x|issn=1469-8137}}</ref> e le edentatos.<ref name="Delsuc2008">{{Cite book |last1=Delsuc |first1=Frédéric |last2=Douzery |first2=Emmanuel J. P. |year=2008 |chapter=Recent advances and future prospects in xenarthran molecular phylogenetics |pages=11–23 |editor-last1=Vizcaíno |editor-first1=Sergio F. |editor-last2=Loughry |editor-first2=W. J. |title=The biology of the Xenarthra |publisher=University Press of Florida |location=Gainesville |isbn=9780813031651 |oclc=741613153 }}</ref> Multe biologistas intende de evitar homoplasias quando illes gruppa [[taxon]]es insimul. In consequentia, gruppos discoperite como polyphyletic es frequentemente eliminate. Isto es sovente le motivation pro revisiones major del schemas de classification. Le recercatores que se preoccupa plus del ecologia que del systemica pote considerar le gruppos polyphyletic como un sujecto de discussion legitime; illes pote, per exemplo, esser inducite a tractar le gruppo de fungo ''[[Alternaria]]'' como un [[genere]] valide a causa de su similaritates in activitate, mais isto non les impedi de recognoscer su polyphylia.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Erik T. |last1=Aschehoug |first2=Kerry L. |last2=Metlen |first3=Ragan M. |last3=Callaway |first4=George |last4=Newcombe |year=2012 |title=Fungal endophytes directly increase the competitive effects of an invasive forb |journal=Ecology |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=3–8 |url=http://plantecology.dbs.umt.edu/plantecology/People/documents/Aschehougetal.2012ENDOPHYTEINVASIONCOMPETITION.pdf |accessdate=July 8, 2013 |doi=10.1890/11-1347.1 |pmid=22486080 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428195457/http://plantecology.dbs.umt.edu/plantecology/People/documents/Aschehougetal.2012ENDOPHYTEINVASIONCOMPETITION.pdf |archivedate=April 28, 2014 }}</ref>. In recercas recente, le conceptos de [[monophylia]], [[paraphylia]] e polyphylia ha adjutate a deducer alicun genes essential pro le [[barcoding ADN]] de diverse gruppos de specie.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2019.143967 |title=Diagnosis of mitogenome for robust phylogeny: A case of Cypriniformes fish group |journal=Gene |volume=713 |pages=143967 |year=2019 |last1=Parhi J., Tripathy P.S., Priyadarshi, H. |first1=Mandal S.C., Pandey P.K. }}</ref> ==Referentias== [[Categoria:Phylogenetica]] flecv31vfk5nlx93em9vaw5hcd6rywm 0 44774 698230 619420 2026-08-03T23:08:18Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698230 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox persona}} '''Jess Dobkin''' (nate 1970) es un artista de representation basate in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], <ref name = Gillespie_2012>{{cite journal|last1=Gillespie|first1=Benjamin|title=Giving us 'Everything She's Got': Processing the Script-as-Archive in Jess Dobkin's Queer Performance Art|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-theatre-review_winter-2012_149/page/52|journal=Canadian Theatre Review|date=Winter 2012|volume=149|page=52}}</ref> plus ben cognoscite pro su obra de 2006 ''The Lactation Station''. == Referentias == {{DEFAULTSORT:Dobkin, Jess}} [[Categoria:Artistas]] [[Categoria:Gente ashkenazi]] 4i9sa38fjkkwlpohb2axldcr0nfe0iq 0 44898 698241 690080 2026-08-03T23:22:34Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698241 wikitext text/x-wiki Le '''Internet del Objectos''' ('''IdO''') es un systema de apparatos computante interrelatate, machinas mechanic e digital, objectos, animales o personas que es dotate de [[identificator]]es (UID) unic e le capacitate de transferer datos super un rete sin besonia de interaction human-a-human o human-a-computator. Le definition de Internet del Objectos ha evolvite per le convergentia de plure technologias, [[analyse datos]] real-time, [[apprendimento automatic]], [[commoditate]] [[sensores]] e [[systema(s) integrate]].<ref> nomine="Linux Objectos"</ref> Campos traditional de [[systema(s) integrate]], [[rete(s) de sensores sin filo]], [[systema(s) de controlo]], [[automation]] (anque le [[domotica]] e le [[automation de edificio]]) e alteros, tote collabora al activation de Internet de Objectos ==Historia== Le concepto de un rete de apparatos intelligente ha essite discutite desde 1982, con un [[distributor automatic]] de Coke modificate al [[Universitate Carnegie Mellon]], que deveniva le prime apparato connexe a internet,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~coke/history_long.txt|title=The "Only" Coke Machine on the Internet|website=[[Carnegie Mellon University]]|accessdate=10 November 2014}}</ref> capace a signalar su inventario e si le bibitas justo cargate era o non frigide.<ref>{{cite journal|date=7 July 2014|title=Internet of Things Done Wrong Stifles Innovation|url=http://www.informationweek.com/strategic-cio/executive-insights-and-innovation/internet-of-things-done-wrong-stifles-innovation/a/d-id/1279157|journal=[[InformationWeek]]|accessdate=10 November 2014}}</ref>Documento del 1991 de [[Mark Weiser]] sur le [[apparatos computante ubique]], "The Computer of the 21st Century", e sedes academic tal como UbiComp e PerCom ha producite le vision contemporanee del IdO.<ref name="IoT journal2">{{cite journal|last1=Mattern|first1=Friedemann|last2=Floerkemeier|first2=Christian|date=2010|title=From the Internet of Computer to the Internet of Things|url=http://www.vs.inf.ethz.ch/publ/papers/Internet-of-things.pdf|journal=Informatik-Spektrum|volume=33|issue=2|pages=107–121|doi=10.1007/s00287-010-0417-7|accessdate=3 February 2014|bibcode=2009InfSp..32..496H}}</ref><ref name="UbiquitiousComputing">{{cite journal|last=Weiser|first=Mark|date=1991|title=The Computer for the 21st Century|url=http://web.media.mit.edu/~anjchang/ti01/weiser-sciam91-ubicomp.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Scientific American|volume=265|issue=3|pages=94–104|bibcode=1991SciAm.265c..94W|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0991-94|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311220327/http://web.media.mit.edu/~anjchang/ti01/weiser-sciam91-ubicomp.pdf|archivedate=11 March 2015|accessdate=5 November 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311220327/http://web.media.mit.edu/~anjchang/ti01/weiser-sciam91-ubicomp.pdf |date=11 March 2015 }}</ref> In 1994, Reza Raji ha describite le concepto in ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]'' como "[displaciamento] de micre pacchettos de datos a un grande collection de nodos, in maniera de integrar e automatisar toto, ab le articulos de menage al integre fabricas".<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/6.284793|title = Smart networks for control|url = https://archive.org/details/ieee-spectrum_1994-06_31_6/page/45|journal = IEEE Spectrum|volume = 31|issue = 6|pages = 49–55|year = 1994|last1 = Raji|first1 = R.S.}}</ref> Inter 1993<!-- lanceamento de Microsoft at Work --> e 1997<!-- abandono de Novell NEST -->, plure companias ha proponite solutiones como [[at Work]] per [[Microsoft]] o [[Novell Embedded Systems Technology|NEST]] per [[Novell]]. ==Applicationes== [[File:Nest Apprender Thermostat (retaliate).JPG|thumb|Un [[Nest Labs|Nest]] apprender thermostat reporto de active energia uso e conditiones meteorologic local|link=Special:FilePath/Nest_Apprender_Thermostat_(retaliate).JPG]] [[File:Anello video doorbell.jpg|thumb|Un [[Anello (compania)|Anello]] doorbell connexe a internet|link=Special:FilePath/Anello_video_doorbell.jpg]] [[File:augusto 2nd-gen intelligente lock.jpg|thumb|Un [[augusto Casa]] intelligente blocar connexe a internet|link=Special:FilePath/Augusto_2nd-gen_intelligente_lock.jpg]] Le extensive configura de applicationes pro IoT apparatos es frequentemente dividite en spatios pro consummator, commercial, industrial e de infrastructura. ===Applicationes pro consummatores=== Un parte crescente del apparatos IdO es create pro usos del consummatores, assi como pro le connexivitate del vehiculos, le [[domotica]], le [[technologia vestibile]], connexivitate del salute e apparatos de telesurveliantia. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://trak.in/tags/business/2016/08/30/internet-of-things-iot-changing-fundamentals-of-retailing/|title=How IoT's are Changing the Fundamentals of "Retailing"|date=30 August 2016|work=Trak.in – Indian Business of Tech, Mobile & Startups|accessdate=2 June 2017|archivedate=26 December 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226212121/https://trak.in/tags/business/2016/08/30/internet-of-things-iot-changing-fundamentals-of-retailing/}}</ref> ====Casa intelligente==== Le apparatos IdO es un parte del plus grande concepto de automation de casa, que pote includer illumination, calefaction e climatisation, medios e systemas de securitate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kang |first1=Won Min |last2=Moon |first2=Seo Yeon |last3=Park |first3=Jong Hyuk |date=5 March 2017 |title=An enhanced security framework for home appliances in smart home |journal=Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences |volume=7 |issue=6 |doi=10.1186/s13673-017-0087-4 }}</ref><ref name="businessinsider.com">{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/internet-of-things-smart-home-automation-2016-8|title=How IoT & smart home automation will change the way we live|work=Business Insider|accessdate=10 November 2017}}</ref> Beneficios a longe-tempore poterea includer le sparnio de energia per assecurar que automaticamente luce e electronica es extinguite. Un casa intelligente o automatisate poterea esser basate sur un platteforma o cardines que controla objectos e apparatos intelligente.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Internet of Things|last=Greengard|first=Samuel|publisher=MIT Press|year=2015|isbn=9780262527736|location=Cambridge, MA|pages=90}}</ref> Per exemplo, que usa [[HomeKit]] de[[Apple Inc.|Apple]] manufacturers can have their home products and accessories controlled by an application in [[iOS]] devices such as the [[iPhone]] and the [[Apple Watch]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://developer.apple.com/homekit/|title=HomeKit – Apple Developer|last=Inc.|first=Apple|website=developer.apple.com|language=en|access-date=19 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/apple-homekit-everything-you-need-to-know/|title=Here's everything you need to know about Apple HomeKit|last=Wollerton|first=Megan|date=3 June 2018|work=CNET|access-date=19 September 2018|language=en}}</ref> This could be a dedicated app or iOS native applications such as [[Siri]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://9to5mac.com/2018/08/31/cheap-homekit-bulbs-switches-camera/|title=HomeKit devices getting more affordable as Lenovo announces Smart Home Essentials line|last=Lovejoy|first=Ben|date=31 August 2018|work=9to5Mac|access-date=19 September 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> This can be demonstrated in the case of Lenovo's Smart Home Essentials, which is a line of smart home devices that are controlled through Apple's Home app or Siri without the need for a Wi-Fi bridge.<ref name=":3" /> There are also dedicated smart home hubs that are offered as standalone platforms to connect different smart home products and these include the [[Amazon Echo]], [[Google Home]], Apple's [[HomePod]], and Samsung's [[SmartThings|SmartThings Hub]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tomsguide.com/us/best-smart-home-hubs,review-3200.html|title=Best Smart Home Hubs of 2018|last=Prospero|first=Mike|date=12 September 2018|work=Tom's Guide|access-date=19 September 2018|language=en}}</ref> In addition to the commercial systems, there are many non-proprietary, open source ecosystems; including Home Assistant, OpenHAB and Domoticz.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chinchilla |first1=Chris |title=What Smart Home IoT Platform Should You Use? |url=https://hackernoon.com/what-smart-home-iot-platform-should-you-use-2554ea213df1 |accessdate=13 May 2019 |work=Hacker Noon |date=26 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Jason |title=6 open source home automation tools |url=https://opensource.com/tools/home-automation |accessdate=13 May 2019 |work=opensource.com |date=14 December 2017}}</ref> ====Assistentia al seniores==== Un application clave de un casa intelligente es fornir [[Domotica pro seniores e invalidos|assistentia pro personas con invaliditate o ancian]].These home systems use assistive technology to accommodate an owner's specific disabilities.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal|last1=Demiris|first1=G|last2=Hensel|first2=K|date=2008|title=Technologies for an Aging Society: A Systematic Review of 'Smart Home' Applications|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cd2c/6718a9e3309532f9f1493208a8215cbba9b2.pdf|journal=IMIA Yearbook of Medical Informatics 2008|pages=33–40|accessdate=27 October 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028094055/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cd2c/6718a9e3309532f9f1493208a8215cbba9b2.pdf |date=28 October 2017 }}</ref> [[Voice Control|Voice control]] can assist users with sight and mobility limitations while alert systems can be connected directly to [[cochlear implant]]s worn by hearing-impaired users.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Aburukba|first1=Raafat|last2=Al-Ali|first2=A. R.|last3=Kandil|first3=Nourhan|last4=AbuDamis|first4=Diala|date=10 May 2016|title=Configurable ZigBee-based control system for people with multiple disabilities in smart homes|pages=1–5|doi=10.1109/ICCSII.2016.7462435|isbn=978-1-4673-8743-9}}</ref> They can also be equipped with additional safety features. These features can include sensors that monitor for medical emergencies such as falls or seizures.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mulvenna|first1=Maurice|last2=Hutton|first2=Anton|last3=Martin|first3=Suzanne|last4=Todd|first4=Stephen|last5=Bond|first5=Raymond|last6=Moorhead|first6=Anne|date=14 December 2017|title=Views of Caregivers on the Ethics of Assistive Technology Used for Home Surveillance of People Living with Dementia|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs12152-017-9305-z.pdf|journal=Neuroethics|volume=10|issue=2|pages=255–266|doi=10.1007/s12152-017-9305-z|pmid=28725288|pmc=5486509}}</ref> Smart home technology applied in this way can provide users with more freedom and a higher quality of life.<ref name="auto1"/> The term "Enterprise IoT" refers to devices used in business and corporate settings. By 2019, it is estimated that the EIoT will account for 9.1 billion devices.<ref name="Business Insider" /> ===Applicationes commercial=== ====Medic e cura del sanitate==== Le '''Internet de Objectos Medic''' ('''IdOM'''), (alsi appellate le '''internet del objectos del salute'''), es un application del IdO pro propositos correlate medic e de salute, le collection de datos e analyse pro recerca e surveliantia. [[Category:Internet of things| ]] [[Category:Ambient intelligence]] [[Category:Emerging technologies]] [[Category:Technology assessment]] [[Category:Computing and society]] [[Category:Digital technology]] [[Category:21st-century inventions]] d8fxs0bxlbvq1cxtxau70rq72wo5utf 0 45338 698214 662105 2026-08-03T22:44:20Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 5 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698214 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox}} {{Translation|en|Cough}}<!-- [[File:Pertussis.jpg|thumb|Un infante tussinte.]] --> Un '''Tusse''' es un expulsion subito de aere perque le grande passage de [[respiration]] que pote adjuvar le appurar se de fluidos, irritantes, particulos alienos, [[microbio]]s. Ut [[reflex]] protective, le tusse pote esse repetitive cum le reflex tusse consequente tres phases: un [[inhilation]], [[exhalation]] coercitate contra un clausate [[glottis]], et un descarga violente de aere ex le [[pulmo]] consequente le apperiente de glottis, saepe conjuncto con [[sono]] distinctive.<ref name="Lancet-causes">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chung KF, Pavord ID |title=Prevalence, pathogenesis, and causes of chronic cough |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-19-25-2008_371_9621/page/1364 |journal=Lancet |volume=371 |issue=9621 |pages=1364–74 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18424325 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60595-4 }}</ref> Tusse frequente saepe indica le presencia de un maladia. Plus [[virus]]es e [[bacteria]]s benefica, ex perspective evolutionaria, per causante le hoste ad tussir, que adjuva diffunder le maladia ad nova hostes. Plus le tempore, tusse irregular es causante per un tinfection de tracto respiratoria,se pote alsi esse ab le [[strangulation]], [[fumante]], [[pollution]] aere, [[asthma]], maladia reflux gastroesophageal, gutta post-nasal, bronchitis chronica, tumores pulmona,[[COVID-19]], [[insufficiencia de cordis]] e [[medication]]es sicute inhibitores ACE. Le tractamento debe reguardar le causa; per exemplia, cessation de fumar o discontinua le inhibitores ACE. Suppressantes de tusse sicut [[codeine]] o detromethorphan es prescribitate frequentamente, sed habe essite demonstrate haber pauco effecto. Alter optiones tractamente pote reguardar le inflammation del passage aeree o pote promover le expectoration de mucosa. Ut reflex protective natural, le suppression del reflex tusse pote haber effectos injuriose, in particular, si le tusse es productive.<ref name="pmid18424326">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pavord ID, Chung KF |title=Management of chronic cough |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-19-25-2008_371_9621/page/1375 |journal=Lancet |volume=371 |issue=9621 |pages=1375–84 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18424326 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60596-6 }}</ref> <!-- [[Cough suppressant]]s such as [[codeine]] or [[dextromethorphan]] are frequently prescribed, but have been demonstrated to have little effect. 000000000000000000000000000000000000000 QUE que adjuva which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, irregular coughing is caused by a respiratory tract infection but can also be triggered by choking, smoking, air pollution,[1] asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, post-nasal drip, chronic bronchitis, lung tumors, heart failure and medications such as ACE inhibitors. Treatment should target the cause; for example, smoking cessation or discontinuing ACE inhibitors. [[Cough suppressant]]s such as [[codeine]] or [[dextromethorphan]] are frequently prescribed, but have been demonstrated to have little effect. Other treatment options may target airway [[inflammation]] or may promote [[sputum|mucus expectoration]]. As it is a natural protective reflex, suppressing the cough reflex might have damaging effects, especially if the cough is productive.<ref name="pmid18424326">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pavord ID, Chung KF |title=Management of chronic cough |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-19-25-2008_371_9621/page/1375 |journal=Lancet |volume=371 |issue=9621 |pages=1375–84 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18424326 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60596-6 }}</ref ==English == {{short description|Sudden expulsion of air from the lungs as a reflex to clear irritants}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Cough | image = pertussis.jpg | caption = A young boy coughing due to [[Whooping cough|pertussis]] causing [[whooping cough]].<br/>{{Listen|filename=Husten-abf-.ogg|title=Coughing|description=The sound of a person coughing.|format=[[Ogg]]}} | specialty = [[Infectious disease (medical specialty)|Infectious disease]] | pronounce = {{audio|En-us-cough.ogg|pronunciation}} [[Latin]]: '''tussis''' }} A '''cough''' is a sudden expulsion of air through the large breathing passages that can help clear them of fluids, irritants, foreign particles and [[Microorganism|microbes]]. As a protective [[reflex]], coughing can be repetitive with the [[cough reflex]] following three phases: an [[inhalation]], a forced [[exhalation]] against a closed [[glottis]], and a violent release of air from the lungs following opening of the glottis, usually accompanied by a distinctive sound.<ref name="Lancet-causes">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chung KF, Pavord ID |title=Prevalence, pathogenesis, and causes of chronic cough |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-19-25-2008_371_9621/page/1364 |journal=Lancet |volume=371 |issue=9621 |pages=1364–74 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18424325 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60595-4 }}</ref Frequent coughing usually indicates the presence of a disease. Many [[virus]]es and [[bacteria]] benefit, from an evolutionary perspective, by causing the [[Host (biology)|host]] to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, irregular coughing is caused by a [[respiratory tract infection]] but can also be triggered by [[choking]], [[smoking]], [[air pollution]],<ref name="Lancet-causes"/ [[asthma]], [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]], [[post-nasal drip]], [[Bronchitis#Chronic bronchitis|chronic bronchitis]], [[lung tumors]], [[heart failure]] and medications such as [[ACE inhibitor]]s. Treatment should target the cause; for example, [[smoking cessation]] or discontinuing ACE inhibitors. <!-- Some people may be worried about serious illnesses, and reassurance may suffice. -- [[Cough suppressant]]s such as [[codeine]] or [[dextromethorphan]] are frequently prescribed, but have been demonstrated to have little effect. Other treatment options may target airway [[inflammation]] or may promote [[sputum|mucus expectoration]]. As it is a natural protective reflex, suppressing the cough reflex might have damaging effects, especially if the cough is productive.<ref name="pmid18424326">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pavord ID, Chung KF |title=Management of chronic cough |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-19-25-2008_371_9621/page/1375 |journal=Lancet |volume=371 |issue=9621 |pages=1375–84 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18424326 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60596-6 }}</ref --> == Referentias == <references/> [[Categoria:Symptomas]] [[Categoria:Reflex]] epfjk4w5y89rdks551mfgsvu26n37l1 0 46309 698245 664948 2026-08-03T23:31:16Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698245 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Volleyball''' es un [[sport de equipa]] in le qual duo equipas de sex jucatores es separate per un rete. Cata equipa tenta scorir punctos per poner le balla super le courto del altere equipa sub regulas organisate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/sports/programme/index_uk.asp?SportCode=VB |title=Volleyball |access-date=2007-03-21 |publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]]}}</ref> Illo ha essite un parte del programma official del [[Jocos Olympicos de Estate]] desde le [[Olympicos de Estate 1964|Tokyo 1964]]. [[Volleyball de arena]] esseva introducite al programma al [[Jocos Olympicos de Estate 1996|Jocos Olympicos de Estate Atlanta 1996]]. Le version adaptate de volleyball al [[Jocos Paralympic de Estate]] es le [[volleyball sedente]]. Le [[regulas de volleyball|conjuncte complete de regulas]] es extensive,<ref name=LatestRules>{{cite web | url=http://www.fivb.org/EN/Refereeing-Rules/documents/FIVB-Volleyball_Rules_2017-2020-EN-v06.pdf | title=Official Volleyball Rules, 2017–2020 | access-date=2019-01-11 |publisher=[[Fédération Internationale de Volleyball|35th FIVB World Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2016]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205014730/http://www.fivb.org/EN/Refereeing-Rules/documents/FIVB-Volleyball_Rules_2017-2020-EN-v06.pdf |archive-date=2017-02-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> ma in le joco, le jucatores procede approximativemente de iste maniera: un jucator in un del equipas initia un 'rally' per servir le balla (lanciante o liberante lo e postea colpendo lo con un mano o bracio), ab le linea de limite retro del courto, trans le rete, e in le courto del equipa recipiente.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/volleyballfundam0000dear|title=Volleyball fundamentals|last=Joel.|first=Dearing|date=2003|publisher=Human Kinetics|isbn=0736045082|location=Champaign, IL|oclc=50643900|url-access=registration}}</ref> Le equipa recipiente non debe permitter que le balla tocca le terreno intra lor courto. Le equipa pote toccar le balla usque a tres vices pro retornar lo al altere latere del courto, sed jucatores non pote toccar le balla duo vices consecutivemente.<ref name=":1" /> Typicamente, le prime duo toccos es usate pro preparar un attacco. Un attacco es un tentativa de dirigir le balla retro le rete de tal maniera que le equipa que recipi le balla non pote passar le balla e continuar le rally, perdente, assi, le puncto. Le equipa que gania le rally es premiate con un puncto e serva le balla pro initiar le proxime rally. == Historia == === Origins === [[File:William G. Morgan.jpg|thumb|upright|[[William G. Morgan]], {{c.|1915}}]] In december 1895,<ref>{{cite web| url=https://cdm16122.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16122coll3/id/389/|title=The International Association Training School Notes (vol. 4 no. 8), October, 1895}}</ref> in [[Holyoke, Massachusetts]] (Statos Unite), [[William G. Morgan]], un director de education fisic del YMCA, creava un nove joco nominate ''Mintonette'', un nomine derivate del joco de [[badminton]],<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/1895-william-morgan-invents-mintonette/|title=In 1895, William Morgan Invents Mintonette|quote=Putting his mind to the challenge, Morgan examined the rules of sports such as [[baseball]], basketball, handball and badminton. Taking pieces from each, he created a game he called Mintonette. He took the name from badminton|publisher=New England Historical Society|access-date=25 October 2021|date=2016-01-30}}</ref> como un passatempo a esser jucate (preferibilmente) interne e per qualcunque numero de jucatores. Le joco prendeva certe characteristicas de altere sport como baseball, [[tennis]] e [[handball de equipa|handball]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/invention-and-history-of-volleyball-william-morgan-1992597 |title=Bet You Don't Know Where Volleyball Came From |publisher=ThoughtCo|access-date=2018-08-04}}</ref> Un altere sport interne, [[basketball]], stava deveniente popular in le area, post esser inventate solmente dece milles (sedecim kilometros) distante in le citate de [[Springfield, Massachusetts]], solmente quatro annos ante. Mintonette esseva designate como un sport interne, minus rude que basketball, pro membros senior del YMCA, ma demandante in tote caso un poco de effortio athletic. Le regulas prime, redactate per William G. Morgan, requiriva un rete alto de 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m), un courto de 25 ft × 50 ft (7.6 m × 15.2 m), e un numero ilimitate de jucatores. Le partita consisteva de nov innings con tres serventias pro cata equipa in cata inning, sin limites de contactos del balla pro cata equipa ante lanciar le balla al courto adverse. Un secunde tentativa esseva permittite in caso de un error de serventia. Colper le balla contra le rete esseva un fallo (con perdita del puncto o un cambio de latere), excepte durante le prime tentativa de serventia. Post que un observator, Alfred Halstead, notava le natura de interbatimento del joco in su prime exhibition match in 1896, jocate al International YMCA Training School (ora nominate [[Springfield College]]), le joco deveniva rapidemente cognoscite como ''volleyball'' (originariemente scribeva como duo parolas: "''volley ball''"). Le regulas de volleyball esseva legiermente modificate per le International YMCA Training School e le joco se diffuse a per le pais a differente YMCA.<ref name="FIVB Volleyball History">{{cite web |url=http://www.fivb.ch/EN/volleyball/story.htm |title=The Volleyball Story |access-date=2007-09-21 |publisher=Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127012658/http://www.fivb.ch/EN/Volleyball/story.htm |archive-date=January 27, 2007 |accessdate=2023-06-28 |archivedate=2010-11-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122132859/http://www.fivb.ch/En/Volleyball/story.htm }}</ref><ref name="ncva">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncva.com/page.aspx?id=14 |title=How Volleyball Began |access-date=2007-09-21 |publisher=Northern California Volleyball Association |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701143054/http://www.ncva.com/page.aspx?id=14 |archive-date=July 1, 2007 |accessdate=2023-06-28 |archivedate=2007-07-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701143054/http://www.ncva.com/page.aspx?id=14 }}</ref> In le prime annos del 1900, [[Spalding (compania)|Spalding]], per su compagnia de publication American Sports Publishing Company, produciva libros con instruction complete e regulas pro le sport.<ref>{{cite book |title=Books Added, 1911–1915: Five Year Cumulation of the Book Bulletin of the Chicago Public Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eMtAAAAYAAJ&q=spalding+athletic+library+how+to+sprint%2F&pg=RA1-PA317 |publisher=The Chicago Public Library |date=January 1916 |pages=317–320}}</ref> === Refinamentos e developpamentos posterior === [[File:Mazanar volleyball 00166u.jpg|thumb|Mulieres nippo-american jucante volleyball, [[campo de internamento de Manzanar]], California, {{c.|1943}}]] Le prime balla official usate in volleyball es disputate; alcun fontes dice que Spalding creava le prime balla official in 1896, durante que alteres assevera que illo esseva create in 1900.<ref name="Timeline1">{{cite web | url = http://volleyball.org/history.html | title = History Of Volleyball | access-date = 2007-09-21 | publisher = Volleyball World Wide | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110513035616/http://www.volleyball.org/history.html | archive-date = 2011-05-13 | url-status = dead | accessdate = 2023-06-28 | archivedate = 2000-03-02 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20000302143612/http://www.volleyball.org/history.html }}</ref><ref name="SportsKnowHow">{{cite web | url = http://www.sportsknowhow.com/volleyball/history/volleyball-history.shtml | title = History of Volleyball | access-date = 2007-09-21 | publisher = SportsKnowHow.com | accessdate = 2023-06-28 | archivedate = 2020-05-13 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20200513162953/https://sportsknowhow.com/volleyball/history/volleyball-history.shtml }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.volleyball.com/volleyball_history.aspx | title = History of Volleyball | access-date = 2007-09-21 | publisher = volleyball.com | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070924042339/http://www.volleyball.com/volleyball_history.aspx | archive-date = 2007-09-24 | accessdate = 2023-06-28 | archivedate = 2007-09-24 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070924042339/http://www.volleyball.com/volleyball_history.aspx }}</ref> Le regulas evolviva durante le tempore: in 1916, in le Philippinas, le habilite e potentia del colpo de position e atacco esseva introduce, e quatro annos postea un regulamentation de "tres colpos" e un regulamentation contra le colpo de file de postera se establiva. In 1917, le joco esseva modificate ab exigentia de 21 punctos a un minor numero de 15 punctos pro ganiar. In 1919, circa 16.000 ballas de volleyball esseva distribute per le [[American Expeditionary Forces]] a lor troops e [[Aliatos de Prim Mundial|aliatos]], lo que stimulava le crescentia de volleyball in nove paises.<ref name="Timeline1" /> Le prime pais foras de Statos Unite a adoptar volleyball esseva Canada in 1900.<ref name="Timeline1" /> Un federation international, le [[Fédération Internationale de Volleyball]] (FIVB), esseva fundate in 1947, e le prime Campionatos Mundial esseva tenite in 1949 pro homines e in 1952 pro feminas.<ref name="FIVB History">{{cite web |url=http://www.fivb.ch/EN/FIVB/History.htm |title=FIVB History |access-date=2007-09-21 |publisher=Fédération Internationale de Volleyball |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070919033125/http://www.fivb.ch/EN/FIVB/History.htm |archive-date=September 19, 2007 |accessdate=2023-06-28 |archivedate=2010-07-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713080018/http://www.fivb.ch/en/FIVB/History.htm }}</ref> Le sport nunc es popular in [[Brasil]], in Europa (ubi particularmente Italia, le [[Paises Basse]], e paises de [[Europa Oriental]] ha essite fortias major desde le fin del annos 1980), in Russia, e in altere paises includente China e le resto de Asia, assi como in Statos Unite.<ref name="FIVB Volleyball History" /><ref name="ncva" /><ref name="FIVB History" /> [[File:Nudist-naturist volleyball.jpg|thumb|Un joco de volleyball [[naturismo|nudiste/naturiste]] in le club Sunny Trails durante le convention del Canadian Sunbathing Association (CSA) in British Columbia, Canada, 1958]] [[Volleyball de arena]], un variation del joco jucate in sablo e con solmente duo jucatores per equipa, deveniva un variation sanctionate per le FIVB in 1987 e esseva adde al programma olympic in le [[Jocos Olympicos de Estate 1996]].<ref name="Timeline1" /><ref name="FIVB History" /> Volleyball etiam es un sport al [[Paralympics]] gestionate per le [[Organisation Mundial de Volleyball pro Invalidos]]. Le [[naturismo|nudistas]] esseva adoptatores prime del joco con joco organisate regular in clubes como in le fin del annos 1920.<ref>{{cite book|last=Merrill|first=Frances|title=Among The Nudists|year=1931|publisher=Garden City Publishing Company, Inc.|location=Garden City, New York|pages=Illustration Plate following p. 188}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Merrill|first=Frances|title=Nudism Comes to America|year=1932|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=Illustration Plate following p. 57}}</ref> In le annos 1960, un campo de volleyball deveniva standard in quasi tote le clubes de [[naturismo|nudista/naturista]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Weinberg|first=M.S.|title=The Nudist Camp: Way of Life and Social Structure.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-organization_fall-1967_26_3/page/91|journal=Human Organization|year=1967|volume=26|issue=3|pages=91–99|doi=10.17730/humo.26.3.t61k16213r005707}}</ref> === Volleyball in le Olympiadas === {{Main|Volleyball al Jocos Olympicas de Estate}} Volleyball ha essite parte del programma del [[Jocos Olympicas de Estate]] pro homines e feminas constantemente ab le [[Jocos Olympicas de Estate 1964|1964]]. ==Referencias== <references /> [[Categoria:Sport]] [[Categoria:Jocos Olympic]] 6b0dmvr587lozuqdo903lhu3kba5wao 0 47173 698205 680618 2026-08-03T22:36:04Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698205 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = ''Denisovan'' | status = <!--| fossil_range = [[Pleistoceno]] - Recente--> | image = Denisova Molar.jpg | image_caption = Replica de un molar denisovan. | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia <!--| infraregnum = [[Bilateria]]--> | phylum = [[Chordata]] <!--| superclassis = [[Tetrapoda]]--> | classis = [[Mammal]]ia <!--| subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]]--> <!--| magnordo = [[Boreoeutheria]] | superordo = [[Euarchontoglires]]--> | ordo = [[Primate]]s | familia = [[Hominide|Hominidae]] | subfamilia = [[Homininae]] | tribus = [[Hominini]] | subtribus = [[Hominina]] | genus = ''[[Homo (taxon)|Homo]]'' | taxon= ''Homo denisovensis''<br>o<br>''Homo altaiensis'' | taxon_rank= Potential [[specie]] <!--| binomial = ''Homo denisovensis''<br>o<br>''Homo altaiensis''--> | binomial_authority = }} '''Humanes de Denisova''' o '''denisovanes'''{{linfoX}} es un specie extincte del genere ''[[Homo (taxon)|Homo]]''; illes se trovava in [[Asia]] durante le [[Paleolithico]] (inter 450 milles e 40 milles annos retro).<ref>[https://www.infoterio.com/2022/05/Molar-hallado-sugiere-que-el-hombre-de-denisova-tambien-prospero-en-los-tropicos.html Molar hallado sugiere que el hombre de denísova también prospero en los trópicos]</ref> Le denisovanes esseva primemente identificate in 2010 per [[ADN]] mitochondrial de un osso digital juvenil trovate in le Caverna Denisova in Siberia. Le denisovanes coexisteva con ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' moderne durante milles de annos, e alicun mesticiage occurreva. ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' es typicamente considerate como le ancestre commun de ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' e le Denisovanes. == Phylogenia == Un grande {{Ill|fr|diversitate genetic|diversité génétique}} se observa intra Denisovanes.<ref name="kircher2012">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1224344 | author = M. Meyer, M. Kircher, M.-T. Gansauge et al. | title = A High-Coverage Genome Sequence from an Archaic Denisovan Individual | journal = Science | date = 2012-08-30 | url= http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/08/31/science.1224344 }}.</ref><ref name=Jacobs2019>{{cite journal|author=Guy S. Jacobs, Georgi Hudjashov, Lauri Saag, Pradiptajati Kusuma, Chelzie C. Darusallam, Daniel J. Lawson, Mayukh Mondal, Luca Pagani, François-Xavier Ricaut, Mark Stoneking, Mait Metspalu, Herawati Sudoyo, J. Stephen Lansing & Murray P. Cox|title=Multiple Deeply Divergent Denisovan Ancestries in Papuans |journal=Cell |volume=177|issue=4 |year=2019 |pages=1010-1021.e32 |issn=0092-8674 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2019.02.035|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867419302181}}</ref> Le analyse del [[ADN nuclear]] de spécimenes fossile de ''[[Homo sapiens]]'', Neandertalianes e Denisovanes, effectuate in 2016 per le equipa del Instituto Max-Planck de anthropologia evolutionnista ([[Leipzig]]) ducite per [[Svante Pääbo]], monstra que Neandertalianes e Denisovanes habeva un ancestre commun circa 450 [[Kiloanno|ka]] retro, e que un altere con ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' un ancêtre commun circa 660 ka retro. Iste conclusiones resulta del analyse de duo specimenes fossile del {{Ill|es|Sima de los Huesos}} ([[Espania]]), datate de 430 ka, (Neandertalianes pauc post la separation de Denisovanes.<ref name="Petr202003">{{Cite journal |lingua=en |author=M. Meyer, J.-L. Arsuaga, C. de Filippo ''et al.'' |title=Nuclear DNA sequences from the Middle Pleistocene Sima de los Huesos hominins |journal=Nature |volume=531 |numéro=7595 |pages=504-7 |date=2016 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v531/n7595/full/nature17405.html |doi=10.1038/nature17405}}</ref> [[File:Human lineages Sima de los Huesos.png|thumb|centre|upright=1.6|alt=Arbre phylogénétique des lignées humaines récentes proposé en 2016 d'après l'ADN de la Sima de los Huesos|Cladogramma de lineages human europee secundo le ADN identificate in le Sima de los Huesos]] <small>NB. Un studio publicate in 2020 indica que le [[chromosoma Y human|chromosomas Y]] de Denisovanes se separeva circa 700 ka retro de un lineage commun al Neandertalianes analysate et humanes moderne; iste duo ultimates se diversificava 37 ka AP. Iste phylogenia es non conforme con isto revelate per le genoma {{Ill|en|autosomal|Autosome}} (non sexual) et revela un hybridation de Neanderthalianes recente con un lineage precoce de ''Homo sapiens'' qui conduce a reimplaciar le chromosoma Y (heritate directemente del patre) o le ADN mitochondrial (heritate del matre) de iste individuos per material genetic de ''H. sapiens''.</small><ref name="Meyer2016">{{Cite journal |lingua=en |author=Martin Petr ''et al.'' |title=The evolutionary history of Neandertal and Denisovan Y chromosomes |journal=bioRxiv|volume=|numéro=|pages= |date=2020-03-09 |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.09.983445v1|doi=10.1101/2020.03.09.983445 }}</ref> Le analyse comparative del [[genoma]]s fossile e del introgressiones denisovan intra le genomas [[oceania]]n actual, conduce a distinger Denisovianes del nord (fossiles del [[Altai]] o [[China|chinese]]) e del sud (sin fossile cognite)<ref>Pour la Science, décembre 2019, p. 32.</ref> : {{Clade |style=font-size:100%; line-height:100%|label1={{nobr|[[Homo heidelbergensis|ancestre commun]]}} ({{nobr|ca 650 ka AP}}) |{{Clade | label1= (ca 450 ka) | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Homine de Neandertal|Neandertalianes]] | label2= ({{nobr|ca 350 ka}}) | 2={{Clade | 1=Denisovanes del nord | 2=Denisovanes del sud }} }} | label2= ({{nobr|ca 250 ka}}) | 2=[[Homo sapiens|humanes moderne]] }} }} ==Specimenes== {| align="top" class="sortable wikitable" |- ! Name ! Fossile ! Datation ! Discoperta ! Loco ! Individuo ! Publication ! Imagine ! GenBank |- | Denisova 3<br>(also known as ''X Woman'')<ref name=pmid21179161>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature09710 |pmid=21179161 |pmc=4306417 |title=Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=468 |issue=7327 |pages=1053–60 |year=2010 |last1=Reich |first1=D. |author1-link=David Reich (geneticist) |last2=Green |first2=R. E. |last3=Kircher |first3=M. |display-authors=et al. |url=http://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/10230/25596/1/Marques_nat_gen.pdf |bibcode=2010Natur.468.1053R |hdl=10230/25596 |access-date=29 July 2018 |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517024908/https://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/25596/Marques_nat_gen.pdf;jsessionid=35CCDAE27CDE1B5CACE38275BC976DFA?sequence=1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Bennett>{{cite journal |first1=E. A. |last1=Bennett |first2=I. |last2=Crevecoeur |first3=B. |last3=Viola |display-authors=et al. |title= Morphology of the Denisovan phalanx closer to modern humans than to Neanderthals |journal=[[Science Advances]] |year=2019 |volume=5 |number=9 |page=eaaw3950 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw3950 |pmid=31517046 |pmc=6726440 |bibcode=2019SciA....5.3950B}}</ref><ref name="Pääbo et al.">{{cite journal|first1=J. |last1=Krause |first2=Q.|last2=Fu |first3=J. M. |last3=Good |first4=B. |last4=Viola |first5=M. V. |last5=Shunkov |first6=A. P. |last6=Derevianko |name-list-style=amp |first7=S. |last7=Pääbo |author7-link=Svante Pääbo |display-authors=4 |year=2010 |title=The complete mitochondrial DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern Siberia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2010-04-08_464_7290/page/894 |volume=464 |issue=7290 |pages=894–897 |doi=10.1038/nature08976 |bibcode=2010Natur.464..894K |doi-access=free |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |language=en |pmid=20336068 |s2cid=4415601 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> || {{Ill|en|phalange|phalanx bone}} distal (5e digito) || 76.2–51.6 ka<ref name=Douka>{{cite journal |last1=Douka |first1=K. |title=Age estimates for hominin fossils and the onset of the Upper Palaeolithic at Denisova Cave |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=2019 |volume=565 |issue=7741 |pages=640–644 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0870-z |pmid=30700871 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1559&context=smhpapers1 |bibcode=2019Natur.565..640D |s2cid=59525455 |access-date=7 December 2019 |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506140551/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1559&context=smhpapers1 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506140551/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1559&context=smhpapers1 |date=6 May 2020 }}</ref> || align=center|2008 || cava Denisova (Russia) || femina de 13.5 annos || align=center|2010 || [[File:Denisova Phalanx distalis.jpg|150px|center|Replica of part of the phalanx.]] || [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NC013993 NC013993] |- | Denisova 4<ref name=pmid21179161/><ref name=Callaway2010>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/4681012a |pmid=21179140 |title=Fossil genome reveals ancestral link |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_december-23-30-2010_468_7327/page/1012 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=468 |issue=7327 |pages=1012 |year=2010 |last1=Callaway |first1=Ewen |bibcode=2010Natur.468.1012C |doi-access=free}}</ref> || 2e o 3e molar superior permanente || 84.1–55.2 ka<ref name=Douka/> || align=center|2000 || cava Denisova (Russia) || adulto mascule || align=center|2010 || [[File:Denisova Molar.jpg|150px|center|Replica of the molar of Denisova. Part of the roots was destroyed to study the mtDNA. Their size and shape indicate it is neither neanderthal nor sapiens.]] |[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/FR695060 FR695060] |- | Denisova 8<ref name="PNAS-20151111">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1519905112 |pmid=26630009 |pmc=4697428 |title=Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences from two Denisovan individuals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-science_2015-12-22_112_51/page/15696 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=112 |issue=51 |pages=15696–700 |year=2015 |last1=Sawyer |first1=S. |last2=Renaud |first2=G. |last3=Viola |first3=B. |last4=Hublin |first4=J.-J. |last5=Gansauge |first5=M.-T. |last6=Shunkov |first6=M. V. |last7=Derevianko |first7=A. P. |last8=Prüfer |first8=K. |last9=Kelso |first9=J. |last10=Pääbo |first10=S. |author10-link=Svante Pääbo |display-authors=4 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11215696S |doi-access=free}}</ref> || 3e molar superior permanente || 136.4–105.6 ka<ref name=Douka/> || align=center|2010 || cava Denisova (Russia) || adulto mascule || align=center|2015 || || [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/KT780370 KT780370] |- | Denisova 2<ref name="Slon Viola Renaud Gansauge 2017">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700186 |pmid=28695206 |pmc=5501502 |title=A fourth Denisovan individual |journal=[[Science Advances]] |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e1700186 |year=2017 |author1-link=Viviane Slon |last1=Slon |first1=V. |last2=Viola |first2=B. |last3=Renaud |first3=G. |last4=Gansauge |first4=M.-T. |last5=Benazzi |first5=S. |last6=Sawyer |first6=S. |last7=Hublin |first7=J.-J. |last8=Shunkov |first8=M. V. |last9=Derevianko |first9=A. P. |last10=Kelso |first10=J. |last11=Prüfer |first11=K. |last12=Meyer |first12=M. |last13=Pääbo |first13=S. |author13-link=Svante Pääbo |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0186S |display-authors=4}}</ref> || 2e molar inferior caduc || 194.4–122.7 ka<ref name=Douka/> || align=center|1984 || cava Denisova (Russia) || femina adolescente || align=center|2017 || || [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/KX663333 KX663333] |- | [[Xiahe mandibula]]<ref name=ChenBaishiya>{{cite journal |first1=F. |last1=Chen |first2=F. |last2=Welker |first3=C.-C. |last3=Shen |display-authors=et al. |year=2019 |title=A late Middle Pleistocene Denisovan mandible from the Tibetan Plateau |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=569 |issue=7756 |pages=409–412 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1139-x |pmid=31043746 |author1-link=Fahu Chen |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/74280/1/Xiahe_Main.pdf |bibcode=2019Natur.569..409C |s2cid=141503768 |access-date=7 December 2019 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191213105210/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/74280/1/Xiahe_Main.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | mandibula partial | > 160 ka || align=center|1980 || cava Baishiya (China) || || align=center|2019 ||[[File:Xiahe mandible.jpg|150px]] | |- | {{Ill|fr|Denisova 11|Denny (hominien hybride)}}<br>(dicite "Denny", hybride Denisovan x Neanderthal)<ref name="Brown 2016">{{cite journal|last1=Brown |first1=S. |last2=Higham |first2=T. |last3=Slon |first3=V. |last4=Pääbo |first4=S. |author4-link=Svante Pääbo |title=Identification of a new hominin bone from Denisova Cave, Siberia using collagen fingerprinting and mitochondrial DNA analysis |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |year=2016 |volume=6 |doi=10.1038/srep23559 |page=23559 |pmid=27020421 |pmc=4810434 |bibcode=2016NatSR...623559B}}</ref> | fragmento ossee de brazo o gambo | 118.1–79.3 ka<ref name=Douka/> || align=center|2012 || cava Denisova (Russia) || femina de 13 annos || align=center|2016 ||[[File:Denisova-11.jpg|150px]] | [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/KU131206 KU131206] |- | Denisova&nbsp;13<ref name=Viola2019>{{cite journal |first1=B. T. |last1=Viola |first2=P. |last2=Gunz |first3=S. |last3=Neubauer |year=2019 |title=A parietal fragment from Denisova cave |journal=88th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists |url=https://meeting.physanth.org/program/2019/session09/viola-2019-a-parietal-fragment-from-denisova-cave.html |access-date=18 January 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926091143/https://meeting.physanth.org/program/2019/session09/viola-2019-a-parietal-fragment-from-denisova-cave.html |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926091143/https://meeting.physanth.org/program/2019/session09/viola-2019-a-parietal-fragment-from-denisova-cave.html |date=26 September 2019 }}</ref> | fragmento de [[osso parietal]] | trovate in strato 22<ref name=Viola2019/> de ~285±39 ka<ref name=Jacobs2019/> || align=center|2019 || cava Denisova (Russia) || ||align=center|attendite | | |- | TNH2-1<ref name=Demeter2022>{{cite journal|first1=F. |last1=Demeter |first2=C. |last2=Zanolli |first3=K. E. |last3=Westaway |display-authors=et al. |year=2022 |title=A Middle Pleistocene Denisovan molar from the Annamite Chain of northern Laos |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=13 |issue=2557 |page=2557 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-29923-z |pmid=35581187 |pmc=9114389 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.2557D }}</ref> | 1e o 2e molar inferior permanente | 164–131 ka || align=center|2018 || cava Tam Ngu Hao 2 (Laos) || puera de 3.5 ad 8.5 annos || align=center|2022 ||[[File:TNH2-1 Denisovan specimen.jpg|150px]] | |} <gallery mode=packed> File:Denisova 4 Denisovan molar 3.jpg|Un molar denisovan File:Spread and evolution of Denisovans.jpg|Le distribution e evolution del denisovanos File:Denisova Cave pendants notched bones.jpg|Objectos del Caverna Denisova File:Denisova-11.jpg|Objectos del Caverna Denisova </gallery> == Vide etiam == * ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' {{refer}} [[Categoria:Hominidae]] {{pecietta|biologia}} a5kh2ej0q2z9dblrky643487q1bglhd 0 53934 698218 693387 2026-08-03T22:50:10Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698218 wikitext text/x-wiki {{eminente}} {{revision}} [[File:Jiao zi.jpg|thumb|alt=Un pecia de papiro rectangular, rubee violette, circa duo vices tanto longe como late, con un designo dividite in tres sectiones. Le section superior depicta dece circulos in duo lineas de cinque. Le section central es plure lineas de texto, regulate verticalmente, e le section inferior depinge plure homines stante ante un porta.|[[Jiaozi (moneta)|Jiaozi]], le prime [[nota de banca|nota de banca stampate sur papiro]] del mundo, un innovation del [[Dynastia Song]].]] Le '''dynastia Song''' (chinese: 宋朝; 960-1279 EC) inventava alicun avantiamentos technologic in le [[Historia de China|historia chinese]], multes del quales proveniva de talentose statistas recrutate per le governamento per examines imperial. Le ingeniositate del ingenieria mechanic avantiate habeva un longe tradition in [[China]]. Le ingeniero Song Su admitteva que ille e su contemporaneos se appoiava super le successos del antiquos como Zhang Heng (78-139), astronomo, inventor e maestro del ingranage mechanic. Le application del typographia con typos movibile avantiava le jam extensive uso del typographia de blocos de ligno pro educar e distraher studentes confucian e le massas. Le application de nove armas que usava pulvere permitteva al dynastia Song repeller su militante inimicos – le Liao, le Xia Occidental e le Jin – con armas como cannones, usque a su collapsamento per le fortias mongol de Kublai Khan al fin del [[seculo 13]]. Avantiamentos notabile in [[ingenieria civil]], nautica e metallurgia esseva facite in China del dynastia Song, como etiam le introduction del molino de vento in China durante le seculo 13. Iste avantiamentos, conjunctemente con le introduction del moneta de papiro imprimite, adjutava a revolutionar e sustener le economia del dynastia Song. == Polymathas e ingenieria mechanic == [[File:Clock Tower from Su Song's Book desmear.JPG|thumb|left|Le diagramma original del libro de Su Song in 1092 que monstra le mechanismo interne de su turre de horologio, con le tank de clepsydra, un rota hydraulic con palettas e le mechanismo de escappamento, un transmission de catena, le sphera armillar surmontante, e le rota rotante con automatos de horologio que sonava le horas con campanas, gonges, e tambures.<ref>Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 165 & 455.</ref>]] === Polymathas === Genios polymathic, a saper personas competente in un grande varietate de themas—como Shen Kuo (1031-1095) e Su Song (1020-1101)—incarnava le spirito del scientia e technologia empiric del epocha Song. Shen es famose pro su discoperimento del concepto del nord ver e del declination magnetic verso le polo nord, per calcular un mensura plus accurate del meridiano astronomic e fixar le position calculite del stella polar que habeva cambiate durante del seculos.<ref name="sivin III 22">Sivin, III, 22.</ref> Isto permitteva a navigatores navigar le mar plus accuratemente con le bussola de agulia magnetic, le qual esseva anque primemente describite per Shen.<ref name="sivin III 22"/> Shen deveniva famose pro su description scripte de Bi Sheng, le inventor del typographia de typos movibile. Shen anque esseva interessate in le geologia, como ille formulava un theoria de geomorphologia e cambios climatic post observar phenomenos natural estranie.<ref name="sivin III 23">Sivin, III, 23.</ref><ref name="needham volume 3 618">Needham, Volume 3, 618.</ref> Usante cognoscentia contemporanee de eclipses solar e lunar, ille theorisava que le sol e le luna esseva spheric in forma, non plan, amplificante le rationamento de theoristas astronomic chinese precedente.<ref name="needham volume 3 415 416">Needham, Volume 3, 415–416.</ref> In collaboration con su collega Wei Pu in le Officio de Astronomia, Shen usava hypotheses cosmologic pro describer le variationes del motion planetari, includente retrogradation.<ref name="sivin III 16">Sivin, III, 16.</ref><ref name="sivin III 19">Sivin, III, 19.</ref> Un del plus grande complimentos de Shen, con le adjuta de Wei Pu, esseva corrigir le error lunar per diligentemente registrar e traciar le orbita lunar tres vices per nocte durante un periodo de cinque annos.<ref name="sivin III 18 19">Sivin, III, 18–19.</ref> Infortunatemente Shen habeva multe rivales politic al corte qui essava determinate a sabotar su travalio. Le corte acceptava completemente lor correctiones del errores lunar e solar, ma adoptava solmente partialmente le traciamento corrigite de Shen e Wei del orbitas planetari e lor varie velocitates.<ref name="sivin III 18 19"/> Su Song, un del rivales politic de Shen Kuo al corte, scribeva un famose tractato pharmaceutic in 1070 cognoscite como Bencao Tujing, que includeva subjectos relative al botanica, zoologia, metallurgia e mineralogia.<ref name="unschuld 60">Unschuld, 60.</ref><ref name="wu 5">Wu, 5.</ref> Iste tractato includeva multe applicationes medicinal, includente le uso de ephedrina como un medicamento.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 446">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 446.</ref> Ille esseva etiam le autor de un grande atlas celestial con cinque differente mappas de stellas,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 446">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 446.</ref> e su extensive travalio scripte e illustrative in cartografia adjutava a resolver un disputa de frontieras inter le dynastia Song e su vicino Khitan del dynastia Liao.<ref name="wright 213">Wright, 213.</ref> Totevia, Su esseva le plus famose pro su torre de horologio astronomic hydraulic, coronate con un sphera armillar mechanicalmente actuate, que esseva erigite in le capital Kaifeng in le anno 1088.<ref name="sivin III 31 32">Sivin, III, 31–32.</ref> Le torre de horologio de Su empleave le mechanismo de escappamento duo seculos ante su application in horologios europee.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 445">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 445.</ref><ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 448">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 448.</ref> Le torre de horologio de Su etiam presentava le transmission per catena de potentia non terminate le plus antique cognoscite in le mundo, como describite in su tractato horologic de 1092.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 111">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 111.</ref> Le casos de iste duo homines monstrava le enthusiasmo del dynastia Song de designar officialmente multe expertos in diverse scientias qui poteva ultimatemente beneficiar le administration, le militia, le economia, e le populo. Homines intellectual de litteras como le versatile Shen Kuo se occupava de subjectos tanto diverse como mathematica, geographia, geologia, economia, ingenieria, medicina, criticismo artistic, archeologia, strategia militar, e diplomatia, inter alteres.<ref name="ebrey 162"/><ref name="ebrey cambridge 148">Ebrey, ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', 148.</ref> Durante un mission de corte pro inspectar un region de frontiera, Shen Kuo creava un mappa in alte relievo de ligno e pulvere de serra impregnate con colla pro monstrer le montes, vias, fluvios, e passos a altere officiales.<ref name="ebrey 162"/> Ille computava le numero total de situationes possibile in un tabuliero de joco, un altere vice ille calculava le campania militar le plus longe possibile con le limites del portatores human qui portarea alimento e pro se e pro altere soldatos.<ref name="ebrey 162">Ebrey, 162.</ref> Shen Kuo es etiam notate pro meliorar le designos del clepsydra de influxo pro un interpolation de ordine superior plus efficiente, le sphera armillar, le gnomone, e le tubo de observation astronomic; ille augmentava su latitute pro meliorar le observation del stella polar e altere corpores celestial.<ref name="sivin III 17">Sivin, III, 17.</ref> Shen Kuo anque experimentava con le camera obscur, solmente pauc decennios post le prime a facer lo, Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039).<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 98">Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 98.</ref> === Hodometros e carros que puncta al sud === Il habeva multe altere figuras importante in le epocha Song excepte Shen Kuo e Su Song, multes del quales contribueva grandemente al innovationes technologic del tempore. Ben que le dispositivo de milia-marcation mechanicamente dirigite del hodometer trahe per un carruage habeva essite cognoscite in China depost le antique dynastia Han, le Song Shi (compilate in 1345) provide un multo major description e visio plus in profundo del dispositivo que le previe fontes chinese. Le Song Shi diceva: :''Le hodometro. [Le carro que mesura le milias] es pingite rubie, con picturas de flores e aves sur le quatro lateres, e construite in duo etages, belle adornate con sculpturas. Al fin de cata li, le figura de ligno de un homine in le basso etage colpia un tambur; al fin de cata decem li, le figura de ligno in le alte etage colpia un campana. Le punta del carro es decorate con le capita de un phoenix, e le carro es trahe per quatro cavallos. Le scorta habeva anteriormente 18 homines, ma in le quarto anno del periodo de regno de Yongxi (987) le imperator Taizong lo augmentava a 30. In le quinto anno del periodo de regno de Tian-Sheng (1027) le grande chancellero Lu Daolong presentava le specificas pro le construction de hodometros como sequi: [...]''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 283">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 283.</ref> Lo que sequi es un longe dissertation facite per le principal camerero Lu Daolong super le mesuration del distantias e le dimensiones de rotas e engrenages.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 283"/> Tamen, le paragrapho final provide un description de como le apparato in ultime functiona: :''Quando le rota horizontal central faceva 1 revolution, le carro habera vadite 1 li e le figura de ligno in le basso etage colpia le tambur. Quando le rota horizontal super faceva 1 revolution, le carro habera vadite 10 li e le figura in le alte etage colpia le campana. Le numero de rotas usate, grande e parve, es 8 pollices (200 mm) in total, con un total de 285 dentes. Donc, le movimento es transmitte como per le ligamines de un catena, le "dentes de can" mutuemente imbrocate un al altere, de modo que per debite revolution, omne reveni al su puncto de initio original.''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 284">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 284.</ref> Durante le periodo Song (e un vice durante le periodo Tang anteriore), le apparatos hodometric esseva combinate con le apparato del carro directionate al sud, que probabilemente esseva inventate prime per le ingeniero mechanico chinese Ma Jun (200-265). Le carro directionate al sud esseva un vehiculo con rotas que poteva, in certe casos, haber incorporate complexe transmissiones differential. (Iste es usate nunc in quasi omne automobilos moderne pro applicar quantitates equal de torsion a rotas que rota a velocitates differente durante le curvas.) Le transmissiones differential poteva haber essite usate pro mantener un indicator mechanicamente operabile que apuntava in un direction fixe, verso le sud, compensante pro qualcunque curva que faceva le carro. Altere arrangementos de transmissiones poteva haber essite usate pro le mesme scopo. Le apparato usate estimation de positiones mechanic, alique morto, al contrario del magnetismo de un compasso, pro navigar e trovar directiones. Yan Su (燕肃; c. 961–1040), le Director Divisional in le Ministerio de Traballos, recriava un apparecchio del carro directionate al sud in 1027, e su specificationes pro crear le apparecchio esseva fornite in le Song Shi.<ref name="sivin III 31">Sivin, III, 31.</ref> Isto es de pauco surprisa, ja que Yan esseva un polymatha simile a Shen Kuo e Su Song, meliorante le disegno del horologio clepsydra, scribente super harmonicas mathematic, theorias super mareas, etc.<ref name="sivin III 31"/> Le texto de Song Shi recorda que esseva le ingeniero Wu Deren qui combinava le apparecchio del carro directionate al sud e le appaatos hodometric in le anno 1107: :''In le prime anno del periodo de regno de Da-Guan (1107), le Chamberlain Wu Deren forniva specificationes del carro directionate al sud e le carro con le tamburo de registro de li (hodometro). Le duo vehiculos esseva facite, e esseva usate le prime vice ille anno in le grande ceremonia del sacrificio ancestral.''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 292">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 292.</ref> Le texto continuava describente in detalio le intricate designo mechanic pro le duo apparatos combinate in uno. (Vide le articulo super le carro que puncta al sud). === Repositories rotatori === [[File:Buddhist ark used by Chinese Jews.jpg|thumb|Armario rotatori de libros in "Yingzao Fashi".]] Altri dispositivos impressionante de ingenieria mechanical se trovava durante le dynastia Song, excepte horologios, sphaeras armillarii impulsate per hydraulica, hodometros e vehiculos de busso mechanic. Aunque referentias literari de repositories mechanic rotative e casos de libres de temples buddhista datan de al minus 823 durante le dynastia Tang,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 549">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 549.</ref> illos deveniva prominente durante le dynastia Song.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 549"/> Le invention del casu rotative de libros se considera haber occurrite anteriormente, e es attribuite al layman Fu Xi in 544.<ref name="Chinese Classical Furniture"/> Repositories rotative de libros deveniva popular in monasterios buddhista durante le dynastia Song sub le regno del Imperator Taizu, qui mandava a imprimir in massa le scripturas buddhista Tripiṭaka.<ref name="Chinese Classical Furniture">{{cite book|title=Austere Luminosity of Chinese Classical Furniture.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EKkblrm6sUC&pg=PA247|year=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-21484-2|pages=246–247}}</ref> De plus, le plus vetule repository rotative de libres trovate usque hodie dat a le periodo Song ([[seculo 12]]), trovate in le Monasterio Longxing de Zhengding, provincia de Hebei.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 549"/><ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 plate CCLXIX">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, Plate CCLXIX, Fig. 683.</ref> Tamen, durante le periodo Song habeva nove repositories rotative prominentemente cognoscite, e un de illos esseva depictite in un illustration del libro Yingzao Fashi ("Tractatus sur le Methodos Architectural") de Li Jie de 1103.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 549"/><ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 551">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 551.</ref> Le repository rotative de 1119 in le Templo Kaifu prope Changsha habeva quinque rottas que girava simultaneemente,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 552"/> e le repository rotative del Templo Nanchan de Suzhou habeva un systema de freno de alcun typo (sinologistes ancora es incert de como isto functionava, in le epocha le plus vetule de banda de freno curvate cognoscite appare in le tempore de Leonardo da Vinci in Europa).<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 552">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 552.</ref> Un viator musulman plus tarde, Shah Rukh (filio del guerriero Turco-Mongol Timur), veniva a China del dynastia Ming in 1420 durante le regno del Imperator Yongle, e descripeva un repository rotative in Ganzhou del provincia Gansu que ille appellava un "kiosque". :''In un altro templo il ha un kiosco octogonale, con de alto a basse dece-quince historias. Cata historia contine cameres decorate con lacca in le maniera Cathaia, con ante-cameres e verandahs... Illo es facite integralmente de ligno polito, e iste de nove aurate que pare esser de auro solide. Il ha un volta infra illo. Un axo de ferro fixate al centro del kiosco lo travesa de basse a alte, e le parte inferior de iste opera in un placa de ferro, durante que le parte superior porta forte supportos in le techo del edificio que contine iste pavilion. Sic un persona in le volta pote con un minime effortio facer que iste grande kiosco revolve. Omne le carpentarios, forgiarios, e pictores del mundo apprendera un poco de lor mestieres veniente hic!''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 554">Needham Volume 4, Part 2, 554.</ref> === Machinaria textil === In le campo de production textil, [[Joseph Needham]] (1900–1995) scribeva que le chineses inventava le rotatoria-perforatrice verso le seculo 12,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 107">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 107.</ref> e scribeva que le transmission de cinghia mechanical esseva cognoscite de post le [[seculo 11]].<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 108">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 108.</ref> Le libro Can Shu (Libro de Sericultura) de Qin Guan de 1090 descripeva un machine de bobinage de seta con un 'proto-volant' oscillante, durante que le apparecchio del bobine principal ubi le seta es ligate es avolvite e impulsate per le movimento del pedale.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 107"/> In iste apparato, le bracio inclinante del volant esseva activite simultaneemente per un transmission de cinghia subsidiary.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 107"/> Iste machine esseva depictite in un illustration del libro Geng Zhi Tu de 1237,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 107 108">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 107-108.</ref> e ancora un illustration plus elaborate esseva fornite in un libro del [[seculo 17]].<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 107"/> Le libro de Qin Guan de 1090 affirmava que: <blockquote>Le polley (con le patin excentrico) esseva provide de un canal pro le reception del transmission de cinghia, un banda sin fin que responde al movemento del machine per avoltar continuamente le polley.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 108"/></blockquote> Un corda sin fin poteva haber essite usate in le apparato de aqua-rotatorias de Du Shi que impellava le folleto del altoforno in le 1[[seculo 1]] (vide le section Potentia de vento infra).<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 108"/> == Typographia mobile == Le technologia de imprimation per tipos mobil es inventate per Bi Sheng (毕升; 990–1051) in le seculo 11. Le travalio de Bi Sheng es describe per Shen Kuo in su Mengxi Bitan.<ref name="bowman 105">Bowman, 105.</ref> Le imprimation per tipos mobil, conjunctemente con le imprimation per blocos de ligno, augmentava le alfabetisation con le production in massa de material impressite. Isto significa que parvees poteva incitar lor filios a apprender a leger e scriber e per consequente esser capace a participar al examination imperial e devenir parte del crescente bureaucratia sapiencial. Le imprimation per tipos mobil se developpava ulteriormente in Corea del periodo Joseon, ubi le caracteres de terra cocte de Bi Sheng esser substituite per caracteres de metal in 1234.<ref name="ebrey 238">Ebrey, 238.</ref> Le tipos mobil de Bi Sheng esset postea meliorate per Wang Zhen (1290–1333), qui inventava tipos mobil de ligno circa 1298, e per Hua Sui (1439–1513), qui inventava tipos mobil de bronzo in China in 1490; nonobstante, le coreanos habeva tipos mobil de metal ante Hua Sui, e anque Wang Zhen habeva experimentate con tipos mobil de stanno.<ref name="Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 217">Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 217.</ref> Ben que le imprimation per tipos mobil e per blocos de ligno esseria le methodos de imprimation dominante durante seculos, le pressa de imprimation europee (qui usava le pressa a screw hellenistic) esset finalmente adoptate per le paises asiatic oriental. Pro le imprimation, le production in massa de papiro pro scriber esseva ja ben establite in China. Le processo de fabricar papiro habeva essite perfectionate e standardisate per Cai Lun, eunuco de cour del dynastia Han (50–121), in 105, e habeva essite in uso general pro scriber desde le [[seculo 3]].<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 1">Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 1.</ref> Le dynastia Song esseva le prime governamento in historia a emitter moneta impressite super papiro — le billet de banque (vide Jiaozi e Huizi).<ref name="ebrey 156">Ebrey, 156.</ref> Le papiro pro uso de toiletta habeva essite in uso general in China desde le [[seculo 6]],<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 122"/> e sacos de papiro pro preservar le aroma de the esseva usate desde le [[seculo 7]].<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 122"/> Durante le dynastia Song, industrias independente e subventionate per le governamento esseva desenvolvite pro satisfacer le necessitates de un population que habeva superate le 100 milliones. Pro exemplo, pro le imprimation de moneta impressite solmente, le cour de Song establiva plusere mentas e fabricas dirigi per le governamento in le citates de Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou e Anqi.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 1 48">Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 48.</ref> Le dimension del forza de travalio implicate in iste fabricas de moneta impressite esseva bastante grande, como illo esseva registrate in 1175 que le fabrica a Hangzhou imploiava plus que un millesimo de travaliatores per die.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 1 48"/> == Guerra con pulvero == [[File:FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg|thumb|left|Le plus vetul representacion cognoscite de un arma de foco (un "lancia de foco") e un grenata (in alto a dextra), trovate in le muros de caverna a Dunhuang, circa 950 CE.<ref name="Tanner">{{cite book|author=Harold Miles Tanner|title=China: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA204|year=2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=978-0-87220-915-2|page=204|quote=First known illustration of a fire lance and a grenade}}</ref><ref name="Bodde">{{cite book|author=Derk Bodde|title=Chinese Ideas About Nature and Society: Studies in Honour of Derk Bodde|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPQuETESw84C&pg=PA300|access-date=15 February 2013|year=1987|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-962-209-188-7|page=300}}</ref>]] === Lanceaflammas === Le avantiamentos in technologia militar adjuvava le dynastia Song in su defensa contra vicinos hostil al nord. Le flammiferator habeva su origines in Grecia durante le era Byzantine, implicant le fuoco greco (un fluido petrolifere multo inflammabile e chimicamente complexe) in un dispositivo con un tubo sifon per le seculo 7.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 77">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 77.</ref> Le prime mention de Fuoco Greco in China habeva loco in 917, scripte per Wu Renchen in su Chronica del Primavera e del Autumno de le Decem Regnos.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 80">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 80.</ref> In 919, le bomba proyector sifon esseva usate pro diffunder le 'feroce oleo de fuoco' que non poteva esser extinguite con aqua, como registrate per Lin Yu in su Wuyue Beishi, signalmente le prime referentia credibile in China del flammiferator con le soluta chimic del Fuoco Greco (vide etiam Pen Huo Qi).<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 81">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 81.</ref> Lin Yu mentionava etiam que le 'feroce oleo de fuoco' derivava finalmente ab uno de le contactos maritime de China in le 'mar del sud', Arabia (Dashiguo).<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 82">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 82.</ref> In le Battalia del Flumine Langshan Jiang in 919, le flota naval del Re Wenmu del regno de Wuyue batteva un exercito de Huainan del stato de Wu; le successo del Re Wenmu esseva facilitate per le uso del 'oleo de fuoco' ('huo you') pro incendiar lor flota, significante le prime uso chinese de pulvera in un battalia.<ref>Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 81–83</ref> Le chineses applicava le uso de un doppio-pistono fiorello pro extraher le petrolo ex un cylindro solitari (con un curso ascendente e descendente), accendite in le fin per un flammifero lente de pulvera de pistollo pro lanciar un continuu flusso de flamma.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 82"/> Iste dispositivo esseva describite e illustrate in le manuscripto militar Wujing Zongyao de 1044.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 82"/> Durante le suppression del stato Tang del Sud per 976, le prime fortias naval de Song les confrontava sur le Flumine Yangtze in 975. Le fortias de Tang del Sud essayava a usar flammiferatores contra le flota de Song, ma accidentalmente esseva consumite per lor proprie fuoco quando ventos violente spirava in lor direction.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 89">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 89.</ref> [[File:Chinese Flamethrower.JPG|thumb|Un [[lanciafoco]] chinese del manuscripto "Wujing Zongyao" de 1044 CE, dynastia Song.]] === Lancea de foco === Aunque le effectos destructive del polvere de piro esseva descrivite in le precedent dynastia Tang per un alchimista taoista, le formulas scribite plus vetule cognoscite pro le polvere de piro veni del texto Wujing Zongyao de 1044, que describit bombas explosive jactate per catapultas.<ref name="ebrey cambridge 138">Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 138.</ref> Le prime developmentos del tubo de piro e del cannone que jecta projectiles trovate in le tardive dynastia Song in China. Le prime pictura artistic del 'lanca de piro' chinese (un combination de un flammithrower temporal e pistola) veni ex un pictura mural budhiste de Dunhuang, circa 950.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 224 225">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 224–225.</ref> Iste 'lancas de piro' esseva largemente usate del initio del seculo 12, con canes de bambu excavate como tubos pro jectare particulas de arena (pro cecar e suffocar), pelletos de plombo, peciettas de metal e ceramica, e finmente grande sagittas e artilleria a rochetas propulsate per polvere de piro.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 220 221">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 220–221.</ref> Progressivemente, le bambu perishabile esseva substituite per tubos de ferro fuso, e etiam cambiava le terminologia pro iste nove arma, de 'lanca de piro' ('huo qiang') a 'tubo de piro' ('huo tong').<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 221">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 221.</ref> Iste antecessor del arma de foco esseva complementate per le antecessor del cannone, que le chineses appellava desde le seculo 13 'magazin erupter de multiple pilas' ('bai zu lian zhu pao'), un tubo de bronze o ferro fuso que esseva pleniate con circa 100 pilas de plombo.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 263–264">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 263–364.</ref> In 1132, al lege de De'an, le fortias chinese Song usava lancas de piro contra le rival dynastia Jin dirigit per le Jurchen.<ref>Needham, Volume V, Part 7, 222.</ref> === Fusil === In antecesso notabile depiction de un arma de foco es un sculptura ex una caverna in [[Sichuan]], que data de 1128, que presenta un figura qui porta un bombard in forma de vaso, lanciante flammaes e un pilum.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Lu|last=Gwei-Djen|author2=Joseph Needham |author3=Phan Chi-Hsing |date=July 1988|journal=[[Technology and Culture]]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=594–605|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|title=The Oldest Representation of a Bombard|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_technology-and-culture_1988-07_29_3/page/594|doi=10.2307/3105275|jstor=3105275}}</ref> Tamen, le plus vetule scoperta archeologic de un canna de metal pistollo es le Heilongjiang pistola-manual ex le excavationes de Heilongjiang in China, que data de 1288.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 293">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 293.</ref> Le Chineses anque discoperiva le potentia explosive de plenar canonesco shells de pulvere de pyrotechnia. Scripte ulteriormente per Jiao Yu in su Huolongjing (medie [[seculo 14]]), iste manuscripto registrava un cannone de fundite ferro note como le 'eruptor de nubes volante del trueno' (fei yun pi-li pao) del periodo del Song. Le manuscripto declarava que: :''Le shells es facite de ferro fundite, del grandor de un catino e in forma de un balla. Iste shells contine un hemi-libra de pulvere de pyrotechnia 'magica'. Illos es lanciate contra le campo inimic per un eruptor; e quando illos attinge le campo, on audiva un sonar simile a un trueno, e flashs de lumiere appare. Si se lancia decem de iste shells con successo in le campo inimic, le loco toto incendiara...''<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 264">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 264.</ref> Un diagramma de inco super papiro de un trebuchet. Un bracio longe con un capite spheric reposa super un grande plataforma quadratic. Le plataforma quadratic es supportate per quatro plaino dissecate quadratos, que connecte al un substruction aperte. Corda pendula inter le extremo del palo que non ha le capite e le interno del substruction, le plus distantemente possibile ab le initio del corda. Le assemblage se move sur quatro rotes attachate al latere del substruction. [[File:Trebuchet1-intransit.jpg|thumb|Un illustration de un [[trebuchet]] catapult, como es descrivite in le "Wujing Zongyao" de 1044.]] Como jam dictate, le cambio de terminologia pro iste nove armas durante le periodo del Song esseva gradual. Le prime canones del periodo Song esseva initialmente nominate del mesme maniera que le trebuchet catapult chines. Un scholastic del posterior dynastia Ming cognoscite como Mao Yuanyi explicarea iste uso de terminologia e le vera origines del cannone in su texto del Wubei Zhi, scripte in 1628: :''Le gente del Song usava le trebuchet catapult de tornalia, le trebuchet catapult de singulo palo e le trebuchet catapult del tigre agachate. Illas tote esseva nominate 'turbos de foco' proque illos esseva usate pro projectar armas de foco como le (foco-)balla, (foco-)falco e (foco-)lance. Illas esseva le antecessores del cannone.''<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 22">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 22.</ref> === Mina terrestre === Le ''Huolongjing'' del seculo 14 esseva igualmente un del prime textos chinese que describeva cuidatosamente le uso de minas terrestres explosive, que habeva essite usate per le chineses del fin del periodo Song contra le Mongolos in 1277 e usate per le dynastia Yuan postea.<ref name = "needham volume 5 part 7 192"/> Le innovation del mina terrestre detonate esseva attribuite a un tal Luo Qianxia in le campania de defensa contra le invasion Mongol per Kublai Khan.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 192">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 192.</ref> Textos chinese ulterior ha revelate que le mina terrestre chinese usava o un corda rasgante o un dispositivo de trappola del movimento con un perno que liberava pesos cadente que faceva rotar un rota de acero que produciva scintillas que inflammava le traino de fusi pro le minas terrestres.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 199">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 199.</ref> === Rocchettas === In plus, le Song usava le prime rochettas propulsate per polvere de pyrotechnia in le guerra durante le fin del seculo 13,<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 477">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 477.</ref> le prime forma de isto essendo le archaic flecha de foco. Quando le capital del Nord le Song, Kaifeng, cadet in le manos del Jurchen in 1126, Xia Shaozeng scribeva que 20 000 flechas de foco esseva transferite al Jurchens in lor conquesta.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 154">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 154.</ref> Un texto chinese etiam plus arcaic, le Wujing Zongyao ("Collection de le Technicas Militari Le Plus Importante"), scribeva in 1044 per le eruditos Song Zeng Kongliang e Yang Weide, describeva le uso de tres arcuballistas de tres arcas que poteva tirar sagetas que contineva polvere de pyrotechnia vicin al capite de le sageta.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 154"/> Tornante ancora plus al passato, le Wu Li Xiao Shi (1630, secunde edition 1664) de Fang Yizhi afirmava que flechas de foco esseva presentate al Imperator Taizu de Song (r. 960–976) in 960.<ref name="partington 240">Partington, 240.</ref> == Ingenieria civil == [[File:Boju-gueltas.jpg|thumb|Un systema de clausura de canales in Francia moderne que usa le systema de clausura de libra, que esseva disveloppate durante le dynastia Song.]] In le China antique, le barra de sectionamento, le éclusa, e le éclusa flash habeva essite cognoscite desde al minus le [[seculo 1 aEC]]. (proque fontes de illo tempore allude que illos non esseva nove innovationes), durante le dynastia Han antique ([[202 aEC]] - [[220|220 EC]])<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 344 350">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 344–350.</ref> Durante le dynastia Song, le éclusa de compartimentos esseva inventate in 984 per le Commissario Adjuncto del Transporto pro Huainan, le ingeniero Qiao Weiyue.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 350">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 350.</ref> Durante su epocha, le chineses habeva preoccupation con un problema de traffic de barges in le section de Shanyang Yundao del Grand Canal, proque le naves se rompeva frequentemente durante le passagio super le paires de scivoli e esseva rubate del grano de taxas per banditos local. Le texto historic del Song Shi (compilate in 1345) affirmava que in 984: :''Qiao Weiyue anque construeva cinque paires de scivoli (lit. stuppas) inter Anbei e Huaishi (o, le quais in le fronte del Huai waterfront). Cata un habeva dece lane pro que le barges poteva ascendere e discendere. Lor cargas de grano de taxas imperial esseva pesante, e durante lor passagio, illos sovente encounterava problemes e esserompeva o perdeva lor carga, o habeva peculation per le conspiration del laboratores in liga con banditos local abscondite in proximitate. Qiao Weiyue ordina al prime le construction de duo portas al tertie scivolo juxta le Fluvio del West (proxime a Huaiyin). Le distantia inter le duo portas esseva plen plus que 50 passos (250 ft) e tote le area esseva cuberte con un grande tecto similar a un cabana. Le portas esseva 'pendent portas'; (quando illos esseva claude) le aqua se accumulava como un marea usque que le nivello requerite esseva attingite, e quando le tempore veniva, on permitteva que il flue. Il anque construeva un ponte horizontal pro proteger lor fundationes. Post que isto esseva facite (pro omne le paires de scivoli), le corruption previe esseva completamente eliminat, e le passagio del navios continuava sin alcun impedimento.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 351">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 351.</ref>'' [[File:Canal lock.svg|thumb|Diagramma de un clave de canale de recisca, inventate in le [[seculo 10]] e describite per Shen Kuo.]] Iste practica deveniva ample, e esseva mesmo describite per le scientista polymatha chinese Shen Kuo in su Essays del Piscina de Somnio (1088)<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 351 352">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 351–352.</ref>. Shen Kuo scribeva que le introduction de claves de canale de recisca a Zhenzhou (presumibilmente Kuozhou a lo longo del Yangtze) durante le periodo de reigno de Tian Sheng (1023–1031) liberava le uso de quinque centos laboratores de travalio in le canal cata anno, equivalente a un economia de usque a 1 250 000 chordas de moneta annualmente<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 352">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 352.</ref>. Ille scribeva que le vetule methodo de traher barchas super limitava le grandor del cargo a 300 tan de ris per vascello (approximativemente 21 longe tonelatas/21 000 kg), ma post le introduction del claves de canale de recisca, barchas que portava 400 tan (approximativemente 28 longe tonelatas/28 000 kg) poteva esser usate<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 352"/>. Shen scribeva que al tempore de su scriptura (circa 1080) barchas gubernamental poteva portar cargos ponderal usque a 700 tan (49,5 longe tonelatas/50 300 kg), durante que barchas private poteva detener usque a 800 saccos, cata sacco ponderante 2 tan (i.e. 113 longe tonelatas/115 000 kg)<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 352"/>. Shen Kuo notava etiam que le uso correcte de clausuras de regulas in canales de irrigation esseva le melior maniera de attinger successo in le methodo de fertilisation de sedimentes<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 230 231">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 230–231.</ref>. Tamen, besonios agricultural e de transportation poteva entrar in conflicto. Isto es le melior representate in le Dongpo Zhilin del official governamental e famose poeta Su Shi (1037–1101), qui scribeva circa duo decennios ante Shen Kuo in 1060: :Alcun annos retro, le governamento construeva clausuras de regulas pro le methodo de fertilisation de sedimentes, ma multe personas non esseva de accordo con le plano. Nonobstante omne opposition, le plano esseva realisate, ma habeva pauco successo. Quando le torrentes in Fan Shan esseva abundant, le clausuras esseva celate, e isto causava damno (per inundation) de campos, tombs, e casas. Quando le torrentes subsidiava in le tardive automno le clausuras esseva aperite, e ergo le campos esseva irrigate con aqua portante sedimentes, ma le deposito non esseva tam spisse como que le paysanos appella 'sedimentes de torta steamed' (pro lo qual illes non esseva satisfacte). Finalmente le governamento se lassava del affaire e lo abandonava. In iste connexion io memora le lectura del Jiayipan de Bai Juyi (le poeta) in le qual ille diceva que il habeva un viceposition como Commissario de Traffic. Ben que le doca seca esseva cognoscite in le Egypto ptolemaic depost le fin del [[seculo 3 aEC]]. (per un fenicio; non usate de nove usque a Henric VII de Anglaterra in 1495), le scientista e statista Shen Kuo scribeva de su uso in China pro reparation de barche durante le seculo 11. In su Essays del Suenio del Tanque (1088), Shen Kuo scribeva: : ''Al comenciamento del dynastia (c. 965) le duo provincias de Zhe (nunc Zhejiang e le sud de Jiangsu) presentava (al throno) duo naves dragon plus de (60,00 m/200 ft) in longitude.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 660 220 feet">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 660, 200 feet.</ref> Le superstructuras includeva multe pontes con cabinas palatine e salones, que contineva tronos e divanes preste pro inspectiones imperial. Post multe annos, lor carcassas putrideva e necessitava reparationes, ma le labor esseva impossibile dum illes se trovava in le aqua. Ergo, in le periodo de reigno de Xi-Ning (1068 a 1077), un official de palatio, Huang Huaixin, suggereva un plan. Un grande basin esseva excavate al fin nord del laco Jinming capace de contener le naves dragon, e sur illo essetan leviatas trabes transversalmente super un fundamento de columnas. Tunc (un ruptura esseva facite) de tal maniera que le basin rapidemente se rempliva con aqua, post que le naves esseva tractate super le trabes. (Le ruptura nunc essendo claudite), le aqua esseva extrahite per rotas, de tal maniera que le naves reposava completamente in le aere. Quando le reparationes esseva complete, le aqua esseva de novo permittite a fluere, de tal maniera que le naves esserava flottante ancora (e poteva abandonar le doca). Finalmente, le trabes e columnas esseva removite, e le tot basin esseva coperte con un grande tecto de maniera que formava un hangar in que le naves poteva esser protegite del elementos e evitar le danno causate per exposition inordinate.''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 660">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 660.</ref> == Nautica == === Contexto === [[File:Angler on a Wintry Lake, by Ma Yuan, 1195.jpg|thumb|"Angler in un lago hibernante", picturate in 1195 per [[Ma Yuan (pictor)|Ma Yuan]], que presenta le plus vetule depiction cognoscite de un [[mulinello da pesca]].<ref>Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 100.</ref>]] Le chineses del dynastia Song esseva marineros habile qui navigava usque a portos distantiate como Egypto Fatimida. Illes esseva ben equipate pro lor viages externe, in grandes naves maritime dirigite per timones a poppa e guidate per le compasso directional. Anque ante que Shen Kuo e Zhu Yu habeva descrite le compasso magnetic del marinero, le tractato militar anterior del Wujing Zongyao in 1044 habeva descrite anque un compasso de thermoremanentia. Ille esseva un simple aegyreo o ferreo acula qui esseva calefactate, refrigerate e placite in un bacino de aqua, producente un effecto de magnetisation debile, ben que su uso esseva descrite solmente pro le navigation in terra e non in mari. === Litteratura === [[File:Qingming Festival Detail 6.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detalio de naves fluvial ancorante a [[Kaifeng]], extrahite de "Junto al Rio Durante el Festival Qingming" per [[Zhang Zeduan]] (1085-1145).]] [[File:Qingming Festival Detail 4.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Un altere vista prochime del detalio de "Apud le Rio durante le Festival Qingming".]] Habeva multe descriptiones in le litteratura chinese de ille tempore sur le operationes e aspectos de portos maritim, le navigation del commercio maritim, le commercio transmarin, e le navios de vela mesme. In 1117, le auctore Zhu Yu scribeva non solmente del compasso magnetic pro navigation, ma etiam de un fune de cento pedes con un uncino que essera jactate super le ponte del navio, usate pro colliger samples de luto in le fundo del mar proque le equipage pote determinar lor location per le odore e le aspecto del luto.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 279">Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 279.</ref> De plus, Zhu Yu scribeva de compartimentos impermeabile in le scafas de navios pro prevenir submersion si lor esseva danificate, le vela carricabile, saggie taute de mat, e le practica del navigar contra le vento.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 463">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 463.</ref> Confirmante le scription de Zhu Yu sur le scafas con compartimentos impermeabile durante le dynastia Song, in 1973 un navio commercial de Song de 78 pedes (24 m) de longitude e 29 pedes (8.8 m) de latitudine circa 1277 esseva dragate del aqua presso le costa meridional de China, que conteneva 12 compartimentos impermeabile in su scafa.<ref name="ebrey 159">Ebrey, 159.</ref> Le cultura maritim durante le periodo Song esseva meliorate per iste nove technologias, juntamente con le permission de plus grande traffico de fluvios e canales. Circa se habeva un display animose de navios de transporto de taxe de grano dirigite per le governamento, vasos de tributo e barcos, vasos de navigation private, multe piscatores active in piccolo barcos de piscation, juntamente con le ricos qui gaudieva le comfortos de lor luxuose yachtes private.<ref name="China"/> Excepte Zhu Yu, il habeva altere autores chinese prominente de interesses maritim, in 1178, le official de customs de Guangzhou, Zhou Qufei, qui scribeva in Lingwai Daida sur le mercato de schiavos african in Africa usque Madagascar,<ref name="levathes 37">Levathes, 37.</ref> affirmava isto sur le navios chines, lor dimensiones, lor durabilitate in le mar e le vidas de illes a bordo: [[File:Guo Zhongshu-Traveling on the River in Snow.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Un pictura Song super seta de duo [[junko (navio)|naves de carga chines]] accompagnate per un barca plus parve; note le grande timon montate al sterne del nave monstrate in prime plano.]] [[File:SongJunk.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Un nave [[junko (navio)|junk]] del periodo Song, seculo 13; le naves chinese del periodo Song habeva [[scaphandro]]s con compartimentos estanche.]] :''Le navios que naviga le mar meridional e sud de illo es como casas. Quando lor velas es sparsite, illos es como grande nubes in le celo. Lor sterne es de diverse decenas de pedes de longitude. Un sol navio porta diverse centenares de homines, e in le provisiones il ha le suprastoque de un anno de grano. Porcos es nutrite e vino es fermentate a bordo. Il non ha reporto de mortos o vivos, nec de retorno al terra firma post que le gente se ha incarregiate super le mar cerulean. A le prime luce del die, quando le gong sona a bordo del navio, le animales pote biber lor plenitud e tanto le equipage como le passageros oblida tote le periculos. Pro illes a bordo, omne es celate e perdite in le spatio, montes, puntos de referentia, e le paises del estranieros. Le patrono del navio pote dicer 'Pro arrivar a tal e tal pais con un vento favorabile in tal numero de dies, nos debera vider tal e tal monte, (tunc) le navio debe sterne in tal e tal direction'. Ma subito le vento pote calmar e non esser sufficientemente forte pro permitter le vider del monte al die indicate; in tal caso, le direction debe esser cambiate. E le navio (al altere latere) pote esser portate multo ultra (le punto de referentia) e pote perder su direction. Un uragano pote surgir, le navio pote esser portate de ci e de illac, illo pote incontrar secas o esser impellite super roccas celate, tunc illo pote esser distructe usque le propri tecto (del cammarotes de ponte). Un grande navio con un cargo pesante non ha alcun timor del alt mar, ma es plus ben in le aqua basse que illo debe infortunar se.''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 464">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 464.</ref> Le viagiator musulman marocchin berbere Ibn Battuta (1304-1377) scribeva con major detalio sur le navios de navigation chinese que Zhou Qufei. Il notava que in e circum le mar de China, solmente le distincte jonchos chinese esseva usate pro navigar le aquas.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 469">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 469</ref> Il observava que le plus grande typo de navios chinese habeva un total de dece-duo mastes de navegar, durante que le plus parve habeva tres.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 469"/> Sur le navios chinese e lor equipages, Ibn Battuta affirmava: :''Le velas de iste navios es facite de laminas de bambu, tessite in forma de stamine. Le marineros nunquam las abaissa (durante le navigation, ma simplemente) cambia lor direction secundo si le vento es de un latere o un altro. Quando le navios ancora, le velas es deposite in le vento. Cada un de iste navios es governate per 1000 homines, 600 marineros e 400 soldatos, inter illes arqueros e ballesteros munite de scutas, e homines qui jacta (vasos de) nafta. Cata grande vasello es sequite per tres altere, un "nisfi", un "thoulthi" e un "roubi" (nota a de basse: un pinaza, un bote micre con un timon, e un bote a remos). Iste navios nunquam es facite excepte in le citate de Zayton (Quanzhou) in China, o a Sin-Kilan, que es le mesme que Sin al-Sin (Guangzhou).''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 469"/> Ibn Battuta postea continuava describente le medias de lor construction, e depictos accurate de compartimentos separate in le carenas del navios: :''Assi es le maniera in le qual illos es facite; duo muros (parallele) de assatis pannos de ligno assatis spiss se eleva, e transversalmente inter illos es placiato assatis spisse plancas (le separatores de carena) assicurate longitudinalmente e transversalmente per medias de grandissime clavos, cata tres ulnas in longitude. Quando iste muros ha assi essite construite, le ponte inferior es installate, e le navio es lanciate ante que le partes superior ha essite complete. Le pannos de ligno, e iste partes del carena, proxime al aqua serve al equipage pro lavar se e facer lor necessitates natural. Anque le remos es trovate super le latere de iste pannos de ligno; illos es tanto grande como mastes, e es operat per 10 o 15 homines (cata un), qui rema stante.''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 469"/> Ben que Ibn Battuta ha mentionate le dimensiones del equipage de navigo, ille describit le dimensiones del vassal plus in detalio, assi como le habitationes luxuose del mercatores abordo: :''Le vassalles ha quatro pontes, super que il ha cabinas e salones pro mercatores. Plure de iste 'mysria' contine armarios e altere commoditates; illos ha portas que pote esser claustrate, e claves pro lor occupantes. (Le mercatores) porta lor sposas e concubinas con illos. Illo occurri saepe que un homine pote esser in su cabina sin que alteres a bordo se rende conto, e illes non lo vide usque que le vassal ha arrivate in un porto. Le marineros ha anque lor infantes in tal cabinas; e (in alcun partes del navio) illes planta herbas de horto, legumes, e gingibre in tonellos de ligno. Le Comandante de tal vassal es un grande Emir; quando ille sbarca, le arcieros e le Ethiopos (i.e. schiavos nigre, ma in China iste homines armate forsan ha essite malayos) marcia ante illo, portante javelines e spadas, con tambures que sona e trompetas que sono. Quando ille arriva al hospitio ubi ille sta, illes erige lor lancias a cata latere del porto, e monta guardia durante su visita.''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 470">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 470.</ref> === Navios con palea === [[File:Radpaddelsch.jpg|thumb|left|Navio a roda con palea, 1726.]] Durante le dynastia Song se prestava multe attention al construction de vehiculos aquatic efficace cognoscite como navios a roda de palettas. Le ultime esseva cognoscite in China forsan desde le [[seculo 5]],<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 31">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 31.</ref> e certemente durante le dynastia Tang in 784 con le designo efficace de nave de guerra a roda de palettas de Li Gao.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 31"/> In 1134, le Commissario de Transporto Adjuncto de Zhejiang, Wu Ge, habeva navios de guerra a roda de palettas construite con un total de nove rodas e alteres con tredecim rodas.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 421">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 421.</ref> Tamen, il habeva navios a roda de palettas in le periodo Song que esseva tal grande que 12 rodas appareva in cata latere del nave.<ref name="morton 104">Morton, 104.</ref> In 1135, le famose general Yue Fei (1103-1142) faceva un emboscada a un fortia de rebells sub Yang Yao, inviscerando lor vehiculos aquatic a roda de palettas per plenar un laco con vegetales aquatique e blosios putrid, permittente illes a abordar lor navios e ganiar un victoria strategic.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 421"/> In 1161, le bombardeos de polvere de canon e le vehiculos aquatic a roda de palettas esseva usate effectivemente per le Chineses Song durante le Battalia de Tangdao e le Battalia de Caishi juxta le Rio Yangtze contra le dynastia Jurchen Jin durante le guerres Jin-Song. Le invasion de Jurchen, conducite per Wanyan Liang (le Prince de Hailing), falliva in conquistar le Song del Sud.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 421"/> In 1183, le commandante naval de Nanking, Chen Tang, recipeva un recompensa pro construer nonanta vehiculos aquatic a roda de palettas e altere navios de guerra.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 421"/> In 1176, le Imperator Xiaozong de Song (r. 1162-1189) dava un ordine imperial al official de Nanking Guo Gang (qui voleva converter navios a roda de palettas danificate in junk ships e galeres) non limitar le numero de vehiculos aquatic a roda de palettas in le arsenales del marina, posto que ille habeva un grande stima pro le vehiculos de assalto rapide que ganiava le victoria chinese a Caishi.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 422">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 422.</ref> Tamen, le vehiculos aquatic a roda de palettas trovava altere usos ultra assaltos efficace in guerra. Le Commissario de Transporto Mercatorial pro Quanzhou, le musulman Pu Shougeng (qui serviva de 1250 a 1275) observava que le Chineses usava etiam navios a roda de palettas como remolcadors pro tractar.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 423">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 423.</ref> == Metallurgia == [[File:Yuan Dynasty - waterwheels and smelting.png|thumb|Un illustration de una forno de fusione alimentate per mantellos activate per rotes aquatic, del "Nong Shu" per [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]], 1313, durante le dynastia Yuan.]] Le arte del metallurgia durante le dynastia Song se basava super le effortios de dynastias chinese anterior, durante que nove methodos esseva incorporate. Le Chineses del ancian dynastia Han (202 a.C. – 220 d.C.) trovava como crear acero per medio del fussionar le carbon intermedio inter ferro laborate e ferro fundite per le seculo 1 aEC.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 563g">Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 563 g</ref><ref name="gernet 69">Gernet, 69.</ref><ref name="morton 287">Morton, 287.</ref> Tamen, il habeva duo nove innovationes chinese del dynastia Song pro crear acero durante le seculo 11. Isto esseva le methodo "berganese" que produceva acero inferior e inhomogene, durante que le altere esseva un precursor del Bessemer process moderne que utilisava un decarbonisation partial per medio de repetite forgeation sub un blasto frigide.<ref name="Hartwell, 53 54">Hartwell, 53–54.</ref> Le production de ferro per capita aumentava se sextuplo inter 806 e 1078, e per 1078, le China del Song produceva 127.000.000 kg (125.000 tonas longe; 127.000 t) de peso de ferro per annum.<ref name="Ebrey 158">Ebrey et al., 158.</ref><ref name="wagner 175"/> Le historico Donald B. Wagner nota que iste estimation se basava super le numero total de recettas de taxas governamental super le ferro ab le vari prefecturas productor de ferro in le imperio.<ref name="wagner 177">Wagner, 177.</ref> In le processo de fusione per medio del uso de immenses soufflos movite per hydraulica (i.e. grandes roettas aquatic), masive quantitates de carbon lignose esseva usate in le processo de production, conducente a un vasta deforestisation in le nord de China.<ref name="Ebrey 158"/><ref name="ebrey cambridge 144">Ebrey, ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', 144.</ref> Tamen, al fin del seculo 11, le Chineses discoperiva que le uso de coca bituminose poteva substituer le rollo de carbon, e assi multe acres de terra forestate e ligno prime in le nord de China esseva sparate per le industria de ferro e acero con iste cambio de recursos al coal.<ref name="Ebrey 158"/><ref name="ebrey cambridge 144"/> Iste immense augmento de production in le industria de ferro e acero in China resultava de le necessitates de expansion militar del dynastia Song, le demandas commercial privates pro productos metallos como utensiles de cocinar trovate in le mercato e un varietate ample de instrumentos agricultural, e per nove canales que ligan le centros major de production de ferro e acero al mercato vibrant del citate capital.<ref name="embree 339">Embree, 339.</ref> Le multe usos pro productos de ferro manufacturate in le periodo Song includeva ferro pro armas,<ref name="wagner 175">Wagner, 175.</ref> instrumentos,<ref name="wagner 175"/> monetas,<ref name="wagner 175"/> elementos architectural,<ref name="wagner 175"/> campanas musical,<ref name="wagner 175"/> statues artistic,<ref name="wagner 175"/> e componentes pro machinarias como le malleus trip hydraulica, que se cognosceva desde le seculo 1 aEC durante le dynastia Han antique,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 390 392">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 390–392.</ref> e se usava extensive durante le Song.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 393">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 393.</ref> Propter le enorme quantitate de production, le historico economic Robert Hartwell notava que le production de ferro e carbon in China durante le subsequente seculo 13 esseva equal o plus grande que le production de ferro e carbon in Angleterre durante le prime fase del Revolution Industrial al fin del [[seculo 18]].<ref name="embree 712">Embree, 712.</ref> Tamen, le chineses del periodo del Song non utilisava le potentia energetic del carbon in modos que generava poter mechanic, como lo faceva le Revolution Industrial que nasceva in Occidente posteriormente.<ref name="China">China. (2007). [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-71718/China In ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']. From Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-06-28</ref> Il habeva certe prefecturas administrative durante le era del Song ubi le industria del ferro chinese esseva concentrate principalmente. Per exemplo, le poeta e statista Su Shi scribeva un memoriale al throno in 1078 que specificava 36 fusorias de ferro, cata un imploiante un fortia de varie centenares de personas, in le prefectura industrial de Liguo (sub su administration durante que il administrava Xuzhou).<ref name="wagner 178 179">Wagner, 178–179.</ref> == Poter del vento == Le effecto del poter del vento esset apprisciate in China multo ante le introduction del molino de vento durante le periodo Song. Es incerte quando le ancianos Chineses usava lor prime follas inflatorie como machinas de vento pro furnos e fornos. Illos existeva forsan ja durante le dynastia Shang (1600-1050 a.C.), a causa del technologia intricate de fusione de bronzo del periodo. Illos certemente esseva usate desde le apparition del furno de blasto in China a partir del [[seculo 6 aEC]], ja que instrumentos de ferro fundite e armas era extensivemente usate a partir del [[seculo 5 aEC]].<ref name="ebrey 30">Ebrey, 30.</ref> In 31, le prefecto governmental e ingeniero de dynastia Han, Du Shi (m. 38), utilisava rotas de aqua horizontal e un systema de engranages mechanic complexe pro operar le grandes follas inflatorie que calefaccionava le furno de blasto durante le fusion de ferro fundite.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 370">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 370.</ref> Le follas inflatorie continuava a esser usate pro metallurgia, ma altere fontes de poter de vento esseva discoperite e utilisationate. Le artisano de dynastia Han, Ding Huan (fl. 180) non solmente inventava le suspension cardan, ma etiam le ventilator rotary,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 33">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 33.</ref> que poteva esser usate como un simple climatisator.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 233">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 233.</ref> Ille utilisava sept rotas, cata un de 3 m de diametro, e alimentate manualmente, ma durante le dynastia Tang (618-907) le palatios habeva ventilatores rotative alimentate per aqua pro climatisar, e durante le dynastia Song, dice Needham, "le effectos refrigerante del tirage artificial pareva haber essite apprisciate ancora plus amplemente."<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 151">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 151.</ref> Habeva etiam un intricate machina chinese de ventilator rotative de cribration depictite in le tractato de agricultura Nong Shu de Wang Zhen de 1313 (ben que le depicto le plus vetule de un machina de cribration esseva de un modelo de tumulo de dynastia Han datate del [[seculo 2 aEC]]. al [[seculo 2]]).<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 118">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 118.</ref><ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 plate CLVI">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, Plate CLVI.</ref> Post iste innovationes, le molino de vento esseva finalmente introducite in China durante le prime parte del seculo 13 per le dynastia Jin in le nord de China, durante le fin del periodo Song. Le scholari persian Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari scribeva circa 850 que le precedente califa Umar ibn al-Khattab esseva assassinate in 644 per le technico Abu Lu'lu'a, qui affirmava haber construite molinos movite per le potentia del vento.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 556">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 556.</ref> Plus fiabile que iste reporto eran le molinos de vento del fratribus Banu Musa (850 a 870), durante que il ha etiam varie autores que confirma le molinos de vento de Sistan (Iran), de que Abu Ishaq al-Istakhri e Abu al-Qasim ibn Hauqal scribeva.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 557">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 557.</ref> Le norde chinese sub le dominio del dynastia Jurchen Jin cognosceva le molinos de vento del mundo islamic in le initio del seculo 13. Isto es evidente in un relato del Shu Zhai Lao Xue Cong Tan (Collection de Discurso del Homine Erudit del Studio Shu), scribeva per Sheng Ruozi.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 560">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 560.</ref> Illo diceva: :''In le collection del obras private del 'Scholar Retirate Placid' (Zhan Ran Ju Shi), il ha dece poemas super Hechong Fu. Un de illos describi le scenatio de iste loco [...] e dice que 'le triticate triticum es molite per le vento accelerante e le oriza es pestate frescamente per pestellos pendente. Le occidentales (i.e. turcos) ibi usa molinos de vento (feng mo) exactemente como le gente del sud (i.e. le Dynastia Song Meridional) usa molinos de aqua (shui mo). E quando illos pestava, illos habeva le pestellos pendente verticalmente'.''<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 560"/> Hic Sheng Ruozi cita un selection scripte super molinos de vento del 'Placid Retired Scholar', qui vermente es Yelü Chucai (1190–1244), un eminentia statesman del Jin e Yuan (post que le Jin cedeva in 1234 al mongoles).<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 560"/> Le passo se refere al viage de Yelü a Turkestan (le moderne Xinjiang) in 1219, e Hechong Fu es vermente Samarcanda (in le moderne Uzbekistan).<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 560"/> Postea, le Chineses applicava le rigging del velas 'fore-and-aft' de le navios tipic del junco chinese a le molinos de vento horizontal.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 561">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 561.</ref> Estes molinos de vento esseva usate pro operar le pompa de catena a placas quadrator usate in le irrigation chinese ab le antique dynastia Han.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 558">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 558.</ref> Molinos de vento de iste natura esseva ancora in uso durante le tempores moderne in Tianjin e al longe del Rio Yangtze.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 558"/> Le prime european qui videra molinos de vento chinese esseva Jan Nieuhoff, qui le observava in Jiangsu durante le viage del Canal Grand in 1656, como parte del ambassada olandese a Beijing.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 558"/> Le prime molinos de vento europee de que on ha scripte esseva illos de Dean Herbert de East Anglia in 1191, qui competeva con le molinos del Abbatia de Bury St Edmunds.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 555">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 555.</ref> Post le molin a vento, in China on trovava applicationes del potentia del vento in altri dispositivos e anque vehiculos. Existeva le 'carrossa navigante', que appariva al minus durante le dynastia Ming in le [[seculo 16]] (ben que poterea haber essite cognoscite previemente). Viagiantes europee a China al fin del seculo 16 esseva surprendite a discoperir grandes carretillas de un sol rota con passageros e carga non solmente trahite per mulas o cavallos, ma anque montate con mastes e velas simile a un nave pro adjuta los a avantiar per le vento.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 274 276">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 274–276.</ref> == Archeologia == Durante le prime medietate del dynastia Song (960-1279), le studio de archeologia se desenvolpeva ex le interesse antiquarian del intelligentsia educate e lor desiro de reviver le uso de vasa ancian in rituallos e ceremonias de stato.<ref name="fraser haber 227">Julius Thomas Fraser and Francis C. Haber, ''Time, Science, and Society in China and the West'' (Amherst: [[University of Massachusetts Press]], {{ISBN|0-87023-495-1}}, 1986), p. 227.</ref> Illo e le credita que vasa ancian esseva productos de "sapios" e non gente commun esseva criticate per Shen Kuo, qui discuteva de metallurgia, optica, astronomia, geometria e mesuras de musica ancian in addition al archeologia.<ref name="fraser haber 227"/> Su contemporaneo Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) compilava un catalogo analytic de gravuras ancian in petra e bronze.<ref>Patricia B. Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-521-66991-X}}), p. 148.</ref> In accordo con le credos del plus tardive Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), unes membros del intelligentsia Song, como Zhao Mingcheng (1081-1129), valutava le evidentia archeologic super obras historic scripte post le facto, trovante que le registros scripte esseva non-fiabiles quando illos non correspondeva con le scopertas archeologic.<ref name="rudolph">Rudolph, R.C. "Preliminary Notes on Sung Archaeology", ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' (Volume 22, Number 2, 1963): 169–177.</ref> Hong Mai (1123-1202) usava vasa ancian del epoca Han dynasty pro refutar le descriptiones fals e erronee de vasa Han trovate in le catalogo archeologic Bogutu compilato durante le secunde medietate del regno de Huizong (1100-1125).<ref name="rudolph"/> == Geologia e climatologia == Shen Kuo anque faceva hypotheses con relation a geologia e climatologia in su Essays del Estanque de Suenios de 1088. Shen credeva que le terra esseva remodelate con le tempore a causa del perpetuo erosion, elevation, e deposito de limo, e citava su observation de stratas horizontal de fossiles incorporate in un latere de rocca in Taihang como evidentia que le area habeva essite un costa ancian que habeva cambiato centenares de milias al est durante un enorme periodo de tempore. Shen anque scribeva que, como bambus petrificate se trovava subterra in un zona climaticamente arid al nord, ubi illes nunquam habeva essite cognoscite pro crescer, climas naturalmente cambiava geographicamente con le tempore. == Referentias == {{Reflist|2}} === Fontes === * Bowman, John S. (2000). ''Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture''. New York: Columbia University Press. * Ebrey, Walthall, Palais, (2006). ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. * Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999). ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press''. {{ISBN|0-521-43519-6}} (hardback); {{ISBN|0-521-66991-X}} (paperback). * [[Ainslie Embree|Embree, Ainslie Thomas]] (1997). ''Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching''. Armonk: ME Sharpe, Inc. * Gernet, Jacques (1982). ''A History of Chinese Civilization''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Hartwell, Robert (1966). ''Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry''. Journal of Economic History 26. * Levathes (1994). ''When China Ruled the Seas''. New York: Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|0-671-70158-4}}. * Morton, Scott and Charlton Lewis (2005). ''China: Its History and Culture: Fourth Edition''. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. * [[Joseph Needham|Needham, Joseph]] (1986). ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3; Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology, the Gunpowder Epic''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Partington, James Riddick (1960). ''A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder''. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. * [[Nathan Sivin|Sivin, Nathan]] (1995). ''Science in Ancient China''. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. * Unschuld, Paul U. (2003). ''Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text''. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Wagner, Donald B. "The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' (Volume 44 2001): 175-197. * Wright, David Curtis (2001) ''The History of China''. Westport: Greenwood Press. * Wu, Jing-nuan (2005). ''An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{traduction|en|Science and technology of the Song dynasty|1146672935}} [[Categoria:Historia de China]] [[Categoria:Technologia]] [[Categoria:Scientia]] [[Categoria:Scientia militar]] [[Categoria:Historia militar]] [[Categoria:Seculo 10]] [[Categoria:Seculo 11]] [[Categoria:Seculo 12]] [[Categoria:Seculo 13]] 8grxpz76lanhuk2jpybysbqxag8r3pp 0 54199 698211 657384 2026-08-03T22:39:57Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698211 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} {{infobox}} '''Desalinisation''' es un processo que remove componentes mineral de [[aqua salin]]. Plus generalmente, desalinisation refere al removal de sales e minerales de un substantia objectivo, como in le [[Controllo de salinitate del solo|desalinisation de solo]], que es un problema pro agricultura. Le [[aqua salin]] (particularmente [[Aqua de mar|aqua de mar]]) es desalinisate pro producer [[Aqua potabile|aqua apte pro consumption humano]] o [[irrigation]]. Le [[Subproducto|subproducto]] del processo de desalinisation es [[salmuria]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Panagopoulos|first1=Argyris|last2=Haralambous|first2=Katherine-Joanne|last3=Loizidou|first3=Maria|date=2019-11-25|title=Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies - A review|journal=The Science of the Total Environment|volume=693|pages=133545|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351|issn=1879-1026|pmid=31374511|bibcode=2019ScTEn.693m3545P|s2cid=199387639}}</ref> Desalinisation es usate in multe [[Nave|naves]] e [[Submarino|submarinos]]. Le majoritate del interesse moderne in desalinisation es concentrate in le provision coste-effective de [[aqua dulce]] pro uso humano. Conjunctemente con [[Aqua residual|aqua residual]] reciclato, illo es un del pauc [[Ressources hydric|fontes de aqua]] independente del pluvia.<ref name="Fischetti2007">{{Cite journal |last=Fischetti |first=Mark |date=September 2007 |title=Fresh from the Sea |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_2007-09_297_3/page/118 |journal=Scientific American|volume=297 |pmid=17784633 |issue=3 |pages=118–119|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0907-118 |bibcode=2007SciAm.297c.118F }}</ref> == Referentias == <references/> [[Categoria:Problemas ambiental con aqua]] [[Categoria:Filtros]] [[Categoria:Aqua dulce]] [[Categoria:Approvisionamento de aqua]] [[Categoria:Desalinisation de aqua]] [[Categoria:Tractamento de aqua]] sjwpub6huhp8x6k3pcpf63am9eimmex 0 55177 698271 662974 2026-08-04T00:09:05Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698271 wikitext text/x-wiki Le '''sebo''' ({{In lingua|la|''sebum''}}) es un substantia lubricante del [[pelle]] e del [[pilo]]s, que es [[secretion|secretate]] per le {{Ill|en|glandas sebacee|Sebaceous gland}} del [[mammifero]]s. In le [[Homo sapiens|humanes]], es principalmente composate de [[triglycerido]]s (≈41%), {{Ill|en|esters cerose|wax esters}} (≈26%), {{Ill|en|squalen|Squalene}} (≈12%) e [[acido grasse|acidos grasse]] libere (≈16%).<ref name=THODY1989>{{cite journal |author=Thody A. J., Shuster S.|title=Control and Function of Sebaceous Glands |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physiological-reviews_1989-04_69_2/page/383|journal=Physiological Reviews |volume=69 |issue=2 |year=1989 |pages=383–416 |doi= 10.1152/physrev.1989.69.2.383|pmid=2648418 }}</ref><ref name=CHENG2004>{{cite journal |author=Cheng JB, Russell DW |title=Mammalian Wax Biosynthesis II: Expression cloning of wax synthase cDNAs encoding a member of the acyltransferase enzyme family |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=279 |issue=36 |pages=37798–807 |date=September 2004 |pmid=15220349 |pmc=2743083 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M406226200 |url=http://www4.utsouthwestern.edu/moleculargenetics/pdf/dr_cur_res/JBiolChem2004-II.pdf |doi-access=free }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706075548/http://www4.utsouthwestern.edu/moleculargenetics/pdf/dr_cur_res/JBiolChem2004-II.pdf |date=2006-07-06 }}</ref> {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Anatomia]] 5hn0s7r7htc1edrv4bidufbtyyglttu 0 55432 698209 664644 2026-08-03T22:38:18Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698209 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Atlantogenata | fossil_range = [[Paleoceno]]-[[Holoceno|Presente]] {{fossil range|66|0|earliest=112.0}} forsan [[Cretaceo]] | image = Atlantogenata.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | superclassis = [[Tetrapoda]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] |taxon = Atlantogenata |taxon_rank = [[Superlegion]] |authority = Waddell et al, 1999<ref name="Waddell1999c">{{Cite journal | last1 = Waddell | first1 = Peter J.| last2 = Cao | first2 = Ying | last3 = Hasegawa | first3 = Masami | last4 = Mindell | first4 = David P. | doi = 10.1080/106351599260481 | title = Assessing the Cretaceous Superordinal Divergence Times within Birds and Placental Mammals by Using Whole Mitochondrial Protein Sequences and an Extended Statistical Framework | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_1999-03_48_1/page/119 | journal = [[Systematic Biology]] | volume = 48 | issue = 1 | pages = 119–137 | year = 1999| doi-access = free }}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = [[Legion (rango taxonomic)|Legiones]] |subdivision = *[[Afrotheria]]: **[[Afroinsectiphilia]] **[[Paenungulata]] *[[Xenarthra]]: **[[Cingulata]] ([[Armadillo]]s) **[[Pilosa]] ([[Vermilingua]]s, [[folivora|folivoros]]) }} '''Atlantogenata''' es un superlegion<ref>Classification con legion.</ref> o magnordine<ref>Classification con mirordine.</ref> de [[mammiferos]] [[Placentarios|placentari]]. ==Classification== ===Subtaxones=== * Legion [[Xenarthra]] ** Ordine [[Cingulata]] ** Ordine [[Pilosa]] * Legion [[Afrotheria]] ** Sublegion [[Afroinsectiphilia]] *** Ordine [[Afrosoricida]] *** Ordine [[Macroscelidea]] *** Ordine [[Tubulidentata]] ** Sublegion [[Paenungulata]] *** Ordine [[Hyracoidea]] *** Ordine [[Proboscidea]] *** Ordine [[Sirenia]] ==Phylogenia== [[File:OrthoMaM v10b 2019 116genera circular tree.svg|thumb|right|[[Cladistica|Position phylogenetic]] del Atlantogenata (in [[rubie]] e [[orange]]) inter actual [[mammiferos]].<ref name=Scornavacca2019>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scornavacca C, Belkhir K, Lopez J, Dernat R, Delsuc F, Douzery EJ, Ranwez V | title = OrthoMaM v10: Scaling-up orthologous coding sequence and exon alignments with more than one hundred mammalian genomes | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 861–862 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30698751 | pmc = 6445298 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msz015 }}</ref>]] {{Cladogramma Placentalia}} {{Cladogramma Atlantogenata}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Mammalia]] schvt80sd2xwuwqt6ivtepg2ax9bnxy 0 55455 698273 663520 2026-08-04T00:11:26Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Bovini | fossil_range = {{fossil range|15|0}} [[Mioceno]] medie – [[Holoceno|Presente]]<ref name="kingdon2015">{{cite book | last1 = Kingdon | first1 = J. | year = 2015 | title = The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals | publisher = Princeton University Press}}</ref><ref name="hassaninandropiquet2004">{{cite journal | author = Hassanin A. & Ropiquet A. | date = 2004 | title = Molecular phylogeny of the tribe Bovini (Bovidae, Bovinae) and the taxonomic status of the Kouprey, ''Bos sauveli'' Urbain 1937 | url = https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2004_33_3/page/896 | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 896–907 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.08.009| pmid = 15522811 }}</ref> | image = Gaur at the Bronx Zoo.jpg | image_upright = 1.1 | image_caption = Gaur. | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | legio = [[Laurasiatheria]] | ordo = [[Cetartiodactyla]] | subordo = [[Ruminantia]] | infraordo = [[Pecora]] | superfamilia = [[Bovoidea]] | familia = [[Bovidae]] | subfamilia = [[Bovinae]] |taxon = Bovini |taxon_rank = [[Tribo (rango taxonomic)|Tribo]] |authority = | authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821 | subdivision_ranks = Subtribos e generes | subdivision = *''[[Alephis]]''† <small>(Gromolard, 1980)</small> *''[[Eosyncerus]]''† <small>(Vekua, 1972)</small> *''[[Jamous]]''† <small>(Geraads et al., 2008)</small> *''[[Probison]]''† <small>(Sahni & Khan, 1968)</small> *''[[Simatherium]]''† <small>(Dietrich, 1941)</small> *''[[Udabnocerus]]''† <small>(Burchak-Abramovich & Gabashvili, 1969)</small> *[[Pseudoryx|Pseudorygina]] <small>(Hassanin & Douzery, 1999)</small> *[[Bubalina]] <small>(Rütimeyer, 1865)</small> *[[Bovina]] <small>([[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821)</small> }} '''Bovini''' es un [[Tribo (rango taxonomic)|tribo]] de [[Mammiferos]] [[Ruminantia|ruminante]]. ==Cladogramma== Secundo Calamari, 2021:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Calamari|first=Zachary T.|date=June 2021|title=Total Evidence Phylogenetic Analysis Supports New Morphological Synapomorphies for Bovidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla)|url=https://bioone.org/journals/american-museum-novitates/volume-2021/issue-3970/3970.1/Total-Evidence-Phylogenetic-Analysis-Supports-New-Morphological-Synapomorphies-for-Bovidae/10.1206/3970.1.full|journal=American Museum Novitates|issue=3970|pages=1–38|doi=10.1206/3970.1|s2cid=235441087|issn=0003-0082|access-date=2022-02-08|archive-date=2023-03-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314124448/https://bioone.org/journals/american-museum-novitates/volume-2021/issue-3970/3970.1/Total-Evidence-Phylogenetic-Analysis-Supports-New-Morphological-Synapomorphies-for-Bovidae/10.1206/3970.1.short|url-status=live}}</ref> {{clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:100%;width:700px; |label1=[[Bovidae]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |label1=[[Bovinae]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Boselaphini]] [[File:Haeckel Antilopina Tetracerus quadricornis.jpg|40 px]] |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Tragelaphini]] [[File:The book of antelopes (1894) Tragelaphus angasi white background.png|40 px]] |label2=&nbsp;[[Bovini]]&nbsp; |2={{Clade <!-- |label1=Pseudorygina--> |1=&nbsp;{{Ill|en|Soala}} (''[[Pseudoryx]] nghetinhensis'') |2={{Clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Bubalina]]&nbsp; |1={{Clade |1=&nbsp;''[[Syncerus caffer|Syncerus]]'' |2=&nbsp;''[[Bubalus]]'' }} |label2=[[Bovina]] |2={{Clade |1=&nbsp;''[[Bos frontalis]]'' |2={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=&nbsp;''[[Bos gaurus]]'' |2={{Clade |1={{Clade |1=&nbsp;''[[Bos bison]]'' |2={{Clade |1=&nbsp;[[Yak salvage]] (''[[Bos mutus]]'') |2=&nbsp;[[Yak domestic]] (''[[Bos grunniens]]'') }} }} |2={{Clade |1=&nbsp;''[[Bison bonasus|Bos bonasus]]'' |2={{Clade |1=&nbsp;[[Zebu]] (''[[Bos indicus]]'') |2={{Clade |1=&nbsp;''[[Bos taurus]]'' |2=&nbsp;[[Banteng]] (''[[Bos javanicus]]'') }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Aepycerotinae]] [[File:The book of antelopes (1894) Aepyceros melampus white backround.png|50 px]] |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Antilopinae]] [[File:The book of antelopes (1894) Gazella thomsoni white background.png|40 px]] |2=&nbsp;[[Caprinae]] [[File:Walia ibex illustration white background.png|50 px]] }} }} }} }} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Bovini| ]] [[Categoria:Bovidae]] 3lvhn5mb3nxn4vvfeksaww6hq47zk18 0 55462 698215 663653 2026-08-03T22:44:57Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698215 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Bubalina | fossil_range = <br>[[Mioceno]] tardive - [[Holoceno|presente]], {{fossil range|13.7|0}}<ref name="hassaninandropiquet2004">{{cite journal |author=A. Hassanin, A. Ropiquet |year=2004 |title=Molecular phylogeny of the tribe Bovini (Bovidae, Bovinae) and the taxonomic status of the Kouprey, ''Bos sauveli'' Urbain 1937 |url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2004_33_3/page/896 |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=896–907 |pmid=15522811 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.08.009}}{{dead link|date=Februario 2018}}</ref> | image = Feral buffaloes AJTJohnsingh.jpg | image_caption = [[Feral]] [[bufalo de aqua|bufalos de aqua]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | superordo = [[Laurasiatheria]] | ordo = [[Cetartiodactyla]] | subordo = [[Ruminantia]] | infraordo = [[Pecora]] | superfamilia = [[Bovoidea]] | familia = [[Bovidae]] | subfamilia = [[Bovinae]] | tribus= [[Bovini]] | taxon = Bubalina | taxon_rank = [[Subtribo (rango taxonomic)|Subtribo]] | authority = Rütimeyer, 1865 | type_species = ''[[Bubalus bubalis]]'' | type_species_authority = [[Carl von Linné|Linnaeus]], [[1758]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Generes]] | subdivision = * ''[[Bubalus]]'' <small>[[Charles Hamilton Smith|C. H. Smith]], 1827</small> * †''[[Hemibos]]'' <small>(Falconer, 1865)</small> * †''[[Parabos]]'' <small>(Arambourg & Piveteau, 1929)</small> * †''[[Proamphibos]]'' <small>(Pilgrim, 1939)</small> * ''[[Syncerus]]'' <small>[[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]], 1847</small> * †''[[Ugandax]]'' <small>Cooke & Coryndon, 1970</small> | synonyms = * Buffelinae <small>(Knottnerus-Meyer, 1907)</small> * Syncerina <small>(Pilgrim, 1939)</small> }} '''Bubalina''' es un [[Subtribo (rango taxonomic)|subtribo]] de [[Bovini|bovin]]. ==Phylogenia== {{Cladogramma Bovini}} {{Refer}} == Vide etiam == * [[Appendice:Galeria de imagines de animales]] [[Categoria:Bovini]] h89qo0v76cy3arlfrd3d73q0gnugax8 0 55579 698206 672181 2026-08-03T22:36:24Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698206 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} {{Taxobox | name = ''Takakia'' | fossil_range = {{fossil range|165|0}} | image = Takakia_lepidozioides.jpg | image_caption = ''Takakia lepidoziodes'' sur un costa humide super laco Takakia, [[Haida Gwaii]] | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Planta]]e | divisio = [[Bryophyta]] | taxon4 = ''Takakiophytina'' | taxon4_rank = [[Subdivision]] | taxon4_authority = [[Michael Stech|Stech]] & [[W. Frey]]<ref name="Stech & Frey">{{cite journal | last1=Stech | first1=Michael | last2=Frey | first2=Wolfgang | year=2008 | title=A morpho-molecular classification of the mosses (Bryophyta) | url=https://archive.org/details/nova-hedwigia_2008_86_1-2/page/1 | journal=Nova Hedwigia | volume=86 | issue=1–2 | pages=1–21 | doi=10.1127/0029-5035/2008/0086-0001}}</ref> | grandparent_authority = Stech & W. Frey<ref name="Stech & Frey" /> | taxon3 = ''Takakiopsida'' | taxon3_rank = [[Classe (rango taxonomic)|Classe]] | taxon3_authority = Stech & W. Frey<ref name="Stech & Frey" /> | taxon2 = ''Takakiales'' | taxon2_rank = [[Ordine (rango taxonomic)|Ordine]] | taxon2_authority = Stech & W. Frey<ref name="Stech & Frey" /> | taxon1 = ''Takakiaceae'' | taxon1_rank = [[Familia (rango taxonomic)|Familia]] | taxon1_authority = Stech & W. Frey<ref name="Stech & Frey" /> | taxon = ''Takakia'' | taxon_rank = [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|Genere]] | authority = [[Sinske Hattori|S. Hatt.]] & [[Inoue Hiroshi (bryologista)|Inoue]]<ref name="Hattori & Inoue 1958">{{cite journal | author=S. Hattori & H. Inoue | year=1958 | title=Preliminary report on ''Takakia lepidozioides'' | journal=Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory | volume=19 | pages=133–137 }}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = *''[[Takakia ceratophylla|T. ceratophylla]]'' *''[[Takakia lepidozioides|T. lepidozioides]]'' }} '''''Takakia''''' es un [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] de [[Bryophyta]] ([[musco]]) del [[Familia (rango taxonomic)|familia]] [[Takakiaceae]].<ref name = "GBIF">{{Cite web|url= https://www.gbif.org/fr/species/3229796|title= ''Takakia'' S.Hatt. & Inoue |accessdate= 2023-08-24 |publisher=GBIF}}</ref> Duo [[specie]]s son identificate. ==Evolution== Es le plus ancian [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] de [[planta]] [[Acrogruppo|actual]] cognoscite con un divergentia del altere muscos 390 [[Megaanno|Ma]] retro.<ref name=Hu2023>{{cite journal | author=Ruoyang Hu, Xuedong Li, Yong Hu (...) Stefan A. Rensing, Ralf Reski & Yikun He |date=2023-08-09|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2023.07.003| title=Adaptive evolution of the enigmatic ''Takakia'' now facing climate change in Tibet | journal=Cell | volume=186 |issue=17 | pages=3558-3576 }}</ref> Morphologic specificitate de ''Takakia'' (absentia de {{Ill|en|stoma}}, {{Ill|es|rhizoide}} e folio polaritate) non serea ancestral ma magis un perdita secundari posterior a su [[ultime ancestre commun]] con altere muscos (e ante 165 Ma, data del prime fossile).<ref name=Hu2023 /> ==Discoperta== {{Ill|en|William Mitten}} discoperiva ''Takakia'' in [[Himalaya]] e describeva lo in 1861 como un nove [[specie]] de [[hepatico]] (''[[Lepidozia]] [[Takakia ceratophylla|ceratophylla]]'')<ref name="Renzaglia 1997">{{Cite journal |author= Karen Sue Renzaglia, Ken D. McFarland & David K. Smith |date=October 1997 |title=Anatomy and ultrastructure of the sporophyte of ''Takakia ceratophylla'' (Bryophyta) |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=1337–1350 |doi=10.2307/2446132|jstor=2446132 |pmid=21708543 }}</ref>. [[Noriwo Takaki]] (1915-2006) discoperiva plantas similar in [[Japon]] e identificava lor inusual characteristicas. In 1958, [[Sinske Hattori]] e {{Ill|en|Hiroshi Inoue|Hiroshi Inoue (bryologist)}} descrive le specie ''[[Takakia lepidozioides]]'' in un nove [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] ''Takakia'', nominate in referentia a Takaki.<ref name="Hattori & Inoue 1958" /> Postea, le specie initialmente describite per Mitten es attribuate per {{Ill|es|Riclef Grolle}} a iste nove genere e renominate ''[[Takakia ceratophylla]]''. ==Distribution== ''Takakia'' pote esser trovate in [[Tibet|Tibetan alteplano]], [[Sikim]], Nord [[Borneo]], [[Taiwan (insula)|Taiwan]], [[Japon]], [[insulas Aleutian]], [[Alaska]], [[Columbia Britannic]], in diverse habitatos con [[altitude]]s de 0 a 4000 m. {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Bryophyta]] [[Categoria:Biota recordes]] 5nxifsn92ctbxl5zko9qrla6i3kjdh2 0 55663 698232 662206 2026-08-03T23:11:50Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698232 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Morte cerebral''' o '''morte encephalic''' es le perdita de tote function cerebral. Es irreversibile e le morte physic es ineluctabile.<ref name="enc bd">{{cite web|url=http://www.deathreference.com/Bl-Ce/Brain-Death.html |title=Brain death| publisher=Encyclopedia of Death and Dying| access-date= 25 March 2014}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web| url=http://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnosis-of-brain-death | title=Diagnosis of brain death| last=Young | first= G Bryan| work=UpToDate|access-date=25 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.4103/0972-5229.53108| pmid = 19881172| title = The diagnosis of brain death| journal = Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine| volume = 13| issue = 1| pages = 7–11| year = 2009| last1 = Goila | first1 = A. | last2 = Pawar | first2 = M. | pmc = 2772257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.4081/ni.2010.e2| pmid = 21577338| pmc = 3093212| title = Diagnosis of brain death| journal = Neurology International| volume = 2| issue = 1| page = 2| year = 2010| last1 = Machado | first1 = C. }}</ref> Le morte cerebral non debe esser confundite con [[coma]], ubi remane alcun cerebral activitate, {{Ill|en|stato vegetative|Vegetative state}}, ubi remane alcun functiones autonomic <ref>{{cite journal |title=Medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state (1) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1994-05-26_330_21/page/1499 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=330 |issue=21 |pages=1499–508 |date=May 1994 |pmid=7818633 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199405263302107 |author1=Multi-Society Task Force on PVS }}</ref> o {{Ill|en|syndrome de incofframento|Locked-in syndrome}} ubi le patiente es [[Conscientia|consciente]]. {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Condition medical]] 65f3l1epszl03ltfn5ony78a3m3hyej 0 55718 698280 663396 2026-08-04T00:16:23Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698280 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Fereuungulata | fossil_range = [[Paleoceno]] - Presente<br>{{fossil range|66|0|earliest=82}} | image = Ferungulata.jpg | image_caption = | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | superlegio = [[Boreoeutheria]] | legio = [[Laurasiatheria]] | sublegio = [[Scrotifera]] | taxon = Fereuungulata | taxon_rank = [[Infralegion]] | authority = Waddell {{etal}}, 1999<ref name="Waddell">{{cite journal |author=Waddell, P.J.; Cao, Y. ; Hauf, J.; Hasegawa, M. |year=1999 |title=Using Novel Phylogenetic Methods to Evaluate Mammalian mtDNA, Including Amino Acid-Invariant Sites-LogDet plus Site Stripping, to Detect Internal Conflicts in the Data, with Special Reference to the Positions of Hedgehog, Armadillo, and Elephant |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_1999-03_48_1/page/31 |journal=[[Systematic Biology]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=31–53 |doi=10.1080/106351599260427 |pmid=12078643 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = [[Ordine (rango taxonomic)|Ordines]] |subdivision = * [[Cetartiodactyla]] * [[Perissodactyla]] * [[Pholidota (taxon de animalia)|Pholidota]] * [[Carnivora]] |synonyms = * '''Ferungulata''', <small>Simpson, 1945</small> * Cetferungulata <small>Arnason {{etal}}, 1999</small><ref>Arnason U., Gullberg A., Janke A. (1999). "The mitochondrial DNA molecule of the aardvark, ''Orycteropus afer'', and the position of the Tubulidentata in the eutherian tree." ''Proc R Soc Lond B'' 266:339–345, {{doi|10.1098/rspb.1999.0643}}.</ref> }} '''Fereuungulata''' es un infralegion<ref>Classification con legion.</ref> o grandordine<ref>Classification con mirordine.</ref> de [[mammiferos]] [[Placentarios|placentari]]. ==Phylogenia== {{Cladogramma Laurasiatheria}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Fereuungulata| ]] q592uxj80h9xb527i7euq5g8umyjuhn 0 55726 698235 663438 2026-08-03T23:14:36Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698235 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Eulipotyphla | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Paleocene|Recent|[[Paleoceno]] - [[Presente]]}} | image = Montage of Eulipotyphla V.2.0.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = [[Solenodon paradoxus|Solenodon]], [[Erinaceus|ericio]], [[Sorex ornatus|musaranea]] e [[Talpa europaea|talpa]]. | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | subclassis = [[Theria]] | infraclassis = [[Placentalia]] | superlegio = [[Boreoeutheria]] | legio = [[Laurasiatheria]] | taxon = [[Eulipotyphla ]] | taxon_rank = [[Ordine (rango taxonomic)|Ordine]] | authority = Waddell {{etal}}, 1999 | synonyms = * Eu[[insectivora]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Subordine (rango taxonomic)|Subordines]] e [[Familia (rango taxonomic)|familias]] | subdivision = * ?[[Amphilemuridae]] † * ?[[Nyctitheriidae]] † * [[Plesiosoricidae]] † * '''[[Solenodonota]]''' {{Small|Brace {{etal}}, 2016}} ** [[Nesophontidae]] † ** [[Solenodontidae]] * '''[[Erinaceota]]''' {{Small|van Valen, 1967}} ** [[Talpidae]] ** [[Soricidae]] ** [[Erinaceidae]] | range_map = | range_map_caption = Eulipotyphla extension }} '''Eulipotyphla''' es un [[Ordine (rango taxonomic)|ordine]] de [[mammiferos]] [[Placentarios|placentari]]. ==Phylogenia== Secundo Roca {{etal}} (2004) e Brace {{etal}} (2016):<ref name="Roca2004">{{cite journal|last1=Roca|first1=A. L.|last2=Bar-Gal|first2=G. K.|last3=Eizirik|first3=E.|last4=Helgen|first4=K. M.|last5=Maria|first5=R.|last6=Springer|first6=M. S.|last7=O'Brien|first7=S. J.|last8=Murphy|first8=W. J.|title=Mesozoic origin for West Indian insectivores|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2004-06-10_429_6992/page/649|journal=Nature|volume= 429|issue=6992|date= 2004-06-10|pages=649–651|doi= 10.1038/nature02597|bibcode= 2004Natur.429..649R|pmid= 15190349|s2cid=915633}}</ref><ref name="Brace2016">{{cite journal|last1= Brace|first1= S.|last2= Thomas|first2=J. A.|last3= Dalén|first3= L.|last4= Burger|first4= J.|last5= MacPhee|first5=R. D. E.|last6= Barnes|first6= I.|last7= Turvey|first7=S. T.|title= Evolutionary History of the Nesophontidae, the Last Unplaced Recent Mammal Family|journal= Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume= 33|issue= 12|year= 2016|pages= 3095–3103|doi= 10.1093/molbev/msw186|pmid= 27624716|doi-access= free}}</ref> {{clade |label1='''Eulipotyphla'''&nbsp; |1={{clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Solenodonota]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Nesophontidae]] † <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Puerto Rican shrew.jpg|60 px]]</span> |2=&nbsp;[[Solenodontidae]] [[File:Solenodon paradoxus (Plate 2) (white background).jpg|90 px]] }} |label2=&nbsp;[[Erinaceota]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Talpidae]] [[File:Mole white background.jpg|60 px]] |2={{clade |1=&nbsp;[[Soricidae]] [[File:Crocidura indica - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(white background).jpg|60 px]] |2=&nbsp;[[Erinaceidae]] [[File:Erinaceus europaeus - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(white background).jpg|60 px]] }} }} }} }} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Eulipotyphla| ]] ln37yoke4ttzxzwpjgv3mdt11j8da8f 0 55747 698256 690256 2026-08-03T23:45:19Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698256 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} {{Infobox}} '''Multiple sclerose''' (MS) es un [[autoimmun maladia]] [[Maladia neurodegenerative|neurodegenerative]] affectante le copertura del cellulas nervose del [[Cerebro human|cerebro]] e [[medulla spinal]]. ==Signos e symptomas== (...) ==Causas== [[File:HLA.svg|thumb|HLA region del chromosoma&nbsp;6: cambios in iste area augmenta le probabilitate de disveloppar un MS.]] MS non es considerate como un maladia hereditari ma plure genetic variationes augmenta le risco de disveloppar lo.<ref name="pmid14747002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dyment DA, Ebers GC, Sadovnick AD | title = Genetics of multiple sclerosis | journal = The Lancet. Neurology | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 104–10 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14747002 | doi = 10.1016/S1474-4422(03)00663-X | s2cid = 16707321 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.334.1312 }}</ref> [[Gen]]es ligate con MS include [[human leukocyte antigen]] (HLA) systema — un gruppo de genes sul [[Chromosoma 6 human|chromosoma 6]] qui servi como [[Major histocompatibilitate complexo|major histocompatibilitate complexo]] (MHC).<ref name="pmid18970977">{{cite journal | vauthors = Compston A, Coles A | title = Multiple sclerosis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_october-25-31-2008_372_9648/page/1502 | journal = Lancet | volume = 372 | issue = 9648 | pages = 1502–1517 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18970977 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61620-7 | s2cid = 195686659 | author1-link = Alastair Compston }}</ref> Le cambios in HLA region pote alsi esser implicate in the disveloppamento de altere disordines autoimmun, como [[diabete]] de typo I o [[lupo erythematose systemic]].<ref name="pmid21247752">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baranzini SE | title = Revealing the genetic basis of multiple sclerosis: are we there yet? | journal = Current Opinion in Genetics & Development | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 317–24 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21247752 | pmc = 3105160 | doi = 10.1016/j.gde.2010.12.006 }}</ref> Le association le plus consistente concerna allelos DR15 e DQ6 del MHC.<ref name="pmid18970977" /> <!--Other loci have shown a protective effect, such as HLA-C554 and HLA-DRB1*11.[1] HLA differences account for an estimated 20 to 60% of the genetic predisposition.[47]--> Foras HLA locos, al minus 200 variantes pote augmentar un pauc le probabilitate de MS.<ref name="pmid31604244">{{cite journal| author=International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium| title=Multiple sclerosis genomic map implicates peripheral immune cells and microglia in susceptibility. | journal=Science | year= 2019 | volume= 365 | issue= 6460 | pmid=31604244 | doi=10.1126/science.aav7188 | pmc=7241648 }}</ref> Un genetic variante locate inter genes [[DYSF]] e [[ZNF638]] permitterea un progression plus rapide del maladia.<ref>https://neurosciencenews.com/genetics-progressive-ms-23546/</ref><ref>{{Doi|10.1038/s41586-023-06250-x}}</ref> {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Disordine neurodegenerative]] pc485db26v269padtsplyd8wzm8dpk4 0 55778 698225 673741 2026-08-03T23:02:38Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 4 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698225 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} {{Taxobox | name = ''Mastadenovirus'' | image = Rotavirus Reconstruction.jpg | image_caption = Informatic reconstruction de rotavirus secundo plure electron micrographias | image_alt = A single particle; it is spherical and has regularly spaced, short protrusions on its surface | domain = [[Varidnaviria]] | regnum = [[Bamfordvirae]] | phylum = [[Preplasmiviricota]] | classis = [[Tectiliviricetes]] | ordo = [[Rowavirales]] | familia = [[Adenoviridae]] | genus = ''[[Rotavirus]]'' | taxon = ''Mastadenovirus'' | taxon_rank = [[Genere]] | authority = [[ICTV]], 1975 }} '''''Mastadenovirus''''' es un [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] de [[virus]] del [[Familia (rango taxonomic)|familia]] [[Adenoviridae]] affectante [[mammiferos]]. == Etymologia == Le parola ''Mastadenovirus'' es construite con grec ''mastos'' '[[mamma]]' e ''adenovirus'', un typo de virus discoperite in [[adenoide]]s human.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rowe|first1=W. P.|last2=Huebner|first2=R. J.|last3=Gilmore|first3=L. K.|last4=Parrott|first4=R. H.|last5=Ward|first5=T. G.|date=December 1953|title=Isolation of a cytopathogenic agent from human adenoids undergoing spontaneous degeneration in tissue culture|url=https://archive.org/details/experimental-biology-and-medicine_1953-12_84_3/page/570|journal=Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine|volume=84|issue=3|pages=570–573|doi=10.3181/00379727-84-20714 |issn=0037-9727 |pmid=13134217 |s2cid=3097955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pereira|first=H. G.|date=September 1959|title=Adenoviruses|journal=British Medical Bulletin|volume=15 |issue=3|pages=225–230|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a069769|issn=0007-1420|pmid=14431746}}</ref> == Mastadenoviruses == ''[[Canine mastadenovirus A]]'' (ex ''Canine adenovirus-1'', CAdV-1) es responsabile de [[encephalitis]] in diverse species de [[Carnivoros]] e pote causar le [[morte]] de [[can]]inos.<ref name="ViralZone">{{cite web|title=Viral Zone|url=http://viralzone.expasy.org/all_by_species/183.html|publisher=ExPASy|accessdate=1 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="ICTV">{{cite web|last1=ICTV|title=Virus Taxonomy: 2014 Release|url=http://ictvonline.org/virusTaxonomy.asp|accessdate=1 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=taxonomy |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi10509&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock |title=Taxonomy browser (Mastadenovirus) |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |date= |accessdate=2014-01-16}}</ref> === Mastadenoviruses human === Mastadenoviruses human es [[virus de ADN|viruses de ADN]] linear, de duple filamento, non-inveloppate, de 34–36 kbp. Se distingue 7 species de ''Mastadenovirus human''. Le previe 88 typos de ''Adenovirus human'' se distribute in le 7 species como indicate: * [[Mastadenovirus human A|A]]: 12, 18, 31 * [[Mastadenovirus human B|B]]: 3, 7, 11, 14, 16, 21, 34, 35, 50, 55 * [[Mastadenovirus human C|C]]: 1, 2, 5, 6, 57<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Walsh MP, Seto J, Liu EB, Dehghan S, Hudson NR, Lukashev AN, Ivanova O, Chodosh J, Dyer DW, Jones MS, Seto D | display-authors = 6 | title = Computational analysis of two species C human adenoviruses provides evidence of a novel virus | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-microbiology_2011-10_49_10/page/3482 | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 49 | issue = 10 | pages = 3482–90 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21849694 | pmc = 3187342 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.00156-11 }}</ref> * [[Mastadenovirus human D|D]]: 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, [[Adenovirus serotype 36|36]], 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 56,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Robinson CM, Singh G, Henquell C, Walsh MP, Peigue-Lafeuille H, Seto D, Jones MS, Dyer DW, Chodosh J | display-authors = 6 | title = Computational analysis and identification of an emergent human adenovirus pathogen implicated in a respiratory fatality | journal = Virology | volume = 409 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–7 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21056888 | pmc = 3006489 | doi = 10.1016/j.virol.2010.10.020 }}</ref> 58, 59, 60, 62, 63,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh G, Robinson CM, Dehghan S, Schmidt T, Seto D, Jones MS, Dyer DW, Chodosh J | display-authors = 6 | title = Overreliance on the hexon gene, leading to misclassification of human adenoviruses | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-virology_2012-04_86_8/page/4693 | journal = Journal of Virology | volume = 86 | issue = 8 | pages = 4693–5 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22301156 | pmc = 3318657 | doi = 10.1128/jvi.06969-11 }}</ref> 64, 65, 67, 69,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh G, Zhou X, Lee JY, Yousuf MA, Ramke M, Ismail AM, Lee JS, Robinson CM, Seto D, Dyer DW, Jones MS, Rajaiya J, Chodosh J | display-authors = 6 | title = Recombination of the epsilon determinant and corneal tropism: Human adenovirus species D types 15, 29, 56, and 69 | journal = Virology | volume = 485 | pages = 452–9 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26343864 | pmc = 4619159 | doi = 10.1016/j.virol.2015.08.018 }}</ref> 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75 * [[Mastadenovirus human E|E]]: 4 * [[Mastadenovirus human F|F]]: 40, 41<ref name=Lee2020>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee B, Damon CF, Platts-Mills JA | title = Pediatric acute gastroenteritis associated with adenovirus 40/41 in low-income and middle-income countries | journal = Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 398–403 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32773498 | pmc = 8286627 | doi = 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000663 }}</ref> * [[Mastadenovirus human G|G]]: 52<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones MS, Harrach B, Ganac RD, Gozum MM, Dela Cruz WP, Riedel B, Pan C, Delwart EL, Schnurr DP | display-authors = 6 | title = New adenovirus species found in a patient presenting with gastroenteritis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-virology_2007-06_81_11/page/5978 | journal = Journal of Virology | volume = 81 | issue = 11 | pages = 5978–84 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17360747 | pmc = 1900323 | doi = 10.1128/JVI.02650-06 }}</ref> Illos pote causar: * [[infection respiratori]] (principalmente species B e C (3, 5, 7)) * [[conjunctivitis]] (species B e D) * [[gastroenteritis]] (species F e G) * [[obesitate]] o adipogenese (species A (31), C (5) e D (9, 36, 37))<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Voss JD, Atkinson RL, Dhurandhar NV | title = Role of adenoviruses in obesity | journal = Reviews in Medical Virology | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | pages = 379–87 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26352001 | doi = 10.1002/rmv.1852 | s2cid = 5370331 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1229348 }}</ref> == Taxonomia == Le genere contine le species sequentes:<ref>{{cite web |title=Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release |url=https://ictv.global/taxonomy |publisher=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) |date=March 2021 |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref> {{div col}} * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus C]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus D]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus E]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus F]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus G]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus H]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus I]]'' * ''[[Bat mastadenovirus J]]'' * ''[[Bovine mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Bovine mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Bovine mastadenovirus C]]'' * ''[[Canine mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Deer mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Dolphin mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Dolphin mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Equine mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Equine mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Guinea pig mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Human mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Human mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Human mastadenovirus C]]'' * ''[[Human mastadenovirus D]]'' * ''[[Human mastadenovirus E]]'' * ''[[Human mastadenovirus F]]'' * ''[[Human mastadenovirus G]]'' * ''[[Murine mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Murine mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Murine mastadenovirus C]]'' * ''[[Ovine mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Ovine mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Ovine mastadenovirus C]]'' * ''[[Platyrrhini mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Polar bear mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Porcine mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Porcine mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Porcine mastadenovirus C]]'' * ''[[Sea lion mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus B]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus C]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus D]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus E]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus F]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus G]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus H]]'' * ''[[Simian mastadenovirus I]]'' * ''[[Skunk mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Squirrel mastadenovirus A]]'' * ''[[Tree shrew mastadenovirus A]]'' {{div col end}} {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Viruses]] tucfpga0vxoxvlcoxc5yooxtkvwlycb 0 55967 698207 690263 2026-08-03T22:37:05Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698207 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} '''Fibromyalgia''' es un medical condition characterisate per chronic diffuse dolor, fatiga, evelia non reposate, cognitive symptomas, dolor o crampos in basse [[abdomine]], e [[depression]].<ref name="Wolfe2016">{{cite journal | author = Wolfe F, Clauw DJ, Fitzcharles MA, Goldenberg DL, Häuser W, Katz RL, Mease PJ, Russell AS, Russell IJ, Walitt B | display-authors = 6 | title = 2016 Revisions to the 2010/2011 fibromyalgia diagnostic criteria | journal = Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism | volume = 46 | issue = 3 | pages = 319–329 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27916278 | doi = 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2016.08.012 }}</ref> Altere [[symptoma]]s include [[insomnia]]<ref name="Wu-2017">{{cite journal | author = Wu YL, Chang LY, Lee HC, Fang SC, Tsai PS | title = Sleep disturbances in fibromyalgia: A meta-analysis of case-control studies | journal = Journal of Psychosomatic Research | volume = 96 | pages = 89–97 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28545798 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.03.011 }}</ref> e [[hypersensibilitate]].<ref name=Hauser2019>{{cite journal | author = Häuser W, Sarzi-Puttini P, Fitzcharles MA | title = Fibromyalgia syndrome: under-, over- and misdiagnosis | journal = Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology | volume = 37 | issue = 1 Suppl 116 | pages = 90–97 | date = 2019 | pmid = 30747096 }}</ref><ref name="Arnold-2019">{{cite journal | author = Arnold LM, Bennett RM, Crofford LJ, Dean LE, Clauw DJ, Goldenberg DL, Fitzcharles MA, Paiva ES, Staud R, Sarzi-Puttini P, Buskila D, Macfarlane GJ | display-authors = 6 | title = AAPT Diagnostic Criteria for Fibromyalgia | journal = The Journal of Pain | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 611–628 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 30453109 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpain.2018.10.008 | s2cid = 53872511 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Affecta inter 2 e 4% del population, principalmente [[femina]]s. ==Etiologia== Su causa non es cognite, ma non serea psychosomatic; poterea implicar [[Genetica|genetic]] e [[ambiente]] factores[4], como [[stress psychologic]], [[trauma]] o alcun [[infection]]es.[4] Dolor resultarea de processos in [[Systema nervose central|central nervo systema]] e le condition es considerate como un "syndrome de sensibilisation central".<ref name=JAMA2014>{{cite journal | author = Clauw DJ | title = Fibromyalgia: a clinical review | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2014-04-16_311_15/page/1547 | journal = JAMA | volume = 311 | issue = 15 | pages = 1547–1555 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24737367 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2014.3266 | s2cid = 43693607 }}</ref><ref name="Central sensitivity and fibromyalgi">{{cite journal | author = Mezhov V, Guymer E, Littlejohn G | title = Central sensitivity and fibromyalgia | journal = Internal Medicine Journal | volume = 51 | issue = 12 | pages = 1990–1998 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 34139045 | doi = 10.1111/imj.15430 | s2cid = 235471910 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Desde 2021, alcun studios suggera un origine [[autoimmun]] del desordine, implicante [[neutrophilo]]s, [[Leucocyto|cellulas]] implicate in le [[responsa immun innate]] e producente [[cytokina]]s responsibile de [[inflammation]].<ref>https://trustmyscience.com/fibromyalgie-origine-auto-immune-invasion-cellules-immunitaires/</ref><ref>{{Doi|10.1073/pnas.22116311}}</ref> {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Disordine neurologic]] [[Categoria:Rheumatologia]] 7bslzj4r72y41ksfl2e229ok39qleel 0 56051 698201 696311 2026-08-03T22:23:51Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698201 wikitext text/x-wiki {{eminente}} [[File:Newtons cradle animation book 2.gif|thumb|Un pendulo de Newton, nominate post le physicista [[Isaac Newton]].]] '''[[Physica]]''' es un branca del [[scientia]] cuje objectos principal de studio es [[materia]] e [[energia]]. Discoperimentos de physica trova applicationes per le [[Scientia natural|scientias natural]] e in [[technologia]]. Historicamente, physica emergeva del revolution scientific del 17e seculo, cresceva rapidemente in le 19e seculo, postea esseva transformate per un serie de discoperimentos in le 20e seculo. Le physica hodie pote esser dividite de un maniera laxe inter physica classic e physica moderne. == Historia antique == Le elementos de lo que deveniva physic esset extrahite primarimente del campos de [[astronomia]], [[optica]], e [[mechanica]], que esseva methodicamente unite per le studio de geometria. Iste disciplinas mathematic comenciava in antiquitate con le Babylonios e con scriptores hellenistic como [[Archimedes]] e [[Ptolemeo]]. Philosophia antiqua includeva, al interim, lo que esseva nominate "[[Physica]]". === Concepto grec === Le movimento verso un comprehension rational del natura comenciava al minus desde le periodo Archaic in Grecia (650–480 a.Chr.) con le [[philosophia presocratic|philosophos presocratic]]. Le philosopho [[Thales|Thales de Mileto]] (7e e 6e seculos a.Chr.), cognominate "le Patre del Scientia" pro refusar acceptar explicationes supernatural, religiose o mythologic pro [[Phenomeno|phenomenos]] natural, proclamava que cata evento habeva un causa natural.<ref>"Iste cambio ab rationamento ecclesiastic a rationamento scientific marcava le initio del methodologia scientific." Singer, C., ''A Short History of Science to the 19th Century'', Streeter Press, 2008, p. 35.</ref> Thales faceva etiam progressos in 580 a.Chr. per suggerer que aqua es le elemento basic, experimentante con le attraction inter [[Magnete|magnetes]] e ambra friccate e formulante le prime [[Cosmologia|cosmologias]] registrate. Anaximandro, famose pro su theoria proto-[[Evolution|evolutionari]], disputava le ideas de Thales e proponeva que, al contrario de aqua, un substantia nominate "apeiron" esseva le fundamento de tote materia. Circa 500 a.Chr., Heraclito proponeva que le unico lege basic que governa le [[Universo]] esseva le principio de mutation e que nihil remane in le mesme stato indefinitemente. Conjunctemente con su contemporaneo Parmenides, illes esseva inter le prime eruditos in physic antique qui contemplava le rolo del [[tempore]] in le universo, un concepto clave que ancora es un thema in le physic moderne. In le [[Epocha classic|periodo classic]] in Grecia (6e, 5e e 4e seculos a.Chr.) e durante le [[Hellenismo|epocha hellenistic]], le philosophia natural gradualmente se disveloppava como un campo de studio excitante e contencioso. [[Aristotele]] (Grec: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384-322 a.Chr.), un discípulo de [[Platon]], promoveva le concepto que le observation de phenomenos physic poteva ultimemente condur al discoperta del leges natural que los governa. Le scriptos de Aristotele tracta de [[physica]], [[metaphysica]], [[poesia]], [[theatro]], [[musica]], [[logica]], rhetorica, [[linguistica]], [[politica]], [[governamento]], [[ethica]], [[biologia]] e [[zoologia]]. Ille scribeva le prime obra que se refere a ille linea de studio como "Physica" – in le 4e seculo a.Chr., Aristotele fundava le systema cognoscite as physic aristotelic. Ille essayava a explicar ideas como motion (e gravitate) con le theoria de quatro elementos. Aristotele credeva que tote materia consisteva de aethere, o de una combination de quatro elementos: terra, aqua, aere, e foco. Secundo Aristotele, iste quatro elementos terrestre es capace de inter-transformation e se move verso lor loco natural, assi que un petra cade verso le centro del cosmos, ma le flammes ascende verso le circunferentia. Eventualmente, le physic aristotelic deveniva extrememente popular durante multe seculos in Europa, influentiante le progressos scientific e scholastic del [[Medievo]]. Illo remaneva le paradigma scientific dominante in Europa usque al tempore de [[Galileo Galilei]] e [[Isaac Newton]]. In le prime epocha de [[Grecia antique|Grecia Classic]], le cognoscentia que le Terra es spherical ("rotunde") esseva commun. Circa le anno 240 a.Chr., como resultado de un experimento seminal, Eratostene (276-194 a.Chr.) estimava exactamente su circumferentia. A contrasto con le opiniones geocentric de [[Aristotele]], Aristarcho de Samos (Grec: Ἀρίσταρχος; circa 310 – circa 230 a.Chr.) presentava un argumento explicite pro un modello heliocentric del Systema Solar, es dicere, pro poner le Sol, non le Terra, a su centro. Seleuco de Seleucia, un sequitor del theoria heliocentric de [[Aristarcho]], affirmava que le Terra girava circa su proprie axe, le qual, a su vice, orbitava circum le Sol. Ben que le argumentos usate per ille esseva perdit, Plutarcho affirmava que Seleuco esseva le prime a probar le systema heliocentric per rationamento. In le 3e seculo a.Chr., le mathematico grec [[Archimedes|Archimedes de Syracusa]] (Grec: Ἀρχιμήδης) (287-212 a.Chr.) – generalmente considerate como le maxime grande mathematico del antiquitate e un del plus grande de omne le tempore – posava le bases del hydrostática, statica e calculava le mathematica subiacente del levier. Arquímedes, un científico prominente del antiquitate classic, anque disveloppava systemas elaborate de puleas pro mover objetos grandes con un mínimo de effortio. Le cochlea de Archimedes subiacente le hydroenginieria moderne, e su machines de guerra adjuvava a repellentar le armeas de Roma in le Prime Guerra Punice. Arquímedes anque disrumpava le argumentos de Aristotele e su metaphysica, indicante que esseva impossibile separar mathematica e natura e illo demonstrava convertente theorias mathematic in inventiones practic. De plus, en su obra "De Corporibus Fluitantibus" (c. 250 a.Chr.), Arquímedes disveloppava le lege de flottabilitate, cognoscite etiam como principio de Arquímedes. In mathematica, Arquímedes usa le methodo de exhaustion pro calcular le area sub le arcu de un parábola con le summation de un serie infinite, e dava un approximation remarkablemente accurate de pi. Ille etiam definiva le spirale que portava su nomine, formulae pro le volumines de superficies de revolution e un ingeniose systema pro exprimer numeros multo grande. Ille anque disveloppava le principios de statos de equilibrio e centros de gravitate, ideas que influentiava eminentes eruditos ben cognoscite, como Galileo e Newton. Hipparcho (190-120 a.Chr.), centrando se in astronomia e mathematica, usava technicas geometric sophisticate pro cartographiar le motio de le stellas e planetas, mesmo predecendo le tempores in le quales eclipses solar occurrerea. Ille addeva calculationes del distantia inter le Sol e le Luna e le Terra, basate sur su melioramentos a instrumentos observationale usate a ille época. Un altere del physicos primevole plus famose esseva [[Ptolemeo]] (90-168 EC), un del mentes prominente durante le epocha del Imperio Romano. Ptolomeo esseva le auctore de plure tractatos scientific, de al menos tres del quales esseva de continue importance pro le scientia islamic e european posterior. Le prime es le tractato astronomic nunc cognoscite como le Almagesto (in grec, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "Le Grande Tractato", originalmente Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, "Tractato Mathematic"). Le secunde es le Geographia, que es un discussion exhaustive del cognoscentia geographic del mundo greco-roman. === India e China === [[File:Hindu-arabic1.jpg|thumb|Le systema de numeration hindu-arabe. Le inscriptiones sur le [[Edictos de Ashoka]] (3e seculo a.Chr.) monstrant que iste systema de numeros esseva usate per le Imperio [[Imperio Maurya|Maurya]].]] In le [[Antiquitate]], tradiciones physic e mathematic importante existeva etiam in le scientias chinese e indian. [[File:Su Song Star Map 1.JPG|left|thumb|260px|Le [[mapas stellar]] de le polymath chines del 11e seculo [[Su Song]] es le plus vetule mapas stellar [[impression sur ligno|imprimite sur ligno]] que ha survivite usque al die nostre. Iste exemplo, datate 1092, usa le projection [[equirectangular]] cylindrical.]] In le philosophia indian, Maharishi Kanada esseva le prime a disveloppar systematicamente una theoria de atomismo circa le anno 200 a.Chr.,<ref>Oliver Leaman, ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.'' Routledge, 1999, pagina 269.</ref> ben que certe autores lo attribue a una epocha precedente in le 6e seculo a.Chr.<ref>{{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1986|pp=169–70}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Choudhury|2006|p=202}}</ref> Isto esseva ulteriormente elaborate per le atomistas buddhiste Dharmakirti e Dignāga durante le primo millennio EC.<ref>(Stcherbatsky 1962 (1930). Vol. 1. P. 19)</ref> Pakudha Kaccayana, un philosopho indian del 6e seculo a.Chr. e contemporanee de [[Gautama Buddha]], anque proponeva ideas sobre le constitution atomic del mundo material. Iste philosophos credeva que altere elementos (excepto ether) esseva physicament palpabile e, ergo, consisteva de partículas minúsculas de materia. Le ultime particula minúscula de materia que non poteva esser subdividite ulteriormente esseva nominate Parmanu. Iste philosophos considerava le atomo como indestructibile e, ergo, eternal. Le buddhistas pensava que le atomos esseva objectos minuscule non visibile al oculo nude que nasceva e dispareva in un instantia. Le schola Vaisheshika de philosophos credeva que un atomo esseva simplemente un puncto in spatio. Illo esseva anque le prime a depictar le relationes inter motion e fortia applicate. Le theorias indian sur le [[atomo]] es profunde e intricate in philosophia, como illos se basava sur logica e non super experientia personal o experimento. In le astronomia indian, le ''Aryabhatiya'' de Aryabhata (499 EC) proponeva le rotation del Terra, durante que Nilakantha Somayaji (1444-1544) del schola de astronomia e mathematica de Kerala proponeva un modello semiheliocentric que resembla a le systema de Tycho. Le studio del magnetismo in le China antique remonta al 4e seculo a.Chr. (in le ''Libro del Maestro del Valle del Diavolo''),<ref>Li Shu-hua, "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole", ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175</ref> Un importante contributor a iste campo esseva Shen Kuo (1031–1095), un polymath e statista qui esseva le prime a describer le compasso magnetic-needle usate pro navigation, como etiam a establir le concepto de nord ver. In optica, Shen Kuo disveloppava independentemente un camera obscura.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 98">[[Joseph Needham]], Volume 4, Part 1, 98.</ref> === Mundo islamic === [[File:Alhazen (122459248).jpg|thumb|left|170px|[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (c. 965–1040).]] In le 7e a 15e seculos, progressos scientific occurreva in le mundo musulman. Multe obras classic in [[India|linguas de India]], [[Assyria|assyrian]], sassanian ([[Persia|persa]]), e [[Grecia|greco]], includente le obras de Aristotele, esseva traducite in [[Lingua arabe|arabe]].<ref name=RobinsonCambridge>{{cite book |editor=Robinson, Francis |editor-link=Francis Robinson |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |pages=228–229}}</ref> Contributiones importante esseva facite per Ibn al-Haytham (965-1040), un scientista arab, considerate como un fundator del [[optica]] moderne. Ptolomeo y Aristotele theorisava que le luce o illumina objectos ex le oculo o que "formas" emane de objectos mesme, durante que al-Haytham (con le nomine latino "Alhazen") suggereva que le luce viage al oculo in radios ex differente punctos sur un objecto. Le obras de Ibn al-Haytham e al-Biruni (973-1050), un scientista persa, eventualmente passava al Europa occidental ubi illos esseva studiate per eruditos como Roger Bacon e Vitello.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|pp=89–90}}</ref> Ibn al-Haytham usava experimentos controlate in su labor sur optica, ben que le mesura in le qual illo differiva de Ptolemeo es un subjecto de debatto.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark |title=From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2015 |pages=225 |quote=Le mesme vale pro le metodologia de Alhacen. Illo pote apparer moderne pro su forti tendentia empiric e su dependentia de experimentos controlate, ma le approccio de Ptolemeo non esseva minus empiric, e etiam illo esseva fundate in experimentos controlate. Insimul, le duo experimentos de Alhacen que pareva le plus moderne se basava super un precision physicamente inobtenibile in le disegno del apparecchio e in le observation, assi nos debe dubitar que ille los executava realmente como describe— excepto, naturalmente, in su mente. E iste experimentos non esseva nove in conception. Illes esseva clarmente basate sur experimentos equivalent in le Optica de Ptolemeo, aunque Alhacen los reformulava in modo significative e creative pro accommodar le testation de radios de lumine e non de radios visual.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Darrigol |first=Olivier |title=A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2012 |pages=20}}</ref> Mechanicos arabic como Bīrūnī e Al-Khazini disveloppava un sophisticate "scientia de peso", faciente mesurationes de pesos e volumenes specific.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lindberg |first1=David |title=The Cambridge History of Science,Volume 2, Medieval Science |last2=Shank |first2=Michael |year=2013 |pages=984–1108}}</ref> [[Avicenna|Ibn Sīnā]] (980-1037), cognoscite como "[[Avicenna]]", esseva un polímata de Bukhara (en le actual [[Uzbekistan]]) responsabile pro contributiones importante al physica, optica, philosophia e [[medicina]]. Ille publicava su theoria del motio in le ''Libro del Sanation'' (1020), ubi ille argumentava que un impetus es impartite a un projectile per le lanciator, e credeva que illo esseva un virtute temporanee que declinarea mesmo in un vacuo. Ille lo considerava como persistente, necessitante fortias externe como le resistance del aere pro dissipar illo.<ref name=Espinoza>{{cite journal | last1 = Espinoza | first1 = Fernando | date = 2005 | title = An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching | journal = Physics Education | volume = 40 | issue = 2| page = 141 | doi=10.1088/0031-9120/40/2/002|bibcode = 2005PhyEd..40..139E | s2cid = 250809354 }}</ref><ref name=Nasr>{{Cite book |title=The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia |author=[[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] & Mehdi Amin Razavi |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-7007-0314-2 |page=72}}</ref><ref name=Sayili>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x|author=Aydin Sayili|date=1987|title=Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=500|issue=1|pages=477–482|bibcode=1987NYASA.500..477S|s2cid=84784804|author-link=Aydin Sayili}}</ref> Ibn Sina faceva un distinction inter 'fortia' e 'inclination' (appellate "mayl"), e argumentava que un objeto adquirir mayl quando le objecto es in opposition a su motio natural. Ille concludeva que le continuación del motion es atribuite al inclination que es transferite al objeto, e que le objeto remanera in motio usque le mayl es consumite. Ille asseriva etiam que un proyectile in un vacuo non stopparia a minus que illo esset acte sur. Iste conception de motion es congruente con le [[Leges de Newton|prime lege del motion de Newton]], inertia, que affirma que un objecto in motio remanera in motio a minus que illo sia acte per un fortia externe.<ref name=Espinoza /> Iste idea, que disentiva del visu aristotélico, esseva postea describite como "impetus" per John Buridan, qui esseva influentiate per le Libro del Sanation de Ibn Sina.<ref name = "ibn sina and buridan">Sayili, Aydin. "Ibn Sina and Buridan on the Motion the Projectile". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol. 500(1). p.477-482.</ref> [[File:Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg|upright|thumb|Un pagina del "Algebra" de [[Mohamet ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|al-Khwārizmī]] intitulate ''Algebra''.]] Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (circa 1080 – circa 1165) adoptava e modificava le theoria de Ibn Sina sur le motion de projectiles. En su libro ''Kitab al-Mu'tabar'', Abu'l-Barakat afirma que le motor imparte un inclination violente (''mayl qasri'') sur le movite e que iste diminue como le objecto movente se distingue del motor.<ref name="Gutman">{{Cite book|title=Pseudo-Avicenna, Liber Celi Et Mundi: A Critical Edition|first=Oliver|last=Gutman|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=2003|isbn=90-04-13228-7|page=193}}</ref> Ille anque proponeva una explication del [[acceleration]] de corporas cadente per le accumulation de incrementos successive de potentia con incrementos successive de [[velocitate]].<ref>[[Alistair Cameron Crombie|Crombie, Alistair Cameron]], ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.</ref> Secundo Shlomo Pines, le theoria de motio de al-Baghdaadi esseva "le plus vetule negation del lege dynamic fundamental de Aristotele [a saper, que un fortia constante produce un motio uniforme], [e assi es un] anticipation de maniera vage del lege fundamental de [[mechanica classic]] [a saper, que un fortia applicate continuemente produce aceleración]".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pines | first = Shlomo | title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, Hibat Allah | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 26–28 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year = 1970 | isbn = 0-684-10114-9 }} <br>([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [528].)</ref> Jean Buridan e Alberto de Sajonia referiva postea a Abu'l-Barakat explicante que le acceleration de un corpore cadente es un resultato de su impetus crescente.<ref name="Gutman" /> Ibn Bajjah (circa 1085 – 1138), cognoscite como "Avempace" in Europa, proponeva que pro cata fortia il ha sempre un fortia de reaction. Ibn Bajjah esseva un critic de Ptolemeo e laborava in crear un nove theoria de velocitate pro substituer le theorisate per Aristotele. Duo futur philosophos supportava le theorias create per Avempace, cognoscite como dinamica avempacean. Illos esseva [[Thomas de Aquino]], un sacerdote catholic, e John Duns Escoto.<ref name=":1" /> Galileo adoptava postea le formula de Avempace "que le velocitate de un objeto date es le differentia inter le potentia motrice de ille objecto e le resistance del medio de motio".<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Gracia|first=Jorge J. E.|chapter=Philosophy in the Middle Ages: An Introduction|date=2007-11-26|pages=1–11|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd|isbn=9780470996669|doi=10.1002/9780470996669.ch1|title=A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages}}</ref> Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274), un astronomo e mathematico persa qui moriva in [[Bagdad]], introduciva le coppia de Tusi. copernico posteriormente se inspirava fortemente in le labor de al-Din al-Tusi e su discipulos, ma sin alcun recognition.<ref name="cosmosmagazine.com">{{cite web |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/society/top-10-ancient-arabic-scientists |title=Top 10 ancient Arabic scientists |publisher=Cosmos magazine |date=2011-01-06 |access-date=2013-04-20}}</ref> === Europa medieval === Le cognoscentia del obras antiguas reentrava in le Occidente a traverso de [[Traductiones latin del seculo XII|traductiones de arabe a latino]]. Lor reintroduction, combinate con commentarios theologic judeo-islamic, habeva un grande influentia sur philosophos medieval como Thomas de Aquino. Scholaros [[Scholastica|scholastic]] europee, qui cercava reconciliar le philosophia del philosophos antique classic con le [[theologia christian]], proclamava Aristotele como le pensator maxime grande del mundo antique. In casos ubi illos non contradiceva directemente le [[Biblia]], le physica aristotelic deveniva le fundamento pro le explanationes physical del Ecclesias european. Le quantification deveniva un elemento central del physica medieval.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crombie |first=A. C. |date=1961 |title=Quantification in Medieval Physics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/228677 |journal=Isis |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=143–160 |issn=0021-1753}}</ref> Basate super le physica aristotelic, le physica scholastic describiva cosas como movente secunde lor natura essential. Objetos celestiales esseva describite como movente seculo circulos, proque le motion circular perfecte esseva considerate como un propertate innate de objectos que existeva in le reino incorrupte del spheras celestial. Le theoria del impetus, le antecessor del conceptos de inertia e momentum, esseva disveloppate alsi con lineas simile per philosophos medieval como John Philoponus e Jean Buridan. Motiones sub le sphera lunar esseva considerate como imperfecte, e assi non poteva esser expectate que illos monstrarea un motion consistente. Motiones plus ideal in le reino "sublunary" poteva esser attingite solmente per artificio, e ante le 17e seculo, multes non considerava experimentos artificial como un medio valide pro apprender sur le mundo natural. Explanationes physic in le reino sublunary se centrava circum tendentias. Strepes contineva le elemento terra, e objectos terrene tendeva a mover se in linea recte verso le centro de le terra (e le universo in le visu geocentric aristotelic) a minus que illes esseva altrimente prevenite de facer lo.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindberg|first=David C.|title=The Beginnings of Western Science|date=1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press|doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226482064.001.0001|isbn=978-0-226-48231-6}}</ref> == Revolution scientific == Durante le 16e e 17e seculos, occurreva un gran avantiamento del progresso scientific cognoscite como le Revolution Scientific in Europa. Le disatisfaction con approaches philosophic plus vetule habeva comenciate previemente e habeva producite altere cambios in le societate, como le [[Reforma protestante|Reforma protestante,]] ma le revolution in le scientia comenciava quando philosophos natural comenciava a montar un attacco sustenite sur le programma philosophic scholastic e supponeva que schemas descriptive mathematicate adoptate de campos como mechanica e astronomia poteva in realitate producer characterizationes universalmente valide de motio e altere conceptos. === Nicolaus Copernico === [[File:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|Le astronomo polonese [[Nicolaus Copernico]] (1473–1543) es rememorate pro su disveloppamento de un modello [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] del [[Solar System|Systema Solar]].]] Un avanto in [[astronomia]] esseva facite per le astronomo polonese [[Nicolaus Copernico]] (1473-1543) quando, in 1543, ille presentava argumentos solide pro le modello heliocentric del Systema Solar, apparentemente como un medio pro render le tabellas que traciant le motio planetari plus precise e simplificar lor production. In modellos heliocentric del Systema Solar, le Terra orbita le Sol conjunctemente con altere corporas in le [[galaxia]] [[Via Lactee|del Terra]], un contradiction secundo le astronomo greco-egyptian Ptolemeo (2e seculo; vide supra), cuje systema collocava le Terra al centro del Universo e esseva acceptate pro plus que 1,400 annos. Le astronomo greco [[Aristarcho|Aristarcho de Samos]] (c. 310 – c. 230 a. C.) ha suggellite que le Terra revolveva circa le Sol, ma le rationamento de Copernico conducea a un acceptance general durabile de iste idea "revolutionari". Le libro de Copernico que presentava le theoria (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, "De le Revolutiones del Spheras Celestial") esseva publicate justo ante su morte in 1543 e, como on le considera generalmente como le initio del astronomia moderne, on le considera anque como le initio del Revolution Scientific. Le nove perspectiva de Copernico, insimul con le observationes precise facite per [[Tycho Brahe]], permitteva al astronomo german [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571–1630) formular su leges sur le motion planetari que remane in uso ancora hodie. === Galileo Galilei === [[File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Galileo Galilei, defensor prime del modern vista scientific e del methodo <br/>(1564–1642)]] Le mathematico, astronomo, e physicista italiano [[Galileo Galilei]] (1564–1642) esseva famose pro su appoio al copernicanismo, su discopertas astronomical, experimentos empirical e su melioramento del telescopio. Como mathematiciano, le rolo de Galileo in le cultura universitari de su epocha esseva subordinate a tres themas major de studio: lege, medicina, e theologia (que esseva intimemente connetite al philosophia). Galileo, tamen, sentiva que le contento descriptive de disciplinas technic meriteva interesse philosophic, particularmente proque le analysi mathematic de observationes astronomical – notabilemente, le analysi de Copernico sur le motiones relative del Sol, Terra, Luna, e planetas – indicava que le affirmations de philosophos sur le natura del universo poteva esser monstrate como erroneous. Galileo anque faceva experimentos mechanical, insistente que le motion mesme – regardless de si illo esseva producite "naturalmente" o "artificialmente" (i.e. deliberatemente) – habeva characteristicas consistentemente universale que poteva esser describe mathematicamente. Le prime studios de Galileo al Universitate de Pisa esseva in medicina, ma ille presto se sentiva atraite verso mathematica e physic. A 19 años, ille discoperiva (e, subsequenteemente, verificava) le natura isochrone del pendulo quando, usando su pulsation, ille chronometrava le oscillationes de un lampada oscillante in le cathedral de Pisa e trovava que illo remaneva le mesme pro cata oscillation, independentemente del amplitude del oscillation. Ille presto deveniva cognoscite per su invention de un balanza hydrostatic e pro su tractato sur le centro de gravitate de corporas solide. Durante su ensegnamento al Universitate de Pisa (1589-1592), ille initiava su experimentos sur le leges de corporas in motion que produceva resultatos tan contradictorie con le doctrinas acceptate de Aristotele que un forte antagonismo esseva provocate. Ille discoperiva que corporas non cade con velocitates proportional a lor pesos. Le famose historia in le qual on dice que Galileo lansava ponderes del [[Turre oblique de Pisa]] es apocryphal, ma ille trovava que le trajectoria de un projectil es un parabola e es credite con conclusiones que anticipateva le [[leges de Newton|leges de motion de Newton]] (e.g. le notion de inertia). Inter iste conclusiones se trova lo que nunc es cognoscite como relativitate galilean, le prime statemento precise sur le proprietates de spatio e tempore foras de geometria tridimensional. [[File:Jupiter and the Galilean Satellites.jpg|thumb|Un montage composite que compara Jupiter (sinistre) e su quatro lunas galilean (de alto a basso: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto).]] Galileo ha essite nominate le "patre del astronomia observation moderne",<ref>{{citation |title=A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century |first=Charles |last=Singer |year=1941 |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ }}, page 217.</ref> le "patre del physic moderne", le "patre del scientia",<ref name="Einstein">{{citation |last=Weidhorn |first=Manfred |title=The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History |year=2005 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=0-595-36877-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/personofmillenni0000weid/page/155 155] |url=https://archive.org/details/personofmillenni0000weid/page/155 }}</ref> e "le patre del scientia moderne".<ref name="finocchiaro2007">[[#Reference-Finocchiaro-2007|Finocchiaro (2007)]].</ref> Secundo Stephen Hawking, "Galileo, forsan plus que alicun altere persona, esseva responsabile pro le nascentia del scientia moderne".<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science|journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology|American Heritage's Invention & Technology]]|volume=24|date=2009|page=36|url=https://www.inventionandtech.com/content/galileo-and-birth-modern-science|access-date=2020-09-15}}</ref> Proque le orthodoxia religiose prescribiva un comprension geocentric o tychonic del Systema Solar, le appoio de Galileo al heliocentrismo provocava controversia e ille esseva processate per le [[Inquisition]]. Trovate "vehementemente suspecte de heresia", ille esseva fortiate a recantar e passava le resto de su vita sub custodia domiciliari. Le contributiones que Galileo faceva al obrservation astronomic include le confirmation telescopic del phases de Venus; le discoperta, en 1609, de le quatro satellites plus grande de Jupiter (subsequentemente conferite le nomine collective de le "satellites galilean"); e le observation e analyse de maculas solar. Galileo anque se dedicava a scientia applicate e technologia, inventante, inter altere instrumentos, un [[bussola]] militar. Su discoperta del satellites jovian esseva publicate in 1610 e le permitteva obtener le position de matemático e philosopho al curia de Medici. Como tal, on expectava que ille participarea in debattos con philosophos in le tradition aristotelian e ille habeva un grande audientia pro su proprie publicationes como le Discursus e Demonstrationes Mathematic del Doi Nov Sciencie (publicate foras post su arresto pro le publication del Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems) e Le Assayer.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Drake|1978}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Biagioli|1993}}</ref> Le interesse de Galileo in experimentar e formular descriptiones mathematic de motio establiva le experimento como un parte integral del philosophia natural. Iste tradition, que se combineva con le eménfase non-mathematic sur le collection de "historias experimental" per reformistas philosophic como William Gilbert e [[Francis Bacon]], attraheva un sequito significative in le annos que precedeva e succedeva le morte de Galileo, includente Evangelista Torricelli e le participantos in le Accademia del Cimento in Italia; Marin Mersenne e [[Blaise Pascal]] en Francia; Christiaan Huygens en le Pais Basse; e Robert Hooke e Robert Boyle en Anglaterra. === René Descartes === [[File:Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg|thumb|upright|[[René Descartes]]<br/>(1596–1650)]] Le philosopho francese [[René Descartes]] (1596-1650) habeva connexiones solide e influence intra le rete de philosophia experimental de ille epocha. Descartes tamen habeva un agenda plus ambicio, que esseva orientate verso le substitution del tradition philosophic scholastic integralmente. Questionante le realitate interpretate per le senso, Descartes cercava restablir systemas explicative philosophic per reducer omne phenomena percipite a esser attribuibile al motion de un mar invisible de "corpusculos". (Notabilemente, ille reserval le pensamento human e [[Deo]] de su schema, considerante illos separate del universo physic). In proponer iste iste schema philosophic, Descartes supponeva que differente typos de motion, como le motion del planetas versus le motion de objectos terrene, non esseva fundamentalmente differente, ma solmente differente manifestationes de un catena interminabile de motiones corpuscular que obediiva a principios universal. Specialmente influential esseva su explanationes pro motiones astronomic circular in terminos del motion vortexal de corpusculos in le spatio (Descartes argumentava, concordante con le credentias, si non le methodos, del Scholasticos, que un [[vacuo]] non poteva existir), e su explanation del [[gravitate]] in terminos de corpusculos que pellava objectos verso le basso.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Shea|1991}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Garber|1992}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Gaukroger|2002}}</ref> Descartes, como Galileo, esseva convicite del importantia del explanation mathematic, e ille e su sequitatores esseva figuras clave in le evolution del mathematica e geometria in le 17e seculo. Descriptiones mathematic cartesiane del motion affirmava que omne formulation mathematic deberea esser justificabile in terminos de action physic directe, una position mantenite per Huygens e le philosopho german [[Gottfried Leibniz]], qui, ben que sequente le tradition cartesian, disveloppava su proprie alternative philosophic al Scholasticismo, que ille presentava in su obra de 1714, le Monadologia. Descartes ha essite nominate le "Patrono del Philosophia Moderne", e multe subsequente philosophia occidental es un responsa a su scripturas, que es studiate de propinque usque hodie. En particular, su Meditationes de Prima Philosophia continúa a esser un texto standard in le majoritate de departmentos de philosophia universitari. Le influentia de Descartes in mathematica es equalmente apparente; Le systema de coordination cartesiano — que permette que equationes algebraic sia expressate como formas geometric in un systema de coordination bidimensional — esseva nominate post ille. Ille es attribuite como le patre del geometria analytic, le ponte inter [[algebra]] e [[geometria]], importante pro le discoperta del [[Calculo (mathematica)|calculo]] e [[Analyse (mathematica)|analyse]]. === Christiaan Huygens === [[File: Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg|thumb|upright|left|Christiaan Huygens<br/>(1629–1695)]] Le physicista, mathematico, astronomo, e inventorator nederlandese Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) esseva le scientista principal in Europa inter Galileo e Newton. Huygens proveniva de un familia de nobilitate que habeva un position importante in le societate nederlandese del 17e seculo; un período in le qual le Republica Nederlandese floreva economicamente e culturalmente. Iste periodo — approximativemente inter 1588 e 1702 — del historia del Nederlandes es cognoscite como le Seculo de Oro nederlandese, un era durante le Revolution Scientific quando le scientia nederlandese esseva inter le plus acclaimate in Europa. A iste tempore, intelectualos e scientistas como René Descartes, [[Baruch Spinoza]], Pierre Bayle, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, [[John Locke]], e Hugo Grotius resideva in le Nederlandes. Il esseva in iste ambiente intellectual que Christiaan Huygens cresceva. Le patre de Christiaan, Constantijn Huygens, esseva, excepte que un poeta importante, le secretario e diplomate pro le Principes de Orange. Ille cognosceva multe scientistas de su epocha a causa de sus contactos e interesses intellectual, includente René Descartes e Marin Mersenne, e esseva a causa de iste contactos que Christiaan Huygens deveniva consciente de lor obras. Especialmente, Descartes, cuje philosophia mecanistic habeva un influentia enorme sur le proprie obra de Huygens. Postea, Descartes esseva impressionate per le abilitates geometric de Christiaan Huygens, como etiam Mersenne, qui lo baptisava "le nove Archimede" (lo que conducerea Constantijn a referir se a su filio como "mi parve Archimede"). Un infante prodigio, Huygens inició su correspondentia con Marin Mersenne quando ille habeva 17 años. Huygens deveniva interessate in ludos de fortuna quando ille incontrava le obras de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, e Girard Desargues. Il esseva Blaise Pascal qui le incitava a scriber Van Rekeningh in Spelen van Gluck, que Frans van Schooten traduceva e publicava como ''De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae'' en 1657. Le libro es le tractato scientific le plus vetule sur iste thema, e a ille tempore le presentation le plus coerente de un approcha mathematic al ludos de fortuna. Duo annos postea, Huygens deriva geometricamente le formulas nunc standard in mechanica classic pro le fortia centripetal e centrifugal in su obra ''De vi Centrifuga'' (1659). Circum le mesme tempore, le recerca de Huygens in [[Chronometria|horologia]] resultava in le invention del pendulo, un avance in chronometria e le chronometro le plus precise pro quasi 300 annos. Le recerca theoritic sur le modo de operation del pendulo eventualmente conducea al publication de uno de sus successos le plus importante: le ''Horologium Oscillatorium''. Iste obra esseva publicate in 1673 e deveniva un del tres tractatos le plus importante del 17e seculo sur mechanica (le altere duo essente le ''Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze'' de Galileo (1638) e le ''Principia Mathematica de Philosophiæ Naturalis'' de Newton (1687).<ref name="bell">{{cite journal | url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277775/Christiaan-Huygens?anchor=ref136385 | title=The Horologium Oscillatorium of Christian Huygens | date = 30 Aug 1941 | access-date=14 November 2013 | author=Bell, A. E. | journal=Nature | volume=148 | issue=3748 | pages=245–248 | doi= 10.1038/148245a0| bibcode=1941Natur.148..245B | s2cid=4112797 }}</ref> Le Horologium Oscillatorium es le prime tractato moderne in le qual un problema physic (le motion accelerite de un corpore cadente) es idealisate per un serie de parametros e postea analysate mathematicamente, e illo constitue un del obras seminal de mathematica applicate.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Yoder|first=Joella G.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/unrolling-time/1427509C7A14C464B08209322E42ABB6|title=Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature|date=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-34140-0|location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref name=":5">Bruce, I. (2007). ''[http://www.17centurymaths.com/contents/huygenscontents.html Christian Huygens: Horologium Oscillatorium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728132258/http://www.17centurymaths.com/contents/huygenscontents.html |date=2020-07-28 }}''. Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.</ref> Pro iste ration, Huygens ha essite nominate le prime physicista theoritic e un del fundatores del physica mathematic moderne.<ref name=":6">Dijksterhuis, F.J. (2008) Stevin, Huygens and the Dutch republic. ''Nieuw archief voor wiskunde'', ''5'', pp. 100–107.[https://research.utwente.nl/files/6673130/Dijksterhuis_naw5-2008-09-2-100.pdf]</ref><ref>Andriesse, C.D. (2005) ''Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle''. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: 6</ref> Le "Horologium Oscillatorium" de Huygens ha exercite un influentia tremende sur le historia del physica, especialmente sur le opera de Isaac Newton, que admirava multo le obra. Per exemplo, le leges que Huygens describiva in le ''Horologium Oscillatorium'' es structuralmente le mesme como le prime duo leges del motion de Newton.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rob Iliffe & George E. Smith |title= The Cambridge Companion to Newton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=se27CwAAQBAJ&dq=Although+Huygens+does+not+state+his+second+law+in+the+full+generality+found+in+the+Principia%2C+the+model+is+structurally+the+same%3A+first%2C+an+inertial+motion&pg=PA75 |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9781107015463 |page=75}}</ref> Cinque annos post le publication de su ''Horologium Oscillatorium'', Huygens describiva su theoria de undas de lumine. Ben que proponite en 1678, illo non esseva publicate usque en 1690 en su Traité de la Lumière. Su theoria mathematic de lumine esseva initialmente rejectite in faveur del theoria corpuscular de lumine de Newton, usque que Augustin-Jean Fresnel adoptava le principio de Huygens pro dar una explication complete del propagation rectilinee e effectos de diffraction del lumine in 1821. Hodie iste principio es cognoscite como le principio Huygens–Fresnel. Como astrónomo, Huygens comenciava a polir lentillos con su fratre Constantijn jr. pro construer telescopios pro recerca astronomic. Ille esseva le prime a identificar le anellos de Saturno como "un anello subtil e plano, nusquam tangente, e inclinate al ecliptica," e discoperiva le prime lunas de Saturno, Titan, usante un telescopio refractante. Excepte le multe importantes discopertas que Huygens faceva in physic e astronomia, e su inventiones de ingeniose dispositivos, ille esseva anque le prime qui introducteva rigor mathematic al description de phenomenas physic. Pro isto, e le facto que ille disveloppava structuras institutional pro recerca scientific sur le continente, on lo ha nominato "le actor principal in 'le creation del scientia in Europa'"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Aldersey-Williams|first=H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7n7VDwAAQBAJ&q=In+the+case+of+two+bodies+which+meet%2C+the+quantity+obtained+by+taking+the+sum+of+their+masses+multiplied+by+the+squares+of+their+velocities+will+be+found+to+beequal+before+and+after+the+collision.%E2%80%99&pg=PP86|title=Dutch Light: Christiaan Huygens and the Making of Science in Europe|date=2020|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-1-5098-9332-4|language=en|access-date=28 August 2021|page=24}}</ref>. === Isaac Newton === [[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Sir Isaac Newton<br/>(1642–1727)]] Le fin del 17e seculo e le initio del 18e seculo vid le realisationes del physico e mathematico del [[Universitate de Cambridge]], Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727). Newton, un membre del Royal Society de Anglaterra, combina su proprie discopertas in mechanica e astronomia con anteriores pro crear un systema unic pro describer le functionamento del universo. Newton formulate tres leyes de motion que estipulava le relation inter motion e objectos, e anque le lege del gravitation universal, le ultime del quales poteva esser usate pro explicar le comportamento non solmente de corporas cadente super le Terra ma anque planetas e altere corporas celestial. Pro arrivar a su resultatos, Newton inventava una forma de un ramos totalmente nove de mathématatica: calculus (inventate anque independentemente per Gottfried Leibniz), que deveniva un utensilio essential in multe del posterior disveloppamento in le major parte de ramos de physic. Le revelationes de Newton esseva exponite in su Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Principios Mathematic de Philosophia Natural"), cuje publication en 1687 marcava le initio del periodo moderne de mechanica e astronomia. Newton poteva refutar le tradition mechanic cartesian que omne motiones deberia esser explicate in relation al immediate [[fortia]] exercite per corpusculos. Per su tres leyes de motion e le lege del gravitation universal, Newton eliminava le idea que objectos seguerea trayctorias determinate per formas natural e al contrario demonstrava que non solmente le trajectorias regularmente observate, ma tote le motiones future de qualcunque corpore poteva esser deducite mathematicemente basate sur le cognoscentia de lor motion existente, lor [[Massa (quantitate physic)|massa]], e le fortias que ageva sur illos. Sin embargo, le motiones celestial observate non conformava preciseemente a un tractamento newtonian, e Newton, qui era anque profunde interessate in [[theologia]], imaginava que Deo interveniva pro assecurar le continuant stabililate del systema solar. [[File:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Bernhard Christoph Francke.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]]<br/>(1646–1716)]] Le principios de Newton (ma non su tractamentos matematic) causava controversia con philosophos continental, qui trovava su manco de explication [[Metaphysica|metaphysic]] pro le movimento e le gravitation philosophicamente inacceptabile. A partir circa le 1700, una division amar se aperiva inter le traditiones philosophic continental e britannic, le quales esseva alimentate per dispute calorose, continue e personalissime inter le partidarios de Newton e Leibniz sur le question de prioritate del technicas analytical de calculo, que cata uno habeva disveloppate independentemente. Inicialmente, le traditiones cartesian e leibnizian prevaleva sur le continente (conduce al predominio del notation leibnizian de calculo ubique excepte in Britannia). Newton mesme remaneva privatamente disturbate per le manco de un comprension philosophic del gravitation, ben que ille insistera in su scriptos que tal comprension non era necesse pro inferer su realitate. Con le progression del 18e seculo, philosophos natural continental acceptava sempre plus tosto le disposition del Newtonianos a abdicar explicationes metaphysic ontologic pro motiones describite mathematicamente.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Hall|1980}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Bertolini Meli|1993}}</ref><ref name="Guicciardini1999">{{Harvtxt|Guicciardini|1999}}</ref> Newton interprete le prime telescopio reflectente functionante<ref name="Wilson2013">{{cite book |author=Raymond N. Wilson |title=Reflecting Telescope Optics I: Basic Design Theory and its Historical Development |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmbyCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-03227-5 |pages=1–10 |chapter=1.1 Period 1608-1672}}</ref> e disveloppava un theoria del color, publicate in ''Opticks'', basate sur le observation que un prisma decompone le luce albe in multe colores que forma le spectra visibile. Ben que Newton explicava le luce como essente composte de particulas minime, una theoria rival del comportamento del luce in terminos de ondas esseva presentado en 1690 por Christiaan Huygens. Tamen, le credentia in le philosophia mecanistic juncte con le reputation de Newton faceva que le theoria de ondas viderea relativemente pauco appoio usque al 19e seculo. Newton anque formulava un lege empirical de refrigeration, studiava le [[velocitate del sono]], investigava series de potencias, demonstrava le theoria binomial generalisate e disveloppava un methodo pro approximar le radices de un function. Su travalio sur series infinite esseva inspirate per le decimales de Simon Stevin.<ref>{{citation |last1=Błaszczyk |first1=Piotr |last2=Katz |first2=Mikhail |author2-link=Mikhail Katz |last3=Sherry |first3=David |arxiv=1202.4153 |doi=10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8 |journal=[[Foundations of Science]] |pages= 43–74|title=Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking |volume= 18|year=2012|bibcode=2012arXiv1202.4153B |s2cid=119134151 }}</ref> Le plus importante, Newton monstrava que le motiones de objectos sur Terra e de corporas celestial es governate per le mesme serie de leyes natural, que non esseva capriciose ne malevolente. Per demonstrar le concordantia inter le leyes de motion planetary de Kepler e su proprie theoria de gravitation, Newton removeva anque le ultime dubitas sur heliocentrismo. Per reunir omne le ideas proponité durante le Revolution Scientific, Newton establiva efficacemente le fundamento pro le societate moderne in mathematica e scientia. === Altere complimentos === Durante le periodo del Revolution Scientific, altere brancas de physicas anque attrahiva attention. William Gilbert, medico de corte del Regina [[Elisabeth I de Anglaterra|Elisabeth I]], publicava un importante opera sur magnetismo en 1600, describente como le terra mesme se comporta como un magnete enorme. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) studiava le comportamento de gases inclosite in un camera e formulava le lege del gas nominata pro ille; ille contribueva etiam al physiologia e al fundation del chimia moderne. Un altere facto importante in le revolution scientific esseva le ascension de societates erudité e academias in varie paises. Le prime de illos se trovava in Italia e Germania e esseva brevemente vital. Plus influente esseva le Societate Royal de Angleterre (1660) e le [[Academia de Scientias francese]] (1666). Le prime esseva una institution private in London e incluye científicos como John Wallis, William Brouncker, Thomas Sydenham, John Mayow, e Christopher Wren (qui contribueva non solmente al architectura ma etiam al astronomia e anatomia); le secunde, en París, esseva un institution governamental e includiteva como membro estranie le hollandese Huygens. In le 18e seculo, academias regal importante esseva establite en Berlín (1700) e en San Petersburgo (1724). Le societates e academias provideva le principal opportunitates pro le publication e disputation de resultatos scientific durante e post le revolution scientific. En 1690, James Bernoulli monstrava que le cycloide es le solution al problema del tautochrone; e le sequente anno, en 1691, Johann Bernoulli monstrava que un catena suspendite liberemente a duo punctos formara un catenaria, le curva con le gravitate central le plus basse possibile disponibile a qualcunque catena pendulate inter duo punctos fixe. Ille monstrava alora, en 1696, que le cycloide es le solution al problema del brachistochrone. ==== Prime thermodynamica ==== Un precursor del motor esseva designate per le scientista germane Otto von Guericke qui, en 1650, designava e construeva le prime bomba de vacuo del mundo pro crear un vacuo, como monstrate per le experimento con le hemispheros de Magdeburg. Ille voleva crear un vacuo pro disprovar le supposition de Aristotele, que "Natura abhorrit vacuum". Poco postea, le physicista e chimico irlandese Boyle apprendeva del designos de Guericke e, en 1656, coordinate con le scientista anglese Robert Hooke, construeva un bomba de aere. Usante iste bomba, Boyle e Hooke notava le correlation inter [[pression]] e [[volumine]] pro un gas: PV = k, ubi P es pression, V es volumine, e k es un constante; iste relation es cognoscite como Lege de Boyle. A illo tempore, on assumeva que le aere esseva un systema de particulas immobile, non como un systema de molecules in movimiento. Le concepto de motion thermal veniva duo seculos postea. Ergo, le publication de Boyle in 1660 tracta de un concepto mechanical: le ressorto de aere.<ref>New Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660). [http://www.imss.fi.it/vuoto/eboyle.html]</ref> Plus tarde, post le invention del thermometer, le temperatura poteva esser quantificate. Iste instrumento dava a Gay-Lussac le oportunitate de derivar su lege, que conducea poco postea al lege del gas ideal. Ma, ja ante le establishment del lege del gas ideal, un associate de Boyle nominate Denis Papin construeva in 1679 un digester de osso, que es un recipiente claude con un tecto stricte que confina vapor usque que un pression alte es generate. Designos plus tarde implementava un valvula de liberation de vapor pro evitar que le machina exploderea. Observante le valvula mover rítmicamente su su su e verso, Papin concipeva le idea de un motor con piston e cylindro. Nonobstante, ille non persequeva su designo. Tamen, en 1697, basate super le designos de Papin, le ingeniero Thomas Savery construeva le prime motor. Ben que iste prime motores esseva rudimentari e inefficiente, illos attraheva le attention del scientistas eminentie del tempore. Ergo, ante le 1698 e le invention del [[Machina de vapor|Machina de Savery]], cavallones esseva usate pro fornir potentias a polias, attachate a secchios, que elevava aqua ex minas de sal inundate in Angleterra. In le annos a sequer, plus variationes de motores a vapor esseva construité, como le Machina de Newcomen, e plus tarde le Machina de Watt. Con le tempore, iste prime motores eventualmente esserea usate in vice de cavallones. Assi, cata motor comenciava a esser associate con un certe quantitate de "potentia de cavall" dependente de quantos cavallones ille habeva substituite. Le principal problema con iste prime motores esseva que illos esseva lente e goff, convertente minus que 2% del [[combustibile]] introducte in labor in labor utile. In altere parolas, grandes quantitates de carbon (o ligno) debiteva esser arse pro producer solmente un fraction parve de labor resultante. Ergo nasceva le necessitate de un nove scientia de [[dynamica]] de motor. == Disveloppamentos del 18e seculo == [[File:Alessandro Volta.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Alessandro Volta]]<br/>(1745–1827)]] Durante le 18e seculo, le mechanica fundate per Newton esseva disveloppate per plure scientistas, como plus mathematicos apprendeva calculus e elaborava super su formulation initial. Le application de analysi mathematic a problematas de motion esseva cognoscite como mechanica rational, o mathematica mixte (e postea nominate mechanica classic). === Mechanica === [[File:ETH-BIB-Bernoulli, Daniel (1700-1782)-Portrait-Portr 10971.tif (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Daniel Bernoulli]]<br/>(1700–1782)]] En 1714, Brook Taylor derivó le frecuencia fundamental de una cuerda vibrante extendite in terminos de su tension e massa per unitate de longitud per resolver un equation differential. Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) faceva importantes studios mathematica sur le comportamento de gases, anticipante le theoria cinematic de gases disveloppate plus que un seculo postea, e ha essite referite como le prime physicista mathematic.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Darrigol|2005}}</ref> En 1733, Daniel Bernoulli deriva le frequentia fundamental e harmonicos de un catena pendente per resolver un equation differential. En 1734, Bernoulli resolvió la ecuación diferencial pro le vibrationes de una barra elastique fixate a un extremo. Le tractamento de Bernoulli del dynamica de fluidos e su examination del fluxo de fluido esseva presentate in su obra de 1738 ''Hydrodynamica''. Mechanica rational tractava principalmente le disveloppamento de tractamentos mathematic elaborate de motiones observate, usante principios newtonian como base, e accentuava le melioration del tractabilitate de calculationes complexe e le disveloppamento de medietates legitime de approximation analytic. Un manual representative contemporanee esseva publicate per Johann Baptiste Horvath. Al fin del seculo, tractamentos analytic esseva sufficientemente rigorose pro verificar le stabilitate del Systema Solar solmente super le base de le leges de Newton sin recurrer a intervention divine — mesmo durante que tractamentos deterministic de systemas tan simple como le problema de tres corporas in gravitation remaneva intrattabile.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bos|1980}}</ref> In 1705, Edmond Halley prediceva le periodicitate del [[Cometa Halley]], [[William Herschel]] discoperiva Urano in 1781, e Henry Cavendish mensurava le constantia gravitational e determinava le massa del Terra in 1798. In 1783, [[John Michell]] suggereva que alicun objectos poteva esser tan massive que ne mesmo le lumine poteva evader de illos. In 1739, [[Leonhard Euler]] resolviva le equation differentiale ordinar pro un oscillator harmonic sub le influentia de un fortia exterior e notava le phenomeno de resonantia. In 1742, Colin Maclaurin discoperiva su spheroides self-gravitante que rota uniformemente. In 1742, Benjamin Robins publicava su nove principios in ballistica, stabilindo le scientia de aerodynamica. Le labor britannic, continuate per mathematicos tal como Taylor e Maclaurin, restava retro le progressos continental como le seculo se disveloppava. Interim, le labor floreva in academias scientific in le Continente, guidate per mathematicos como Bernoulli e Euler, assi como Joseph-Louis Lagrange, [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], e Adrien-Marie Legendre. In 1743, Jean le Rond d'Alembert publicava su Tractato de dynamica, in le qual ille introduceva le concepto de fortias general pro systemas accelerante e systemas con restrictiones, e applicava le nove idea de labor virtual pro resolver problemas dynamic, nunc cognoscite como le principio de d'Alembert, como un rival a le secunde lege de motion de Newton. In 1747, Pierre Louis Maupertuis applicava principios minimal a mechanic. In 1759, Euler resolviva le equation differentiale partial pro le vibration de un tambure rectangul. In 1764, Euler examinava le equation differentiale partial pro le vibration de un tambure circular e trovava un del solutiones de functiones de Bessel. In 1776, John Smeaton publicava un articulo sur experimentos relationate a potentia, labor, momentum, e energia cinetic, e supportante le [[conservation de energia]]. In 1788, Lagrange presentava su equationes de motion in Mechanica analytic, in le qual tote le mechanica esseva organisate circa le principio de labor virtual. In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier affirmava le lege de conservation de massa. Le mechanica rational disveloppate in le 18e seculo reciveva expositiones in tanto Mechanica analytic de Lagrange como le Traictato de mechanica celestial de Laplace (1799–1825). === Thermodynamica === Durante le 18e seculo, le termodinamica se disveloppava per le theorias de "fluidos imponderabile" sin peso, tal como calor ("caloric"), [[electricitate]], e phlogiston (que esseva rapideamente renversate como concepto post le identification de gas [[oxygeno]] per Lavoisier al fin del seculo). Supponinte que iste conceptos esseva fluidos real, lor fluition poteva esser sequite per un apparato mechanic o reactiones chimic. Iste tradition de experimento conducerea al disveloppamento de nove tipos de apparatos experimental, tal como le vaso de Leyden; e nove tipos de instrumentos de mesura, tal como le calorimeter, e versiones meliorate de illos vetules, tal como le thermometro. Experimentos anque produciva nove conceptos, tal como le notion de calor latent del experimentator Joseph Black del Universitate de Glasgow e le characterization del fluido electric como fluinte inter locos de excesso e deficit (un concepto ulteriormente reinterpretate in terminos de [[Carga electric|cargas]] positive e negative) del intellectual [[Benjamin Franklin]] de Philadelphia. Franklin anque monstrava que le fulmine es electricitate in 1752. Le theoria de calor acceptate in le 18e seculo lo considerava como un specie de fluido, nominate caloric; ben que iste theoria postea esseva monstrate como erronee, un numero de scientistas adherente a illo tamen faceva importantes decouveras utile pro le disveloppamento del theoria moderne, inter illes Joseph Black (1728–99) e Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). Opponite a iste theoria de caloric, que habeva essite disveloppate principalmente per los chimicos, esseva le theoria minus acceptate que datava del tempore de Newton que le calor es causate per le motiones del particulas de un substantia. Iste theoria mechanic obtineva appoio in 1798 del experimentos con canones de Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), qui trovava un relation directe inter calor e energia mechanic. In le prime parte del 18e seculo, on recognosceva que trovar theorias absolute de fortia electrostatic e magnetic simile al principios de motion de Newton esserea un achievement importante, ma nulle de iste sorta se presentava. Iste impossibilitate solmente disappareva lentemente quando le practica experimental deveniva plus extensive e plus raffinate durante le annos initiale del 19e seculo in locos como le novemente establite Royal Institution in London. Interim, le methodos analytic del mechanica rational comenciava a esser applicate a phenomenos experimental, le influentia maxime occurreva con le tractamento analytic del mathematico francese Joseph Fourier del fluxo de calor, publicate in 1822.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Heilbron|1979}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Buchwald|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Golinski|1999}}</ref> Joseph Priestley proponeva un lege de inverse quadrato pro electricitate in 1767, e Charles-Augustin de Coulomb introduceva le lege de inverse quadrato pro electrostatica in 1798. Al fin del seculo, le membros del Academia de Scientias francese habeva attingite un dominio clar in le campo.<ref name="Guicciardini1999" /><ref>{{Harvtxt|Greenberg|1986}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Guicciardini|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Garber|1999}}</ref> Al mesme tempore, le tradition experimental establite per Galileo e su sequitores persisteva. Le Societate Royal e le Academia Francese de Scientias esseva centros major pro le execution e reporto de labor experimental. Experimentos in mechanica, optica, magnetismo, electricitate static, chimica, e [[physiologia]] non esseva clarmente distinguite un del altere durante le 18e seculo, ma significant differences in schema explicative e, ergo, designo de experimentos emergeva. Experimentatores chimic, per exemplo, resisteva tentativas de impor un schema de fortias abstracte newtonian in le affiliationes chimic, e invece se concentrava sur le isolation e classification de substantias e reactiones chimic.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Ben-Chaim|2004}}</ref> == 19e seculo == === Mechanica === In 1821, William Hamilton initiava su analysis del function characteristic de Hamilton. In 1835, ille enunciava le equationes canonico de motion de Hamilton. In 1813, Peter Ewart supportava le idea del [[conservation de energia]] in su articulo "Sur le mensura del fortia in movimento". In 1829, Gaspard Coriolis introduceva le terminos de labor (fortia tempore distantia) e energia cinetic con le significationes que illos ha hodie. In 1841, Julius Robert von Mayer, un scientista amatorial, scribeva un articulo sur le conservation de energia, ben que su manca de formation academic resultava in su rejection. In 1847, Hermann von Helmholtz enunciava formalmente le lege del conservation de energia. === Electromagnetismo === [[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Michael Faraday]]<br/>(1791–1867)]] In 1800, Alessandro Volta inventava le batteria electric (conocite como le pilo voltaic) e, assi, meliorava le maniera in que currentes electric poteva esser studiate. Un anno postea, Thomas Young demonstrava le natura undulante de lux—que recipieva fortissimo appoio experimental del labor de Augustin-Jean Fresnel—e le principio de interference. In 1820, [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] discoperiva que un conductor portante currente genera un fortia magnetic circum illo, e intra un septimana post le discoperta de Ørsted que arrivava a Francia, [[André-Marie Ampère]] revelava que duo currentes electric parallel exercera fortias reciproc sur se. In 1821, [[Michael Faraday]] construeva un motor alimentate per electricitate, durante que Georg Ohm enunciava su lege de resistance electric in 1826, expriminte le relation inter voltage, currente, e resistance in un circuito electric. In 1831, Faraday (e independentemente [[Joseph Henry]]) discoperiva le effecto reverse, le production de un potential electric o currente per medio del magnetismo – cognoscite como induction electromagnetic; iste duo discopertas es le base del motor electric e del generatore electric, respectivemente. === Leges de thermodynamica === [[File:Baron Kelvin 1906.jpg|thumb|200px|right|{{nowrap|[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)]]<br/>(1824–1907)}}]] In le 19e seculo, le connection inter calor e energia mechanic esseva stabilite quantitativemente per Julius Robert von Mayer e [[James Prescott Joule]], qui mesurava le equivalentia mechanic de calor in le annos 1840. In 1849, Joule publicava resultatos de su serie de experimentos (incluse le experimento con rota de paletta) que monstrava que calor es un forma de energia, un facto que esseva acceptate in le annos 1850. Le relation inter calor e energia esseva importante pro le disveloppamento de machinas a vapor, e in 1824 le labor experimental e theoretic de Sadi Carnot esseva publicate. Carnot apprehendeva alcun del ideas de thermodynamica in su discussion sur le efficientia de un machina ideal. Le labor de Sadi Carnot provideva un base pro le formulation del prime lege de thermodynamica—un reformulation del lege de conservation de energia—que esseva statuate circa 1850 per William Thomson, postea cognoscite como Lord Kelvin, e Rudolf Clausius. Lord Kelvin, qui habeva extendite le concepto de zero absolute de gases a omne substantias in 1848, utilisava le theoria de ingenieria de Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, e Émile Clapeyron—assim como le experimentos de James Prescott Joule sur le interchangeabilitate de formas mechanical, chimic, thermal, e electric de labor—pro formular le prime lege. Kelvin e Clausius anque enunciava le secunde lege de thermodynamica, que originalmente esseva formulate in terminos del facto que calor non flue spontaneemente de un corpore plus frigide a un plus calide. Altre formulationes sequeva rapide (pro exemplo, le secunde lege esseva exponite in le influente obra de Thomson e Peter Guthrie Tait "Treatise on Natural Philosophy") e Kelvin, in particular, comprendeva alcun del implicationes general del lege. Le secunde lege esseva le idea que gases consiste de molecules in motion que habeva essite discutite detallatemente per Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, ma que habeva cedite in popularitate e esseva revivite per Clausius in 1857. In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau e Léon Foucault mesurava le [[velocitate de lumine]] in aqua e trovava que illo es plus lente que in aere, supportante le modello undulante de lux. In 1852, Joule e Thomson demonstrava que un gas que se expande rapidemente refrigerava, ulteriormemente nominate le effecto Joule–Thomson o effecto Joule–Kelvin. Hermann von Helmholtz presentava le idea del morte calor del universo in 1854, le mesme anno que Clausius stabiliva le importantia de dQ/T (le theorema de Clausius) (quamvis ille non nominava ancora le quantitate). === Mecanica statistic (un approche fundamentalmente nove al scientia) === [[File:James Clerk Maxwell big.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[James Clerk Maxwell]]<br/>(1831–1879)]] In 1859, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] discoperiva le lege de distribution del velocitates molecular. Maxwell monstrava que campos electric e magnetic se propagava foras de lor fonte a un velocitate equal al velocitate del lumine e que le lumine es un del plure formas de radiation electromagnetic, differinte solmente in frequencia e longitut de unda. In 1859, Maxwell elaborava le mathematica del distribution del velocitates del moleculas de un gas. Le theoria undulante de lumine esseva ampiemente acceptate al tempore del labor de Maxwell sur le campo electromagnetic, e postea le studio de lumine e ille de electricitate e magnetismo esseva intime interligate. In 1864, James Maxwell publicava su papeles sur un theoria dynamica del campo electromagnetic, e affirmava que lumine es un phenomenon electromagnetic in le publication de 1873 de "Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism". Iste labor se basava super travalio theoretic per theoreticos german como [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] e Wilhelm Weber. Le inclusion del calor in motion particulate, e le addition de fortias electromagnetic al dynamica newtonian establiva un base theoretic extrememente robuste pro observationes physic. Le prediction que le lumine representa un transmission de energia sub forma de undas a traverso un "aether luminifere", e le apparente confirmation de iste prediction con le detection per le discipulo de Helmholtz, [[Heinrich Hertz]], de [[radiation electromagnetic]] in 1888, esseva un triumpho major pro le theoria physic e suscitava le possibilitate que anque plus fundamental theorias basate sur le campo poteva esser presto disveloppate.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Buchwald|1985}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|JungnickelMcCormmach|1986}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Hunt|1991}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Buchwald|1994}}</ref> Confirmations experimental del theoria de Maxwell esseva aportate per Hertz, qui generava e detegeva ondas electric in 1886 e verificava lor proprietates, al mesme tempore anticipante lor application in radio, television, e altere dispositivos. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discoperiva le effecto photoelectric. Investigations sur le ondas electromagnetic comenciava poco postea, con multe scientistas e inventores conducente experimentos sur lor proprietates. In le medium al fin del annos 1890, Guglielmo Marconi disveloppava un systema de telegraphia sin filo basate super ondas radio<ref>{{Cite book|last=Windelspecht, Michael|title=Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the 19th century|date=2003|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=0-313-31969-3|oclc=50003997|page=195}}</ref>. Le theoria atomic de materia esseva proposte de nove in le prime parte del 18e seculo per le chimico John Dalton e deveniva un del hypothesias del theoria kinetic-molecular de gases disveloppate per Clausius e James Clerk Maxwell pro explicar le lege de thermodynamica. [[File:Boltzmann2.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Ludwig Boltzmann]]<br/>(1844-1906)]] Le theoria kinetic, a su vice, conduceva a un approche revolutionari al scientia, le mecanica statistic de Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) e Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), que studia le statistica del microstatos de un systema e usa le statistica pro determinar le stato de un systema physic. Interrelacionante le probabilitate statistic de certe statos de organisation de iste particulas con le energia de ille statos, Clausius reinterpretava le dissipation de energia como le tendentia statistic de configurationes molecular a moventar se verso statos de plus grande probabilitate, que es statos de plus grande disorganisation (cuneante le termino "[[entropia]]" pro describer le disorganisation de un stato). Le interpretationes statistic versus absolute del secunde lege de thermodynamica generava un controversia que durarea pro plure decadas (producente argumentos como "le demonio de Maxwell"), e que non esserea considerate como definite resolvite usque que le comportamento de atomos esseva stabilite firmemente in le prime parte del 20e seculo.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Smith|Wise|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Smith|1998}}</ref> In 1902, James Jeans trovava le scala de longitud necessari pro que le perturbationes gravitational cresce in un medio quasi homogeneous static. === Altere disveloppamentos === In 1822, le botanico Robert Brown discoperiva le motion brownian: granos de polen in aqua sub le effecto de movimento resultante de lor bombardamento per le particulas o molecules rapide in le liquido. In 1834, [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Carl Jacobi]] discoperiva su ellipsoides uniformemente rotante autogravitante (le ellipsoide de Jacobi). In 1834, John Russell observava un unda aquose solitarie nondecayente (soliton) in le Canal Union presso [[Edimburg]] e usava un tanque de aqua pro studiar le dependentia del velocitates del undas aquatic solitarie sur le amplitude del unda e le profunditate del aqua. In 1835, Gaspard Coriolis examinava theoreticamente le efficacia mechanic de roetas aquatic, e deduceva le effecto Coriolis. In 1842, Christian Doppler proponeva le effecto Doppler. In 1851, Léon Foucault monstrava le rotation del Terra con un pendulo immense (pendulo de Foucault). Il habeva avantios importante in le mechanica continuum in le prime parte del seculo, notabilemente le formulation del lege de elasticitate pro solidos e le discoperta del equationes de Navier-Stokes pro fluidos. == 20e seculo: nascentia del physica moderne == [[File:Mariecurie.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Marie Curie|Marie Skłodowska-Curie]]<br/>(1867–1934) Illa ha ganiate duo premios Nobel, le prime in Physica (1903) e le secunde in Chimia (1911).]] Al fin del 19e seculo, le physica habeva evolvite usque al puncto in le qual mechanica classic poteva tractar problemas multo complexe involvente situationes macroscopic; le thermodinamica e le theoria kinetic esseva ben establite; le optica geometric e physic poteva esser comprehendite in terminos de undas electromagnetic; e le leges de conservation pro energia e momentum (e massa) esseva largemente acceptate. Tan profunde esseva iste e altere disveloppamentos que il esseva generalmente acceptate que omnes le leges importante de physica habeva essite discoperite e que, de ora in avant, le recerca concernerea solmente resolver problemas minor e specialmente facer meliorationes in methodo e mensuration. Tamen, circa 1900, seriouse dubitas emergeva circa le completezza de le theorias classic—le triumpho del theorias de Maxwell, pro exemplo, esseva subminite per inadequates que ja habeva comenciate a appare—e lor incapacitate a explicar certe phenomenas physic, tal como le distribution de energia in le radiation de corpores negre e le effecto photoelectric, durante que alcun del formulationes theoretic conducea a paradoxos quando pressite al limite. Physicos prominente como Hendrik Lorentz, Emil Cohn, Ernst Wiechert, e Wilhelm Wien credeva que certe modification de le [[equationes de Maxwell]] poteva provider le base pro tote le leges physic. Iste deficentias del physica classic nunquam esseva resolvite e nove ideas esseva necessari. Al comenciamento del 20e seculo, un revolution major commoviva le mundo del physica, conducente a un nove era, generalmente nominate physica moderne.<ref name="Harvtxt|Agar|2012">{{Harvtxt|Agar|2012}}</ref> === Experimentos de radiation === [[File:J.J Thomson.jpg|thumb|200px|[[J. J. Thomson]] (1856–1940) discoperiva le [[electron]] e [[Isotope|isotopia]] e inventava le [[mass spectrometer]]. Ille recipieva le [[Premio Nobel in Physica]] in 1906.]] In le 19e seculo, experimentatores comenciava a deteger formas de radiation inexpectate: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] causava sensation con su discoperta de radiographias in 1895; in 1896, Henri Becquerel discoperiva que certe tipos de materia emite radiation de lor proprie accorde. In 1897, J. J. Thomson discoperiva le [[electron]], e nove elementos radioactive trovate per [[Marie Curie|Marie]] e [[Pierre Curie]] generava questions sur le supertoto indestructibile del atomo e le natura del materia. Marie e Pierre introduceva le termino "[[radioactivitate]]" pro describer iste proprietate del materia e isolava le elementos radioactive [[radium]] e [[polonium]]. [[Ernest Rutherford]] e Frederick Soddy identificava duo de le formas de radiation de Becquerel como electrons e le elemento [[helium]]. Rutherford identificava e nominate duo tipos de radioactivitate e in 1911 interpretava evidentia experimental como monstrante que le atomo consiste de un nucleus dense, con carga positive, circumcincte per electrons con carga negative. Tamen, le theoria classic prediceva que iste structura esseva instabile. Le theoria classic anque non reussiva a explicar con successo duo altere resultatos experimental que appariva a fin del 19e seculo. Un de illos esseva le demonstration per Albert A. Michelson e Edward W. Morley—conocite como le experimento de Michelson–Morley—que monstrava que non pare haber un systema de referentia preferite, in reposo respecte al hypothetical aether luminifere, pro describer phenomena electromagnetic. Le studio de radiation e decadentia radioactive continuava a esser un focus preeminente pro recerca physic e chimic usque le annos 1930, quando le discoperta del fissione nuclear per [[Lise Meitner]] e [[Otto Frisch]] aperi le via al exploitation practic de lo que deveniva cognoscite como [[Energia nuclear|energia "atomica"]]. === Theoria de relativitate de Albert Einstein === [[File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|thumb|[[Albert Einstein]] (1879–1955), fotografate hic in c. 1905]] In 1905, un physicista german de 26 annos nominate [[Albert Einstein]] (tunc un impendulo de patentes in [[Berna]], [[Switza]]) monstrava como mesurationes de tempore e spatio es afficite per le motion inter un observator e lo que es observate. Le theoria radical de relativitate de Einstein revolutionava le scientia. Ben que Einstein faceva multe altere contributiones importante al scientia, le theoria de relativitate solipar representa un del plus grande successos intellectual de tote le tempore. Ben que le concepto de relativitate non esseva introduce per Einstein, ille recognosceva que le velocitate de lumine in vacuo es constante, i.e., le mesme pro omne observatores, e un limite superior absolute pro velocitate. Isto non affecta le vita quotidian de un persona, dato que le majoritate de objectos se move a velocitates multo minus rapide que le velocitate del lumine. Pro objectos que se move approximativemente a le velocitate del lumine, tamen, le theoria de relativitate monstra que chronometros associate con ille objectos will functionar plus lentemente e que le objectos se abbreviara in longitute secundo mesurationes de un observator sur le Terra. Einstein etiam deriveva le celebre equation, E = mc², que expressa le equivalentia inter massa e energia. ==== Relativitate special ==== [[File:GPB circling earth.jpg|thumb|left|Einstein suggereva que la [[gravitation]] es un resultato de [[massa]]s (o lor equivalentias de energia) [[Curvature of spacetime|curvante ("flectente")]] le [[spatio-tempore]] in le qual illos existe, alterante le trajectorias que illos sequi in illo.]] Einstein argumentava que le velocitate del lumine esseva un constantia in omne systemas de referentia inerti e que le lege electromagnetic deberia remaner valide independentemente del systema de referentia—assertiones que rendeva le aether "superflue" al theoria physic, e que affirmava que observationes de tempore e longitud variava relative al modo in le qual le observator se moveva con respecto al objecto que esseva mesurate (lo que deveniva cognoscite como le "theoria special de relativitate"). Anque illo sequiva que massa e energia esseva quantitates interchangeabile secundo le equation E=mc². In un altere articulo publicate le mesme anno, Einstein affirmava que le radiation electromagnetic esseva transmitte in quantitates discrete ("quanta"), secundo un constantia que le physicista theoretic [[Max Planck]] habeva proponite in 1900 pro arrivar a un theoria precise del distribution del radiation del corpores negre—un assumption que explicava le proprietates strange del effecto photoelectric. Le theoria special de relativitate es un formulation del relation inter observationes physic e le conceptos de spatio e tempore. Le theoria surgeva ex contradictiones inter electromagnetismo e le mechanica newtonian e habeva un grande impacto sur ambes iste domainios. Le problema historic original esseva si il esseva significante discuter le "aether" portator de undas electromagnetic e le motion relative a illo e etiam si on poteva deteger tal motion, como esseva infructuosemente essayate in le experimento de Michelson–Morley. Einstein demoliva iste questiones e le concepto de aether in su theoria special de relativitate. Tamen, su formulation basic non involve un theoria electromagnetic detaliate. Ille surge ex le question: "Lo que es tempore?" Newton, in le Principia (1686), habeva dat un responsa inequivoce: "Tempus absolute, ver, e mathematic, de se e ex su proprie natura, flue equabilmente sin relation a ullo externe, e per un altere nomine es appellate duration." Iste definition es fundamental a tote le physica classic. Einstein habeva le ingenio de questionar lo, e trovava que illo esseva incomplete. In loco, cata "observator" necessemente usa su proprie scala de tempore, e pro duo observatores in motion relative, lor scalas de tempore differera. Isto induce un effecto correspondent sur le mesurationes de position. Spatio e tempore deveni conceptos intrelassate, fundamentalmente dependente del observator. Cata observator preside super su proprie structura spatio-temporal o systema de coordination. Nulle essente un puncto de referentia absolute, omnes observatores de eventos date face mesurationes differente sed equalmente valide (e reconciliabile). Lo que remane absolute es affirmate in le postulato de relativitate de Einstein: "Le leges basic de physic es identic pro duo observatores qui ha un velocitate relative constante unespectante le altere." Le theoria special de relativitate habeva un effecto profounde sur le physica: initiatement comenciante como un reevaluation del theoria del electromagnetismo, illo discoperiva un nove lege de symmetria del natura, ora cognoscite como le symmetria de Poincaré, que replaceva le vetule symmetria galilean. Le theoria special de relativitate exercitava un altere effecto de longe durata sur le [[dynamica]]. Ben que initialmente illo esseva credite con le "unification de massa e energia", il deveniva evidente que le dynamica relativistic establiva un distinction ferme inter massa in reposo, que es un proprietate invariant (independentemente del observator) de un particula o systema de particulas, e le energia e momentum de un systema. Le ultime duo es separatemente conservate in omne situationes ma non son invariantes respecte a differente observatores. Le termino "massa" in [[physica de particulas]] subiva un cambio semantic, e desde le fin del 20e seculo, illo denota quasi exclusivemente le massa in reposo (o invariant). ==== Relativitate general ==== In 1916, Einstein poteva generalisar isto plus avant, pro tratar omne statos de motion includente acceleration non uniforme, que deveniva le [[theoria general de relativitate]]. In iste theoria, Einstein specificava anque un nove concepto, le curvature de spatio-tempore, que describeva le effecto gravitational a cata puncto in spatio. In facto, le curvature de spatio-tempore replaceva completamento le lege universal de gravitation de Newton. Secundo Einstein, le forza gravitational in le senso normal es un sorte de illusion causate per le geometria de spatio. Le presentia de un massa causa un curvature de spatio-tempore in le vicinitate del massa, e iste curvature dicte le cammino de spatio-tempore que omne objectos in motion libere debe sequer. Anque esseva predictite per iste theoria que le lumine debe esser subjecte al gravitate - tote le qual esseva verifyate experimentalmente. Iste aspecto de relativitate explicava le phenomena de inflection de lumine circum le sol, predictiva de foros negre, assi como le proprietates del radiation cosm microunde — un revelation que rendeva anomalias fundamental in le hypothese classic de stato steadie. Pro su labor in le relativitate, le effecto photoelectric e le radiation del corpores negre, Einstein recipieva le Premio Nobel in 1921. Le acceptation gradual de le theories de relativitate de Einstein e le natura quantificate del transmission de lumine, e del modello atomic de Niels Bohr creava tan multe problemas como ille solva, conducente a un effortio a plen scala pro restituer le physica super nove principios fundamental. Expansive le relativitate a casos de frames de referentia con acceleration (le "theoria general de relativitate") in le annos 1910, Einstein proposite un equivalence inter le fortia inertial de acceleration e le forza de gravitate, conducente al conclusion que le spatio es curvate e finite in dimension, e le prediction de phenomena como le lensamento gravitational e le distortion de tempore in campos gravitational. === Mechanica quantic === [[File:Max Planck 1878.GIF|thumb|180px|right|[[Max Planck]]<br/>(1858–1947)]] Ben que le relativitate resolveva le conflicto de phenomena electromagnetic demonstrate per Michelson e Morley, un secunde problema theoretical esseva le explanation del distribution de radiation electromagnetic emittite per un corpore nigre; experimento monstrava que a longor longitudes de unda plus brevi, verso le extremo ultraviolet del spectra, le energia se approximava a zero, ma le theoria classic predicte que illo deberia devenir infinite. Isto discrepancia flagrante, cognoscite como le catastropha ultraviolet, esseva resolvite per le nove theoria del [[mechanica quantic]]. Le mecanica quantic es le theoria de atomos e systemas subatomic. Approximatemente le prime 30 annos del 20e seculo representa le periodo del conception e evolution del theoria. Le ideas basic de le theoria del quantos esseva introducite in 1900 per Max Planck (1858–1947), qui receveva le [[Premio Nobel pro Physica]] in 1918 pro su discoverta del natura quantificate de energia. Le theoria quantic (que previemente se confidava in le "correspondentia" a grandis scalas inter le mundo quantificate del [[atomo]] e le continuitates del mundo "classic") esseva acceptate quando le effecto Compton establiva que le lumine porta momentum e pote diffunder se ab particulas, e quando Louis de Broglie affirmava que materia pote esser vidite como comportante se como un unda de maniera simile al modo in le qual undas electromagnetic se comporta como particulas (dualitate unda-particula). [[File:Heisenberg 10.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Werner Heisenberg]]<br/>(1901–1976)]] In 1905, Einstein usava le theoria quantic pro explicar le effecto photoelectric, e in 1913 le physicista danese [[Niels Bohr]] usava le mesme constantia pro explicar le stabilitate del atomo de Rutherford como etiam le frequencias del lumine emittite per gas de hydrogeno. Le theoria quantificate del atomo dava loco a un mecanica quantic a plen scala in le annos 1920. Nove principios de un mechanic "quantic" al contrario de un mechanic "classic", formulite in forma de matrice per Werner Heisenberg, [[Max Born]], e Pascual Jordan in 1925, se basava sur le relation probabilistic inter "statos" discrete e negava le possibilitate de causalitate. Le mecanica quantic esseva extensivemente disveloppate per Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, [[Paul Dirac]], e [[Erwin Schrödinger]], qui establiva un theoria equivalente basate sur undas in 1926; ma le "principio de incertitude" de Heisenberg in 1927 (indicante le impossibilitate de mensuration precise e simultanee de position e momentum) e le "interpretation de Copenhagen" de le mecanica quantic (nominate in honor del citate natal de Bohr) continuava a negar le possibilitate de causalitate fundamental, ben que oppositores como Einstein metaphoricamente affirmarea que "Deo non luda a dados con le universo".<ref name="Harvtxt|Kragh|1999">{{Harvtxt|Kragh|1999}}</ref> Le nove mecanica quantic deveniva un utensilio indispensable in le investigation e explication de phenomena al nivello atomic. Anque in le annos 1920, le travalio sur photones e mecanica quantic del scientista indian Satyendra Nath Bose fourniva le base pro le statistica de Bose–Einstein, le theoria del condensato de Bose–Einstein. Le theorema spin-statistica stabile que omne particula in le mecanica quantic pote esser o un [[boson]] (statisticamente Bose–Einstein) o un [[fermion]] (statisticamente Fermi–Dirac). Postea on trovava que omne bosones fundamental transmite fortias, tal como le photon que transmite electromagnetismo. Fermiones es particulas "como electrones e nucleones" e es le constituentes usual del [[materia]]. Le statisticas Fermi–Dirac trovava posteriormente multe altere applicationes, ab astrophysica a designo de [[semiconductor|semiconductores]]. == Physica contemporanee == === Theoria de campos quantic === [[File:Feynman Diagram Gluon Radiation.svg|thumb|287px|right|Un [[diagramma de Feynman]] que representa (de sinistra a dextera) le production de un photon (sinusoide azul) ex le [[annihilation]] de un electron e su complementari [[antiparticula]], le [[positron]]. Le photon deveni un par de [[quark]]–[[antiquark]] e un [[gluon]] (spirale verde) es liberate.]] [[File:Feynman-richard_p.jpg|thumb|Le badge de identification de Los Alamos de [[Richard Feynman]].]] Como le philosophicamente inclinate continuava a debatter le natura fundamental del universe, theorias quantic continuava a esser producite, comenciant con le formulation de un theoria quantic relativistic per [[Paul Dirac]] in 1928. Tamen, tentativas de quantificar integralmente le theoria electromagnetic esseva frustrate durante tote le decadas de 1930 per formulationes theoretical que produceva energias infinite. Iste situation non esseva considerate adequademente resolve usque post le fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, quando Julian Schwinger, [[Richard Feynman]] e Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, de maniera independente, proponite le technica de renormalisation, que permetteva le establimento de un robuste electrodynamica quantic (QED).<ref>{{Harvtxt|Schweber|1994}}</ref> Interim, nove theorias de particulas fundamental proliferava con le ascension del idea del quantisation de campos per "fortias de exchange" regulate per un exchange de particulas "virtual" de vita breve, que esseva permittite a existit secundo le leyes que governa le incertitudines intrinsece al mundo quantic. Notabilemente, Hideki Yukawa proponeva que le cargas positive del [[Nucleo atomic|nucleo]] se teneva insimul per un forza potente ma de breve distantia mediatisate per un particula con un massa inter illo del electron e [[proton]]. Iste particula, le "pion", esseva identificate in 1947 como parte de lo que deveniva un serie de particulas discoperite post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Inicialmente, tal particulas esseva trovate como [[Ionisation|radiation ionisante]] causate per radiation cosmic, ma de plus in plus deveniva producer in acceleratores de particulas nove e plus potente.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Galison|1997}}</ref> Extra le physica de particulas, progressos significative de iste epocha includeva: * le invention del [[laser]] (Premio Nobel de Physica in 1964); * le recerca theoritic e experimental del superconductivitate, specialmente le invention de un theoria quantic de superconductivitate per [[Vitaly Ginzburg]] e Lev Landau (Premio Nobel de Physica in 1962) e, postea, su explication via pares Cooper (Premio Nobel de Physica in 1972). Le par Cooper esseva un prime exemplo de quasiparticulas. === Theorias integrate de campos === Einstein considerava que tote interactiones fundamental in le natura pote esser explicite per un theoria sol. Theorias integrate de campos esseva numeros tentativas de "fusionar" plure interactiones. Un de multe formulationes de tal theorias (assim como de theorias de campos in general) es un theoria de calibre, un generalisation del idea de symmetria. Finalmente, le Modello Standard (vide infra) succedeva in le unification del interactiones forti, debil, e electromagnetic. Omne tentativas de unificar le [[gravitation]] con altere cosas ha fallite. === Fisica de particulas e le Modello Standard === [[File:Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg|left|thumb|250px|Le [[Modello Standard]].]] [[File:Chien-Shiung Wu (1912-1997) in 1958.jpg|right|thumb|Chien-Shiung Wu laborava sur violation de paritate in 1956 e annunciava su resultatos in januario 1957.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chien-Shiung Wu|date=25 May 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chien-Shiung-Wu}}</ref>]] Quando le paritate esseva violate in interactiones debile per Chien-Shiung Wu in su experimento, subsequente a isto, on faceva una serie de nove decovrimentos.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antimatter|url=https://home.cern/science/physics/antimatter|date=2021-03-01}}</ref> Le interaction de iste particulas per dispersion e decadentia forniva un clave a nove theorias quantistic fundamental. [[Murray Gell-Mann]] e Yuval Ne'eman aportava un certe ordine a iste nove particulas per le classificar secundo certe characteristicas, comencianto con lo que Gell-Mann referiva como le "Octuplic Cammino". Ben que su evolution ulterior, le modello de quark, in le prime loco, poteva sembler inadequate pro describer le [[Interaction forte|forte fortias nuclear]], permittente le ascension temporanee de theorias rival como le S-Matrix, le stabilisation del chromodynamica quantic in le annos 1970 fixava un serie de particulas fundamental e de scambio, que permetteva le stabilisation de un "modello standard" basate sur le mathematica de invariantia de calibratura, que describeva con successo omne le fortias excepte le gravitation e que resta generalmente acceptate intra su dominio de application.<ref name="Harvtxt|Kragh|1999"/> Le Modello Standard, basate super le theoria de Yang-Mills,<ref>{{Cite web|title=theory of everything|url=https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/theory+of+everything}}</ref> gruppa le theoria de interaction electrodebile e le chromodynamica quantic in un structura denote per le gruppo de calibratura SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1). Le formulation del unification del interactiones electromagnetic e [[Interaction debile|debile]] in le Modello Standard es le resultato de labor de Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg e, subsequenteemente, Sheldon Glashow. Le theoria electrogweak esseva posteriormente confirmate experimentalmente (per le observation de currentes debile neutral),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hasert|first1=F. J.|last2=Faissner|first2=H.|last3=Krenz|first3=W.|last4=Von Krogh|first4=J.|last5=Lanske|first5=D.|last6=Morfin|first6=J.|last7=Schultze|first7=K.|last8=Weerts|first8=H.|last9=Bertrand-Coremans|first9=G. H.|last10=Lemonne|first10=J.|last11=Sacton|first11=J.|date=1973-09-03|title=Search for elastic muon-neutrino electron scattering|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physics-letters-b_physics-letters_1973-09-03_46_1/page/121|journal=Physics Letters B|language=en|volume=46|issue=1|pages=121–124|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(73)90494-2|bibcode=1973PhLB...46..121H|issn=0370-2693}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hasert|first1=F. J.|last2=Kabe|first2=S.|last3=Krenz|first3=W.|last4=Von Krogh|first4=J.|last5=Lanske|first5=D.|last6=Morfin|first6=J.|last7=Schultze|first7=K.|last8=Weerts|first8=H.|last9=Bertrand-Coremans|first9=G. H.|last10=Sacton|first10=J.|last11=Van Doninck|first11=W.|date=1973-09-03|title=Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the gargamelle neutrino experiment|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physics-letters-b_physics-letters_1973-09-03_46_1/page/138|journal=Physics Letters B|language=en|volume=46|issue=1|pages=138–140|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(73)90499-1|bibcode=1973PhLB...46..138H|issn=0370-2693}}</ref><ref>F. J. Hasert ''et al.'' ''Nucl. Phys.'' B73, 1(1974); Paper presented at the London Conference 1974 no 1013.</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/29168 |title=The discovery of the weak neutral currents |date=2004-10-04 |publisher=CERN courier |access-date=2008-05-08}}</ref> e esseva distinguite per le Premio Nobel de Physica in 1979.<ref>{{citation |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979 |url=http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1979 |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |access-date=2008-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040803075503/http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1979/ |archive-date=2004-08-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Desde le annos 1970, le physica fundamental de particulas ha aportate perspectivas in le [[cosmologia]] del prime universe, particularmente le theoria del [[Big Bang]] proposte como consequentia del [[theoria general de relativitate]] de Einstein. Tamen, a partir del annos 1990, observationes astronomic ha anque aportate nove defias, como le necessitate de nove explicationes pro le stabilisation galactic ("materia obscur") e le apparente acceleration in le expansion del universe ("energia obscur"). In tanto que acceleratores ha confirmate le majoritate del aspectos del Modello Standard mediante le detection de interactiones de particulas anticipate a differente energias de collision, ancora non ha essite trovate un theoria que reconcilia generalmente relativitate con le Modello Standard, ben que multe theoricos credeva que le supersimmetria e le [[Theoria de chordas|theoria de chordas]] esseva un via promittente. Tamen, le [[Large Hadron Collider]], que comenciava a functionar in 2008, non ha trovate alcun evidentia que supporta le supersimmetria e le theoria de cordas.<ref>{{cite web |last=Woit |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Woit |date=20 October 2013 |title=Last Links For a While |url=http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=6362 |access-date=2 November 2013 |work=Not Even Wrong}}</ref> === Cosmologia === Le cosmologia pote esser considerate un question seriose de recerca con le publication del Theoria General de Relativitate de Einstein in 1915, ben que illo non entrava in le corrente principal del scientia usque al periodo cognoscite como le "Auree epocha de relativitate general". Circa un decada plus tarde, in le medio de lo que esseva nominate le "Grandi Debattito", Hubble e Slipher discoperiva le expansion del universe in le annos 1920 mesurante le displaceamento verso le roge del spectra Doppler de nebulosas galactic. Usante le theoria general de relativitate de Einstein, Lemaître e Gamow formulateva lo que deveniva cognite como le theoria del big bang. Un rival, nominate le theoria del stato constante, esseva concepite per Hoyle, Gold, Narlikar e Bondi. Le radiation cosmic de fundo esseva verificate in le annos 1960 per Penzias e Wilson, e iste discoperta favoriva le theoria del big bang al detrimento del scenario del stato constante. Plus tarde, il habeva travalio per Smoot e alios (1989), inter altere contributoros, usante datos del satellites Cosmic Background Explorer (CoBE) e Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) que affinava iste observationes. Le annos 1980 (le mesme decada del mensurationes del COBE) viderea anque le proposition del [[theoria del inflation]] per Alan Guth. Recentemente, le problemas del materia obscura e energia obscura ha emergite al summite del agenda cosmologic. === Boson de Higgs === [[File:CMS Higgs-event.jpg|thumb|250px|Un possibile signo de un boson de Higgs ex un collision simulate inter protones-protones. Illo se decompone quasi immediatemente in duo jets de hadrones e duo electrones, visibile como lineas.]] Le 4 de julio 2012, physicos laborante al Large Hadron Collider de CERN annunciava que illes habeva discoperite un nove particula subatomic que resemblava multo le boson de Higgs, un clave potential pro comprender proque particulas elementari ha massa e in le facto del existentia de diversitate e vita in le universe.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/science/cern-physicists-may-have-discovered-higgs-boson-particle.html?pagewanted=3&_r=1&ref=science |work=The New York Times |first=Dennis |last=Overbye |title=Physicists Find Particle That Could Be the Higgs Boson |date=4 July 2012}}</ref> Pro nunc, alcun physicos la nomina particula "simile a Higgs".<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Joe Incandela, del Universitate de California, Santa Barbara, diceva, "Illo es alique que poterea esser, in le final, un del plus grande observationes de nove phenomenas in nostre campo in le ultime 30 o 40 annos, usque al discoperta de [[Quark|quarks]], pro exemplo."<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Michael Turner, un cosmologo al Universitate de Chicago e le presidente del consilio del centro de physic, diceva: {{Citation|"Isto es un grande momento pro physic de particulas e un puncto de bifurcation — si isto essera le puncto culminante o si essera le prime de multe discopertas que nos indica resolver le questiones vermente importantes que nos ha presentate?"|Michael Turner, Universitate de Chicago<ref name="nytimes.com"/>}} Peter Higgs esseva un de sex physicistas, laborante in tres gruppos independente, qui, in 1964, inventava le notion del campo Higgs ("melassa cosmic"). Le alteres esseva Tom Kibble del Imperial College, London; Carl Hagen del Universitate de Rochester; Gerald Guralnik del Universitate Brown; e François Englert e Robert Brout, ambes del Université libre de Bruxelles.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Ben que illos nunquam ha essite vidite, campos similar al de Higgs joca un rolo importante in theorias del universo e in theoria de cordas. Sub conditiones certe, secundo le strange rationamento del physic einsteinian, illos pote esser pervadite con energia que exerce un fortia antigravitation. Tales campos ha essite proponite como le fonte de un enorme expansion rapide, cognoscite como inflation, al initio del universo e, possibilemente, como le secreto del energia obscur que ora pare accelerar le expansion del universo.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> === Scientias physic === Con le crescente accessibilitate a technicas analytical avanciate in le 19e seculo, le physica esseva definite tanto, si non plus, per ille technicas que per le recerca de principios universal de motion e energia, e le natura fundamental de materia. Campos como acoustica, geophysica, [[astrophysica]], aerodynamica, [[Plasma (physica)|physica de plasma]], physica de basso temperatura, e physica de stato solide se univa con optica, dynamica de fluidos, [[electromagnetismo]], e [[mechanica]] como areas de recerca physic. In le 20e seculo, le physica anque deveniva intimate connexe con campos como [[electrotechnica]], ingenieria aerospatial, e de material, e physicos comenciava a laborar in laboratorios gubernamental e industrial tanto como in contextos academic. Post le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]], le population de physicos augmentava dramaticamente, e deveniva centrate in le Statos Unite, durante que, in decadas recente, le physica deveniva un effortio plus international que ullo antea in su historia precedente. == Referentias == {{Reflist|2}} == Fontes == * {{cite book |last=Agar| first=Jon |year=2012 |publication-date=2012 |title=Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond |location=Cambridge |publisher=Polity Press| isbn=978-0-7456-3469-2}}. * {{cite book|last1=Hardie|first1=R. P.|title=PHYSICS|date=2014-09-01|work=Complete Works of Aristotle, Volume 1|pages=315–446|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3584-3|last2=Gaye|first2=R. 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Rupert |year=1980 |publication-date=1980 |title=Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |year=1979 |publication-date=1979 |title=Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Hunt |first=Bruce |year=1991 |publication-date=1991 |title=The Maxwellians |location=Ithaca |publisher=Cornell University Press}}. * {{cite book |last1=Jungnickel |first1=Christa|author1-link=Christa Jungnickel |last2=McCormmach |first2=Russell |author2-link=Russell McCormmach |year=1986 |publication-date=1986 |title=[[Intellectual Mastery of Nature: Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein]] |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press }}. * {{cite book|last=Kragh |first=Helge |year=1999 |publication-date=1999 |title=Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press}}. * {{Cite book|last=Choudhury|first=Sarojakanta.|title=Educational philosophy of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|date=2006|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=81-7629-766-6|oclc=224913142}} * {{cite book|last1=Rashed |first1=R. |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |volume=2 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-12410-7 |oclc=34731151|title-link=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science }}. * {{cite book|last=Schweber |first=Silvan |year=1994 |publication-date=1994 |title=QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Shea |first=William|year=1991 |publication-date=1991 |title=The Magic of Numbers and Motion: The Scientific Career of René Descartes |location=Canton, Massachusetts |publisher=Science History Publications}}. * {{cite book|last=Smith |first=Crosbie|year=1998 |publication-date=1998 |title=The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}. * {{cite book|last1=Smith |first1=Crosbie |last2=Wise |first2=M. Norton |year=1989 |publication-date=1989 |title=Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}. == Altere lecturas == * Buchwald, Jed Z. and Robert Fox, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics'' (2014) 976pp; [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-History-Physics-Handbooks/dp/019969625X/ excerpt] * {{cite book |author1=Byers, Nina |author2=Williams, Gary |title=Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-82197-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/outofshadowscont0000unse }} * {{cite book |author=Cropper, William H. |title=Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-517324-4}} * {{cite book |last=Dear| first=Peter |year=2001 |publication-date=2001 |title=Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700 |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-08859-4 |oclc=46622656 }}. * {{cite book |author=Gamow, George |title=The Great Physicists from Galileo to Einstein |url=https://archive.org/details/greatphysicistsf0000gamo |url-access=registration |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988 |isbn=0-486-25767-3|author-link=George Gamow }} * {{cite book |author=Heilbron, John L. |title=The Oxford Guide to the History of Physics and Astronomy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-19-517198-5}} * {{cite book |last=Nye |first=Mary Jo |year=1996 |publication-date=1996 |title=Before Big Science: The Pursuit of Modern Chemistry and Physics, 1800–1940 |location=New York |publisher=Twayne |isbn=0-8057-9512-X |oclc=185866968}}. * {{cite book |last=Segrè |first=Emilio |year=1984 |publication-date=1984 |title=From Falling Bodies to Radio Waves: Classical Physicists and Their Discoveries |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=0-7167-1482-5 |oclc=9943504 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fromfallingbodie00segr }}. * {{cite book |last=Segrè |first=Emilio |year=1980 |publication-date=1980 |title=From X-Rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and Their Discoveries |location=San Francisco |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=0-7167-1147-8 |oclc=237246197 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fromxraystoquark0000segr }}. * {{cite book |author=Weaver, Jefferson H. (editor) |title=The World of Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofphysicssm00weav |url-access=registration |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1987 |isbn=0-671-49931-9}} A selection of 56 articles, written by physicists. Commentaries and notes by [[Lloyd Motz]] and Dale McAdoo. * de Haas, Paul, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090826083339/http://home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/ "Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)"] {{Historia del scientia}} [[Category:Physica]] bsc7xcbvd9q11f2c5q4czim0dbmds72 0 56335 698242 698136 2026-08-03T23:29:03Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 9 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{eminente}} Le '''historia del scientia''' tracta le evolution del [[scientia]] ab le [[antiquitate]] usque al presente. Illo comprehende omne tres brancas principal del scientia: le [[Scientia natural|natural]], le [[Scientia social|social]] e le [[Scientias formal|formal]].<ref name = "cohen2021">{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = Eliel | year = 2021 | chapter = The boundary lens: theorising academic activity | title = The University and its Boundaries |edition=1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | pages = 14–41 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0367562984 | access-date = 8 June 2021 | archive-date = 5 May 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | url-status = live }}</ref> Le radices le plus ancian del scientia pote esser traciate usque al [[Egypto antique]] e Mesopotamia circa 3.000 a 1.200 a.Chr.<ref name= "lindberg2007a" >{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Science before the Greeks | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 1–20 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Grant2007a">{{cite book | last= Grant| first= Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Ancient Egypt to Plato | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran| url-access= limited| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16 1]–26| location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> Le contributiones de iste civilisationes al [[mathematica]], [[astronomia]] e [[medicina]] influentiava posteriormente le philosophia natural grec del antiquitate classic, ubi se faceva tentativas formal de provider explicationes de eventos in le mundo physic basate sur causas natural.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/><ref name= "Grant2007a"/> Post le cadita del Imperio Roman Occidental, le cognoscimento del conceptiones grec del mundo decadite in le [[Europa Occidental]] que parlava latino durante le prime seculos (400 a 1.000 p.Chr.) del [[Medievo]],<ref name= "lindberg2007i">{{cite book | last = Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The revival of learning in the West | title=The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 193–224 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> ma continuava a prosperar in le Imperio Roman Oriental (o [[Imperio Byzantin|Byzantino]]) que parlava greco. Adjutate per translationes de textos grec, le vision [[Hellenismo|hellenistic]] esseva preservate e absorbite in le mundo musulman arabophone durante le Periodo de Auro Islamic.<ref name= "lindberg2007h">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Islamic science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 163–92 | edition = Second | location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> Le recuperation e assimilation de operas grec e investigationes islamic in Europa Occidental del seculo X a XIII reviveva le studio del philosophia natural in le Occidente.<ref name= "lindberg2007i"/><ref name= "lindberg2007j" >{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 225–253| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> Le philosophia natural esseva transformate durante le [[Revolution Scientific]] in le Europa del 16e e 17e seculos,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küskü |first=Elif Aslan |date=2022-01-01 |title=Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek |url=https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |journal=The Legends: Journal of European History Studies |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202215/https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |title=Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei |journal=Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science |year=2011 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.46938/tv.2011.72 |s2cid=258069710 |url=http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118024030/http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= "Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | location = New York| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> como nove ideas e revelationes se disassociava del conceptiones e traditiones grec precedente.<ref name= "Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name= "lindberg2007n">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= June 1, 2018|archive-date= December 11, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name= Grant2007c>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> Le Nove Scientia que emergeva esseva plus mechanistic in su vision del mundo, plus integrate con mathematica e plus fidibile e aperite, proque su cognoscimento esseva basate sur un [[methodo scientific]] recentemente definite.<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name= "gal2021i">{{cite book | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = The New Science | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 308–349 | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020b">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The scientific revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 25–57 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> Plus de "revolutiones" in le seculos subsequente sequeva tosto. Le revolution chimic del 18e seculo, pro exemplo, introduceva nove methodos e mensurationes quantitative pro le [[chimia]].<ref name= "bowlermorus2020c">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The chemical revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 58–82 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> In le 19e seculo, nove perspectivas concernente le [[conservation de energia]], le epocha del Terra e le [[evolution]] veniva in concentration.<ref name= "bowlermorus2020d">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The conservation of energy | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 83–107 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020e">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The age of the earth | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 108–133 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020f">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The Darwinian revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 134–171 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book | editor1-last= Cahan | editor1-first= David | title= From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science | date= 2003 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago |isbn= 978-0-226-08928-7}}</ref><ref>The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</ref><ref name= "Lightman 19th">{{cite book|last1= Lightman|first1= Bernard|editor1-last= Shank|editor1-first= Michael|editor2-last= Numbers|editor2-first= Ronald|editor3-last= Harrison|editor3-first= Peter|title= Wrestling with Nature |date= 2011|publisher= University of Chicago Press|location= Chicago|isbn= 978-0-226-31783-0|page= 367|chapter=Science and the Public}}</ref> E in le 20e seculo, nove revelationes in [[genetica]] e [[physica]] poneva le bases pro nove subdisciplinas como biologia molecular e physica de particulas.<ref name= "bowlermorus2020h">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Genetics | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 197–221 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020k">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Twentieth-century physics | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 262–285 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> De plus, le preoccupationes industrial e militar, assi como le crescente complexitate de nove interprisas de recerca, introduceva le epocha del "scientia grande," particularmente post le Secunde Guerra Mundial.<ref name= "bowlermorus2020h"/><ref name= "bowlermorus2020k"/><ref name= "bowlermorus2020a">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Introduction: Science, society, and history | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 1–24 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> == Accostamentos al historia del scientia == Le natura del historia del scientia es un thema de debatto (assi como, per implication, le definition del scientia mesme). Le historia del scientia es frequentemente considerate como un historia linear de progresso<ref> {{cite book |last1 = von Wright |first1 = Georg Henrik |author-link1 = Georg Henrik von Wright |editor-last1 = Burgen |editor-first1 = Arnold |editor-last2 = McLaughlin |editor-first2 = Peter |editor-last3 = Mittelstraß |editor-first3 = Jürgen |editor-link3 = Jürgen Mittelstraß |date = 25 October 2012 |orig-date = 1997 |chapter = Progress: Fact and Fiction |title = The Idea of Progress |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kZ8gAAAAQBAJ |series = Philosophie und Wissenschaft - Volume 13 |edition = reprint |publication-place = Berlin |publisher = Walter de Gruyter |page = 14 |isbn = 9783110820423 |access-date = 13 October 2023 |quote = In historic reflections on art, cyclic schemas play a prominent role. This is a difference between art history and science history. The idea of linear progress simply does not apply in the esthetic domain. }} </ref>, ma historicos ha comenciate vider le historia como plus complexe.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Kragh |first= Helge |title= An introduction to the historiography of science |date= 1987 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 0-521-33360-1 |location= Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] |oclc= 14692886}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title= A companion to the history of science |date= 2016 |author= Bernard V. Lightman |isbn= 978-1-118-62077-9 |location= Chichester (GB) |oclc= 950521936 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yQj9CgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref> {{cite book |last1 = Golinski |first1 = Jan |date = 22 July 2008 |orig-date = 1998 |title = Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SZcCElvmF7sC |series = Cambridge history of science |edition = revised |publication-place = Chicago |publisher = University of Chicago Press |page = 188 |isbn = 9780226302324 |access-date = 13 October 2023 |quote = [...] historical writing [...] has largely abandoned the aim of telling a story of science's universal progress. }} </ref> Alfred Edward Taylor ha characterisate periodos magre in le avantiamento del discoperta scientific como "bancaruptas periodic del scientia".<ref> {{cite book |last1 = Thomas |first1 = Norman |year = 1961 |title = Great Dissenters |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FQ_PyhHvACoC |publisher = Norton |page = 25 |access-date = 13 October 2023 |quote = [...] the brilliant Periclean Age, according to Dr. A. E. Taylor, witnessed one of the periodical bankruptcies of science [...]. }} </ref> Le scientia es un activitate human, e contributiones scientific ha provenite de personas de un grande varietate de differente contextos e culturas. Historicos del scientia vider sempre plus lor campo como parte de un historia global de excambio, conflicto e collaboration.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Poskett |first= James |title= Horizons : a global history of science |date= 2022 |isbn= 978-0-241-39409-0 |location= [London] |oclc= 1235416152}}</ref> Le relation inter scientia e religion ha essite characterisate de manieras diverse in terminos de "conflicto", "harmonia", "complexitate" e "independentia mutual", inter alteres. Eventos in Europa, como le affaire Galileo in le principio del 17e seculo - associate con le revolution scientific e le [[Illuminismo]] - ha conducite scholasticos como John William Draper a postular (circa 1874) un these de conflicto, suggerente que religion e scientia ha essite in conflicto methodologic, factual e politic a transverso le historia. Le these de "conflicto" ha depost perdite le favor inter le majoritate de scientistas contemporanee e historicos del scientia.<ref name="Russel, C.A. 2002 7">{{cite book |author= Russel, C.A. |editor= Ferngren, G.B.|year= 2002| title= Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction |page= 7 |publisher= [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-8018-7038-5 |quote= The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.}}</ref><ref name="Shapin1996">{{cite book | author = Shapin, S. | year = 1996 | title = The Scientific Revolution | url = https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0 | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0/page/195 195] | publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] | isbn = 978-0226750200 | quote = In le tardo periodo victorian, illo esseva commun scriber sur le 'belligerentia inter scientia e religion' e presumere que le duo corpores de cultura sempre debeva haber stato in conflicto. Tamen, il es un tempore multo longe desde que iste attitudines esseva retinite per historicos del scientia.}}</ref><ref name="Brooke1991">{{cite book | author = Brooke, J. H.| year = 1991 | title = Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives | page= 42 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | quote = In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.}}</ref> Tamen, alcun philosophos e scientistas contemporanee, como Richard Dawkins,<ref> {{cite book |last1 = Taliaferro |first1 = Charles |author-link1 = Charles Taliaferro |editor-last1 = Oppy |editor-first1 = Graham |editor-link1 = Graham Oppy |editor-last2 = Trakakis |editor-first2 = N. N. |editor-link2 = Nick Trakakis |date = 11 September 2014 |orig-date = 2009 |title = Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Religion |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=N2h_BAAAQBAJ |series = The History of Western Philosophy of Religion, Volume 5 |edition = reprint |publication-place = Abingdon |publisher = Routledge |isbn = 9781317546382 |access-date = 13 October 2023 |chapter = Twentieth-century Philosophy of Religiion: An Introduction |quote = Al levar del 20e seculo, le defensores del these del conflicto es ben representate per Richard Dawkins, E. O. Wilson e Daniel Dennett.}} </ref> ancora subscribe a iste these. Historicos ha accentuate[citation requirite] que fides es necessari pro accordo sur esseres in le natura. In iste lumine, le establimento in 1660 del Societate Royal e su codice de experimentos - fidibile proque esseva testate per su membros - ha devenite un importante capitulo in le historiographia del scientia.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Shapin |first= Steven |title= Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life |date= 2018 |isbn= 978-0-691-17816-5 |location=Princeton, N.J. |oclc=984327399}}</ref> Multe personas in le historia moderne (typicamente feminas e personas de color) esseva excluse ab communitates scientific elitari e characterisate per le establimento scientific como inferior. Historicos in le annos 1980 e 1990 ha describite le barrieras structural al participation e ha comenciate a recuperar le contributiones de personas ignorate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiebinger |first= Londa L. |title= Nature's body : gender in the making of modern science |date= 2013 |publisher= Rutgers University Press |isbn= 978-0-8135-3531-9 |edition= 5th pbk. print |location= New Brunswick, N.J. |oclc= 1048657291}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Haraway |first= Donna Jeanne |title= Primate visions : gender, race, and nature in the world of modern science |date=1989 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-60815-5 |location=New York |oclc=555643149}}</ref> Historicos ha anque investigate le practicas quotidian del scientia, como le travalio de campo e le collection de specimens,<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Kohler |first= Robert E. |date=December 2007 |title=Finders, Keepers: Collecting Sciences and Collecting Practice |journal= History of Science |volume= 45 |issue=4 |pages=428–454 |doi= 10.1177/007327530704500403 |s2cid= 147175644 |issn= 0073-2753}}</ref> le correspondentia,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Secord |first=Anne |date=December 1994 |title=Corresponding interests: artisans and gentlemen in nineteenth-century natural history |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |volume= 27 |issue= 4 |pages= 383–408 |doi= 10.1017/S0007087400032416 |s2cid= 144777485 |issn= 0007-0874|doi-access=free }}</ref> le designo,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasim |first=Omar W. |title= Observing by hand : sketching the nebulae in the nineteenth century |date= 2013 |isbn= 978-0-226-08440-4 |location=Chicago |oclc=868276095}}</ref> le registro,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eddy |first= Matthew Daniel |date= 2016 |title= The Interactive Notebook: How Students Learned to Keep Notes during the Scottish Enlightenment |journal= Book History |volume= 19 |issue=1 |pages=86–131 |doi= 10.1353/bh.2016.0002 |s2cid=151427109 |issn=1529-1499 |url= http://dro.dur.ac.uk/19136/1/19136.pdf |access-date= 17 September 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220615185141/https://dro.dur.ac.uk/19136/1/19136.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref> e le uso de equipamento de laboratorio e de campo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schaffer |first= Simon |date= 1992-06-01 |editor-last= Bud |editor-first= Robert |editor2-last= Cozzens |editor2-first= Susan E. |title= Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science |chapter= Late Victorian metrology and its instrumentation: A manufactory of Ohms |journal=<!---->|series= SPIE Conference Series |volume=10309 |page=1030904 |doi= 10.1117/12.2283709|bibcode= 1992SPIE10309E..04S |s2cid=115323404 }}</ref> == Tempores prehistoric == In tempores prehistoric, cognoscentia e technica se transmitteva de generation a generation per tradition oral. Per exemplo, le domestication de mais pro agricultura ha essite datate a circa 9.000 annos retro in Mexico meridional, ante le evolution de systemas de scriptura.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Matsuoka | first1=Yoshihiro | last2=Vigouroux | first2=Yves | last3=Goodman | first3=Major M. | last4=Sanchez G. | first4=Jesus | last5=Buckler | first5=Edward | last6=Doebley | first6=John | title=A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2002-04-30_99_9/page/6080 | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=99 | issue=9 | pages=6080–6084 | date=30 April 2002 | pmid=11983901 | pmc=122905 | doi=10.1073/pnas.052125199 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.6080M | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1 Sean B. Carroll (24 May 2010),"Tracking the Ancestry of Corn Back 9,000 Years" ''New York Times''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830121104/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1 |date=30 August 2017 }}.</ref><ref>Francesca Bray (1984), ''[[Science and Civilisation in China]]'' '''VI.2''' '''''Agriculture''''' pp 299, 453 scribe que le [[teosinte]], 'le patre del gran', adjuva le successo e vitalitate del gran quando plantate inter le raderas de su 'infantes', le [[maize]].</ref> Similemente, evidentia archeologic indica le evolution de cognoscentia astronomic in societates prelitterate.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Hoskin | first=Michael | title=Tombs, Temples and their Orientations: a New Perspective on Mediterranean Prehistory | place=Bognor Regis, UK | publisher=Ocarina Books | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-9540867-1-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Ruggles | first=Clive | author-link=Clive Ruggles | title=Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland | place=New Haven | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-300-07814-5 }}</ref> Le tradition oral de societates prelitterate habeva plure characteristicas, del quales le prime esseva su fluiditate.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Nove information esseva constantemente absorbite e adjustate a nove circumstantias o necessitates del communitate. Il non habeva archivos o reportos. Iste fluiditate esseva intimemente ligate al necessitate practic de explicar e justificar un stato presente de affaires.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Altere characteristicas esseva le tendentia a describer le universo como simplemente celo e terra, con un potential mundo subterranee. Illes anque era propense a identificar causas con initios, forniente assi un origine historic con un explication. Il habeva anque un dependentia de un 'homine de medicina' o 'femina sage' pro curar, cognoscentia del causas divin o demoniac de morbos, e in casos plus extreme, pro rituales como exorcismo, divination, cantos e incantationes.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Finalmente, il habeva un inclination a acceptar sin questionar explicationes que poterea esser considerate implausibile in tempores plus moderne, simultaneemente non essente consciente que tal comportamentos credule pote haber presentate problemas.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Le evolution del scriptura permitteva al humanos conservar e communicar cognoscentia trans generationes con multo plus grande precision. Su invention esseva un prerequisito pro le evolution de philosophia e postea scientia in tempores antique.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> In ultra, le grado in le qual philosophia e scientia florescerea in tempores antique dependeva del efficacia de un systema de scriptura (p.ex., le uso de alphabetos).<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> == Le plus antique radices == Le radices le plus ancian de scientia pote esser traciate al [[Egypto antique]] e Mesopotamia circa le 3.000 a 1.200 a.Chr.<ref name="lindberg2007a"/> === Egypto antique === ==== Systema numerari e geometria ==== A partir de circa 3.000 a.Chr., le ancian egyptios developpava un systema numerari que esseva de character decimal e habeva orientate lor cognoscentia de geometria verso resolver problemas practic como illos de agrimensores e constructores.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Lor evolution de geometria esseva per se un evolution necessari de agrimensura pro preservar le disposition e proprietate del terreno agricole, que esseva inundate annualmente per le fluvio Nilo. Le triangulo rectangule de 3-4-5 e altere regulas de geometria esseva usate pro construer structuras rectilinear, e le architectura de postes e linteles de Egypto. ==== Maladia e sanation ==== [[File:PEbers c41-bc.jpg|thumb|upright|Le Papyrus Ebers (circa 1550 a.Chr.) ex le [[antique Egypto]].]] Egyptia anque esseva un centro de recerca alchimic pro multo del Mediterraneo. Basate in le papyros medicinal scribite inter 2.500 e 1.200 a.Chr., le ancian egyptios credeva que le morbo esseva principalmente causate per le invasion de corpores per fortias malevole o spiritos.[2] Assi, ultra usar medicamentos, lor therapias de cura includeva preces, incantationes e ritual.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Le Papiro Ebers, scribite circa 1.600 a.Chr., contine prescriptiones medicinal pro tractar morbos associate con le oculos, bucca, cute, organos interne, e extremitates, alsi como abscessos, feritas, combustiones, ulceres, glandulas inflammate, tumores, cephaleas, e mesme halito mal.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Le Papiro Edwin Smith, scribite circa le mesme periodo, contine un manual chirurgic pro tractar feritas, fracturas, e dislocationes. Le egyptios credeva que le efficacia de lor medicamentos dependeva del preparation e administration sub rituales appropriate.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Historicos medicinal crede que le pharmacologia antique egyptian, pro exemplo, esseva largemente inefficace.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book |last=Perkins |first=Michael D. |chapter=Pharmacological Practices of Ancient Egypt |title=Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days |hdl=1880/51835 |editor=W. A. Whitelaw |access-date=9 March 2010 |url=http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407062556/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |language=en |publisher=Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary |location=Calgary |date=2001 |pages=5–11 |archive-date=2008-04-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407062556/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |date=2008-04-07 }}</ref> E le Papiro Ebers e le Papiro Edwin Smith applicava le sequente componentes al tractamento del morbo: examination, diagnose, tractamento, e prognosis,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Edwin Smith papyrus: Egyptian medical book |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 December 2016 |archive-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101084403/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179901/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |url-status=live }}</ref> le quales monstra parallelos fortissime al methodo empiric basic del scientia e, secundo G.E.R. Lloyd,<ref>Lloyd, G.E.R. "The development of empirical research", in his ''Magic, Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science''.</ref> jocava un rolo significante in le evolution de iste methodologia. ==== Calendario ==== Le antique egyptios etiam developpava un calendario official que contineva dece menses, trenta dies cata uno, e cinque dies al fin del anno.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Al contrario del calendario babylonian o de illos usate in le metropoles grec de ille epocha, le calendario official egyptian esseva multo plus simple, proque illo esseva fixe e non prendeva in consideration cyclos lunar e solar.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> === Mesopotamia === [[File:Divinatory livers Louvre AO19837.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Modellas de argilla de figatos de animales que datan del 19e al 18e seculo a.Chr., trovate in le palatio regal a [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in lo que nunc es Syria.]] Le antique mesopotamianos habeva un cognoscentia extensive sur le proprietates chimic de argilla, arena, metallos, bitumine, petra, e altere materiales natural, e applicava iste cognoscentia a usos practic in le manufactura de ceramica, faience, vitro, sapon, metallos, stucco de calce, e impermeabilisation. Le metallurgia requireva cognoscentia sur le proprietates de metallos. Nonobstante, le mesopotamianos pare haber habite pauco interesse in colliger information sur le mundo natural pro le mer facto de colliger information e esseva multo plus interessate in studiar le maniera in le qual le deos habeva ordinate le universo. Le biologia de organismos non-human esseva generalmente scripte solmente in le contexto de disciplinas academic principal. Le physiologia animal esseva studiate extensivemente pro le scopo de divination; le anatomia del hepate, que esseva viste como un organo importante in la haruspice, esseva studiate con particular detalio intensive. Anque le comportamento animal esseva studiate pro scopos divinatori. Le majoritate del information sur le education e domestication de animales probabilemente esseva transmittite oralmente sin esser scripte, ma un texto sur le education de cavallos ha supervivite.<ref name="McIntosh2005"/> ==== Medicina mesopotamic ==== Le antique mesopotamianos non faceva distinction inter 'scientia rational' e magia.<ref name="Farber1995">{{Cite book|last=Farber|first=Walter|date=1995 |chapter=Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia|title=Civilizations of the Ancient Near East|volume=3|location=New York City, New York|publisher=Charles Schribner's Sons, MacMillan Library Reference USA, Simon & Schuster MacMillan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1891 1891–1908]|isbn=978-0-684-19279-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1891 |access-date=12 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Abusch">{{cite book |last=Abusch|first=Tzvi|title=Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Towards a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Slhv-0ewLHwC|location=Leiden, The Netherlands |publisher=Brill|year=2002|isbn=978-90-04-12387-8|page=56|access-date=7 May 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803051833/https://books.google.com/books?id=Slhv-0ewLHwC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Brown">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Michael|date=1995|title=Israel's Divine Healer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCzmNKnLqMkC|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-20029-1|page=42|access-date=7 May 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803054328/https://books.google.com/books?id=KCzmNKnLqMkC|url-status=live}}</ref> Quando un persona deveniva malade, medicos prescribeva formulas magic a esser recitate assi como tractamentos medicinal.<ref name="Farber1995"/><ref name="Abusch"/><ref name="Brown"/><ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book|last1=McIntosh|first1=Jane R.|title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives|date=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England|isbn=978-1-57607-966-9|pages=273–276|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205162758/https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia|url-status=live}}</ref> Le prime prescriptiones medicinal appare in sumeriano durante le Tertie Dynastia de Ur (circa 2112 a.Chr. – circa 2004 a.Chr.).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Tamen, le texto medicinal babylonian le plus extensive es le Manual Diagnostic scribite per le ummânū, o chef scholastic, Esagil-kin-apli de Borsippa,<ref name="Stol-99">{{cite book|last=Heeßel|first=N. P.|date=2004|chapter=Diagnosis, Divination, and Disease: Towards an Understanding of the ''Rationale'' Behind the Babylonian ''Diagonostic Handbook''|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6rejN-iF0IC&q=Diagnostic+Handbook|title=Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine|editor1-last=Horstmanshoff|editor1-first=H.F.J.|editor2-last=Stol|editor2-first=Marten|editor3-last=Tilburg|editor3-first=Cornelis|series=Studies in Ancient Medicine|volume=27|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-13666-3|pages=97–116|access-date=12 May 2018|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803060925/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6rejN-iF0IC&q=Diagnostic+Handbook|url-status=live}}</ref> durante le regno del rege babylonian Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 a.Chr.).<ref>Marten Stol (1993), ''Epilepsy in Babylonia'', p. 55, [[Brill Publishers]], {{ISBN|978-90-72371-63-8}}.</ref> In culturas semitic oriental, le principal autoritate medicinal esseva un typo de exorcista-curator cognoscite como un āšipu.<ref name="Farber1995"/><ref name="Abusch"/><ref name="Brown"/> Generalmente, le profession passava de patre a filio e esseva tenite in reguardo extrememente elevate.<ref name="Farber1995"/> Minus frequentemente usate esseva un altere typo de curator cognoscite como un ''asu'', qui corresponde plus proximemente a un medico moderne e tractava symptomas physic primarimente con remedios popular componite de herbas diverse, productos animal, e minerales, como anque potiones, clysteres, e unguentos o cataplasmas. Iste medicos, qui poteva esser tanto masculin como feminin, anque curava vulneres, stabiliva membros, e faceva chirurgias simplice. Le antique mesopotamianos anque practicava prophylaxia e prendeva mesuras pro prevenir le propagation de morbos.<ref name="McIntosh2005"/> ==== Astronomia e divination celestial ==== [[File:-200 Sternenliste aus Uruk star list anagoria.JPG|thumb|Lista de stellas con information sur distantia, [[Uruk]] (Iraq), 320-150 a.Chr., le lista proporciona cata constellation, le numero de stellas e le information sur distantia al proxime constellation in ells.]] In le astronomia babylonian, records del movimentos del stellas, planetas, e le luna es conservate in milles de tabulas de argilla create per scribas. Anque hodie, periodos astronomic identificate per proto-scientistas mesopotamic es ancora largemente usate in calendarios occidental como le anno solar e le mense lunar. Usante iste datos, illes developpava methodos mathematic pro calcular le longitude mutante del lumine diurne durante le anno, previder le apparentias e disparitiones del luna e planetas, e eclipses del sol e luna. Solmente alcun nomines de astronomos es cognoscite, tales como illo de Kidinnu, un astronomo e mathematico chaldean. Le valor de Kidinnu pro le anno solar es ancora in uso in le calendarios de hodie. Le astronomia babylonian esseva 'le prime e multo successose tentativa de dar un description mathematic raffinate de phenomenos astronomic', secundo le historiographo A. Aaboe, 'omne varietates subsequente de astronomia scientific, in le mundo hellenistic, in India, in le Islam, e in le Occidente – si non inde ille subsequente labor in le scientias exacte – depende del astronomia babylonian de manieras decisive e fundamental.'<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |author=Aaboe, A. |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257|date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42|doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272|s2cid=122508567 }}</ref> Pro le babylonianos e altere culturas proxime, messages del deos o omenes esseva occultate in tote phenomenos natural que poteva esser decifrate e interpretate per illes qui es competente.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Ergo, on credeva que le deos poteva parlar per tote objectos terrestre (p.ex., entranias de animales, sonios, nascimentos malformate, o mesmo le color de un can que urina super un persona) e phenomenos celestial.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> De plus, le astrologia babylonian esseva inseparabile del astronomia babylonian. ==== Mathematica ==== Le tabula cuneiforme mesopotamic Plimpton 322, datante del 1.300s a.Chr., registra un numero de triplettos pythagoric (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ...,<ref>[[Paul Hoffman (science writer)|Paul Hoffman]], ''The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdös and the search for mathematical truth'', (New York: Hyperion), 1998, p. 187. {{ISBN|978-0-7868-6362-4}}</ref> suggerente que le antique mesopotamianos pote haber cognoscite le [[Theorema de Pythagoras]] plus que un millennio ante Pythagoras.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burkert|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Burkert|date=1 June 1972|title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-53918-1|pages=429, 462|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=29 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX4Y3W9bfXAhXBeSYKHfBxCG4Q6AEIMTAC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kahn|first=Charles H.|author-link=Charles H. Kahn|date=2001|title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&q=Pythagoreanism&pg=PA72|location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-87220-575-8|page=32|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331100347/https://books.google.com/books?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&q=Pythagoreanism&pg=PA72|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Riedweg|first=Christoph|date=2005|orig-year=2002 |title=Pythagoras: His Life, Teachings, and Influence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ixyQJA7_MC&q=Pythagoras|location=Ithaca, New York|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-7452-1|page=27|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=28 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228161323/https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ixyQJA7_MC&q=Pythagoras|url-status=live}}</ref> == Asia antique == Le realisationes mathematic de Mesopotamia habeva alcun influentia sur le developpamento del mathematica in India, e il habeva transmissiones confirmate de ideas mathematic inter India e China, le quales esseva bidirectional.<ref name=joseph2011a>{{cite book | last = Joseph | first = George G. | date = 2011 | chapter = The history of mathematics: Alternative perspectives | title = The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics | edition = 3rd | pages = 418–449 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = New Jersey | isbn = 978-0691135267}}</ref> Tamen, le realisationes mathematic e scientific in India e particularmente in China occurreva in grande parte independentemente<ref name = "sivin1985">{{cite journal | last = Sivin | first = Nathan | author-link = Nathan Sivin | title = Why the Scientific Revolution did not take place in China – or did it? | journal = The Environmentalist | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–50 | date = 1985 | doi = 10.1007/BF02239866 | s2cid = 45700796 | url = https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02239866 | access-date = 8 June 2021 | archive-date = 8 June 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210608185003/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02239866 | url-status = live }}</ref> de illos de Europa e le influentias confirmate que iste duo civilisationes habeva sur le developpamento del scientia in Europa in le epocha premoderne era indirecte, con Mesopotamia e posteriormente le Mundo Islamic actuante como intermediarios.<ref name=joseph2011a/> Le advento del scientia moderne, que se developpava ex le Revolution Scientific, in India e China e le region asian in general, pote esser retraciate al activitates scientific de missionarios jesuita qui habeva interesse in studiar le flora e fauna del region durante le 16e e 17e seculos.<ref name=bartholomew2003>{{cite book | last = Bartholomew | first = James R. | date = 2003 | editor1-last = Heilbron | editor1-first = John L. | chapter = Asia | title = The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science | pages = 51–55 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York| isbn = 978-0195112290}}</ref> === India === [[File:Iron Pillar, Delhi, May 2008.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Le ancian India esseva un precox lider in le campo de [[metallurgia]], como es evidenciate per le [[wrought iron|hastaliero]] [[Iron pillar of Delhi|Columna de Delhi]].]] ==== Astronomia e mathematica indian ==== Le primordial tracias de cognoscentia mathematic in le subcontinente indian appare con le Civilisation del Valle del Indo (circa 4.000 a.Chr. ~ circa 3.000 a.Chr.). Le gente de iste civilisation fabricava lateres cuje dimensiones esseva in le proportion de 4:2:1, lo que es favorabile pro le stabilitate de un structura de lateres.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Projects/Pearce/chapter-3/|title=3: Early Indian culture – Indus civilisation|work=st-and.ac.uk}}</ref> Illes essayava etiam standardisar le mensura de longitude a un grado de precision alte. Illes developpava un regula — le regula de Mohenjo-daro — cuje unitate de longitude (approximatemente 1,32 pollices o 3,4 centimetros) esseva dividite in dece partes equal. Lateres fabricate in le ancian Mohenjo-daro frequentemente habeva dimensiones que esseva multiple integral de iste unitate de longitude.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bisht |first=R.S.|year=1982|chapter=Excavations at Banawali: 1974–77|editor=Possehl, Gregory L. |title=Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|pages=113–124 |publisher=Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.}}</ref> Le astronomo e mathematico indian Aryabhata (476–550), in su obra Aryabhatiya (499), introduceva le function sinus in trigonometria e le numero 0 [mathematica]. In 628 post Christo, Brahmagupta suggereva que le gravitate esseva un fortia de attraction.<ref>{{Cite book| last=Pickover| first=Clifford| author-link=Clifford A. Pickover| title=Archimedes to Hawking: laws of science and the great minds behind them| publisher=[[Oxford University Press US]]| year=2008| page=105| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PA105| isbn=978-0-19-533611-5| access-date=7 May 2020| archive-date=18 January 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118060420/https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Mainak Kumar Bose, ''Late Classical India'', A. Mukherjee & Co., 1988, p. 277.</ref> Ille explicava anque lucidemente le uso de zero tanto como un cifra separate e como un cifra decimal, juncte con le systema de numeration hindu-arabe ora usate universalmente in le mundo. Traductiones arabe del textos de iste duo astronomos deveniva tosto disponibile in le mundo islamic, introducente lo que devenirea le numeros arabic in le mundo islamic in le 9e seculo.<ref name=ifrah>Ifrah, Georges. 1999. ''The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer'', Wiley. {{ISBN|978-0-471-37568-5}}.</ref><ref name=oconnor>O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html 'Indian Numerals'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929131009/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html |date=29 September 2007 }}, ''MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive'', School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.</ref> Entre le 14e e le 16e seculos, le schola de astronomia e mathematica de Kerala faceva avantiamentos significante in astronomia e specialmente mathematica, includente campos como trigonometria e analyses. In particular, Madhava de Sangamagrama es considerate le "fundator de analyses mathematic".<ref>George G. Joseph (1991). ''The crest of the peacock''. London.</ref> In le tractato Tantrasangraha, Nilakantha Somayaji actualisava le modello Aryabhatan pro le planetas interior, Mercurio e Venus, e le equation que ille specificava pro le centro de iste planetas esseva plus accurate que illos in le astronomia europee o islamic usque le tempore de Johannes Kepler in le 17e seculo.<ref name=joseph2011j>{{cite book | last = Joseph | first = George G. | date = 2011 | chapter = A Passage to Infinity: The Kerala Episode | title = The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics | edition = 3rd | pages = 418–449 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = New Jersey | isbn = 978-0691135267}}</ref> Le prime mention textual de conceptos astronomic veni del Vedas, le litteratura religiose de India.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind>{{cite encyclopedia|last =Sarma|first = K.V.| title=Astronomy in India |date = 2008 |encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|editor-last = Selin|editor-first = Helaine|doi= 10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9554|publisher = Springer, Dordrecht|isbn = 978-1-4020-4425-0|pages = 317–321}}</ref> Secundo Sarma (2008): "On trova in le Rigveda speculationes intelligente sur le genesis del universo ab non-existentia, le configuration del universo, le terra spheric que se supporta per se mesme, e le anno de 360 dies dividite in 12 partes equal de 30 dies cata uno con un mense intercalar periodic."<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Le prime 12 capitulos del Siddhanta Shiromani, scribite per Bhāskara in le 12e seculo, tracta themas como: longitudes medie de planetas; longitudes ver del planetas; le tres problemas de rotation diurne; syzygias; eclipses lunar; eclipses solar; latitudes de planetas; le levar e le poner del sol; le crescente de luna; conjunctiones de planetas inter se; conjunctiones de planetas con le stellas fixe; e le passages del sol e luna. Le 13 capitulos del secunde parte tracta le natura del sphera, assi como calculationes astronomic e trigonometric basate sur illo. ==== Grammatica ==== Alcun del plus prime activitates linguistic pote esser trovate in le India del Era de Ferro (1 millesime a.Chr.) con le analyse de sanskrito pro le proposito del recitation e interpretation correcte de textos vedic. Le grammatico le plus notabile de sanskrito esseva Pāṇini (circa 520–460 a.Chr.), cuje grammatica formula presso a 4.000 regulas pro sanskrito. Inherente in su approximation analytic es le conceptos del phonema, del morphema e del radice. Le texto Tolkāppiyam, componite in le prime seculos del era commun<ref name= "weiss2009d" >{{cite book | last = Weiss | first = Richard S. | year = 2009 | chapter = The invasion of utopia: The corruption of Siddha medicine by Ayurveda | title = Recipes for Immortality: Healing, Religion, and Community in South India | pages = 79–106 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0195335231}}</ref>, es un texto comprehensive sur le grammatica tamil, que include sutras sur orthographia, phonologia, etymologia, morphologia, semanticas, prosodia, structura de phrases e le significato del contexto in linguage. ==== Medicina ==== Le resultatos de necropoles neolithic in lo que nunc es [[Pakistan]] monstra evidentia de proto-dentisteria inter un cultura de agricultura prime.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Coppa|first1=A.|title=Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-04-06_440_7085/page/755|journal=Nature |volume=440 |date=6 April 2006 |doi=10.1038/440755a |pages=755–756 |pmid=16598247 |issue=7085 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..755C |s2cid=6787162|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Le ancian texto Suśrutasamhitā de Suśruta describe procedimentos sur varie formas de chirurgia, includente rhinoplastia, le reparation de lobulos auricular rupte, lithotomia perineal, chirurgia de cataracta, e altere excisiones e altere procedimentos chirurgic. ==== Politica e stato ==== Un ancian tractato indian sur politica, politica economic e strategia militar per Kautilya<ref>{{cite journal | first=I.W. | last=Mabbett | date=1 April 1964| title=The Date of the Arthaśāstra | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_april-june-1964_84_2/page/162 | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=84 | issue=2 | pages=162–169 | doi=10.2307/597102 | jstor=597102 }}<br />{{cite book | last=Trautmann | first=Thomas R. | author-link=Thomas Trautmann | title={{IAST|Kauṭilya}} and the Arthaśāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text | year=1971 | publisher=Brill | pages=10 | quote =while in his character as author of an ''arthaśāstra'' he is generally referred to by his ''[[gotra]]'' name, {{IAST|Kauṭilya}}.}}</ref> e Viṣhṇugupta<ref>Mabbett 1964<br />Trautmann 1971:5 "the very last verse of the work...is the unique instance of the personal name {{IAST|Viṣṇugupta}} rather than the ''[[gotra]]'' name {{IAST|Kauṭilya}} in the ''Arthaśāstra''.</ref> es traditionalmente identificate con Chāṇakya (circa 350–283 a.Chr.). In iste tractato, le comportamentos e relationes del populo, le rege, le stato, le supervisor del governamento, le cortesanos, le inimicos, le invasores, e le corporationes es analysate e documentate. Roger Boesche describe le Arthaśāstra como "un libro de realismo politic, un libro que analysa como le mundo politic opera e non multo sovente indica como illo debera operar, un libro que frequentemente revela a un rege qual calculationes e a vices mesuras brutal ille deberea executar pro preservar le stato e le ben commun."<ref>{{cite book| author-link= Roger Boesche | last=Boesche | first=Roger | title=The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra | year=2002 | publisher=Lexington Books | isbn=978-0-7391-0401-9 | page=17}}</ref> === China === [[File:Sea island survey.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Le "Levamento del Insula Marin" per Liu Hui.]] ==== Mathematica chinese ==== Ab le prime tempores, le chineses usava un systema decimal positional sur tabellas de calculation pro facer calculos. Pro exprimer le numero 10, un baston solitari se colloca in le secunde cassetta a partir del dextra. Le lingua parlate usa un systema simile al anglese: p.ex. quatro mille duo centos e septe. Nulle symbolo esseva usate pro zero. Al initio del prime seculo a.Chr., numeros negative e fractiones decimal esseva in uso, e "Le Novem Capitulos sur le Arte Mathematic" includite methodos pro extraher radices de ordine plus alte per le methodo de Horner e resolver equationes linear e per le theorema de Pythagoras. Equationes cubic esseva solvite durante le dynastia Tang e solutiones de equationes de ordine superior a 3 appareva in impression in 1245 p.Chr. per Ch'in Chiu-shao. Le triangulo de Pascal pro coefficientes binomial esseva describite circa 1100 per Jia Xian.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martzloff |first1=Jean-Claude |title=A History of Chinese Mathematics |year=2006 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=9783540337836 |page=17 |language=English, Japanese, Chinese |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ACK1jreKgCoC&q=jia+xian+pascal+triangle }} </ref> Ben que le prime tentativas de axiomatisar le geometria appare in le canone mohista in 330 a.Chr., Liu Hui developpava methodos algebraic in geometria in le 3e seculo p.Chr. e anque calculava pi a 5 figuras significative. In 480, Zu Chongzhi meliorava isto per discoperir le ration <math>\tfrac{355}{113}</math> que remaneva le valor le plus accurate pro 1.200 annos. ==== Observationes astronomic ==== [[File:Su Song Star Map 1.JPG|thumb|left|Un del [[mapa stellari]] de ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'' de [[Su Song]], publicate in 1092, que presenta un projection cilindric simile al [[Mercator projection|projection Mercator]], e le position corrigite del [[stella polar]] gratias al observationes astronomic de [[Shen Kuo]].{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|p=208}}]] Observationes astronomic ab China constitue le sequentia continue le plus longe ex qualcunque civilisation e include registros de maculas solar (112 registros ab 364 a.Chr.), supernovas (1054), e eclipses lunar e solar. In le 12e seculo, illes poteva facer predictiones bastante accurate de eclipses, ma iste cognoscentia esseva perdite durante le dynastia Ming, de modo que le jesuita Matteo Ricci ganiava multe favor in 1601 per su predictiones.<ref>Needham p422</ref> In 635 astronomos chinese habeva observate que le caudas de cometas sempre se dirige a partir del sol. Ab le antiquitate, le chineses usava un systema equatorial pro describer le celos e un carta stellar ab 940 esseva delineate con un projection cylindric (Mercator). Le uso de un sphera armillar es registrate ab le 4e seculo a.Chr. e un sphera montate permanentemente in axes equatorial ab 52 a.Chr. In 125 p.Chr., Zhang Heng usava potentia aquatic pro girar le sphera in tempore real. Isto includeva anellos pro le meridiano e le ecliptica. In 1270, illes habeva incorporate le principios del ''torquetum'' arabe. In le Imperio Song (960–1279) del China imperial, studiose functionarios chinese exhumava, studiava e catalogava artefactos antique. ==== Inventiones ==== [[File:EastHanSeismograph.JPG|thumb|upright|Un replica moderne del [[seismometro]] del polymath scientista de le dinastia Han [[Zhang Heng]], que data de 132 EC.]] Pro preparar se melio a calamitates, Zhang Heng inventava un seismometro in 132 post Christo que provideva alertas immediate al autoritates in le capital Luoyang que un tremor de terra habeva occurrite in un loco indicate per un direction cardinal o ordinal specific.<ref>[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny, Rafe]]. (2007). ''A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)''. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 1050. {{ISBN|90-04-15605-4}}.</ref><ref>Morton, W. Scott and Charlton M. Lewis. (2005). ''China: Its History and Culture''. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., p. 70. {{ISBN|0-07-141279-4}}.</ref> Ben que nulle tremores poteva esser sentite in le capital, quando Zhang diceva al corte que un tremor de terra habeva justemente occurrite in le nord-west, un message veniva tosto postea que un tremor de terra habeva de facto colpite a 400 a 500 km (250 a 310 millias) al nord-west de Luoyang (in lo que nunc es le provincia moderne de Gansu).<ref>Minford & Lau (2002), 307; Balchin (2003), 26–27; Needham (1986a), 627; Needham (1986c), 484; Krebs (2003), 31.</ref> Zhang nominava su apparato le 'instrumento pro mensurar le ventos saisonal e le movimentos del Terra' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), nominate assi proque ille e alteres pensava que tremores de terra esseva le plus probabilemente causate per le enorme compression de aer capturate.<ref name="needham volume 3 626">Needham (1986a), 626.</ref> Il ha multe contributores notabile al disciplinas, inventiones e practicas chinese antique. Un del excellente exemplos es le chinese medieval Shen Kuo (1031–1095), un genio universal e statista qui esseva le prime a describer le compasso de agulia magnetic pro navigation, discoperiva le concepto del ver nord, meliorava le designo del gnomone astronomic, sphera armillar, tubo de vista, e clepsydra, e describeva le uso de bassinos de calfatage pro reparar barcas. Post observar le processo natural del inundation de limo e le trovata de fossiles marin in le montes Taihang (centenas de millias del Oceano Pacific), Shen Kuo concipeva un theoria de formation del terra, o geomorphologia. Ille adoptava anque un theoria de cambio climatic gradual in regiones super tempore, post observar bambu petrificate trovate sub terra in Yan'an, in le provincia de Shaanxi. Si non pro le scriptura de Shen Kuo,<ref>[[Shen Kuo]] 沈括 (1086, last supplement dated 1091), ''Meng Ch'i Pi Than (夢溪筆談, [[Dream Pool Essays]])'' as cited in {{harvnb|Needham|Robinson|Huang|2004|p=244}}</ref> le obras architectural de Yu Hao esserea pauco cognoscite, assi como le inventator del impression del typo mobile, Bi Sheng (990–1051). Le contemporaneo de Shen, Su Song (1020–1101), era anque un genio universal brillante, un astronomo qui creava un atlas celestial de cartas stellar, scribeva un tractato relationate al botanica, zoologia, mineralogia, e metallurgia, e erigeva un grande turre de horologio astronomic in le citate de Kaifeng in 1088. Pro operar le sphera armillar, su turre de horologio habeva un mechanismo de escappamento e le plus vetule uso cognoscite de un systema de transmission de potentia sin fin. Le missiones jesuitic in China durante le 16e e 17e seculos "apprendeva a appreciar le realisationes scientific de iste ancian cultura e faceva los cognite in Europa. Per lor correspondentia, le scientistas europee apprendeva primarimente super le scientia e cultura chinese."<ref>Agustín Udías, ''Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories''. (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003). p. 53</ref> Le pensamento academic occidental sur le historia del technologia e scientia chinese esseva mobilisate per le travalio de Joseph Needham e le Needham Research Institute. Inter le realisationes technologic de China esseva, secundo le studiose britannico Needham, le globo celestial movite per potentia aquatic (Zhang Heng),<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/726943|title=Joseph Needham's Research on Chinese Machines in the Cross-Cultural History of Science and Technology|first1=Zhang|last1=Baichun|first2=Tian|last2=Miao|date=6 January 2019|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=60|issue=2|pages=616–624|doi=10.1353/tech.2019.0041 |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> bassinos de calfatage, calibres glissante, le bomba de piston con action duple,<ref name="auto"/> le furno pro production de metallo,<ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/454409a|title=The man who unveiled China|first=Simon|last=Winchester|date=6 July 2008|journal=Nature|volume=454|issue=7203|pages=409–411|via=www.nature.com|doi=10.1038/454409a|pmid=18650901 }}</ref> le seminatorio multicanal, le carretta de mano,<ref name="auto1"/> le ponte suspendite,<ref name="auto1"/> le machina de ventilator,<ref name="auto"/> le pulvere de cannon,<ref name="auto1"/> le mappa de relievo, le papiro pro le toilette,<ref name="auto1"/> le hamo efficace,<ref name="auto"/> juncte con contributiones in logica, astronomia, medicina, e altere campos. Tamen, factores cultural preveniva que iste realisationes chinese se developpava in "scientia moderne". Secundo Needham, il pote haber essite le structura religiose e philosophic de intellectual chinese que les rendeva incapace de acceptar le ideas del leges de natura: {{Citation|Non es que il non habeva un ordine in le natura pro le chineses, ma plus tosto que illo non esseva un ordine prescribite per un rationabile entitate personal, e assi il non habeva un conviction que entitates personal rationabile poterea elaborar in lor linguas terren le minus perfecte le codice divin de leges que ille habeva decretate previemente. De facto, le taoistas haberea repellite un tal idea como troppo naive pro le subtilitate e complexitate del universo como illes lo intueva.}} == Antiquitate classic == Le contributiones del ancian egyptios e mesopotamianos in le dominios de astronomia, mathematica, e medicina habeva entrate e formate le philosophia natural grec de antiquitate classic, ubi tentativas formal esseva facite pro provider explicationes de eventos in le mundo physic basate sur causas natural.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/><ref name="Grant2007a"/> Anque investigationes esseva dirigite verso objectivos practic, tales como establir un calendario fidibile o determinar como curar differente maladias. Le populos ancian que esseva considerate le prime scientistas pote haber vidite se como philosophos natural, como practicantes de un profession experte (per exemplo, medicos), o como sequitores de un tradition religiose (per exemplo, sanatores de templo). === Presocraticos === Le prime philosophos grec, cognoscite como le pre-socraticos,<ref>{{harvnb|Sambursky|1974|pp=3, 37}} called the pre-Socratics the transition from ''[[Mythology|mythos]]'' to ''[[logos]]''</ref> offereva responsas rival al question presente in le mythos de lor proximos: "Como le cosmos ordinate in le qual nos vive veniva a esser?"<ref>[[F.M. Cornford]], ''Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought'', (Gloucester, Massachusetts, Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159.</ref> Le philosopho pre-socratic Thales (640–546 a.C) de Miletus, identificate per autores ulterior como Aristotele como le prime del philosophos ionic,<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> postulava explanationes non-supernatural pro phenomenos natural. Per exemplo, que le terra flotta super aqua e que le tremores de terra es causate per le agitation del aqua sur le qual le terra flotta, e non per le deo Poseidon.<ref>Arieti, James A. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&dq=thales+earthquakes&pg=PA44 Philosophy in the ancient world: an introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404032051/https://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&dq=thales+earthquakes&pg=PA44 |date=4 April 2023 }}'', p. 45. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 386 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-7425-3329-5}}.</ref> Le discipulo de Thales, Pythagoras de Samos, fundava le schola pythagoric, que investigava mathematica pro su proprie interesse, e esseva le prime a postular que le Terra es spheric in forma.<ref name="dicks">{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D.R. |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72 72–198] |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |publisher=Cornell University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72 }}</ref> Leucippus (5e seculo a.Chr.) introduceva le atomismo, le theoria que tote materia es facite de unitates indivisibile e imperibile, cognoscite como atomos. Isto esseva amplificate multo per su discipulo Democritus e postea per Epicuro. === Philosophia natural === [[File:Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii.jpg|thumb|[[Academia de Plato]]. Mosaico del 1e seculo de [[Pompeii]].]] Platon e Aristotele produceva le prime discussiones systematic de philosophia natural, le quales contribueva multo a formar investigationes ulterior de natura. Lor developpamento de rationamento deductive esseva de particular importantia e utilitate pro le inquesta scientific futur. Platon fundava le Academia Platonic in 387 a.Chr., cuje motto esseva "Nullo ignorante de geometria a entrar" e produceva multe philosophos notabile. Le discipulo de Platon, Aristotele, introduceva le empirismo e le idea que veritates universal pote esser attingite per observation e induction, ponente assi le bases del methodo scientific.<ref>{{cite book |first=De Lacy |last=O'Leary |author-link=De Lacy O'Leary |year=1949 |title=How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs |url=https://archive.org/details/howgreeksciencep0000olea |url-access=registration |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |isbn=978-0-7100-1903-5}}</ref> Aristotele anque produceva multe scripturas biologic que esseva empiric in natura, concentrante se sur causation biologic e le diversitate de vita. Ille faceva innumerabile observationes del natura, specialmente le habitos e attributos de plantas e animales in Lesbos, classificava plus que 540 species animal, e dissecava al minus 50.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4 |page=7–}}</ref> Le scripturas de Aristotele influentiava profundemente le subsequente erudition islamic e europee, ben que illos eventualmente esseva superate per le Revolution Scientific..<ref>{{cite SEP|url-id=aristotle-influence|title=Aristotle's Influence|date=2018|edition=Spring 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |title=Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction |date=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=86 |isbn=978-0-19-285408-7}}</ref> Aristotele contribueva anque a theorias sur le elementos e le cosmo. Ille credeva que le corpores celeste (como le planetas e le Sol) habeva alique cognoscite como "motores immobile" que impelleva le corpores celeste in motion. Aristotele essayava explicar toto per mathematica e physica, ma a vices explicava cosas como le motion de corpores celeste per un potentia superior tal como Deo. Aristotele non habeva le progressos technologic que haberea explicate le motion de corpores celeste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aristotle |title="De Caelo" [On the Heavens] |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |date=7 January 2009 |location=Translated by J. L. Stocks |pages=279 a17-30}}</ref> In plus, Aristotele habeva multe opiniones sur le elementos. Ille credeva que toto era derivate del elementos terra, aqua, aere, foco, e finalmente le Ethere. Le Ethere esseva un elemento celestial e assi formava le substantia del corpores celeste.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frede |first=Dorothea |date=1976 |title=On the Elements: Aristotle's Early Cosmology |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/hph.2008.0115 |journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=227–229 |doi=10.1353/hph.2008.0115 |s2cid=144547689 |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> Le elementos terra, aqua, aere, e foco esseva derivatos de un combination de duo del characteristicas de calide, humide, frigide, e sec, e toto habeva su loco e motion inevitabile. Le motion de iste elementos comencia con terra essente le proxime a "le Terra," postea aqua, aere, foco, e finalmente Ethere. In addition al composition de omne cosas, Aristotele elaborava theorias sur proque cosas non retornava a lor motion natural. Ille comprendeva que aqua se trova supra terra, aere supra aqua, e foco supra aere in lor stato natural. Ille explicava que ben que omne elementos debe retornar a lor stato natural, le corpore human e altere formas de vita ha un restriction sur le elementos – non permittente al elementos retornar a lor stato natural.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Monte |date=2004 |title=Review of The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements, Helen S. Lang |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288 |journal=Isis |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=687–688 |doi=10.1086/432288 |jstor=10.1086/432288 |issn=0021-1753 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204052419/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288 |url-status=live }}</ref> Le importante hereditage de iste periodo includeva progressos substantial in cognoscentia factual, specialmente in anatomia, zoologia, botanica, mineralogia, geographia, mathematica, e astronomia; un conscientia del importantia de certe problemas scientific, particularmente illos relationate con le problema del mutation e su causas; e un recognition del importantia methodologic de applicar mathematica a phenomenos natural e de facer recercas empiric.<ref>[[G.E.R. Lloyd]], ''Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle'', (New York: W.W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144–146.</ref> In le epocha hellenistic, studiosos frequentemente applicava le principios developpate in le precedente pensamento grec: le application de mathematica e le recerca empiric deliberate, in lor investigationes scientific.<ref>[[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]] ''Greek Science after Aristotle''. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1973. {{ISBN|0-393-00780-4}}, p. 177.</ref> Assi, lineas de influentia clar e ininterrupte conduce del philosophos grec e hellenistic, al philosophos e scientistas musulman medieval, al Renascentia e al Illuminismo europee, e al scientias secular del die moderne. Ni le ration, ni le inquisition comenciava con le antique grecos, ma le methodo socratic e le idea de Formas forniva grande progressos in geometria, logica, e le scientias natural. Secundo Benjamin Farrington, professor emerite de Studios Classic al Universitate de Swansea: {{Citation|Homines pesava durante millennios ante que Archimedes elaborava le leges de equilibrio; illes debe haber possedite cognoscentia practic e intuitive del principios involvite. Lo que Archimedes faceva, era distillar le implicationes theoretic de iste cognoscentia practic e presentar le corpore de cognoscentia resultante como un systema logicamente coherente.}} e de nove: {{Citation|Con stupefaction, nos nos trova mesme sur le limine del scientia moderne. Non debe esser supponite que, per alcun stratagema de traduction, le excerptos ha essite dotate de un aere de modernitate. Ben, al contrario. Le vocabulario de iste scripturas e lor stilo es le fonte ex le qual nostre proprie vocabulario e stilo ha essite derivate.<ref>''Greek Science'', many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4.</ref>}} === Astronomia grec === [[File:Antikythera mechanism.svg|thumb|upright|right|Schema del [[mecanismo de Antikythera]] (150-100 a.Chr.).]] Le astronomo [[Aristarcho |Aristarcho de Samos]] esseva le prime persona cognoscite qui proponeva un modello heliocentric del Systema Solar, durante que le geographo Eratosthenes calculava accuratemente le circumferentia del Terra. Hipparchus (circa 190 – circa 120 a.Chr.) produceva le prime catalogo systematic de stellas. Le nivello de attingimento in astronomia e ingenieria hellenistic es impressionantemente monstrate per le mechanismo de Antikythera (150–100 a.Chr.), un computator analogic pro calcular le position de planetas. Artefactos technologic de similar complexitate non reappareva usque le 14e seculo, quando horologios astronomic mechanic appareva in Europa.<ref name=insearchoflosttime>{{cite journal | last1=Marchant | first1=Jo | year=2006 | title=In search of lost time | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-11-30_444_7119/page/534 | journal=Nature | volume=444 | issue=7119| pages=534–538 | doi=10.1038/444534a | pmid=17136067 | bibcode=2006Natur.444..534M | doi-access=free }}</ref> === Medicina hellenistic === Durante le epocha de Hippocrate, non existeva un definite structura de societate pro le medicina.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kleisiaris CF, Sfakianakis C, Papathanasiou IV. Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2014 Mar 15;7:6. {{PMID|25512827}}; PMCID: PMC4263393.</ref> A ille tempore, le societate non esseva organisate e instructe, e le gente confideva ancora sur rationamento religiose pur pro explicar maladias.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Hippocrate introduceva le prime systema de medicina basate sur scientia e protocollos clinic.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6">{{Cite journal |last1=Kleisiaris |first1=Christos F. |last2=Sfakianakis |first2=Chrisanthos |last3=Papathanasiou |first3=Ioanna V. |date=2014-03-15 |title=Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine |volume=7 |pages=6 |issn=2008-0387 |pmc=4263393 |pmid=25512827}}</ref> Le theorias de Hippocrate sur physic e medicina contribueva a establir un structura medic organisate pro le societate.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> In medicina, Hippocrate (circa 460 a.Chr. – circa 370 a.Chr.) e su sequitores esseva le prime a describer multe maladias e conditiones medic e a elaborar le Juramento Hippocratic pro medicos, que ancora es pertinente e in uso hodie. Le ideas de Hippocrate es exprimite in Le Corpore Hippocratic. Le collection nota descriptiones de philosophias medic e como maladias e decisiones de vita se reflecte sur le corpore physic.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> Hippocrate influentiava un relation professional occidental inter medico e patiente.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeHart |first=Scott M. |title=Hippocratic Medicine and the Greek Body Image |journal=Perspectives on Science |year=1999 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=349–382 |doi=10.1162/posc.1999.7.3.349 |s2cid=57571190 |issn=1063-6145|doi-access=free }}</ref> Hippocrate es cognoscite etiam como "le Patre del Medicina".<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> Herophilos (335–280 a.Chr.) esseva le prime a basar su conclusiones sur dissection del corpore human e a describer le systema nervose. Galeno (129 – circa 200 p.Chr.) realisava multe operationes audace — incluse chirurgias de cerebro e oculo — que non esseva tentate de novo pro quasi duo millennios. === Mathematica grec === [[File:Oxyrhynchus papyrus with Euclid's Elements.jpg|thumb|Un del fragmentos plus vetule conservate del ''Elementos'' de Euclides, trovate a [[Oxyrhynchus]] e datate circa 100 EC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html |title=One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid |author=Casselman, Bill |author-link=Bill Casselman (mathematician) |publisher=University of British Columbia |access-date=26 September 2008 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 June 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120604095737/http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html}}</ref>]] [[File:Archimedes pi.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5<!--fmt low-aspect image-->|Archimedes usava le [[methodo de exhaustion]] pro approximar le valor de [[pi|π]].]] In le Egypto hellenistic, le mathematico Euclides establiva le bases del rigor mathematic e introduceva le conceptos de definition, axioma, theorema, e demonstration que ancora es in uso hodie in su Elementos, considerate le libro de texto le plus influential que jam ha essite scripte.<ref name="Boyer Influence of the Elements">{{cite book |last=Boyer |author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer |title=A History of Mathematics |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye |chapter-url-access=registration |year=1991|chapter=Euclid of Alexandria|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/119 119]|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471543978 |quote=Le ''Elementos'' de Euclides non solmente esseva le prime major obra mathematic grec que perveniva a nos, ma anque le manual le plus influential de omne tempores. [...] Le prime versiones impresse del ''Elementos'' appariva in Venetia in 1482, un del prime libros mathematic que esseva componite in typo; on ha estimate que desde alora al minus mil editiones ha essite publicate. Forsan nulle libro, excepte le Biblia, pote vantiar se de tantos editiones, e certemente nulle obra mathematic ha exercite un influentia comparabile con ille del ''Elementos'' de Euclides.}}</ref> Archimedes, considerate un del mathematicos le plus grande de omne tempore,<ref>{{cite book |last=Calinger |first=Ronald |title=A Contextual History of Mathematics |year=1999 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-02-318285-3 |page=150 |quote=Brevemente post Euclides, le compilator del manual definitive, veniva Archimedes de Syracusa (circa 287–212 a.Chr.), le mathematiciano le plus original e profunde del antiquitate.}}</ref> es credite con le uso del methodo de exhaustion pro calcular le area sub le arco de un parabola con le summation de un serie infinite, e dava un approximation remarcabilemente accurate de pi.<ref>{{cite web |title=A history of calculus |author1=O'Connor, J.J. |author2=Robertson, E.F. |publisher=[[University of St Andrews]] |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html |date=February 1996 |access-date=7 August 2007 |archive-date=15 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715191704/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ille es etiam cognoscite in physica pro establir le bases del hydrostatica, statica, e le explication del principio del levator. === Altere developpamentos === Theophrastus scribeva alcun del prime descriptiones de plantas e animales, establiente le prime taxonomia e examinante minerales in terminos de lor proprietates, tal como duressa. Plinio le Senior produceva un del plus grandes encyclopedias del mundo natural in 77 p.Chr. e esseva un successor de Theophrastus. Per exemplo, ille describe accuratemente le forma octahedric del diamante e notava que le pulvere de diamante es usate per incisores pro taliar e polir altere gemmas a causa de su grande duressa. Su recognoscimento del importantia del forma crystalloide es un antecessor del crystallographia moderne, durante que notas sur altere minerales presagia mineralogia. Ille recognosce que altere minerales ha formas crystalloides characteristic, ma in un exemplo, confunde le habito crystalloide con le travalio de lapidarios. Plinio esseva le prime a monstrar que le ambra esseva un resina de pinos, a causa de insectos capturate in illos.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=37#note92|title=Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES.|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=King |first1=Rachel |title=Amber: From Antiquity to Eternity |year=2022 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=9781789145922 |page=107 |date=29 August 2022 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEt7EAAAQBAJ&dq=pliny+the+elder+amber+gnats&pg=PA107}}</ref> Le developpamento de archeologia ha su radices in le historia e con illes qui esseva interessate in le passato, tal como reges e reginas qui voleva monstrar le glorias passate de lor nationes respective. Le historiographo grec del 5e seculo a.Chr., [[Herodoto]], esseva le prime scholastico a studiar systematicamente le passato e forsan le prime a examinar artefactos. === Erudition grec sub le dominio roman === Durante le dominio de Roma, historiographos famose como [[Polybio]], Livio e Plutarcho documentava le ascension del Republica Roman, e le organisation e historias de altere nationes, durante que homines de stato como Julio Cesare, Ciceron, e alteres offereva exemplos del politica del republica e le imperio e guerras roman. Le studio del politica durante iste epocha se dirigeva verso comprender le historia, comprender le methodos de governar, e describer le functionamento de governamentos. Le conquesta roman de Grecia non diminueva le apprendimento e cultura in le provincias grec.<ref name= "lindberg2007g">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Roman and early medieval science | title = The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 132–162 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> Al contrario, le appreciation del successos grec in litteratura, philosophia, politica, e le artes per le classe superior roman coincideva con le prosperitate crescente del Imperio Roman. Colonias grec existeva in Italia durante seculos, e le capacitate de leger e parlar greco non era rarissime in citates italian como Roma.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> De plus, le installation de scholasticos grec in Roma, voluntarimente o como sclavos, dava al romanos accesso a professores de litteratura e philosophia grec. Vice versa, juvene scholasticos roman studiava in Grecia e, al retornar a Roma, poteva communicar le successos grec a lor direction latin.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> E nonobstante le traduction de alcun textos grec in latino, scholasticos roman qui aspirava al nivello plus elevate lo faceva con le lingua grec. Le homine de stato e philosopho roman Ciceron (106–43 a.Chr.) esseva un excellente exemplo. Ille habeva studiate sub professores grec in Roma e postea in Athenas e Rhodos. Ille dominava grande partes de philosophia grec, scribeva tractatos latin sur plure themas, e mesmo scribeva commentarios grec de Timaeus de Platon, ben como un translation latin, que non ha supervivite.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Al initio, le appoio al stipendios in cognoscentia grec esseva quasi completemente financiate per le classe superior roman.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Il habeva omne sortes de arrangiamentos, que variava de un scholastico talentose attachate a un familia opulente a sclavos grec educate.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> In cambio, scholasticos qui succedeva al nivello plus elevate habeva un obligation de consiliar o dar compania intellectual a lor benefactores roman, o mesmo prender cura de lor bibliothecas. Le minus fortun o competente instrueva su filios o faceva tascas servil.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le nivello de detalio e sophistication del cognoscentia grec esseva adjustate al interesses de lor patronos roman. Illo significava popularisar le cognoscentia grec presentante informationes que esseva de valor practic como medicina o logica (pro cortes e politica), ma excludente detalios subtil de metaphysica e epistemologia grec. Ultra le basic, le romanos non appreciava le philosophia natural e lo considerava un divertimento pro le tempore de otio.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Commentarios e encyclopedias esseva le medios per le quales le cognoscentia grec esseva popularisate pro le audientia roman.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le scholastico grec Posidonius (circa 135–circa 51 a.Chr.), un nativo de Syria, scribeva prolificamente super historia, geographia, philosophia moral, e philosophia natural. Ille influentiava scriptores latin como Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 a.Chr.), qui scribeva le encyclopedia Novem Libros de Disciplinas, que tractava novem artes: grammatica, rhetorica, logica, arithmetica, geometria, astronomia, theoria musical, medicina, e architectura.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le Disciplinas deveniva un modello pro subsequente encyclopedias roman, e le nove artes liberal de Varro esseva considerate un education idonee pro un homine roman. Le prime septe del novem artes de Varro definirea postea le septe artes liberal del scholas medieval.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le culmine del movimento de popularisation esseva le scholastico roman Plinio le Senior (23/24–79 p.Chr.), un nativo del nord de Italia, qui scribeva plure libros super le historia de Roma e grammatica. Su obra le plus famose esseva su voluminose Historia Natural.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Post le morte del imperator roman Marco Aurelio in 180 p.Chr., le conditiones favorabile pro stipendios e apprendimento in le Imperio Roman esseva disturbate per disturbantias politic, guerras civil, decadentia urban, e le imminente crise economic.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Circa 250 p.Chr., barbaros comenciava a attaccar e invader le frontiera roman. Iste eventos combinate resultava in un decremento general del conditiones politic e economic. Le standard de vita del classe superior roman esseva severmente affectate e lor perdita de otio diminueva le scopos scholar.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> De plus, durante le 3e e 4 seculos p.Chr., le Imperio Roman esseva administrativemente dividite in duo medietates: Grec Oriental e Latin Occidental. Iste divisiones administrative debilitava le contacto intellectual inter le duo regiones.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Finalmente, ambe medietates prendeva lor proprie camminos, con le Grec Oriental deveniente le Imperio Byzantin.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le christianismo se expandeva anque durante iste tempore e presto deveniva un mecenas major de education in le Latin Occidental. Initialmente, le ecclesia christian adoptava alcun del instrumentos de rationamento de philosophia grec in le 2 e 3 seculos p.Chr. pro defender su fide contra adversarios sophisticate.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Nonobstante, le philosophia grec recipeva un reception mixte ab le leaders e adherentes del fide christian.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Alcunos como Tertullian (circa 155–circa 230 p.Chr.) esseva vehementemente opponite al philosophia, condemnante lo como heretic. Alteres como Augustino de Hippo (354–430 p.Chr.) esseva ambivalente e defendeva le philosophia e scientia grec como le melior manieras de comprender le mundo natural e, pro tanto, le tractava como un domestica (o servitor) del religion.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le education in le Occidente comenciava su declino gradual, con le resto del Imperio Roman Occidental, a causa de invasiones per tribos germanic, disturbantias civil, e collapso economic. Le contacto con le tradition classic esseva perdite in regiones specific como Britannia Roman e Gallia del nord, ma continuava a exister in Roma, le nord de Italia, Gallia del sud, Hispania, e Africa del Nord.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> == Medievo == === Imperio Byzantin === [[File:ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The frontispiece of the [[Vienna Dioscurides]], which shows a set of seven famous physicians.]] ==== Preservation del hereditage grec ==== Le [[Cadita del Imperio Roman de Occidente|cadita del Imperio Roman de Occidente]] conduceva a un deterioration del tradition classic in le parte occidental (o Occidente Latin) de [[Europa]] in le annos 400. Al contrario, le Imperio Roman Oriental o [[Imperio Byzantin|Byzantin]] resisteva le attaccos barbaric e preservava e meliorava le cognoscentia.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 363.</ref> Durante que le Imperio Byzantin reteneva ancora centros de apprendimento como [[Constantinopole]], [[Alexandria ad Egypto|Alexandria]] e Antiochia, le cognoscentia de Europa Occidental esseva concentrate in monasterios usque le developpamento de universitates medieval in le annos 1100. Le programma de scholas monastic includeva le studio de pauc textos antique disponibile e de nove obras sur subjectos practic como medicina<ref>Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons", ''Isis'', 70 (1979): 250–268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ''The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages'', Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000, pp. 163–181. {{ISBN|978-0-226-74951-8}}.</ref> e chronometration.<ref>Faith Wallis, ''Bede: The Reckoning of Time'', Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004, pp. xviii–xxxiv. {{ISBN|978-0-85323-693-1}}.</ref> In le 7e seculo in le Imperio Byzantin, Isidore de Miletus compilava le obras mathematic de Archimedes in le Palimpsesto de Archimedes, ubi omne contributiones mathematic de Archimedes esseva colligite e studiate. John Philoponus, un altere scholastico byzantin, esseva le prime a interrogar le doctrina de physica de Aristotele, introducente le theoria de impeto.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Philoponus, John|editor=Craig, Edward|year=1998|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7, Nihilism-Quantum mechanics|pages=371–377, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0zPyhAxhDz8C&pg=PA373 373]|isbn=978-0-415-18712-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Lindberg, David C. |year=2007|title=The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450|edition=2nd|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|pages=307–308|isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}} Link to [https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA307 p. 307] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803040759/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA307 |date=3 August 2020 }} from Google's copy of 2008 reprint.</ref> Le theoria de impeto esseva un theoria auxiliar o secundari de dynamicas aristotelian, proponite initialmente pro explicar le motion projectate contra le gravitate. Illo es le antecessor intellectual de conceptos como inertia, impulso e acceleration in le mechanic classic.<ref>{{cite book | last = Duhem | first = Pierre | contribution = Physics, History of | year = 1913 | title = The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, and History of the Catholic Church | editor-first = Charles G. | editor-last = Herbermann | editor-first2 = Edward A. | editor-last2 = Pace | editor-first3 = Condé B. | editor-last3 = Pallen | editor-first4 = John J. | editor-last4 = Wynne | editor-first5 = Thomas J. | editor-last5 = Shahan | volume = 12 | page = 51 | place = New York | publisher = Encyclopedia Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XSQUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51 | access-date = 19 April 2018 | archive-date = 3 January 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140103080018/http://books.google.com/books?id=XSQUAAAAYAAJ | url-status = live }}</ref> Le obras de John Philoponus inspirava Galileo Galilei dece seculos plus tarde.<ref name=Lindberg1992p162>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA162 The Beginnings of Western Science]''. University of Chicago Press. p. 162.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/| title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| chapter=John Philoponus| publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University| year=2018| access-date=11 April 2018| archive-date=22 April 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422010906/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/| url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Collapso ==== Durante le Cadita de Constantinopole in 1453, un numero de scholasticos grec fugiva al Italia del Nord, ubi illes alimentava le periodo posteriormente communmente cognoscite como le "Renascentia" durante que illes apportava con se multe cognoscentia classic includente un comprension de botanica, medicina e zoologia. Byzantio anque offereva al Occidente importante contributiones: le criticismo de John Philoponus del physica aristotelian e le obras de Dioscorides.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992). ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 162.</ref> === Mundo islamic === [[File:Islamic MedText c1500.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Manuscripto del 15e seculo de ''[[Canon de Medicina]]'' de [[Avicenna]].]] Isto esseva le periodo (seculos 8-14 p.Chr.) del Epocha de Auro Islamic ubi le commercio prosperava, e nove ideas e technologias emergeva como le importation del arte de facer papiro ab China, que rendeva le reproduction de manuscriptos economic. ==== Traductiones e hellenisation ==== Le transmission oriental del hereditage grec a Asia Occidental esseva un processo lente e gradual que durava plus de mille annos, comenciante con le conquestas asian de Alexandro le Grande in 335 a.Chr. usque al fundation del Islam in le 7e seculo p.Chr.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le nascentia e expansion del islam durante le 7e seculo esseva sequite rapidemente per su hellenisation. Le cognoscentia del conceptiones grec del mundo esseva preservate e absorbite in le theologia, le derecto, le cultura e le commercio islamic, le quales esseva adjuvate per le translationes de textos grec traditional e alicun fontes intermediari syriac in arabic durante le 8e e 9e seculos. ==== Education e scopos scholar ==== [[File:Cour mosquee Suleymaniye Istanbul.jpg|thumb|[[Moschea Süleymaniye]].]] Madrasas esseva centros de multe differente studios religiose e scientific e esseva le culmination de differente institutiones tal como moscheas basate sur studios religiose, allogios pro visitatores foras de le citate, e finalmente institutiones educative concentrate sur le scientias natural.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Moosa|first=Ebrahim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei9ZBwAAQBAJ&dq=Madrasa+history&pg=PP1|title=What Is a Madrasa?|date=2015-04-06|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-1-4696-2014-5|access-date=25 November 2021|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040037/https://books.google.com/books?id=ei9ZBwAAQBAJ&dq=Madrasa+history&pg=PP1|url-status=live}}</ref> A differentia de universitates occidental, studentes in un madrasa apprenderea de un professor specific, qui concederea un certificato al completion de lor studios nominato un Ijazah. Un Ijazah differe de un diploma universitari occidental in multe manieras, inclusive que illo es emittite per un sol persona in loco de un institution, e alique que illo non es un diploma individual que attesta un cognoscimento adequate sur subjectos extensive, ma plus tosto un licentia pro instruer e transmitter un conjuncto de textos specific.<ref name="barker2017">{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=Peter|date=2017-12-15|title=The Social Structure of Islamicate Science|url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp/article/view/1259|journal=Journal of World Philosophies|volume=2|issue=2|issn=2474-1795|access-date=24 November 2021|archive-date=24 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124005530/https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp/article/view/1259|url-status=live}}</ref> Feminas anque esseva permittite a participar in madrasas, tanto como studentes como professores, un cosa non vidite in le education superior occidental usque le 19e seculo.<ref name="barker2017" /> Madrasas esseva plus que simplemente centros academic. Le Moschea Suleymaniye, pro exemplo, esseva un del madrasas le plus ancian e ben cognoscite, que esseva construite per Soliman le Magnificente in le 16e seculo.<ref name="architecturecourses2021">{{Cite web|title=Süleymaniye Mosque, Turkey|url=https://www.architecturecourses.org/s%C3%BCleymaniye-mosque-turkey|access-date=2021-11-24|website=www.architecturecourses.org|archive-date=24 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124005536/https://www.architecturecourses.org/s%C3%BCleymaniye-mosque-turkey|url-status=live|accessdate=2024-01-17|archivedate=2021-11-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124005536/https://www.architecturecourses.org/s%C3%BCleymaniye-mosque-turkey}}</ref> Le Moschea Suleymaniye habeva un hospital e collegio medical, un cocina, e un schola pro infantes, e anque functionava como un casa temporanee pro viagiatores.<ref name="architecturecourses2021" /> Le education superior in un madrasa (o collegio) esseva concentrate sur le derecto islamic e le scientia religiose, e le studentes debeva dedicar se a auto-studio pro omne altere materias.<ref name="lindberg2007h" /> E nonobstante le occasional reaction theologic, multe scholares islamic de scientia poteva realisar lor travalio in centros urban relativemente tolerante (p.ex. Bagdad e Cairo) e esseva protegite per patronos potente.<ref name="lindberg2007h" /> Illes poteva anque viagiar liberemente e excambiar ideas, proque il habeva nulle barrieras politic intra le stato islamic unificate.<ref name="lindberg2007h" /> Le scientia islamic durante iste epocha esseva principalmente concentrate sur le correction, extension, articulation, e application de ideas grec a nove problemas.<ref name="lindberg2007h" /> ==== Avantiamentos in mathematica ==== Le major parte del complimentos per scholares islamic durante iste periodo esseva in mathematica.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le mathematica arabe esseva un descendente directe del mathematica grec e indian.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Per exemplo, lo que nunc es cognoscite como numeros arabic proveniva originalmente de India, ma mathematicos musulman faceva multe raffinamentos clave al systema de numeros, como le introduction del notation de puncto decimal. Mathematicos como Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850) dava su nomine al concepto de algorithmo, durante que le termino algebra se deriva de al-jabr, le initio del titulo de un de su publicationes.<ref>[[Gerald J. Toomer|Toomer, Gerald]] (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. {{ISBN|978-0-684-16962-0}}.</ref> Le trigonometria islamic continuava ab le opera de le Almagest de Ptolemeo e le Siddhanta indian, del quales illes adderea functiones trigonometric, compilava tabulas, e applicava le trigonometria a spheras e planos. Multe de lor ingenieros, fabricantes de instrumentos, e agrimensores contribueva con libros de mathematica applicate. Es in astronomia ubi le mathematicos islamic faceva lor plus grande contributiones. Al-Battani (c. 858–929) meliorava le mensuras de Hipparchus, preservate in le translation del Almagest de Ptolemeo. Al-Battani anque meliorava le precision del mensura del precession del axe del Terra. Correctiones esseva facite al modello geocentric de Ptolemeo per al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rosen |first=Edward |year=1985 |title=The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_january-march-1985_46_1/page/19 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=19–21 |doi=10.2307/2709773|jstor=2709773 }}</ref> Averroes e le astronomos de Maragha tal como Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi e Ibn al-Shatir.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rabin|first=Sheila|url=http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus/index.html|title=Nicolaus Copernicus|journal=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|year=2004|access-date=24 June 2012|archive-date=15 July 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120715113006/http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Saliba |first=George |author-link=George Saliba |year=1994 |title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8147-8023-7 |pages=254, 256–257 }}</ref> Scholares con habilitates geometric faceva importante meliorationes al textos classic anterior sur luce e vision de Euclide, Aristotele e Ptolemeo.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le prime tractatos arabe que ha supervivite esseva scribite in le 9e seculo per Abū Ishāq al-Kindī, Qustā ibn Lūqā e (in forma fragmentari) Ahmad ibn Isā. Plus tarde, in le 9e seculo, Ibn al-Haytham (cognoscite como Alhazen in le Occidente), un mathematico e astronomo, synthetisava un nove theoria del vision basate super le operationes de su predecessores.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Su nove theoria includeva un systema complete de optica geometric, que esseva detaliatemente presentate in su Libro del Optica.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/><ref>[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hZvL5eYAAAAJ&hl Sameen Ahmed Khan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305131051/http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hZvL5eYAAAAJ&hl |date=5 March 2016 }}, Arab Origins of the Discovery of the Refraction of Light; Roshdi Hifni Rashed (Picture) Awarded the 2007 King Faisal International Prize, Optics & Photonics News (OPN, Logo), Vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 22–23 (October 2007).</ref> Su libro esseva traducite in latino e esseva usate como un fonte principal sur le scientia de optica in Europa usque le 17e seculo.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> ==== Institutionalisation del medicina ==== Le scientias medical esseva prominentemente cultivate in le mundo islamic.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le opera del theorias medic grec, specialmente illos de Galeno, esseva traducite in arabe, e il habeva un affluente de textos medical per medicos islamic, que habeva como scopo organisar, elaborar e disseminar le cognoscentia medic classic.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Specialitates medic comenciava a emerger, como illos involvite in le tractamento de maladias ocular como cataractas. Ibn Sina (cognoscite como Avicenna in le Occidente, c. 980–1037) esseva un prolific encyclopedista medic perse<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|year=2007|title=Avicenna|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna|access-date=3 June 2010|archive-date=31 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031092920/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna|url-status=live}}</ref> qui scribeva extensivemente super medicina,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008">Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref><ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> con su duo obras le plus notabile in medicina essente le Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Libro del Sanation") e le Canone del Medicina, ambes usate como textos medicinal standard tanto in le mundo musulman como in Europa usque le 17e seculo. Inter su multe contributiones on pote mentionar le discoperta del natura contagiose de maladias infectiose,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008"/> e le introduction de pharmacologia clinic.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Brater | first1=D. Craig | last2=Daly | first2=Walter J. | year=2000 | title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century | journal=Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume=67 | issue=5| pages=447–450 [448] | doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 | pmid=10824622| s2cid=45980791 }}</ref> Le institutionalisation del medicina esseva un altere importante realisation in le mundo islamic. Ben que hospitales como institution pro le malade emergeva in le imperio Byzantin, le modello de medicina institutional pro tote classes social esseva extensive in le imperio islamic e esseva disseminate a traverso tote le partes. Al addition de tractar patientes, medicos poteva instruer apprentisses medic, como etiam scriber e facer recerca. Le discoperta del transito pulmonar de sanguine in le corpore human per Ibn al-Nafis occurreva in un ambiente hospitalar.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> ==== Declino ==== Le scientia islamic comenciava su declino in le 12e e 13e seculos, ante le Renascentia in Europa, de parte al christian reconquesta de Espania e le conquestas mongol in le Oriente in le 11e e 13e seculos. Le mongoles saccheava Bagdad, le capital del califato abbasida, in 1258, lo que terminava le imperio abbaside.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/><ref name="Erica Fraser 1600">Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.</ref> Nonobstante, multe del conquirentes deveniva patronos del scientias. Hulagu Khan, per exemplo, qui dirigeva le assedio de Bagdad, deveniva un patrono del observatorio de Maragheh.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le astronomia islamic continuava a florescer usque al 16e seculo.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> === Europa Occidental === [[File:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg|thumb|Statua de [[Roger Bacon]] al [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History]].]] Al 11e seculo, le majoritate de Europa esseva christian; monarchias plus forte emergeva; limites era restaurate; developpamentos technologic e innovationes agricole occurreva, augmentante le provision de alimentos e le population. Textos classic grec esseva traducite de arabe e greco in latino, stimulante le discussion scientific in Europa Occidental.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science'' University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</ref> In le antiquitate classic, tabus grec e roman sovente significava que le dissection era generalmente prohibite, ma in le Medievo professores e studentes medic in Bologna comenciava a aperir corpores human, e Mondino de Luzzi (circa 1275–1326) produceva le prime libro de anatomia cognoscite basate sur dissection human.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0674057418 |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |page=45 |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |access-date=12 April 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |date=20 January 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/04/debunking-a-myth/ |title=Debunking a myth |date=7 April 2011 |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=12 April 2018 |archive-date=28 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728101124/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/04/debunking-a-myth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Como resultato del ''Pax Mongolica'', europeos, tales como Marco Polo, comenciava a aventurar se plus e plus verso le oriente. Le relationes scribite per Polo e su companiones de viage inspirava altere exploratores maritime europee occidental a cercar un route directe per mar a Asia, concludente al Epocha del Discopertas.<ref name= "love2006a">{{cite book | last = Love | first= Ronald S. | year = 2006 | chapter = Historical overview | title = Maritime Exploration in the Age of Discovery, 1415–1800 | pages = 1–8 | location = Westport, Connecticut | publisher = Greenwood | isbn= 978-0313320439}}</ref> Progressos technologic anque occurreva, como le prime volo de Eilmer de Malmesbury (qui habeva studiate mathematica in le 11e seculo in Anglaterra),<ref name="Eilmer">[[William of Malmesbury]], ''[[Gesta Regum Anglorum]] / The history of the English kings'', ed. and trans. R.A.B. Mynors, R.M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols., Oxford Medieval Texts (1998–99)</ref> e le avantiamentos metallurgic del alte furno cisterciense in Laskill.<ref name="Laskill">R.W. Vernon, G. McDonnell and A. Schmidt, 'An integrated geophysical and analytical appraisal of early iron-working: three case studies' ''Historical Metallurgy'' 31(2) (1998), 72–75 79.</ref><ref name="Derbeyshire">David Derbyshire, ''Henry "Stamped Out Industrial Revolution"'', [[The Daily Telegraph]] (21 June 2002)</ref> ==== Universitates medieval ==== Un revitalisation intellectual de Europa Occidental comenciava con le initio del universitates medieval in le 12e seculo. Iste institutiones urban cresceva a partir del activitates scholastic informe de monachos docte qui visitava monasterios, consultava bibliothecas, e conversava con altere eruditos.<ref name= "gal2021d">{{cite book | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = Medieval learning | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 101–138 | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref> Un monacho qui deveniva ben cognoscite poteva attraher un sequitor de discipulos, dante loco a un fraternitate de studiosos (o ''collegium'' in latino). Un ''collegium'' poteva viagiar a un citate o demandar a un monasterio de hospitar les. Tamen, si le numero de studiosos in un ''collegium'' cresceva troppo, illes poteva optar pro establir se in un citate.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Como le numero de collegios in un citate cresceva, illes poteva demandar que lor rege les concedeva un carta que les converterea in un ''universitas''.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Multe universitates esseva chartate durante iste periodo, con le prime in Bologna in 1088, sequite per Paris in 1150, Oxford in 1167, e Cambridge in 1231.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Le concession de un charta significava que le universitates medieval esseva partialmente soveranee e independent del autoritates local.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Lor independentia los permitteva a ager secundo lor proprie regulas e judicar lor proprie membros basate sur lor proprie leges. De plus, como institutiones initialmente religiose, lor facultates e studentes esseva protegite ab pena capital (p.ex. le furca).<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Tal independentia esseva un question de costume, que, in theoria, poteva esser revocate per lor respective governantes si illes se sentiva menaciate. Disputationes sur varie themas o assertiones in iste institutiones medieval, quamquam controverse, se faceva de un maniera formalisate de tal modo que on declarava que iste disputationes occurreva intra le limites de un universitate e, ergo, esseva protegite per le privilegios de ille institution.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Un assertion poteva esser describite como ''ex cathedra'' (litteralmente "ex le cathedra", usate in le contexto del docentia) o ''ex hypothesi'' (per hypothese). Isto significa que le disputationes esseva presentate como solmente un exercitio intellectual que non requireva que on se ingagia al veritate de un assertion o que se faceva proselyto. Conceptos e practicas academic moderne como libertate academic o libertate de investigation es vestigios de iste privilegios medieval que esseva tolerate in le passato.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Le curriculo de iste institutiones medieval se centrava sur le septe artes libere, que habeva como scopo fornir a studentes novicios le habilitates pro rationamento e le lingua erudite.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Studentes comenciarea lor studios con le prime tres artes libere o ''Trivium'' (grammatica, rhetorica, e logica) sequite per le sequente quatro artes libere o ''Quadrivium'' (arithmetica, geometria, astronomia, e musica).<ref name= "gal2021d"/><ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Illes qui completava iste requisitos e recipeva lor baccalaureato (o Baccalaureo in Arte) habeva le option de adherer al facultate superior (jure, medicina, o theologia), que les confererea un doctorato de leges pro un advocato, un doctorato de medicina pro un medice, o doctorato de theologia pro un theologo.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Studentes qui eligeva remaner in le facultate inferior (artes) poteva laborar verso un ''Magister'' (o Magistro) e studiar tres philosophias: metaphysica, etica, e philosophia natural.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Traductiones in latino del obras de Aristotele, como ''De Anima'' (Sur le Anima) e le commentarios sur illos, esseva lecturas obligatori. Con le passar del tempore, le facultate inferior habeva le derecto de conferer lor proprie grado doctoral nominato le doctorato de philosophia.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Multe magistros se dirigeva verso encyclopedias e les usava como libros de texto. Ma iste studiosos desirava le textos original complete de philosophos, mathematicos, e medicos del antiquitate grec tal como Aristotele, Euclide, e Galeno, que non esseva disponibile a illes in ille epocha. Ille textos antique grec esseva trovate in le Imperio Byzantin e le Mundo Islamic.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> ==== Traductiones de fontes arabe e grec ==== Le contacto con le Imperio Byzantin,<ref name=Lindberg1992p162/> e con le mundo Islamic durante le Reconquesta e le cruciadas, dava al Europa latin accesso a textos scientific grec e arabic, includente le obras de Aristotele, Ptolemeo, Isidoro de Miletus, John Philoponus, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, e Averroes. Studiosos europee habeva accesso al programmas de traduction de Raymond de Toledo, qui patrocinava le Schola Toledo de Traductores del 12e seculo de arabe a latino. Traductores postea como Michael Scotus apprenderea arabe pro studiar iste textos directemente. Le universitates europee prestava materialmente lor adjuta in le traduction e propagation de iste textos e initiava un nove infrastructura que esseva necessari pro communitates scientific. De facto, le universitate europee poneva multe obras sur le mundo natural e le studio de natura al centro de lor curriculo,<ref>Huff, Toby. ''Rise of early modern science'' 2nd ed. pp. 180–181</ref> con le resultato que le "universitate medieval accentuava multo plus le scientia que su homologo moderne e descendente."<ref>Grant, Edward. "Science in the Medieval University", in James M. Kittleson and Pamela J. Transue, ed., ''Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: Universities in Transition, 1300–1700'', Ohio State University Press, 1984, p. 68</ref> Al initio del 13e seculo, on habeva traductiones latin bastante accurate del obras principal de quasi tote le autores antique intellectualmente crucial, permittente un transferentia solide de ideas scientific via tanto le universitates como le monasterios. In ille epocha, le philosophia natural in iste textos comenciava a esser extendite per scholasticos como Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, e Duns Scotus. Precursores del methodo scientific moderne, influentiate per contributiones previe del mundo islamic, pote esser observate jam in le emphase de Grosseteste sur le mathematica como un via pro comprender le natura, e in le approche empiric admirate per Bacon, particularmente in su ''Opus Majus''. Le these de Pierre Duhem es que le Condemnation de 1277 per Stephen Tempier – le episcopo de Paris – conduceva al studio del scientia medieval como un disciplina serie, "ma nemo plus in le campo nunc susteneva su vista que le scientia moderne comenciava in 1277".<ref name="Stanford">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/ |title=Condemnation of 1277 |first=Hans |last=Thijssen |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=14 September 2009 |publisher=[[University of Stanford]] |archive-date=11 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311030803/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Tamen, multe studiosos concorda con le opinion de Duhem que le medio-tardive Medievo videva importantes developpamentos scientific.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rediscovering the Science of the Middle Ages |url=http://biologos.org/blog/rediscovering-the-science-of-the-middle-ages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301161246/https://biologos.org/articles/rediscovering-the-science-of-the-middle-ages |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=26 October 2014 |publisher=BioLogos |accessdate=17 January 2024 |archivedate=1 March 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301161246/https://biologos.org/articles/rediscovering-the-science-of-the-middle-ages }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science|title=023-A03: The Middle Ages and the Birth of Science – International Catholic University|work=International Catholic University|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026061525/http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science|url-status=live|accessdate=17 January 2024|archivedate=26 October 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026061525/http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=History: A medieval multiverse|volume=507|issue=7491|pages=161–163|journal=Nature News & Comment|doi=10.1038/507161a|pmid=24627918|year=2014|last1=McLeish|first1=Tom C. B.|author-link1=Tom McLeish|last2=Bower|first2=Richard G.|last3=Tanner |first3=Brian K.|last4=Smithson|first4=Hannah E.|last5=Panti|first5=Cecilia|last6=Lewis|first6=Neil|last7=Gasper|first7=Giles E.M.|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/16743/1/16743.pdf|access-date=15 July 2019|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723044419/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/16743/1/16743.pdf|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==== Scientia medieval ==== Le prime medietate del 14e seculo viderea multe travalio scientific importante, principalmente intra le contexto de commentarios scholastic sur le scripturas scientific de Aristotele.<ref>Edward Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts'', (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 127–131.</ref> William de Ockham poneva emphase al principio de parsimonia: philosophos natural non debe postular entitates non necessari, de modo que le motion non es un cosa distincte ma solmente le objecto movente,<ref>Edward Grant, ''A Source Book in Medieval Science'', (Harvard Univ. Press, 1974), p. 232</ref> e un intermediari "species sensibile" non es necesse pro transmitter un imagine de un objecto al oculo.<ref>David C. Lindberg, ''Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler'', (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 140–142.</ref> Studiosos como Jean Buridan e Nicole Oresme comenciava a reinterpretar elementos del mechanica aristotelic. In particular, Buridan developpava le theoria que le impeto esseva le causa del motion de projectiles, que esseva un prime passo verso le concepto moderne de inertia.<ref>Edward Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts'', (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 95–97.</ref> Le Calculatores de Oxford comenciava a analysar mathematicamente le cinematica del motion, faciente iste analyse sin considerar le causas del motion.<ref>Edward Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts'', (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 100–103.</ref> In 1348, le Peste Nigre e altere catastrophes sigillava un brusc fin al developpamento philosophic e scientific. Tamen, le rediscoperta de textos ancian esseva stimulate per le Cadentia de Constantinopole in 1453, quando multe studiosos byzantin cercava refugio in le Occidente. Interim, le introduction del impression habeva un grande effecto sur le societate europee. Le dissemination facilitate del parola impresse democratisava le apprendimento e permitteva que ideas como algebra se propagava plus rapidemente. Iste developpamentos paviva le cammino pro le Revolution Scientific, ubi le inquisition scientific, que se arrestava al initio del Peste Nigre, resumeva.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Renaissance: The 'Rebirth' of Science & Culture|url=https://www.livescience.com/55230-renaissance.html|first=Jessie|department=Historical development|last=Szalay|date=2016-06-29|website=LiveScience.com|access-date=2019-07-19|archive-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027214636/https://www.livescience.com/55230-renaissance.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oK4HTBcdSJsC&pg=PR14|first=Robert S.|last=Gottfried|publisher=Free Press|isbn=978-0-02-912370-6|title=The Black Death: Natural & Human Disaster in Medieval Europe|year=1985|access-date=2019-07-19|page=xiv|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803141629/https://books.google.com/books?id=oK4HTBcdSJsC&pg=PR14|url-status=live}}</ref> == Renascentia == === Revivification del cognoscentia === Le renascentia del cognoscentia in Europa comenciava con le [[scholastica]] del 12e seculo. Le Renascentia del Nord monstra un cambio decisive in concentration ab le philosophia natural aristotelic verso le chimia e le scientias biologic (botanica, anatomia, e medicina).<ref>[[Allen Debus]], ''Man and Nature in the Renaissance'', (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978).</ref> Assi, le scientia moderne in Europa esseva recomenciate in un periodo de grande revolution: le [[Reforma protestante]] e le Contrareforma Catholic; le [[Discoperta europee de America|discoperta de America]] per [[Christophoro Columbo]]; le Cadentia de Constantinopole; ma etiam le re-discoperta de Aristotele durante le periodo scholastic presagiva grande cambios social e politic. Assi, on creava un ambiente apte in le qual il deveniva possibile interrogar doctrinas scientific, in le maniera que [[Martin Luther]] e [[Johannes Calvin]] interrogava doctrinas religiose. Le obras de Ptolemeo (astronomia) e Galeno (medicina) non sempre correspondeva con le observationes quotidian. Le labor de Vesalius sur cadaveres human revelava problemas con le perspectiva galenic del anatomia.<ref>Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the [[Library of Congress]]. A list of these titles can be found in {{harvnb|Bruno|1989}}</ref> Le discoperta del crystallo contribueva al avantiamento del scientia in ille periodo con su apparition ex Venetia circa 1450. Le nove vitro permitteva melior spectaculos e, eventualmente, le inventiones del telescopio e microscopio. Le obra de Theophrastus sur petras, "Peri lithōn", remaneva autoritative pro millennios: su interpretation de fossiles non esseva subvertite usque post le Revolution Scientific. Durante le Renascentia Italian, Niccolò Machiavelli establiva le emphase del moderne scientia politic sur le observation empiric directe de institutiones e actores politic. Postea, le expansion del paradigma scientific durante le Illumination impulsava plus avante le studio del politica ultra determinationes normative.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://world101.cfr.org/contemporary-history/prelude-global-era/what-enlightenment-and-how-did-it-transform-politics|title=What Is the Enlightenment and How Did It Transform Politics?|website=World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations|accessdate=2024-01-17|archivedate=2024-01-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121054252/https://world101.cfr.org/contemporary-history/prelude-global-era/what-enlightenment-and-how-did-it-transform-politics}}</ref> In particular, le studio del statisticas, pro analysar le subjectos del stato, ha essite applicate a sondages e electiones. In archeologia, le 15e e 16e seculos videva le ascension de antiquarios in le Renascentia Europee qui esseva interessate in le collection de artefactos. === Revolution scientific e nascentia de Nove Scientia === [[File:Justus Sustermans - Portrait of Galileo Galilei, 1636.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Galileo Galilei]], patre del scientia moderne.]] Le periodo del initio moderne es vidite como un floration del Renascentia europee. Il habeva un disposition a questionar veritates previemente acceptate e cercar nove responsas. Isto resultava in un periodo de avantiamentos scientific major, nunc cognoscite como le Revolution Scientific, que conducerea al emergentia de un Scientia Nove que esseva plus mechanistic in su vision del mundo, plus integrate con mathematica, e plus fidibile e aperte, proque su cognoscentia se basava sur un methodo scientific novemente definite.<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name="gal2021i"/><ref name="bowlermorus2020b"/><ref>See, for example, {{harvnb|Heilbron|2003|pp=741–744}}</ref> Le Revolution Scientific es un limite conveniente inter le pensamento antique e le physica classic, e es generalmente reputate haber comenciate in 1543, quando le libros "De humani corporis fabrica" (Sur le Operationes del Corpore Human) per Andreas Vesalius, e anque "De Revolutionibus" per le astronomo Nicolao Copernico, esseva primo imprimite. Le periodo culminava con le publication del "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in 1687 per Isaac Newton, representante del crescentia sin precedentes de publicationes scientific a traverso Europa. Altere avantiamentos scientific significative esseva facite durante iste epocha per Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Edmond Halley, William Harvey, Pierre Fermat, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Marin Mersenne, Gottfried Leibniz, Isaac Newton, e Blaise Pascal.<ref name="Schuster 1996">{{cite book |author-last=Schuster |author-first=John A. |year=1996 |origyear=1990 |editor1-last=Cantor |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Olby |editor2-first=Robert |editor3-last=Christie |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Hodge |editor4-first=Jonathon |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |chapter=Scientific Revolution |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |location=[[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=217–242 |isbn=978-0415145787 |access-date=27 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927191043/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |url-status=live }}</ref> In philosophia, contributiones major esseva facite per Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Pierre Gassendi, Robert Boyle, e Thomas Hobbes.<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> Christiaan Huygens derivava le fortias centripete e centrifugal e esseva le prime a transferer investigation mathematic a describer phenomenos physic non observabile. William Gilbert faceva alcun del prime experimentos con electricitate e magnetismo, e establiva que le Terra mesme es magnetic. ==== Heliocentrismo ==== Le modello astronomic heliocentric del universo esseva perfectionate per [[Nicolaus Copernico]]. Copernico proponeva le idea que le Terra e tote le spheras celestial, que contine le planetas e altere objectos in le cosmo, rotava circum le Sol.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York, NY |pages=47}}</ref> Su modello heliocentric anque proponeva que tote le stellas esseva fixe e non rotava sur un axe, ni in ulle movimento.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knox |first=Dilwyn |title=Ficino, Copernicus and Bruno on the Motion of the Earth |date=1999 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708 |journal=Bruniana & Campanelliana |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=333–366 |jstor=24331708 |issn=1125-3819 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025441/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708 |url-status=live }}</ref> Su theoria proponeva le rotation annual del Terra e le altere spheras celestial circum le Sol e poteva calcular le distantias de planetas usante deferentes e epicyclos. Ben que iste calculationes non esseva completemente precise, Copernico poteva comprender le ordine de distantia de cata sphera celestial. Le systema heliocentric copernican esseva un revivification del hypotheses de Aristarchus de Samos e Seleucus de Seleucia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=Owen |date=1973 |title=From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/986462 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=117 |issue=6 |pages=513–522 |jstor=986462 |issn=0003-049X}}</ref> Aristarchus de Samos proponeva que le Terra rotava circum le Sol ma non mentionava ulle cosa sur le ordine, motion o rotation del altere spheras celestial.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neugebauer |first=O. |date=1945 |title=The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/542323 |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=20–23 |doi=10.1086/370729 |jstor=542323 |s2cid=39274542 |issn=0022-2968}}</ref> Seleucus de Seleucia anque proponeva le rotation del Terra circum le Sol ma non mentionava ulle cosa sur le altere spheras celestial. In plus, Seleucus de Seleucia comprendeva que le Luna rotava circum le Terra e poteva esser usate pro explicar le mareas del oceano, assi corroborante su comprehension del idea heliocentric.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carman |first=Christián C. |date=2018 |title=The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 |jstor=45211937 |s2cid=253894214 |issn=0003-9519 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025440/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Methodo scientific definite de novo ==== Anque le methodo scientific esseva melio developpate como le maniera moderne de pensar poneva emphase al experimento e al ration super considerationes traditional. Galileo ("Patre del Physica Moderne") utilisava experimentos pro confirmar theorias physic, un elemento clave del methodo scientific. == Seculo del Lumines == === Continuation del Revolution Scientific === Le [[Revolution Scientific]] continuava al [[Illuminismo|Seculo del Lumines]], que accelerava le developpamento del scientia moderne. ==== Planetas e orbitas ==== Le modello heliocentric revivite per Nicolao Copernico esseva sequite per le modello del motion planetari presentate per Johannes Kepler al initio del 17e seculo, le qual proponeva que le planetas sequerea orbitas elliptic, con le Sol al foco del ellipse. ==== Calculo e mechanica newtonian ==== [[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg| thumb|upright|right|[[Isaac Newton]] initiava le [[mecanica classic]] in le campo de [[physica]].]] In 1687, Isaac Newton publicava le ''Principia Mathematica'', detaliante duo theorias physic comprehensive e succedite: le leges de motion de Newton, que conduceva al mechanic classic; e le lege de gravitation universal de Newton, que describe le fortia fundamental del gravitate. ==== Apparition del chimia ==== Un momento decisive occurreva quando "chimia" esseva distinguite de alchimia per Robert Boyle in su obra ''The Sceptical Chymist'' in 1661; ben que le tradition alchimic continuava pro un certe periodo post su obra. Altere passos importante includeva le practicas experimental gravimetric de chimicos medical como William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman e Pierre Macquer e le labor de Antoine Lavoisier ("patre del chimia moderne") sur oxygeno e le lege de conservation de massa, que refutava le theoria del phlogiston. Le chimia moderne emergeva del 16e al 18e seculos per le practicas material e theorias promovite per alchimia, medicina, manufactura e exploitation minerari.<ref>{{Cite journal |editor=Eddy, Matthew Daniel |editor2=Mauskopf, Seymour |editor3=Newman, William R. |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |journal=Osiris |volume=29 |date=2014 |pages=1–15 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |last2=Mauskopf |first2=Seymour H. |last3=Eddy |first3=Matthew Daniel |pmid=26103744 |doi=10.1086/678110 |s2cid=29035688 |access-date=19 September 2014 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040038/https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040038/https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |date=30 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Florin George Calian |url=http://archive.org/details/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe |title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hroncek |first=Susan |date=2017 |title=From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |journal=Victorian Review |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=213–228 |doi=10.1353/vcr.2017.0032 |s2cid=166044943 |issn=1923-3280 |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512071829/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Systema circulatori ==== William Harvey publicava ''De Motu Cordis'' in 1628, que revelava su conclusiones basate in su extensive studios del systemas circulatori de vertebratos.<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> Ille identificava le rolo central del corde, arterias e venas in producer le movimento de sanguine in un circulo, e non trovava alcun confirmation del conceptiones pre-existente de Galeno sur le functiones de calefaction e refrigeration.<ref>Power, d'Arcey. Life of Harvey. Longmans, Green, & co.</ref> Le historia del biologia e medicina del epocha moderne initial es frequentemente narrate a transverso del cerca del sede del anima.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|title=Ancient Theories of Soul|last=Stanford|date=2003|website=Plato.Stanford|access-date=2018-07-09|archive-date=7 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807014659/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|url-status=live}}</ref> Galeno in su descriptiones de su labor fundamental in medicina presenta le distinctiones inter arterias, venas e nervos usante le vocabulario del anima.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Galen on Respiration and the arteries|last=Galen|first=David|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1984|location=UCSC library|page=201}}</ref> ==== Societates e jornales scientific ==== Un innovation critic esseva le creation de societates scientific permanente e lor jornales scholar, que accelerava drasticamente le diffusion de nove ideas. Typic esseva le fundation del Societate Regal in London in 1660 e su jornal in 1665, le ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', le prime jornal scientific in anglese.<ref>Meyrick H. Carré, "The Formation of the Royal Society" ''History Today'' (Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 564–571.</ref> In 1665 anque appareva le prime jornal in francese, le ''Journal des sçavans''. Con le inspiration ex le obras de Newton, Descartes, Pascal e Leibniz, le scientia se dirigeva verso le mathematica, physica e technologia moderne al tempore del generation de Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) e Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783). Le Encyclopédie de Denis Diderot, publicate inter 1751 e 1772, portava iste nove comprension a un publico plus extense. Le impacto de iste processo non esseva limitate a scientia e technologia, ma afficeva etiam philosophia (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (le crescente impacto del scientia sur religion) e le societate ==== Developpamentos in geologia ==== [[File:Anoplotherium 1812 Skeleton Sketch.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction skeletal e muscular de ''[[Anoplotherium commune]]'' de 1812 per Georges Cuvier basate super restos fossil del Bacino de Paris.]] Le geologia non subiva un restructuration systematic durante le Revolution Scientific, sed existeva como un massa de ideas isolate e discoordinate sur petras, minerales, e formas terren multo ante que illo deveniva un scientia coherente. Robert Hooke formulava un theoria de tremores de terra, e Nicholas Steno developpava le theoria de superposition e argumentava que fossiles esseva le restos de creaturas antea vivente. Comenciante con le ''Sacred Theory of the Earth'' de Thomas Burnet in 1681, philosophos natural comenciava a explorar le idea que le Terra habeva cambiate con le tempore. Burnet e su contemporaneos interpretava le passato del Terra in terminos de eventos describite in le Biblia, ma lor labor preparava le fundamento intellectual pro interpretationes secular del historia del Terra. === Postea le Revolution Scientific === ==== Bioelectricitate ==== Durante le fin del 18e seculo, recercatores como Hugh Williamson<ref name="VanderVeer 2011">{{cite journal |last=VanderVeer |first=Joseph B. |title=Hugh Williamson: Physician, Patriot, and Founding Father |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=306 |issue=1 |date=6 July 2011 |doi=10.1001/jama.2011.933 }}</ref> e John Walsh experimentava con le effectos de electricitate sur le corpore human. Studios ulterior per Luigi Galvani e Alessandro Volta stabiliva le natura electric de lo que Volta nominava galvanismo.<ref name="Edwards 2021">{{cite web |last=Edwards |first=Paul |title=A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250th Anniversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03423498/document |publisher=HAL open-access archive |access-date=6 May 2022 |date=10 November 2021 |id=hal-03423498 |archive-date=6 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506153323/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03423498/document |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bresadola 367–380">{{cite journal |last=Bresadola |first=Marco |title=Medicine and science in the life of Luigi Galvani |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_brain-research-bulletin_1998-07-15_46_5/page/367 |journal=Brain Research Bulletin |date=15 July 1998 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=367–380 |doi=10.1016/s0361-9230(98)00023-9 |pmid=9739000|s2cid=13035403}}</ref> ==== Developpamentos in geologia ==== Le geologia moderne, como le chimia moderne, evolveva gradualmente durante le 18e seculos e principio del 19e. Benoît de Maillet e le Comte de Buffon videva le Terra como multo plus vetule que le 6.000 annos imaginate per scholares biblic. Jean-Étienne Guettard e Nicolas Desmarest faceva excursiones in le Francia central e registrava lor observationes in alcun del prime mappas geologic. Adjutate per experimentos chimic, naturalistas como John Walker de Scotia,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matthew Daniel Eddy|title=The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800|date=2008|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://www.academia.edu/1112014|access-date=19 September 2014|archive-date=3 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903230852/http://www.academia.edu/1112014/The_Language_of_Mineralogy_John_Walker_Chemistry_and_the_Edinburgh_Medical_School_1750-1800_2008_|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903230852/http://www.academia.edu/1112014/The_Language_of_Mineralogy_John_Walker_Chemistry_and_the_Edinburgh_Medical_School_1750-1800_2008_ |date=3 September 2015 }}</ref> Torbern Bergman de Svedia, e Abraham Werner de Germania creava systemas de classification comprehensive pro petras e minerales – un realisation collective que transformava le geologia in un campo avantiate verso le fin del 18e seculo. Iste prime geologos proponeva anque interpretationes general de historia terrestre que portava James Hutton, Georges Cuvier e Alexandre Brongniart, sequente le passos de Steno, a argumentar que stratos de rocca pote esser datate per le fossiles que illos contineva: un principio primarimente applicate al geologia del Bassino de Paris. Le uso de fossiles indice deveniva un utensile potente pro crear mappas geologic, proque illo permitteva a geologos correlar le roccas in un loco con illos de etate simile in altere locos distante. ==== Nascentia del economia moderne ==== [[File:AdamSmith.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Adam Smith]] scribeva ''[[La Ricchessa del Nationes]]'', le prime obra moderne de economia.]] Le fundamento pro le economia classic forma le obra de Adam Smith "Un Inquisition sur le Natura e le Causas del Ricchessa del Nationes", publicate in 1776. Smith criticava le mercantilismo, advocante un systema de commercio libere con division del labor. Ille postulava un "mano invisibile" que regulava systemas economic consistente de agentes guidate solmente per interesse personal. Le "mano invisibile" mentionate in un pagina perdite in le medie de un capitulo in le medio del "Ricchessa del Nationes", 1776, emerge como le message central de Smith. ==== Scientia social ==== Anthropologia pote esser melio comprehendite como un producto del Seculo del Lumines. Il esseva durante iste periodo que europeos essayava systematicamente studiar le comportamento human. Traditiones de jurisprudentia, historia, philologia e sociologia se developpava durante iste periodo e informava le evolution del scientias social, del qual le anthropologa faceva parte. == 19e seculo == Le 19e seculo vide le nascentia del scientia como profession. William Whewell habeva cuniate le termino "scientista" in 1833,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | access-date=3 March 2008 | url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/ | title=William Whewell | encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | date=2000-12-23 | last1=Snyder | first1=Laura J. | archive-date=4 January 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/ | url-status=live }}</ref> le qual presto substitueva le vetule termino ''philosopho natural''. === Developpamentos in physica === [[File:Painting of Volta by Bertini (photo).jpeg|thumb| right |[[Alessandro Volta]] demonstra le prime [[cellula electrochemical|cellula electrical]] a [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]] in 1801.]] In physic, le comportamento de electricitate e magnetismo esseva studiate per Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, e alteres. Le experimentos, theorias e discopertas de Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, e lor contemporaneos conduceva al unification del duo phenomenos in un theoria solmente de electromagnetismo como describite per le equationes de Maxwell. Le thermodynamica conduceva al comprehension de calor e al notion de energia esser definite. === Discoperta de Neptuno === Avantages in astronomia e in systemas optic in le 19e seculo resultava in le prime observation de un asteroide ([[Ceres (planeta nano)|1 Ceres]]) in 1801, e le discoperta de [[Neptuno]] in 1846. === Developpamentos in mathematica === In mathematica, le notion de numeros complexe maturava finalmente e conduceva a un theoria analytic subsequente; illos anque comenciava le uso de numeros hypercomplexe. Karl Weierstrass e alteres realisava le arithmetisation de analyse pro functiones de numeros real e complexe. Le periodo viderea etiam le ascension de nove progresso in geometria ultra ille theorias classic de Euclide, post un periodo de quasi duo milles annos. Le scientia mathematic de logica anque habeva revolutionari manifestationes decisive post un periodo similarmente longe de stagnation. Ma le passo le plus importante in le scientia in iste tempore esseva le ideas formulate per le creator del scientia electric. Lor travalio cambiava le physionomia del physica e faceva possibile pro un nove technologia a emerger tal como le potentia electric, le telegrapho electric, le telephono, e le radio. === Developpamentos in chimia === [[File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]].]] In chimia, Dmitri Mendeleev, sequente le theoria atomic de John Dalton, creava le prime tabula periodic del elementos. Altere punctos culminante include le discopertas que revelava le natura del structura atomic e de materia, simultaneemente con le chimia – e de nove sortas de radiation. Le theoria que tote le materia es facite de atomos, le quales es le minime constituentes de materia que non pote esser divulse sin perder le proprietates chimic e physic basic de ille materia, esseva presentate per John Dalton in 1803, ben que le question prendeva cento annos pro stabilir se como probate. Dalton anque formulava le lege de proportionalitate de massas. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev componeva su tabula periodic del elementos super le bases del discopertas de Dalton. Le synthesis de urea per Friedrich Wöhler aperiva un nove campo de recerca, le chimia organic, e al fin del 19e seculo, scientistas poteva synthetisar centos de compositos organic. Le parte posterior del 19e seculo vide le exploitation del petroproductos del Terra, post le depletion del provisiones de petroleo ex le piscar de balenas. In le 20e seculo, le production systematic de material raffinate forniva un provision immediate de productos que provideva non solmente energia, ma anque materiales synthetic pro vestimento, medicina, e ressources quotidian a uso unic. Le application del technicas de chimia organic a organismos vivente resultava in chimia physiologic, le precursor al biochimia.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17152615/|title=History of biochemistry|first1=Parduman|last1=Singh|first2=H. S.|last2=Batra|first3=Manisha|last3=Naithani|date=6 January 2004|journal=Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine (Hyderabad)|volume=34|issue=1|pages=75–86|via=PubMed|pmid=17152615}}</ref> === Etate del Terra === Durante le prime medietate del 19e seculo, geologos como Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, e Roderick Murchison applicava le nove technica a roccas in tote Europa e le partes oriental de America del Nord, preparante le scenario pro projectos de cartographia plus detaliate, supportate per le governamento, in decennios subsequente. Al medio del 19e seculo, le concentration de geologia cambiava de description e classification a tentativas de comprender como le superficie de Terra habeva cambiate. Le prime theorias comprehensive del construction de montanias esseva proponite durante iste periodo, como anque le prime theorias moderne de tremores de terra e vulcanos. Louis Agassiz e alteres stabiliva le realitate de glaciation continental, e "fluvialistas" como Andrew Crombie Ramsay argumentava que valles fluvial esseva formate, durante milliones de annos, per le rivos que flueva a transverso de illos. Post le discoperta del radioactivitate, le methodos de datar radiation comenciava a esser developpate, comenciate in le 20e seculo. Le theoria de "derivation continental" de Alfred Wegener esseva largemente rejectate quando ille lo proponeva in le annos 1910,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pressbooks.howardcc.edu/worldgeography/chapter/chapter-3/|title=Chapter 3 Planet earth and Plate tectonics|first=R. Adam|last=Dastrup|via=pressbooks.howardcc.edu}}</ref> ma nove datos colligite in le annos 1950 e 1960 conduceva al theoria de tectonica de placas, que provideva un mechanismo plausibile pro illo. Tectonica de placas anque provideva un explanation unificate pro un varietate de phenomenos geologic apparentemente non connectite. Desde le annos 1960, illo ha servite como le principio unificante in geologia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics|title=Plate Tectonics|website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref> === Evolution e hereditate === [[File:Darwin tree.png|upright|thumb|right|A mediatos de julio de 1837, [[Charles Darwin]] initiava su quaderno "B" sur le ''Transmutation de Species'', e in le pagina 36 scribeva "Io crede" super su prime [[Arbor de Vita (scientia)|arbor evolutionari]].]] Forsan le theoria le plus prominente, controverse e extense in tote le scientia ha essite le theoria de evolution per selection natural, que esseva formulate independentemente per Charles Darwin e Alfred Wallace. Illo esseva describite in detalio in le libro de Darwin "Le Origine del Species," que esseva publicate in 1859. In illo, Darwin proponeva que le characteristicas de omne formas de vita, includente humanos, esseva formate per processos natural super longe periodos de tempore. Le theoria de evolution in su forma currente affice quasi omne ramos de biologia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dobzhansky |first1=Theodosius |year=1964 |title=Biology, Molecular and Organismic |url=http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |journal=American Zoologist |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=443–452 |doi=10.1093/icb/4.4.443 |pmid=14223586 |access-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220935/http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead |doi-access=free }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220935/http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> Le implicationes del evolution sur campos foras de scientia pur ha provocate tanto opposition como appoio de differente partes del societate, e ha profundemente influentiate le comprehension popular de "le position del homine in le universo". Separatemente, Gregor Mendel formulava in 1866 le principios de hereditate, que deveniva le base del genetica moderne. === Theoria del germines === Un altere puncto importante in medicina e biologia esseva le effortios successose pro probas le theoria del germines de maladia. Subsequentemente a isto, [[Louis Pasteur]] creava le prime vaccino contra le rabie, e faceva multe discopertas in le campo del chimia, includente le asymmetria de crystallos. In 1847, le medico hungare Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis reduceva drasticamente le occurrentia de febre puerperal per simplemente exiger que medicos lavava lor manos ante attender feminas in parto. Iste discoperta precedeva le theoria del germines de [[maladia]]. Tamen, le conclusiones de Semmelweis non esseva appreciate per su contemporaneos, e le lavage de manos esseva prendite in uso solmente con le discopertas del chirurgo britannic Joseph Lister, qui in 1865 probava le principios de antisepsia. Le labor de Lister se basava sur le importante discopertas del biologo francese Louis Pasteur. Pasteur poteva ligar microorganismos con maladias, revolutionante medicina. Ille anque inventava le processo de pasteurisation, pro prevenir le propagation de maladias per le lacte e altere alimentos.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Campbell | first1=Neil A. | first2=Brad | last2=Williamson | first3=Robin J. | last3=Heyden | title=Biology: Exploring Life | publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall | year=2006 | url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 | oclc=75299209 | access-date=9 September 2008 | archive-date=2 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |date=2 November 2014 }}{{page needed|date=April 2018}}</ref> === Scholas de economia === Karl Marx developpava un theoria economic alternative, nominate economia marxista. Le economia marxista se basa sur le theoria de labor e assume que le valor de un bono se basa sur le quantitate de labor necessari pro producer lo. Sub iste axioma, le capitalismo se basa sur que le patronos non paga le valor complete del labor de laboratores pro producer plus de valor. Le Schola Austriac respondeva al economia marxista considerante le interprenditores como le fortia propulsive del developpamento economic. Isto substitueva le theoria de labor pro un systema de offerta e demanda. === Fundation de psychologia === Psychologia como un interprisa scientific que esseva independente del philosophia comenciava in 1879 quando Wilhelm Wundt fundava le prime laboratorio dedicate exclusivemente al recerca psychologic (in Leipzig). Altere importantes contributores al campo includeva Hermann Ebbinghaus (un pionero in le studio del memoria), Ivan Pavlov (qui discoperiva le conditionamento classic), William James, e Sigmund Freud. Le influentia de Freud ha essite enorme, ben que plus como un icone cultural que como un fortia in le psychologia scientific. === Sociologia moderne === Sociologia moderne emergeva al initio del 19e seculo como le responsa academic al modernisation del mundo. Inter multes del prime sociologos (como Émile Durkheim), le scopo de sociologia esseva in structuralismo, comprender le cohesion de gruppos social, e developpar un "antidoto" contra le disintegration social. Max Weber se occupava del modernisation de societate per le concepto de rationalisation, que ille credeva capturarea individuos in un "cavia de ferro" de pensamento rational. Alicun sociologos, includente Georg Simmel e W. E. B. Du Bois, usava analyses microsociologic, qualitative. Iste approche al nivello micro jocava un rolo importante in le sociologia american, con le theorias de George Herbert Mead e su studente Herbert Blumer resultante in le creation del approche de interactionismo symbolic al sociologia. In particular, justo Auguste Comte illustrava con su travalio le transition de un periodo theologic a un metaphysic e, ex isto, a un positive. Comte se occupava del classification del scientias e del transitos de humanitate verso un stato de progresso attribuibile a un re-examination de natura secundo le affirmation de 'socialitate' como le base del societate interpretate scientificamente.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Natura, cultura e induzione nell'età delle scienze : fatti e idee del movimento scientifico in Francia e Inghilterra|last=Guglielmo|first=Rinzivillo|isbn=978-88-6812-497-7|location=Roma|pages=79–|oclc=913218837|date = 18 May 2015}}</ref> === Romanticismo === Le Movimento Romantic del initio del 19e seculo reformulava le scientia aperiente nove percursos impreviste in le approches classic del Illumination. Le declino del Romanticismo occurreva quando un nove movimento, le Positivismo, comenciava a captivar le ideal del intellectuales post 1840 e durava usque circa 1880. Al mesme tempore, le reaction romantic al Illumination produceva pensatores tal como Johann Gottfried Herder e plus tarde Wilhelm Dilthey, cuje obras formava le base pro le concepto de cultura que es central al disciplina. Traditionalmente, grande parte del historia del subjecto basava se in le incontros colonial inter le Europa Occidental e le resto del mundo, e multo del anthropologia del 18e e 19e seculos ora es classificate como racismo scientific. Durante le tarde 19e seculo, battalias sur le "studio del homine" eveniva inter illes de un persuasion "anthropologic" (basate sur technicas anthropometric) e illos de un persuasion "ethnologic" (studiante culturas e traditiones), e iste distinctiones deveniva parte del ulterior separation inter anthropologia physic e anthropologia cultural, le ultime introducite per le discipulos de Franz Boas. == 20e seculo == Scientia progrediva de maniera dramatic durante le 20e seculo. Il habeva nove e radical disveloppamentos in le [[scientia physica|scientia physica]] e le [[scientias vital|scientias vital]], construente super le progressos del 19e seculo.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Agar | first = Jon | year = 2012 | title = Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond | publisher = Polity Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-7456-3469-2}}</ref> === Theoria de Relativitate e mechanica quantic === [[File:Albert Einstein (Nobel).png|thumb|upright|right|Retrato official de Einstein post haber recipite le Premio Nobel de Physica in 1921.]] In le initio del 20e seculo, on initiava un revolution in le [[physica]]. Le theorias de longe durata de [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] se monstrava non esser correcte in omne circumstantias. A partir de 1900, [[Max Planck]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Niels Bohr]], e alteres developpava theorias quantic pro explicar resultatos experimental anomale, introducente nivellos discrete de energia. Le [[mechanica quantic]] monstrava non solmente que le leges de motion non se applicava in scala parve, sed etiam que le theoria de relativitate general, proponite per Einstein in 1915, monstrava que le fundamento fixe del spatio-tempore, super le qual dependeva tanto le mechanica newtonian quanto le relativitate special, non poteva exister. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg e Erwin Schrödinger formulava le mechanica quantic, que explicava le theorias quantic precedente. Actualmente, le relativitate general e le mechanica quantic es inconsistente inter se, e effortios es in curso pro unificar los.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/string-theory-about-unravel-180953637/|title=Why String Theory Still Offers Hope We Can Unify Physics|first1=Smithsonian|last1=Magazine|first2=Brian|last2=Greene|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> === Big Bang === Le observation per Edwin Hubble in 1929 que le velocitate con que le galaxias se recede correla positivemente con lor distantia, conduceva al comprension que le universo se expande e le formulation del theoria del Big Bang per Georges Lemaître. George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, e Robert Herman habeva calculate que il debe haber evidentia pro un Big Bang in le temperatura de fundo del universo.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Alpher | first1=Ralph A. | last2=Herman | first2= Robert| year =1948 | title=Evolution of the Universe | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1948-11-13_162_4124/page/774 | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=162 | issue=4124| pages=774–775 | doi=10.1038/162774b0 | bibcode=1948Natur.162..774A | s2cid=4113488 }}<br />{{cite journal | last1=Gamow | first1=G. | doi=10.1038/162680a0 | title=The Evolution of the Universe | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1948-10-30_162_4122/page/680 | pmid=18893719 | journal=Nature | year=1948 | volume=162 | issue=4122 | pages=680–682 | bibcode=1948Natur.162..680G | s2cid=4793163 }}</ref> In 1964, Arno Penzias e Robert Wilson<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf|title=Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture|website=nobelprize.org|access-date=23 March 2005|archive-date=13 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050413230649/http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> discoperiva un sibilamento de fundo a 3 Kelvin con lor radio-telescopio de Bell Labs (le antenna Holmdel Horn), que esseva evidentia pro iste hypothesis e formava le base pro un numero de resultatos que adjutava a determinar le etate del universo. === Big Science === [[File:Trinity Test Fireball 25ms.jpg|thumb|left|Le [[bomba atomic]] introducteva le "[[Big Science]]" in le campo de [[physica]].]] In 1938, Otto Hahn e Fritz Strassmann discoperiva le fission nuclear per methodos radiochimic, e in 1939 Lise Meitner e Otto Robert Frisch scribeva le prime interpretation theoretic del processo de fission, que postea esseva meliorate per Niels Bohr e John A. Wheeler. Ulterior progressos occurreva durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial, conducente al application practic de radar e al developpamento e uso del bomba atomic. In iste periodo, Chien-Shiung Wu esseva recrutate per le Projecto Manhattan pro adjutar a developpar un processo pro separar metallo de uranium in isotopos U-235 e U-238 per diffusion gasose..<ref>Ronald K. Smeltzer. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915015223/https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu |date=15 September 2019 }}. Accessed 26 Oct. 2017.</ref> Wu, experto experimental in decadentia beta e physica de interaction debile,<ref name="biography.com">Biography.com Editors. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Biography.com, 2 June 2016, https://www.biography.com/people/chien-shiung-wu-053116 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026054240/https://www.biography.com/people/chien-shiung-wu-053116 |date=26 October 2017 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1063/1.2806727 | title=Chien-Shiung Wu | year=1997 | last1=Garwin | first1=Richard L. | last2=Lee | first2=Tsung-Dao | journal=Physics Today | volume=50 | issue=10 | pages=120–122 | doi-access=free }}</ref> developpava un experimento (vide Experimento Wu) que permitteva al physicos theoretic Tsung-Dao Lee e Chen-Ning Yang refutar experimentalmente le lege de paritate, conquirente un Premio Nobel in 1957.<ref name="biography.com"/> Ben que le processo habeva comenciate con le invention del cyclotron per Ernest O. Lawrence in le annos 1930, le physica post-le-guerra entrava in un epocha de "Big Science," que exigeva machinas, budgets, e laboratorios massive pro probar lor theorias e avantiar in nove frontes. === Avantiamentos in genetica === [[File:Template from Crick and Watson’s DNA molecular model, 1953. (9660573227).jpg|thumb|right|Watson e Crick usava multe moldes de aluminium como iste, que representa le base singule [[Adenina]] (A), pro construer un modelo fisic de DNA in 1953.]] Al initio del 20e seculo, le studio del hereditate deveniva un major foco post le rediscoperta in 1900 del lege de hereditate developpate per Mendel.<ref>{{cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |title=The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-395-97765-1 |oclc=43648512 |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni }}</ref> Le integration de physica e chimia durante le 20esime seculo explicava le proprietates chimic como resultato del structura electronic del atomo. Le travalio de Linus Pauling sur le Natura del Ligamine Chimic applicava le principios del mechanica quantic pro deducer angulos de ligamine in moleculas sempre plus complicate. Le travalio de Pauling culminava con le modellation physic del ADN, le secreto de vita (secundo le parolas de Francis Crick, 1953). In le mesme anno, le experimento Miller-Urey demonstrava, in un simulation de processos primordial, que componentes basic de proteinas, como aminoacidos simplice, pote esser construite ex moleculas plus simplice, initiante decennios de investigation sur le origines chimic de vita. In 1953, James D. Watson e Francis Crick clarificava le structura basic del ADN, le material genetic pro exprimer vita in omne su formas,<ref name=WastonCrick/> construente sur le labor de Maurice Wilkins e Rosalind Franklin, e suggereva que le structura de ADN esseva un helice duplice. In le final del 20e seculo, le possibilitates del ingenieria genetic deveniva practic pro le prime vice, e un massive effortio international comenciava in 1990 pro cartographiar tote le genoma human (le Projecto del Genoma Human). Le disciplina de ecologia generalmente tracia su origine al synthesis del evolution darwinian e le biogeographia humboldtian, in le tardo del 19e seculo e le initio del 20e seculo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cittadino |first=Eugene |title=Nature as the laboratory: Darwinian plant ecology in the German Empire, 1880-1900 |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52486-5 |edition= |location=Cambridge}}</ref> Equalmente importante in le ascension de ecologia tamen esseva le microbiologia e le scientia del solo — particularmente le concepto del cyclo de vita, prominente in le obras de Louis Pasteur e Ferdinand Cohn.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ackert |first=Lloyd T. |date=2007-03-01 |title=The "Cycle of Life" in Ecology: Sergei Vinogradskii's Soil Microbiology, 1885–1940 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6 |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=109–145 |doi=10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6 |s2cid=128410978 |issn=1573-0387}}</ref> Le termino "ecologia" esseva coniate per Ernst Haeckel, cuje vision particularmente holistic de natura in general (e le theoria de Darwin in particular) esseva importante in le diffusion del pensamento ecological.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Egerton |first=Frank N. |title=Roots of ecology: antiquity to Haeckel |date=2012 |publisher=University of California press |isbn=978-0-520-27174-6 |location=Berkeley}}</ref> Le campo de ecologia del systema emergeva in le Etate Atomic con le uso de radioisotopos pro visualisar retes alimentari, e per le annos 1970, le ecologia del systema influenceva profundemente le gestion ambiental global.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Laura J. |title=[[Wild by Design]]: The Rise of Ecological Restoration |date=2022 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97942-0 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref> === Exploration spatial === In 1925, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin determinava que le stellas esseva principalmente componite de hydrogeno e helium.<ref>Erik Gregersen. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin | American Astronomer." Encyclopædia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cecilia-Payne-Gaposchkin {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008214403/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cecilia-Payne-Gaposchkin |date=8 October 2018 }}.</ref> Le astronomo Henry Norris Russell la dissuadeva de publicar iste discoperta in su these de doctorato a causa del credentia largemente acceptate que le stellas habeva le mesme composition que le Terra.<ref name="newn.cam.ac.uk">Rachael Padman. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979)." Newnham College Biographies, 2004, http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325225822/http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/ |date=25 March 2017 }}.</ref> Tamen, quatro annos postea, in 1929, Henry Norris Russell arrivava al mesme conclusion per differente rationamento, e le discoperta finalmente esseva acceptate.<ref name="newn.cam.ac.uk"/> In 1987, le supernova SN 1987A esseva observate per astronomos sur le Terra, tanto visualmente como, in un triumpho pro le astronomia de neutrinos, per le detectores solar de neutrinos in Kamiokande. Ma le fluxo solar de neutrinos esseva un faction de su valor theoreticamente expectate. Iste discrepantia exigeva un modification in certe valores del modello standard pro le physica de particulas. === Neuroscientia como un disciplina differente === Le comprehension del neurones e del systema nervose deveniva crescentemente precise e molecular durante le 20e seculo. Per exemplo, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin e Andrew Huxley presentava un modello mathematic pro le transmission de signales electric in neurones del gigantesc axon de un calamar, que illes appellava "potential de action", e como illos es initiate e propagate, cognoscite como le modello Hodgkin–Huxley. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh e J. Nagumo simplicificava le modello Hodgkin–Huxley, in lo que es cognoscite como le modello FitzHugh–Nagumo. In 1962, Bernard Katz modellava le neurotransmission a transverso del spatio inter neurones cognoscite como synapses. Comenciante in 1966, Eric Kandel e collaboratores examinava cambios biochimic in neurones associate con le apprentissage e le immagazinamento de memoria in Aplysia. In 1981, Catherine Morris e Harold Lecar combinava iste modellos in le modello Morris–Lecar. Tal labor crescentemente quantitative dava initio a numerose modellos biologic de neurones e modellos de computation neural. Le neuroscientia comenciava a esser recognoscite como un disciplina academic distincte in su proprie derecto. Eric Kandel e su collaboratores ha mentionate que David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, e Stephen Kuffler ha jocate rolos critic in establir le campo.<ref name=Rioch>{{Cite journal|last1=Cowan|first1=W.M. |last2=Harter|first2=D.H.|last3=Kandel|first3=E.R.|date=2000|title=The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-neuroscience_2000_23/page/345|journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience|volume=23|pages=345–346 |doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343|pmid=10845068}}</ref> === Tectonica de placa === [[File:Wegener Expedition-1912 008.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alfred Wegener]] in Greenland durante le hiberno de 1912–13. Ille es principalmente memorate como le initiator del hypothesis de [[deriva continental]] per suggérer in 1912 que le [[continentes|continentes]] se move lentemente circum le Terra.]] Le imbraciamento del geologos del theoria del tectonica de placas faceva parte de un ampliation del campo de studio ab le roccas a un studio del Terra como un planeta. Altere elementos de iste transformation include: studio geophysic del interior del Terra, le combination del geologia con meteorologia e oceanographia como un del "scientias de Terra", e comparationes inter le Terra e altere planetas roccose del systema solar. === Applicationes === In terminos de applicationes, un numero massive de nove technologias esseva developpate in le 20e seculo. Technologias como electricitate, le bomba incandescente, le automobile e le phonographo, primo developpate al fin del 19e seculo, esseva perfectionate e introducite universalmente. Le prime automobile esseva presentate per Karl Benz in 1885.<ref>American Society of Mechanical Engineers. [https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/karl-benz Karl Benz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128084747/https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/karl-benz |date=28 November 2021 }}.</ref> Le prime volo de un avion occurreva in 1903, e al fin del seculo aviones volava millias post milias in question de horas. Le developpamento del radio, television e computatores causava cambios massive in le diffusion de information. Avantages in biologia anque conduceva a grande augmentos in le production alimentari, como le elimination de maladias como le polio per dr. Jonas Salk. Le cartographia e sequentiation de genes, inventate per le dres. Mark Skolnik e Walter Gilbert, respectivemente, es le duo technologias que rendeva possible le Projecto del Genoma Human. Le informatica, construite super un base de linguistica theoretic, mathematica discrete e ingenieria electric, studia le natura e limites del computation. Sub-campos include computabilitate, complexitate computational, designo de bases de datos, interconnection de computatores, intelligentia artificial, e le designo de hardware de computatores. Un area in le qual progressos in informatica ha contribuite al developpamento scientific general es per facilitar le archivamento a grande scala de datos scientific. Le informatica contemporanee typicamente se distingue per emphasar 'theoria' mathematic in contrasto con le emphase practic del ingenieria de software.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.springboard.com/blog/software-engineering/computer-science-vs-software-engineering/#:~:text=Yes%2C%20there%20is%20a%20difference,emphasizing%20engineering%20principles%20and%20practices|title=Computer Science vs. Software Engineering [Comparison Guide]}}</ref> Le articulo "Super le Theoria Quantic del Radiation" de Einstein delineava le principios del emission stimulate de photonos. Isto conducerea al invention del laser (amplification de lumine per le emission stimulate de radiation) e del amplificator optic que inaugurava le Epocha del Information..<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hecht|first=Jeff|date=August 10, 2016|title=The Bandwidth Bottleneck That is Throttling the Internet .|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Es le amplification optic que permitte a retes de fibra optic transmitter le capacitate massive de Internet. Basate sur transmission sin filo de radiation electromagnetic e retes global de operation cellular, le telephono mobile deveniva un medio principal pro acceder le internet.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Handley |first1=Lucy |title=Nearly three quarters of the world will use just their smartphones to access the internet by 2025 |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/24/smartphones-72percent-of-people-will-use-only-mobile-for-internet-by-2025.html |access-date=28 September 2022 |work=CNBC |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928214700/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/24/smartphones-72percent-of-people-will-use-only-mobile-for-internet-by-2025.html |url-status=live }}</ref> === Developpamentos in politica e economia === In le scientia politic durante le 20e seculo, le studio de ideologia, comportamentalismo e relationes international conducente a un multitude de subdisciplinas in le campo de "pol-sci", includente theoria del election rational, theoria del votation, theoria ludic (usate etiam in economia), psephologia, geographia politic/geopolitica, anthropologia politic/psychologia politic/sociologia politic, economia politic, analyse de politicas, administration public, analyse politic comparative e studio de pace/conflictos. In economia, John Maynard Keynes promoveva un division inter microeconomia e macroeconomia in le annos 1920. In le economia keynesian tendentias macroeconomic pote supprimer decisiones economic facite per individuos. Governamentos debe promover le demanda aggregate de benes como medio pro fomentar le expansion economic. Post le Secunde Guerra Mundial Milton Friedman creava le concepto de monetarismo. Le monetarismo se concentra in le uso del offerta e demanda de moneta como un methodo pro controlar le activitate economic. In le annos 1970, le monetarismo se adaptava al economia de offerta, que advoca pro le reduction de taxas como un medio pro augmentar le quantitate de moneta disponibile pro le expansion economic. Altere scholas moderne de pensamento economic include le economia nove-classic e le economia neo-keynesian nove. Le economia nove-classic se developpava in le annos 1970, accentuante le microeconomia solide como le base pro le crescimento macroeconomic. Le economia neo-keynesian nove se creava partialmente in responsa al economia nove-classic, e monstra como le competition imperfecte e rigiditates del mercato significa que le politica monetari ha effectos real, e permitte le analyse de politicas differente.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/jep.32.3.87|title=The State of New Keynesian Economics: A Partial Assessment|first=Jordi|last=Galí|date=1 August 2018|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=32|issue=3|pages=87–112|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1257/jep.32.3.87|hdl=10230/35942|hdl-access=free}}</ref> === Developpamentos in psychologia, sociologia e anthropologia === Le psychologia in le 20e seculo videva un rejection del theorias de Freud como troppo non-scientific, e un reaction contra le approche atomic del mente de Edward Titchener. Isto conduceva al formulation del comportamentalismo per John B. Watson, que esseva popularisate per B.F. Skinner. Le comportamentalismo proponeva de limitar epistemologicamente le studio psychologic a comportamento evidente, date que illo pote esser mensurate de modo fidibile. Le cognoscimento scientific del "mente" esseva considerate troppo metaphysic, ergo impossibile de attinger. Le ultime decennios del 20e seculo ha vidite le ascension de scientia cognitive, que considera le mente de nove como un subjecto de investigation, usante le instrumentos de psychologia, linguistica, informatica, philosophia e neurobiologia. Nove methodos pro visualisar le activitate del cerebro, como PET scans e CAT scans, ha comenciate a exercer lor influentia, conducente a que alcun cercatores investiga le mente per investigar le cerebro, plus que le cognition. Iste nove formas de investigation presume que un comprehension extensive del mente human es possibile, e que tal comprehension pote esser applicate a altere dominios de recerca, como intelligentia artificial. Le theorias evolutionari esseva applicate al comportamento e introducite in anthropologia e psychologia, per le opera del anthropologo cultural Napoleon Chagnon. Anthropologia physical deveniva anthropologia biologic, incorporante elementos del biologia evolutionari.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.21438|title=The new biological anthropology: Bringing Washburn's new physical anthropology into 2010 and beyond-The 2008 AAPA luncheon lecture|first=Agustin|last=Fuentes|date=6 January 2010|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=143|issue=S51|pages=2–12|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21438}}</ref> Le sociologia american in le annos 1940 e 1950 esseva dominante principalmente per Talcott Parsons, qui argumentava que aspectos del societate que promoveva integration structural esseva ergo "functional". Iste approche de functionalismo structural esseva questionate in le annos 1960, quando sociologos arrivava a vider iste approche como simplificate justification del inequalitates presente in le stato quo. In reaction, le theorias de conflicto esseva developpate, basate in parte super le philosophias de Karl Marx. Le theoricos de conflicto videva le societate como un arena in le qual differente gruppos compete pro le controlo de ressources. Le interactionismo symbolic anque deveniva central al pensamento sociologic. Erving Goffman videva le interactiones social como un apparition scenic, con individuos preparante se "in coulisses" e essayante controlar lor publico per gerer lor impression.<ref>https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology2ndedition/chapter/chapter-22-social-interaction/</ref> Ben que iste theorias sia actualmente prominente in le pensamento sociologic, altere approches existe, includente le theorias feminista, post-structuralista, de election rational, e postmodernista. In le medie del 20e seculo, multe del methodologias del studios anthropologic e ethnographic precedente esseva reevalutate con un attention al ethica de recerca, durante que al mesme tempore le ambito de investigation se ha ampliate multo ultra le studio traditional de "culturas primitive". [[File:CMS Higgs-event.jpg|thumb|Un possibile signatura de un boson de Higgs ex un collision simulate de proton-proton. Ille decadita quasi immediatemente in duo jets de [[hadron]]s e duo [[electron]]s, visibile como lineas.]] == 21e seculo == === Boson de Higgs === Le 4 de julio, 2012, physicos qui laborava al Large Hadron Collider del CERN annunciava que illes habeva discoperite un nove particula subatomic multo simile al boson de Higgs, un clave potential pro comprender proque particulas elementar ha massa e, in effecto, pro le existentia de diversitate e vita in le universo.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/science/cern-physicists-may-have-discovered-higgs-boson-particle.html?pagewanted=3&_r=1&ref=science |work=The New York Times |first=Dennis |last=Overbye |title=Physicists Find Particle That Could Be the Higgs Boson |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607031642/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/science/cern-physicists-may-have-discovered-higgs-boson-particle.html?pagewanted=3&_r=1&ref=science |url-status=live }}</ref> Pro le momento, alcun physicos lo nomina "le particula como Higgs".<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Peter Higgs esseva un del sex physicos, laborante in tres gruppos independente, qui, in 1964, inventava le notion del campo de Higgs ("melassa cosmic"), junctemente con Tom Kibble, Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, François Englert e Robert Brout.<ref name="nytimes.com" /> == Vide etiam == * [[Scientia in le mundo antique]] * [[Scientia in le Antiquitate classic]] * [[Scientia europee in le Medievo]] * [[Historia del scientia in le Renascentia]] * [[Revolution Scientific]] * [[Scientia in le Seculo del Lumines]] * [[Romanticismo in scientia]] {{Ref}} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] 8cxwfm7bok2gvxn388c09pvuzd00vfw 0 58083 698224 693589 2026-08-03T22:57:11Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698224 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Joseph Wright of Derby The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Le Alchemista cercante le Pietra Philosophale]]'', per Joseph Wright, 1771]] Le '''historia del pseudoscientia''' es le studio del theorias pseudoscientific al longo del tempore. Un [[pseudoscientia]] es un conjunto de ideas que se presenta como scientia, ben que illo non satisface le criterios pro esser ben nominate tal.<ref>"''Pseudoscientific - pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific''", from the ''Oxford American Dictionary'', published by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]</ref><ref>[http://skepdic.com/pseudosc.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Pseudoscience']</ref> Distinguer inter le [[scientia]] genuine e le pseudoscientia es a vices difficile. Un proposition popular pro le demarcation inter illos es le criterio de falsification, contribute notabilemente per le philosopho Karl Popper. In le historia del pseudoscientia, illo pote esser particularmente difficile separar le duo, proque alcun scientias se disveloppava ex pseudosciencias. Un exemplo de isto es le scientia del [[chimia]], que tracia su origines ab le protoscientia de [[alchimia]]. Le vastitate de pseudosciencias complica ulteriormente le historia del pseudoscientia. Alicunes pseudosciencias ha originas in le era pre-scientific, tal como [[astrologia]] e acupunctura. Alteres se disveloppava como parte de un ideologia, como Lysenkoismo, o como responsa a percipite minacias a un ideologia. Un exemplo de isto es creationismo, que se disveloppava como responsa al [[Evolution|theoria scientific de evolution]]. Nonobstante illos non satisfacer le standardes scientific apropriate, multe pseudosciencias persiste. Isto occurre generalmente a causa de un nucleo persistente de devotees qui refusa acceptar le critica scientific de lor credentias, o a causa de misconceptiones popular. Le popularitate pur es anque un facto, como illo es attestate per astrologia que remane popular nonobstante esser rejectate per un grande majoritate de scientistas.<ref name="taylor">{{cite web | title=The Religious and Other Beliefs of Americans 2003 | author=Humphrey Taylor | url=http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359 | access-date=2007-01-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111214109/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359 | archive-date=2007-01-11 | url-status=dead | accessdate=2024-01-08 | archivedate=2007-01-11 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111214109/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359 }}</ref><ref name="nsa1">{{cite web | title=Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding | publisher=National Science Foundation | url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3 | access-date=2007-01-05 | archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/5902/20150818094952/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3 | archive-date=2015-08-18 | url-status=dead | accessdate=2024-01-08 | archivedate=2015-08-18 | archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/5902/20150818094952/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encarta |year=2008 |title=Astrology |publisher=Microsoft |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552380/Astrology.html |quote=Scientists have long rejected the principles of astrology, but millions of people continue to believe in or practice it. |access-date=2007-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028014536/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552380/Astrology.html |archive-date=2009-10-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Astrology: Fraud or Superstition? by Chaz Bufe {{cite web | title= Astrology Fraud or Superstition | url= http://www.seesharppress.com/astro.html | publisher= See Sharp Press | accessdate= 2024-01-08 | archivedate= 2019-02-14 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20190214083154/http://www.seesharppress.com/astro.html }}</ref> == Seculo XIX == [[Image:PhrenologyPix.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Un charta de frenologia de 1883. Durante le prime parte del seculo XIX, le frenologia esseva un studio popular e considerate scientific. Per le secunde parte del seculo, le theoria esseva largemente abandonate.]] Inter le disveloppamentos plus notabile in le historia del pseudoscientia in le seculo XIX se trova le ascension del Spiritualismo (traciate in America a 1848), le [[homeopathia]] (formulate initialmente in 1796), e le frenologia (disveloppate circa 1800). Un altere credentia pseudoscientific popular que surgiava durante le seculo XIX esseva le idea que il habeva canales visibile sur Marte. Un opposition christian fundamentaliste relativemente moderate contra le theoria scientific de evolution prenunciava eventos subsequente in le seculo XX. Le studio de prominences e fissuras in le cranios de personas pro determinar lor character, frenologia, esseva originalmente considerate un scientia. Illo influentiate le psychiatria e studios initiale del neuroscientia.<ref name="Simpson 2005">Simpson, D. (2005) Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim ANZ Journal of Surgery. Oxford. Vol.75.6; p.475</ref> Con le progression del scientia, le frenologia esseva sempre plus vidite como un pseudoscientia. A medio seculo del seculo XIX, le communitate scientific le aveva preponderantemente abandonate,<ref name="van Wyhe, J.">[http://www.victorianweb.org/science/phrenology/index.html Phrenology: An Overview, by dr. John van Wyhe]</ref> ben que illo non esseva comprehensively testate usque multo postea.<ref>Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., & Jbabdi, S. (2018). ''An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology''. Cortex. Volume 106. pp. 26–35. doi: doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011</ref> A medietate del seculo, le iridologia esseva inventate per le medico hungarese Ignaz von Peczely.<ref>[http://skepdic.com/iridol.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Iridology']</ref> Le theoria remanerea popular durante tote le seculo XX.<ref>[http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/iridology.html Iridology Is Nonsense], by Stephen Barrett, M.D.</ref> [[File:Venice_ast_sm.jpg|thumb|Le signos astrologic del zodiaco.]] Le Spiritualismo (a vices referite como "Modern Spiritualism" o "Spiritism")<ref name="Podmore">{{cite journal | last=Podmore | first=Frank | year=1903 | title=Modern Spiritualism. A History and a Criticism | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychology_1903-01_14_1/page/116 | journal= The American Journal of Psychology | volume=14 | issue=1 | pages=116&ndash;117 | doi=10.2307/1412224 | jstor=1412224 | publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]| hdl=2027/iau.31858027158827 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> o "Modern American Spiritualism"<ref name="Britten">{{Cite book | last=Britten | first=Emma Hardinge | title=Modern American Spiritualism | year=1870 }}</ref> cresceva phenomenalemente durante iste periodo. Le version american de iste movimento pote esser tracite al sorores Fox qui, in 1848, comenciava a affirmar le abilitate de communicar con le morte.<ref>[http://skepdic.com/spiritul.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Spiritualism']</ref> Le movimento religiose remanerea popular usque le annos 1920, quando le famose mago Harry Houdini comenciava a exponer mediums e altere artistas famose como fraudatores (vide etiam Harry Houdini#Scepticisme de spiritualistas). Ben que le credentias religiose del Spiritualismo non es presentate como scientia, e assi non es aproprie considerate pseudoscientific, le movimento generava numeros phenomenos pseudoscientific como ectoplasma e photographia de spirites. Le principios de homeopathia esseva formulate initialmente in 1796 per le medico german [[Samuel Hahnemann]]. Al illa tempore, le medicina conventional esseva un affaire primitive e usava ancora technicas como le sanguessuction. Le medicina homeopathic, a contrasto, consisteva in substantias extrememente diluite, lo que significava que le patientes basicamente recipeva aqua. Comparate con le damno frequentemente causate per le medicina conventional, isto esseva un melioramento.<ref name="pmid8885813"> {{cite journal |author=[[Edzard Ernst|Ernst E]], Kaptchuk TJ |title=Homeopathy revisited |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=156 |issue=19 |pages=2162–4 |year=1996 |pmid=8885813 |doi=10.1001/archinte.156.19.2162}}</ref> Durante le annos 1830, institutiones e scholas homeopathic se propagava a traverso le Statos Unite e Europa.<ref name=Julian>{{cite web |url=http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html |title=Homeopathy Timeline |access-date=2007-07-23 |last=Winston |first=Julian |year=2006 |work=The Faces of Homoeopathy |publisher=Whole Health Now |accessdate=2024-01-08 |archivedate=2018-12-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122834/http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html }}</ref> Nonobstante iste prime successos, le homeopathia non esseva sin su criticos.<ref>Un exemplo de un critica contemporanee del homeopathia:{{cite book |author=John Forbes |title=Homeopathy, allopathy and young physic |url=https://archive.org/details/101144255.nlm.nih.gov |location=London |year=1846}}</ref> Su popularitate era in declino ante le fin del seculo XIX, ben que illo ha essite revivite in le seculo XX. Le supponite canales martian esseva prime reportate in 1877 per le astronomo italian [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]]. Le credentia in illos attingeva lor apice al fin del seculo XIX, ma esseva largemente discreditate al initio del seculo XX. Le publication de ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' per le politico e auctore Ignatius L. Donnelly in 1882 renovava interesse in le antique idea del [[Atlantida]]. Iste societate altamente avanciate supponite existeva multe millennios ante le ascension de civilisationes como le [[Egypto antique]]. Illo esseva mentionate per prime per [[Platon]], como un dispositivo litterari in duo de su dialogos. Altere historias de continentes perdite, como Mu e Lemuria, anque surgiava durante le fin del seculo XIX. In 1881, le Societate contra le Quackery (''Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij'' in nederlandese) se formava pro opponer se a tendentias pseudoscientific in le medicina. Illo ancora es activ. == Seculo XX == Inter le disveloppamentos le plus notabile in le historia del pseudoscientia in le seculo XX se trova le ascension del creationismo, le declino del spiritualismo, e le prime formulation de theorias de [[Hypothese del ancian astronautas|ancian astronautas]]. Le reflexologia, le idea que un forza vital non detectabile connecte diversas partes del corpore con le pedes e, a vices, le manos e aures, esseva introducite in le Statos Unite in 1913 como 'therapia de zonas'.<ref>[http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/reflex.html Reflexology: A Close Look], by Stephen Barrett, M.D.</ref><ref>[http://skepdic.com/reflex.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Reflexology']</ref> Le Creationismo emergeva durante le seculo XX como resultado de varios altere disveloppamentos <nowiki>Insere texto non formatate hic</nowiki>historic. Quando le modern synthesis evolutionari superava le eclissamento del darwinismo in le prime medietate del seculo XX, christianos fundamentaliste american comenciava a opponer se al ensegnamento del theoria de evolution in scholas public. Illes introduciva numeros leges a iste effecto, un del quales esseva notoriemente confirmate per le Scopes Trial. In le secunde medietate del seculo, le Space Race causava un renovate interesse in scientia e preoccupation que le Statos Unite stava retroceder in comparation con le Union Sovietic. Normas scientific plus stringente esseva adoptate e conducite al reintroduction del theoria de evolution in le programma de studio. Le leges contra le ensegnamento de evolution esseva ora de facto declarate inconstitutional, proque illos violateva le separation inter ecclesia e stato. Pro evader iste decision, christianos fundamentaliste produciva un alternative supposemente secular al evolution, le Creationismo. Probabilemente le publication plus influente de iste nove pseudoscientia esseva ''The Genesis Flood'' per le creationistas del terra joven John C. Whitcomb e Henry M. Morris. Le aurora del era spatial inspirava etiam varie versiones de theorias de astronautas anciente. Ben que il ha differentias inter le theorias specific, illes condivide le idea que extraterrestres intelligent visitava le Terra in le passato distante e faceva contacto con humanos vivente a ille tempore. Autores popular, como Erich von Däniken e Zecharia Sitchin, comenciava a publicar in le annos 1960. Inter le publicationes le plus notabile in iste genere se trova "Chariots of the Gods?", que appariva in 1968. In le tardo del seculo XX, plure fundationes sceptic esseva formate pro contrar le crescentia del pseudosciences. In le Statos Unite, le plus notabile de iste es, in ordine chronologic, le Center for Inquiry (1991), The Skeptics Society (1992), le James Randi Educational Foundation (1996), e le New England Skeptical Society (1996). Le Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, que ha objectivos simile, jam habeva essite fundate in 1976. Illo deveniva parte del Center for Inquiry como parte del fundation del ultime in 1991. In le Nederland, le Stichting Skepsis esseva fundate in 1987. == Seculo XXI == Al le initio del seculo XXI, un varietate de theorias pseudoscientific remane popular e nove continua a emerger. Le Terra Platte es un idea que se crede haber existite pro millenarios ma studio monstra que iste es relativemente nove, comenciate in le annos 1990 quando le internet comenciava a diffunder tal ideas plus rapidemente. Creationismo, in le forma de Designo Intelligente, suffreva un grande disfate legal in le processo Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District. Le Judice John E. Jones III decidite que Intelligent Design es inseparabile del Creationismo, e su ensegnamento in scholas public viola le Clause de Establimento del Prime Amendment. Le processo generava multe interesse e esseva le thema de plure documentarios incluse le production premiate NOVA "Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial" (2007). Le idea pseudoscientific que vaccinas causa autismo originava in le annos 1990, ma deveniva prominente in le media durante le prime decada del seculo XXI. Nonobstante un late consenso scientific contra le idea que il ha un relation inter [[vaccination]] e autismo,<ref>{{cite web| author=European Medicines Agency| author-link=European Medicines Agency| date=2004-03-24| url=http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| title=EMEA Public Statement on Thiomersal in Vaccines for Human Use| access-date=2007-07-22| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610154109/http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| archive-date=2007-06-10| accessdate=2024-01-08| archivedate=2007-06-10| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610154109/http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Can Commun Dis Rep|year=2007|volume=33|issue=ACS-6|pages=1–13|title=Thimerosal: updated statement. An Advisory Committee Statement|author=National Advisory Committee on Immunization|pmid=17663033|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/ccdr-rmtc/07vol33/acs-06/index_e.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=American Medical Association| author-link=American Medical Association| date=2004-05-18| url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/36/press_iom_mmr.doc| title=AMA Welcomes New IOM Report Rejecting Link Between Vaccines and Autism| access-date=2007-07-23| accessdate=2024-01-08| archivedate=2012-10-06| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006192113/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/36/press_iom_mmr.doc}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=American Academy of Pediatrics| author-link=American Academy of Pediatrics| date=2004-05-18| url=http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| title=What Parents Should Know About Thimerosal| access-date=2007-07-23| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708045514/http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| archive-date=2007-07-08| accessdate=2024-01-08| archivedate=2007-07-08| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708045514/http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm}}</ref><ref>[http://www.csicop.org/si/2007-06/novella.html Vaccines & Autism: Myths and Misconceptions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007082937/http://www.csicop.org/si/2007-06/novella.html|date=2014-10-07}} by [[Steven Novella]], M.D., for the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]</ref> alcun celebritates se univa al controversia. Le plus notabile inter illos es Jenny McCarthy, cuje filio ha autismo. In februario 2009, le chirurgo Andrew Wakefield, qui publicava le recerca original que suppositemente indicava un ligamine inter vaccinas e autismo, esseva accusate de fixar le datos per ''[[The Sunday Times]]''.<ref>{{cite news | title=MMR doctor Andrew Wakefield fixed data on autism | publisher=The Sunday Times | date=2009-02-08 | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | access-date=2009-02-08 | location=London | first=Brian | last=Deer | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525134829/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | archive-date=2010-05-25 | accessdate=2024-01-08 | archivedate=2011-10-06 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006040554/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece }}</ref> Un audiamento per le General Medical Council comenciava in martio 2007, examinante accusationes de misconducto professional. Le 24 de maio 2010, ille esseva radite del registro medical del Regno Unite, effectivemente prohibente su practica medical in Britannia. Le plus notabile disveloppamento in le genere de astronautas anciente esseva le apertura del Mystery Park de Erich von Däniken in 2003. Ben que le parco habeva un bon prime anno, le numero de visitatores esseva multo minus que le 500,000 expectate per anno. Isto causava difficultates financiari, que conduceva al clausura del parco in 2006.<ref>[http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/top_news/detail/Closure_of_Mystery_Park_is_no_enigma.html?siteSect=106&sid=7266028&cKey=1163955688000 Closure of Mystery Park in Interlaken is no mystery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212113605/http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/top_news/detail/Closure_of_Mystery_Park_is_no_enigma.html?siteSect=106&sid=7266028&cKey=1163955688000 |date=2008-12-12 }} by swissinfo.ch</ref> {{Ref}} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] [[Categoria:Pseudoscientia]] f9xvqxer6nvf6ugmpjbaz693wxwomqt 0 58085 698265 668642 2026-08-04T00:00:28Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698265 wikitext text/x-wiki Le '''historia e philosophia del scientia''' ('''HPS''') es un disciplina academic que comprehende le philosophia del scientia e le [[historia del scientia]]. Ben que multe scholares in le campo sia formate principalmente como historicos o como philosophos, il ha departmentos que conferentia gradus in HPS in plure universitates prominente. Ben que le philosophia del scientia e le historia del scientia sia lor proprie disciplinas, le historia e philosophia del scientia es un disciplina per se.<ref name="galison">{{cite journal |last1=Galison |first1=Peter |title=Ten Problems in History and Philosophy of Science |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_2008-03_99_1/page/111 |journal=Isis |date=March 2008 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=111–124 |doi=10.1086/587536|s2cid=142859424 }}</ref><ref name="weingart">{{cite journal |last1=Weingart |first1=Scott B. |title=Finding the History and Philosophy of Science |journal=Erkenntnis |date=February 2015 |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=201–213 |doi=10.1007/s10670-014-9621-1|s2cid=143674932 }}</ref> Le philosophia del scientia es un branca del philosophia que tracta le fundamentos, [[Methodo scientific|methodos]] e implicationes del [[scientia]]. Le questiones central de iste studio concerne lo que qualifica como scientia, le fidabilitate de theorias scientific, e le scopo final del scientia. Iste disciplina se superpone con [[metaphysica]]/[[ontologia]] e [[epistemologia]], per exemplo, quando illo esplora le relation inter scientia e veritate. Le philosophia del scientia se concentra in aspectos metaphysic, epistemic e semantic del scientia. Problemas ethical como bioethica e malconducta scientific es frequentemente considerate ethic o studios scientific in vice de philosophia del scientia. Il non ha consenso inter philosophos sur multes de los problemas central con le philosophia del scientia, incluse si le scientia pote revelar le veritate sur cosas non observabile e si rationamento scientific pote esser justificate del toto. In addition a iste questiones general sur le scientia como un toto, philosophos del scientia considera problemas que se applica a scientias particular (como [[astronomia]], [[biologia]], [[chimia]], [[Scientias del Terra|scientias del Terra]] o [[physica]]). Alicun philosophos del scientia usa resultatos contemporanee in scientia pro inferer conclusiones sur le philosophia mesme. == Historia == Un origine del disciplina unificate es le approchio historic al disciplina del philosophia del scientia. Iste approchio hybrid se reflecte in le carriera de Thomas Kuhn. Su prime nomination permanente, al Universitate de California, Berkeley,<ref>"A Discussion with Thomas S. Kuhn" in ''The Road Since Structure'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, p. 302.</ref> esseva a un position annunciante per le departmento de philosophia, ma ille anque dava cursos del departmento de historia. Quando ille esseva promovite a professore plenari in le departmento de historia solmente, Kuhn se sentiva offensate per le rejection de los philosophos proque "Io certemente voleva esser illo, e il esseva mi studentes de philosophia qui laborava con me, non in philosophia ma in historia, nonobstante illos esseva mi studentes plus importante".<ref>"A Discussion with Thomas S. Kuhn," p. 302.</ref> Iste attitude se reflecte etiam in su approchio historicista, como poste in relievo in le seminal ''Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962, 2a ed. 1970) de Kuhn, ubi questiones philosophic sur theorias scientific e, specialmente, cambio de theoria es comprendite in terminos historic, con le uso de conceptos como le cambio de paradigma. Tamen, Kuhn criticava etiam tentativas de unificar completamente le methodos del historia e philosophia del scientia: "Subversion non es, io crede, un termino troppo forte pro le possibile resultato de un attempto de facer un in le duo campos. Illos differe in multe de lor caracteristicas central e constitutive, del quales le plus general e apparente es lor objectivos. Le producto final de multe recerca historic es un narrative, un historia, sur particularitates del passato. [...] Le philosopho, al altere latere, visa principalmente generalisationes explicite e illos con ambito universal. Ille non es un narrator de historias, ver o false. Su objectivo es discoperir e affirmar lo que es ver in omne tempores e locos plus que impartir comprehension de lo que occurrit a un particular tempore e loco."<ref>"The Relations Between the History and the Philosophy of Science," pp. 3–20 in ''The Essential Tension'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.</ref> Recentissime travalio questiona si iste divisiones methodologic e conceptual es vermente barrieras a un disciplina unificate.<ref>Lydia Patton, ''Philosophy, Science, and History'', pp. 27–33, New York: Routledge 2014, http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415898317/.</ref> {{Referentias}} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Philosophia del scientia]] [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] kznlp293c0fvlh9d7c5hb6y51xxrqee 0 58093 698267 694792 2026-08-04T00:03:46Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 5 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698267 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Articulo bon}} Le '''scientia in le mundo antique''' comprende le prime [[historia del scientia]] ab le protoscientia del [[prehistoria]] e [[Antiquitate|historia antique]] usque le Antiquitate tardive. In tempores antique, cultura e cognoscentia esseva transmittite de generation a generation per medio del tradition oral. Le evolution del scriptura permitteva plus tosto le capacitate de conservar cognoscentia e cultura, permittente al communication transmitter se trans generationes con plus grande fidelitate. Le scientia ha progredite plus avante con le adjuta de [[libros]]. == Antic Proxime Oriente == === Mesopotamia === {{Further|[[Astronomia babylonian]]|[[Mathematica babylonian]]|[[Medicina babylonian]]}} {{Vide anque|Pila Bagdadian}} [[File:Letter Luenna Louvre AO4238.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Tabula-littera mesopotamic del anno 2400 a.Chr., Louvre. (del Rege de Lagash, trovate a Girsu).]] Durante le anno 3500 a.Chr., Sumer (ora [[Irak]]), le populo mesopotamic comenciava a preservar alcun observationes del cosmos con datos numerical extrememente detaliate. Le [[theorema de Pythagoras]] ha demonstrate evidentia de formas de scriptura antique. Illo esseva inscrite in le anno 18 a.Chr., usante le tabula cuneiforme mesopotamic cognoscite como Plimpton 322. Le colonnas de numeros in le tabula genera plure triplettes pythagorean (3,4,5) (5,12,13).<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2001-01-27 |title=Mathematics |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.2307/3981737 |journal=Science News |volume=159 |issue=4 |pages=56 |doi=10.2307/3981737 |jstor=3981737}}</ref> [[Astronomia]] es un scientia que se presta al registro e studio de observationes. Scribas inscribeva observationes del cosmos como motos del [[Stella|stellas]], [[Planeta|planetas]], e le [[luna]] in tabulas de argilla. Le stilo cuneiforme de scriptura revelava que [[Astronomo|astronomos]] usava [[Calculo (mathematica)|calculationes]] [[Mathematica|mathematic]] pro facer observationes del motos del [[Planeta|planetas]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2016 |title=The World's Oldest Writing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43825139 |journal=Archaeology |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=26–33 |issn=0003-8113 |jstor=43825139}}</ref> In tote le actualitate, periodos astronomic identificate per scientistas mesopotamic es ancora largemente usate in calendarios occidental: le anno solar, le mense lunar, e le [[Septimana|septimana de septe dies]]. Usante le datos, illes disveloppava methodos arithmetic pro computar le cambiante longitude de luce diurne in le anno, alsi como previder le phases del Luna e planetas in conjunction con [[Eclipse solar|eclipses del Sol]] e Luna. Solmente alcun nomines de astronomos es cognoscite, tal como illo de Kidinnu, un astronomo e mathematiciano caldeo contemporanee con le astronomos grec. Le valor de Kiddinu pro le anno solar es in uso pro le calendarios actual. Astronomia e astrologia esseva considerate esser le mesme cosa, como es evidentiate per le practica de iste scientia in Babylonia per sacerdotes. In veritate, alsi de sequer le tendentia moderne verso le scientia rational, distante del superstition e credentia, le astronomia mesopotamic deveniva conversamente plus basate in astrologia postea in le civilisation - studiante le stellas in terminos de horoscopios e ominas, lo que poterea explicar le popularitate del tabulas de argilla. [[Hipparcho]] usava iste datos pro calcular le precession del axe del Terra. Quinquecento annos post Kiddinu, Al-Batani, nate in lo que nunc es Turcia, usarea le datos colligite e meliorarea le valor de Hipparcho pro le precession del axe terrestre. Le valor de Al-Batani, 54.5 arc-secundas per anno, se compara ben con le valor currente de 49.8 arc-secundas per anno (26,000 annos pro le axe terrestre circumferer le circulo de nutation). Le astronomia babilonic esseva "le prime e multo successose tentativa de dar un description mathematic raffinate de phenomenonos astronomic." Secundo le historico A. Aaboe, {{Citation|"omnes varietates subsequente de astronomia scientific, in le mundo hellenistic, in India, in Islam, e in le Occidente - si non in effecto omne ulterior effortio in le scientias exacte - depende del astronomia babilonic de manieras decisive e fundamental."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=A. Aaboe |date=May 2, 1974 |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |pages=21–42 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |jstor=74272 |s2cid=122508567}}</ref>}} === Egypto === {{Further|[[Medicina antique egyptian]]|[[Astronomia egyptian]]|[[Mathematica egyptian]]}} [[File:Papyrus Migraine Therapy.png|thumb|Un practica egyptian de tractar migrania in le [[Egypto antique]].]] Progressos significante in le [[Egypto antique]] includeva astronomia, mathematica, e medicina.<ref>Le "Odyssea" de Homero affirmava que "le [[egyptios]] esseva peritissime in medicina plus quam in omni alia arte".</ref> Lor geometria esseva un necessari evolventia del agrimensura pro conservar le disposition e proprietate del campos, que esseva inundate annualmente per le [[Nilo|Rio Nilo]]. Le triangulo rectangule 3-4-5 e altere regulas simplificate serviva pro repraesentar structuras rectilinear, includente lor architectura post e lintel. Egypto esseva etiam un centro de recerca alchemic pro multo del mundo occidental. Hieroglyphos egyptian serviva como le base pro le scripto proto-sinaitico, le antecessor del alphabeto fenician del qual derivava le posterior [[Alphabeto|alphabetos]] [[Alphabeto hebree|hebree]], [[Alphabeto grec|grec]], [[Alphabeto latin|latin]], [[Alphabeto arabe|arabe]], e [[Alphabeto cyrillic|cyrillic]]. Le citate de [[Alexandria ad Egypto|Alexandria]] retineva un preeminencia con su [[Bibliotheca de Alexandria|bibliotheca]], que esseva dannificate per un incendio quando ille deveniva sub le dominio roman,<ref name="Plutarch">[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Caesar'' 49.3.</ref> essendo destruite ante 642.<ref>Abd-el-latif (1203): "le bibliotheca que 'Amr ibn al-'As incendeva con le permission de 'Umar."</ref><ref>''Europe: A History'', p 139. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. {{ISBN|0-19-820171-0}}</ref> Con illo, un grande quantitate de litteratura e cognoscentia antique esseva perdite. Le papiro Edwin Smith es un del prime documentos medicinale ancora existente, e forsan le prime documento que tenta describer e analyser le cerebro: illo pote esser considerate como le initio mesme del neuroscientia moderne. Tamen, ben que le medicina egyptian habeva alcun practicas efficace, illo non esseva sin su practicas ineficace e, a vices, nocive. Per exemplo, historiatores medical crede que le pharmacologia egyptian antique esseva largemente inefficace.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web |date=2001 |editor-last=Whitelaw |editor-first=W. A. |title=Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days |url=http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407062556/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |archive-date=April 7, 2008 |publisher=The University of Calgary |accessdate=January 9, 2024 |archivedate=October 15, 2004 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041015151618/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf }}<</ref> Tamen, illo applicava le sequente componentes: examination, diagnosi, tractamento e prognosi, al tractamento del maladia,<ref>Lloyd, G. E. R. "The development of empirical research", in su ''Magic, Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science''.</ref> que monstra parallelos fortes con le methodo empirical basic del scientia e, secundo G. E. R. Lloyd,[9] jocava un rolo significante in le evolution de iste methodologia. Le papiro Ebers (circa 1550 a.Chr.) anque contine evidentia de empirismo traditional. Secundo un articulo publicate per Michael D. Parkins, 72% de 260 prescriptiones medicinale in le Papiro Hearst non habeva elementos curative.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Secundo Michael D. Parkins, le pharmacologia de cloacas comenciava in le Egypto antique e continuava usque in le Medievo. Practicas como applicar sterco de vacca a vulneras, perforar le aure e facer tatuar, e infectiones chronic del aure esseva factores importante in le evolution de tetano.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mamtani |first1=R. |last2=Malhotra |first2=P. |last3=Gupta |first3=P. S. |last4=Jain |first4=B. K. |date=1 June 1978 |title=A comparative study of urban and rural tetanus in adults |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_1978-06_7_2/page/185 |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=185–188 |doi=10.1093/ije/7.2.185 |pmid=681065}}</ref> Frank J. Snoek scribeva que le medicina egyptian usava maculas de muscas, sanguine de lacertes, dentes de porcos, e altere remedios simile que, secundo ille, poteva haber essite nocive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Snoek |first=F. J. |date=1 August 2001 |title=The Mind Matters |journal=Diabetes Spectrum |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=116–117 |doi=10.2337/diaspect.14.3.116 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Persia === {{AP|Scientia e technologia in Iran}} [[File:Nersi&Anahita.jpg|thumb|Scholastic Nersi con Anahita in [[Iran|Persia]].]] In le periodo Sassanide (226 al 652 AD), grande attention esseva dedicate al mathematica e [[astronomia]]. Le Academia de Gundishapur es un exemplo prominente in iste contexto. Tabulas astronomic—como le Tabulas Shahryar—date a iste periodo, e observatorios sassanid esseva posteriormente imitate per astronomos e astrologos islamic del periodo islamic. In le medie era sassanid, un influxo de cognoscentia veniva a Persia del Occidente sub le forma de opiniones e traditiones de Grecia que, subsequente al diffusione del [[christianismo]], accompagnava le syriaco (le lingua official de christianos assi como le nestorianos iranian). Le scholas christian in Iran ha producite grandes scientistas como Nersi, Farhad, e Marabai. Anque, un libro esseva lasciate per Paulus Persa, chef del Departamento Iranian de Logica e Philosophia de Aristotle, scripte in syriaco e dictate al rege sassanid Anushiravan. Un incidente fortunose pro le scientia iranian pre-islamic durante le periodo sassanid esseva le arrivata de octo grandes studiosos del [[Hellenismo|civilisation hellenistic]], qui cercava refugio in Persia de persecution per le Imperator Roman [[Justiniano I|Justiniano]]. Iste homines era le sequitatores del schola neoplatonic. Le rege Anushiravan habeva multe discussiones con iste homines, specialmente con le homine nominate Priscianus. Un summarium de iste discussiones esseva compilite in un libro intitulate "Solution al Problemas de Khosrow, le Rege de Persia," que nunc es in le Bibliotheca Saint Germain in [[Paris]]. Iste discussiones toccava diverses themas, tal como philosophia, physiologia, metabolismos, e scientia natural, como astronomia. Post le establimento del statos Umayyad e Abbasid, multe studiosos iranian esseva inviate a le capitales de iste dinastias islamic. In le prime Medievo, Persia deveniva un fortification del scientia islamic. == Mundo Greco-Roman == {{AP|Scientia in le antiquitate classic}} Le pensamento scientific in le Antiquitate Classical deveni tangibile ab le 6e seculo a.Chr. in le [[philosophia presocratic]] ([[Thales]], [[Pythagoras]]). Circa 385 a.Chr., Platon fundava le Academia. Con le studente de Platon, Aristotele, comencia le "revolution scientific" del periodo hellenistic que culmina in le 3e-2e seculos a.Chr. con scholasticos como Eratosthenes, [[Euclide]], Aristarcho de Samos, [[Hipparcho]], e [[Archimedes]]. [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|right|200px|upright|[[Platon]] e [[Aristotele]]. ''[[Le Schola de Athenas]]'' (1509).]] In le Antiquitate Classical, le investigacion sur le functionamento del universo occurreva tanto in investigationes dirigite a metas practic como establir un calendario fiabile o determinar como curar diverse maladias, como in ille investigationes abstracte cognoscite como philosophia natural. Le personas antique que es considerate como le prime scientistas pote haber se considerate como philosophos natural, como practicantes de un profession habile (per exemplo, medicos), o como sequitatores de un tradition religiose (per exemplo, sanatores de templos). Le philosophos grec antique plus prime, cognoscite como le pre-socraticos, forniva responsas rival al question presente in le mythos de lor vicinos: "Como veniva a esser le cosmos ordinate in le qual nos vive?"<ref>[[F. M. Cornford]], ''Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought'', (Gloucester, Mass., Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159.</ref> Le philosopho pre-socratic Thales, nominate le "patre del scientia", esseva le prime a postular explicationes non-supernatural pro phenomenos natural como fulgures e terre-terremotos. Pythagoras de Samos fundava le schola pythagorean, que investigava le mathematica pro su proprie merito e esseva le prime a postular que le Terra es spherical. Postea, Plato e Aristotle produceva le prime disputationes systematic de philosophia natural, le quales faceva multo pro formar investigationes ulterior de natura. Lor disveloppamento del ratiocination deductive esseva particularmente utile pro ulteriore inquire scientific. Le hereditate importante de iste periodo includeva avancos substantial in cognoscentia factual, specialmente in [[anatomia]], [[zoologia]], [[botanica]], [[mineralogia]], [[geographia]], [[mathematica]], e [[astronomia]]; un conscientia del importantia de certe problemas scientific, specialmente illos relationate al problema del mutation e su causas; e un recognoscimento del importantia methodologic de applicar mathematica a phenomenonos natural e de facer recerca empirical.<ref>[[G. E. R. Lloyd]], ''Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle'', (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144-6.</ref> In le epocha hellenistic, scholasticos frequentemente usava le principios disveloppate in le pensamento grec anterior: le application de mathematica e le intentionate recerca empirical, in lor investigationes scientific.<ref>Lloyd (1973), p. 177.</ref> Assi, clar lineas non interrupte de influentia conduce de philosophos grec antique e hellenistic, a philosophos e scientistas musulman medieval, al Renaissance e Illumination europee, al scientias secular del die moderne. Ni ration ni inquisition comenciava con le Grecos Antique, ma le methodo socratic, insimul con le idea de Formas, grande avancos in [[geometria]], [[logica]], e le scientias natural. Benjamin Farrington, previe Professor de Classics a le Universitate de Swansea scribeva: {{Citation|"Homines pesava pro milles de annos ante que Archimedes elaborava le leges de equilibrio; illes debeva haber cognoscentia practic e intuitional del principios involvite. Lo que Archimedes facieva era sorter le implicationes theoritic de iste cognoscentia practic e presentar le resultant corpore de cognoscentia como un systema logicamente coherente."}} e ancora: {{Citation|"Con astonimento nos trova nos mesme al limine del scientia moderne. Ne deberea esser supponite que per ulle artificio de traduction, le excerptos ha essite date un aere de modernitate. Longe ab isto. Le vocabulario de iste scripturas e lor stilo es le fonte de ubi nos mesme ha derivate nostre vocabulario e stilo."<ref>''Greek Science'', many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4.</ref>}} [[File:Antikythera mechanism.svg|thumb|Schema del Mechanismo de Anticythera.]] Le nivello de realisation in [[astronomia]] e [[ingenieria]] hellenistic se monstrava impressionantemente con le Mechanismo de Anticythera (150-100 a.Chr.). Le astronomo Aristarcho de Samos esseva le prime persona cognoscite a proponer un modelo heliocentric del systema solar, durante que le geographo Eratosthenes calculava accuratemente le circumferentia del Terra.<ref name="russo273277">{{Cite book |last=Russo |first=Lucio |title=The Forgotten Revolution |date=2004 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |pages=273–277 |author-link=Lucio Russo}}</ref> Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 a.Chr.) produceva le prime catalogo systematic de stellas. In medicina, Herophilo (335 - 280 a.Chr.) esseva le prime a basar su conclusiones sur le dissection del corpore humano e a describer le [[systema nervose]]. [[Hippocrates]] (c. 460 a.Chr. – c. 370 a.Chr.) e su sequitatores esseva le prime a describer multe maladias e conditiones medical. [[Galeno]] (129 – c. 200 AD) executava multe operationes audace—incluse [[chirurgia]] cerebral e ocular—que non esseva tentate de novo pro quasi duo millennios. Le mathematico [[Euclide]] establiva le bases del rigor mathematic e introduceva le conceptos de definition, axioma, theorema, e demonstration que ancora es in uso hodie in su ''[[Elementos]]'', considerate le libro de texto le plus influente jam scripte.<ref name="Boyer Influence of the Elements">{{Cite book |last=Boyer |first=Carl B. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye |title=A History of Mathematics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=1991 |isbn=0-471-54397-7 |edition=Second |chapter=Euclid of Alexandria |quote=Le ''Elementos'' de Euclide non solmente esseva le prime obra mathematic grec que ha pervenite usque a nos, ma etiam le manual le plus influente de omne tempore. [...] Le prime versiones impressite del ''Elementos'' appariva a Venetia in 1482, un del prime libros mathematic que esseva impressite per typo; on estima que desde ille tempore al minus mille editiones ha essite publicate. Forsan nulle libro excepte le Biblia pote vanagloriar tante editiones, e certemente nulle obra mathematic ha exercite un influentia comparabile con ille del ''Elementos'' de Euclide.|author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer |url-access=registration}}</ref> Archimedes, considerate un del plus grande mathematicos de tote le tempore,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Calinger |first=Ronald |title=A Contextual History of Mathematics |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-02-318285-3 |page=150 |quote=Shortly after Euclid, compiler of the definitive textbook, came Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287–212 BC.), the most original and profound mathematician of antiquity.}}</ref> es credite con le uso del methodo de exhaustion pro calcular le area sub le arco de un parabola con le summation de un serie infinite, e dava un approximation notabilemente precise de pi.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=O'Connor, J.J. |last2=Robertson, E.F. |date=February 1996 |title=A history of calculus |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html |access-date=2007-08-07 |publisher=[[University of St Andrews]]}}</ref> Ille es etiam cognoscite in physica pro establir le bases del hydrostatica e le explication del principio del levier. [[File:Pliny the Elder.png|left|thumb|150px|Plinio le Senior: un portrait imaginative del 19e seculo.]] Theophrasto scribeva alcun del prime descriptiones de plantas e animales, stabiliva le prime taxonomia e observava minerales in terminos de lor proprietates como duritia. Plinio le Senior produceva lo que es un del le plus grande [[Encyclopedia|encyclopedias]] del mundo natural in 77 AD, e debe esser considerate como le legitime successor de Theophrasto. [[File:Rough diamond.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Le forma octahedre del diamante.]] Pro exemplo, ille describe con precision le forma octahedric del [[diamante]]. Ille procede a mentionar que le pulvere de diamante es usate per incisores pro scinder e polir altere gemmas a causa de su grande duritia. Su recognoscimento del importantia del forma crystallin es un precursor del [[Crystallographia|crystallographia]] moderne, durante que mentionar numeros altere minerales presagia le [[mineralogia]]. Ille etiam recognosce que altere minerales ha formas crystallin characteristic, ma in un exemplo, ille confunde le habitu crystallin con le labor del lapidarios. Ille esseva etiam le prime a recognoscer que le ambra esseva un resina fossilisate de pinos proque ille habeva vidite exemplares con insectos intrappolate in illos. == India == {{AP|Scientia e technologia in le antiquitate de India}} {{Vide anque|Astronomia indiana|Mathematica indiana|Ayurveda|Historia del metallurgia in le subcontinente indian}} [[File:Iron Pillar, Delhi, May 2008.jpg|thumb|175px|Le India antique esseva un lider precoce in le campo de [[metallurgia]], como illo evidentiato per le [[Colonna de ferro de Delhi|Colonna de Delhi]] de [[ferro batite]].]] Le antiquitate de India esseva un prime guida in metallurgia, como monstra per le columna de ferro de Delhi. Excavationes in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro e altere sitios del civilisation del Valle del Indus (IVC) ha revelate evidentias del uso de "mathematica practic". Le habitantes del IVC fabricava lateres cuje dimensiones esseva in le proportion 4:2:1, considerate favorabile pro le stabilitate de structuras de lateres. Illes usava un systema standardisate de pesos basate sur le rationes: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, e 500, con le peso del unitate equivalente a approximativemente 28 grammes (approximativemente equal al unce anglese o le uncia greco). Illes mass-produceva pesos con formas geometric regular, que includeva hexaedros, barriles, [[Cono (geometria)|conos]], e [[Cylindro (geometria)|cylindros]], monstrante assi cognoscentia de geometria basic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sergent |first=Bernard |title=Genèse de l'Inde |publisher=Payot |year=1997 |isbn=978-2-228-89116-5 |location=Paris |pages=113 |language=fr}}</ref> Le habitantes del civilisation del Indus essayava etiam standardisar le mesura de longor con un alte grado de precision. Illes disveloppava un regula—le regula de Mohenjo-Daro—cuj unitate de longor (approximativemente 1.32 pollices o 3.4 centimetres) esseva divise in dece partes equal. Lateres fabricate in le antique Mohenjo-Daro sovente habeva dimensiones que esseva multiple integre de iste unitate de longor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coppa |first=A. |display-authors=etal |date=2006-04-06 |title=Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-04-06_440_7085/page/755 |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7085 |pages=755–6 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..755C |doi=10.1038/440755a |pmid=16598247 |s2cid=6787162}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bisht |first=R. S. |title=Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |publisher=Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. |year=1982 |editor-last=Possehl, Gregory L. |location=New Delhi |pages=113–124 |chapter=Excavations at Banawali: 1974-77}}</ref> Mehrgarh, un sito neolithic del IVC, provide le evidantia le plus antique del foramina in vivo de dentes human, con mustras recuperate datante de 7000-5500 a.Chr.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coppa |first=A. |display-authors=etal |date=6 April 2006 |title=Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-04-06_440_7085/page/755 |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7085 |pages=755–6 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..755C |doi=10.1038/440755a |pmid=16598247 |s2cid=6787162}}</ref> Le astronomia prime in India—como in altere culturas—esseva intricatemente associate con le religion.<ref name="Sarma-Ast-Ind">Sarma (2008), ''Astronomy in India''</ref> Le prime mention textual de conceptos astronomic veni ex le Vedas—litteratura religiose de India.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Secundo Sarma (2008): "On trova in le Rigveda speculaciones intelligent sur le genesi del universo ab non-existentia, le configuration del universo, le Terra spherical self-supporting, e le anno de 360 dies divise in 12 partes equal de 30 dies cata un con un mense periodic intercalari."<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Le astronomia classic documentate in le litteratura indiana se extende ab le periodo Maurya (Vedanga Jyotisha, c. 5e seculo a.Chr.) usque le periodo Vijayanagara (Sud India) (como le schola de Kerala del 16e seculo). Le prime autores nominate que scribe tractatos super astronomia emergeva ex le 5e seculo, le data quando on pote dicer que le periodo classic de astronomia indiana comenciava. Al lado del theorias de Aryabhata in le Aryabhatiya e le perditissime Arya-siddhānta, nos trova le Pancha-Siddhāntika de Varahamihira. Le astronomia e le astrologia del ancian India (Jyotisha) se basava sur calculos sidereal. Tamen, un systema tropical esseva etiam usate in alicun casos. [[Alchimia]] (''Rasaśāstra'' in sanscrito) esseva popular in India. Il esseva le alchimista e philosopho indian Kanada qui introduxeva le concepto de 'anu' que ille definiva como le materia que non pote esser subdividite.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Bal Ram |title=Contemporary Views on Indian Civilization |date=2003 |publisher=World Association for Vedic Studies |isbn=978-0-9666386-1-5 |pages=388–399 |chapter=Use of Chemistry to Understand Vedic Knowledge |chapter-url=https://www.umassd.edu/media/umassdartmouth/center-for-indic-studies/workshop2009_speakerbrs2.pdf}}</ref> Isto es analoge al concepto de atomo in le scientia moderne. Linguistica (junto con phonologia, morphologia, etc.) nasceva prime inter grammaticos indian studiante le lingua sanscrito. Aacharya Hemachandrasuri scribeva grammaticas de sanscrito e prakrito, poesia, prosodia, lexicones, textos sur scientia e logica e multe ramos de philosophia indian. Le Siddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāśana includite sex linguas prakrito: le prakrito "standard" (practicamente Maharashtri Prakrit), Shauraseni, Magahi, Paiśācī, le Cūlikāpaiśācī, non altramentee probate, e Apabhraṃśa (practicamente Gurjar Apabhraṃśa, prevalente in le area de Gujarat e Rajasthan a iste tempore e le precursor del lingua gujarati). Ille dava un grammatica detallate de Apabhraṃśa e le illustrate con le litteratura popular del epoca pro melior comprension. Illo es le sol cognoscite grammatica de Apabhraṃśa.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo |date=1987 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1803-1 |editor-last=Datta |editor-first=Amaresh |pages=15–16 |chapter=Aacharya Hemachandra Suri |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA15}}</ref> Le grammatica sanscrite de Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 a.Chr.) contine un description particularmente detallate de morphologia, phonologia e radices sanscrite, monstrante un nivello alte de perspicacitate e analysi linguistic. La medicina Ayurveda tracia su origines al Vedas, particularmente al Atharvaveda, e es connectite con le religion hindu.<ref>Le medicina indian ha un longe historia. Su conceptos initial es delineate in le scripturas sacre nominate le [[Veda]]s, specialmente in le passos metric del [[Atharvaveda]], que pote datar usque al secunde millennio a.Chr. Secundo un scriptor posterior, le systema de medicina nominate Āyurveda esseva recipite per un certo [[Dhanvantari]] ab [[Brahma]], e Dhanvantari esseva deificate como le deo del medicina. In tempores ulterior, su stato esseva gradualmente diminuite usque que on le attribueva haber essite un rege terrestrial qui moriva ab morsura de serpente. — Underwood & Rhodes (2008)</ref> Le Sushruta Samhita de Sushruta appariva durante le prime millennio a.Chr. Le practica ayurvedic floresceva durante le tempore de Buddha (circa 520 a.Chr.), e in iste periodo le practicantes ayurvedic usava comunemente medicamentes basate super combination de mercurio e sulfure. Un practicante ayurvedic importante de iste periodo esseva Nagarjuna, accompaniate per Surananda, Nagbodhi, Yashodhana, Nityanatha, Govinda, Anantdev, Vagbhatta etc. Durante le regime de Chandragupta Maurya (375-415 p.Chr.), Ayurveda faceva parte del technicas medic del India e continuava a esser tal usque al periodo colonial. Le principale autores del mathematica classic indian (400 CE a 1200 CE) esseva scholaros como Mahaviracharya, Aryabhata, Brahmagupta e Bhaskara II. Le mathematicos indian faceva contributiones prime al studio del systema decimal, del zero, del numeros negative, del arithmetica e del algebra. De plus, le trigonometria, que evolveva in le mundo hellenistic e esseva introducite in le ancian India a traverso le translation de obras grece, esseva ulteriormente meliorate in India, e, in particular, le modern definitiones de seno e coseno esseva developpate ibi. Iste conceptos mathematic esseva transmittite al Medie Oriente, China e Europa e conducente a ulterior developmentos que nunc forma le bases de multe campos del mathematica. == China e le Oriente Distante == [[File:Crab Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|Objecto Messier 1, le Nebula del Crab. In le centro del nebula se trova un pulsar: un stella de neutrones que rota 30 vices per secunda.]] {{AP|Historia del scientia e technologia in China|Quatro Grandes Inventiones}} Le prime observationes registrate de [[Eclipse solar|eclipses solar]] e [[Supernova|supernovas]] esseva facite in China.<ref name="OtherAstronomy">[http://home.cwru.edu/~sjr16/advanced/pre20th_ancients_others.html Ancient Chinese Astronomy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222181543/http://home.cwru.edu/~sjr16/advanced/pre20th_ancients_others.html |date=2006-02-22 }}</ref> Le 4 de julio, 1054, astronomos chinese observava un stella hospite, un supernova, le remanente del qual es nunc appellite le [[Nebulosa del Crabba]].<ref name="OtherAstronomy" /> Contributiones corean include simile registros de pluvias de meteoros e eclisses, particularmente de 1500 a 1750 in le Annalas del Dynastia Joseon. Medicina traditional chinese, acupuncture e medicina herbaria esseva practicate, con simile medicina practicate in Corea. Inter le prime inventiones se trovava le [[abaco]], le toilette public, e le "horologio de ombra".<ref name="Inventions">''Inventions'' (Pocket Guides).</ref> Joseph Needham notava le "Quatro Grandes Inventiones" de China como inter alcun del progressos technologic le plus importante; iste esseva le [[bussola]], le pulvere de cannone, le fabrication de papiro, e le impression, que deveniva cognoscite in Europa verso le fin del Medievo. Le dinastia Tang (AD 618 - 906) in particular, esseva un periodo de grande innovation.<ref name="Inventions" /> Multe schambio occurreva inter le inventiones del Occidente e de China usque a le dinastia Qing. Tamen, Needham e le majoritate del studiosos recognosceva que factores cultural impediava que iste realizationes chinese se developpava in lo que poterea esser considerate "scientia moderne". Era le structure religiose e philosophic del intellectual chinese que les rendeva incapace de creder in le ideas de leges del natura: {{Citation|Non esseva que il non habeva ordine in le natura pro le chineses, ma piuttosto que illo non esseva un ordine ordinate per un esser personal rational, e ergo il non habeva conviction que esseres personal rational poterea explicar in lor linguas terrenale minus le divin codigo de leges que il habeva decretate antea. Le taoistas, vermente, haberian dispreziate tal idea como troppo naïve pro le subtilitate e complexitate del universo como illes lo intuiva.|Joseph Needham, Scientia e Civilisation in China, vol. 2, p. 581.}} == Scientia islamic == {{AP|Scientia in le mundo islamic medieval}} Il ha plure periodos in le historia del scientia que continua usque hodie. Un periodo major es inter le 7e e le 16e seculos que marca le periodo del inception del scientia islamic sub le disveloppamento del civilisation islamic. Il ha multe rationes pro le florescentia del scientia in iste periodo in le region. Le ration le plus importante esseva que le religion islamic e le governamento islamic supportava multo le recercatores, extendente lor cognoscentia del scientia; le recercatores esseva etiam multo respectate per le population. Inter le recercatores, habeva [[Avicenna]], qui inter multe cosas scribeva "Il Canon del Medicina"; ille establiva hospitales gratuite e disveloppava multe tractamentos excellente que era ignote al homine. Un altere persona recognoscite esseva Al-Riza qui scribeva un tractato sur variola e morbilli, ille creava alas separate in hospitales pro le alienatos mental, un concepto previemente incognite. Excepte iste duo homines, multe altere recercatores ampliava le cognoscentia del scientia in le civilisationes islamic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Faruqi |first=Yasmeen |date=2006 |title=Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise |journal=International Education Journal |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=391–399 |id={{ERIC|EJ854295}}}}</ref> Ubi il ha un ascension, il essera sempre un decadentia. Le dominio del scientia in le civilisationes islamic ha principalmente finite. Quando le leaders religiose comenciava a ganiar plus poter politic in le communitate, le major parte del recercas in themas scientific comenciava a parar.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chaney |first=Eric |date=May 2016 |title=Religion and the Rise and Fall of Islamic Science |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/chaney/files/paper.pdf}}</ref> === Medicina islamic === Durante iste periodo, multe attributiones esseva facite al cognoscentia medical cognoscite al homine, e isto transformava completemente le facie del medicina ante iste periodo. Ante iste periodo, il habeva alcun cognoscentia a que le recercatores islamic e le gente habeva accesso, como Hippocrates e Galeno essente le duo principal, e con iste cognoscentia illes poteva ampliar plus tosto le themas de Medicina. Como mentionate previemente, un del duo medicos principal durante iste periodo esseva Ibn-Sina qui scribeva ''Le Canon del Medicina''. Ille esseva un figura multo importante pro le expansion del cognoscentia. Il Canon del Medicina es ancora le tractato medicinale le plus popular e le plus usate in le mundo. Iste libro es dividite in cinco capitulos: Capitulo un: es un cognoscentia basic de principios medical e un summarium de anatomia e proceduras therapeutic; capitulo duo: un summarium de substantias medical e lor proprietates general; capitulo tres: contine le diagnosis e tractamento de maladias cognoscite in relation a un parte specific del corpore o organo; capitulo quatro: tracta conditiones o maladias non specific al un parte del corpore; e finalmente capitulo cinque: concerne remedia composite e lor formulas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nasser |first1=Mona |last2=Tibi |first2=Aida |last3=Savage-Smith |first3=Emilie |author-link3=Emilie Savage-Smith |date=1 February 2009 |title=Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine: 11th century rules for assessing the effects of drugs |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=78–80 |doi=10.1258/jrsm.2008.08k040 |pmc=2642865 |pmid=19208873}}</ref> Le secunde recercator principal del epocha in expansion del cognoscentia durante le periodo islamic esseva Al-Riza, a vices cognoscite in le periodo medieval como le medicus le plus grande de su tempore. Al-Riza creava plus que duo cento obras, e plus que medietate de illos es basicamente sur cognoscentia medical. Le obra le plus importante que Riza faceva jam es "Kitab al-Hawi fi al-tibb" o communemente cognoscite como "Le libro comprehensive del Medicina". Isto es considerate un del su obras le plus importante proque illo esseva create per su notas medical personal collecte a traverso del annos sur omne que ille habeva legeva e su observationes de experientias medical que ille habeva personalmente testificate. Le Kitab al-Hawi fi al-tibb es un collaboration de 23 tomos, omnes contentente differente information. Cata tomo investiga detalladamente sur maladias specific e partes del corpore.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tibi |first=Selma |date=April 2006 |title=Al-Razi and Islamic medicine in the 9th century |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_royal-society-of-medicine-great-britain-journal_2006-04_99_4/page/206 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=206–207 |doi=10.1177/014107680609900425 |pmc=1420785 |pmid=16574977}}</ref> Multe altere figuras importante durante iste periodo ampliava le cognoscentia del medicina, ma Ibn-Sina e Al-Riza es recognoscite como le figuras le plus importante de iste epocha. === Astronomia islamic === Un altere grande area de expansion durante le 7e e 16e seculos esseva le thema de astronomia, e il habeva multe contributiones facite a iste epocha. Existeva multe information cognoscite previemente al initiamento del recerca proveniente de multe altere locos. Le gente islamic adjutava a actualizar le mathematica pro mensurar e calcular le movimentos del planetas o "le corpora celestiales". Isto non esseva le sol cosa que illes faceva; illes actualizava etiam modelos pro le movimento del corpora celestiales. Multe personas contribueva a iste actualisationes e a altere recercas, ma il ha alcun que se distinguet. Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi esseva un del figuras le plus influente in meliorar los modelos geometric de [[Ptolemeo]]. Abd scribeva le Libro del Imagines del Fixe Stellas que describa le quaranta octo constellationes formate per le stellas fixe. Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi esseva un figura multo importante a causa del expansiones que ille faceva in le mundo de astronomia usque iste tempore.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Upton |first=Joseph M. |date=1933 |title=A Manuscript of 'The Book of the Fixed Stars' by ʿAbd Ar-Raḥmān Aṣ-Ṣūfī |journal=Metropolitan Museum Studies |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=179–197 |doi=10.2307/1522800 |jstor=1522800}}</ref> Le studio de astrologia esseva anque un grande expansion durante le 7 e 16e seculos in le Islam. Tres figuras principal esseva Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, al-Biruni e Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. Omnes tres scribeva Tractatos que tractava de astrologia. Multes credeva que iste tractatos esseva contra le religion islamic e que illos faceva que le gente se averteva de lor religion, ma illes errava. Personas esseva assumpite per cortes regal pro decider quando annunciar information importante e quando facer decisiones sur themas specific. Astrologos anque adjuvava personas a prognosticar lor futuros e a leger lor horoscopos.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World &#124; Essay &#124; the Metropolitan Museum of Art &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/astr/hd_astr.htm |access-date=2021-12-06 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> == Conclusion == Le periodo islamic enlightava multo le perspectivas medic e astrologic del gente. Iste recercatores, scientistas e astronomos cambiava completamento le aspecto de iste themas pro le melior. Multes scribeva tractatos e libros pro delinear lor studios de maniera que le information poteva esser divulgite e le gente apprendera lo que vermente existeva in le mundo. Avantamentos medic era facite e contribueva ulteriormente a comprender le corpore in le qual nos vive hodie. Avantamentos astrologic esseva trovate que poteva adjutar futuro astronomos e astrologos a comprender le universo in le qual nos vive e lo que illo contine. Multe de iste libros e tractatos es ancora usate e studiate hodie e ha resistite al prova del tempore. Le Canon del Medicina es ancor un del libros le plus usate in le historia medicale hodie. Personas como Ibn-Sina e Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi contribueva a poner le thema del Scientia Islamic in nostre libros de studio hodie. Sempre ha ascensiones e cadentias in le historia, ma illo non significa que le historia va disapparer. Nos va continuar a apprender e florescer ab iste information que illes nos transpassava hodie e in le proxime futuro. == Referentias == {{Reflist|2}} == Bibliografia == *''Inventions'' (Pocket Guides). Publisher: DK CHILDREN; Pocket edition (March 15, 1995). {{ISBN|1-56458-889-0}}. {{ISBN|978-1-56458-889-0}} * [[Aaboe]], Asger. ''Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy''. Springer, 2001. *{{Cite web |last=Chaney |first=Eric |date=May 2016 |title=Religion and the Rise and Fall of Islamic Science |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/chaney/files/paper.pdf}} * Evans, James. ''The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. *{{Cite journal |last=Faruqi |first=Yasmeen |date=2006 |title=Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise |journal=International Education Journal |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=391–399 |id={{ERIC|EJ854295}}}} * [[Lindberg, David C.]] ''The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 BC. to AD. 1450''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. * [[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]] ''Greek Science after Aristotle''. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1973. {{ISBN|0-393-00780-4}}. *{{Cite journal |last1=Nasser |first1=Mona |last2=Tibi |first2=Aida |last3=Savage-Smith |first3=Emilie |date=1 February 2009 |title=Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine: 11th century rules for assessing the effects of drugs |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=78–80 |doi=10.1258/jrsm.2008.08k040 |pmc=2642865 |pmid=19208873}} *[[Joseph Needham|Needham, Joseph]], ''Science and Civilization in China'', volume 1. (Cambridge University Press, 1954) * Pedersen, Olaf. ''Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction''. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. *Sardar, Marika. “Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World.” ''Metmuseum.org'', <nowiki>https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/astr/hd_astr.htm</nowiki>. *{{Cite journal |last=Tibi |first=Selma |date=April 2006 |title=Al-Razi and Islamic medicine in the 9th century |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_royal-society-of-medicine-great-britain-journal_2006-04_99_4/page/206 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=206–207 |doi=10.1177/014107680609900425 |pmc=1420785 |pmid=16574977}} *{{Cite journal |last=Upton |first=Joseph M. |date=1933 |title=A Manuscript of 'The Book of the Fixed Stars' by ʿAbd Ar-Raḥmān Aṣ-Ṣūfī |journal=Metropolitan Museum Studies |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=179–197 |doi=10.2307/1522800 |jstor=1522800}} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] clrqhjmxov6riharxbe7ht48s8s3m1b 0 58208 698199 696256 2026-08-03T22:19:34Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698199 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:God the Geometer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|190px|Pro le majoritate de eruditos medieval, qui credeva que Deo creava le [[universo]] secundo principios [[Musica universalis|geometric e harmonic]], le [[scientia]] - particularmente le [[geometria]] e le [[astronomia]] - esseva directemente ligate al [[Divinitate|divin]]. Cercar iste principios, ergo, significa cercar Deo.]] Le '''scientia europee in le Medievo''' comprendeva le studio del [[natura]], [[mathematica]] e philosophia natural in le [[Medievo|Europa medieval]]. Post le cadita del Imperio Roman Occidental e le declino del cognoscentia del [[Lingua grec|greco]], le Europa Christian occidental esseva separate de un fonte importante de [[Scientia in le Antiquitate classic|scientia antique]]. Ben que un gamma de clericos e scholasticos christian ab [[Isidoro de Sevilla|Isidoro]] e Beda a Jean Buridan e Nicole Oresme manteneva le spirito del questa rational, le [[Europa Occidental|Europa occidental]] viderea un periodo de declino scientific durante le Medievo Prime. Tamen, al tempore del Medievo Grande, le region habeva recuperate e se dirigeva de novo verso assumer le initiativa in le discoperta scientific. Le studios e le discopertas scientific del Medievo Tardive preparava le terreno pro le Revolution Scientific del [[Etate Moderne]]. Secundo Pierre Duhem, qui fundava le studio academic del scientia medieval como un critica del theorias del [[Illuminismo]] positivistic sur un revolution scientific antiaristotelian e anticlerical del 17e seculo, le diverse origines conceptual de iste supponite revolution se trova in le 12e al 14e seculos, in le obras de ecclesiasticos como [[Thomas de Aquino]] e Buridan.<ref>Duhem laborava in ''Les origines de la statique'' in 1903, quando ille se incideva con un referentia a [[Jordanus Nemorarius]]. Isto provocava un profunde studio del scientia e cosmologia medieval, le qual ille initiava a publicar in 1913 como ''Le Système du monde'' (solmente cinque ab dece volumines esseva presso de esser publicate ante su morte).</ref> In le contexto de iste articulo, "Europa Occidental" refere se al culturas europee ligate per le [[Ecclesia Catholic]] e le [[lingua latin]]. == Europa Occidental == {{AP|Scientia in le Antiquitate classic}} Como le poter imperial roman terminava efficacemente in le Occidente durante le quinte seculo, le [[Europa Occidental]] entrava in le [[Medievo]] con difficultates grandissime que afficeva dramaticamente le production intellectual del continente. Le tractatos scientific classic de [[Antiquitate classic|antiquitate classic]] scribite in [[Lingua grec|greco]] era indisponibile, lassante solmente summaritas e compilationes simplificate. Tamen, textos scientific roman e medieval prime esseva legite e studiate, contribuente al comprehension de natura como un systema coherent que functiona sub le lege divinemente establite que pote esser comprehensite a luce del ration. Iste studio continuava durante le Medievo Prime, e con le [[Renascentia del seculo XII]], le interesse in iste studio esseva revitalize per le translation de textos scientific greco e arabic. Le studio scientific se disveloppava plus avant in le emergente universitates medieval, ubi iste textos esseva studiate e elaborate, portante a nove insights sur le phenomenonos del universo. Iste avantias es quasi ignote al publico leic de hodie, a causa principalmente que le major parte del theorias avanciate in le scientia medieval es hodie obsolete, e a causa del caricatura del Medievo como un "Epocha Obscure" que placeva "le parola del autoritates religiose super le experientia personal e le activitate rational."<ref>David C. Lindberg, "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor", in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, ed. ''When Science & Christianity Meet'', (Chicago: University of Chicago Pr., 2003), p.8</ref> === Prime Medievo (476–1000) === In le mundo antique, le greco esseva le lingua principal del scientia. Anque sub le Imperio Roman, textos in [[Lingua latin|latin]] se basava extensivemente sur obras grec, alcun pre-roman e alcun contemporanee; durante que le investigation scientific e le instruction continuava esser realisate in le parte [[hellenistic]] del imperio, in grec. Tentativas romane tardive de traducer scripturas grec in latin habeva successo limitate.<ref>[[William Harris Stahl |William Stahl]], ''Roman Science'' (Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1962). See especially pp. 120–33.</ref> In le transito al Medievo, durante que le cognoscentia del grec diminueva, le Occidente latin se trovava isolate de su radices philosophic e scientific grec. Le major parte del inquisition scientific deveniva basate super information colligite ex fontes frequente incomplete e causante difficultates seriose de interpretation. Qui parlava latin e voleva apprender sur le scientia habeva accesso solmente a libros per scriptores roman como Calcidio, Macrobio, Martianus Capella, Boethio, Cassiodoro, e postea [[Encyclopedista|encyclopedistas]] latin. Multe debeva esser colligite ex fontes non-scientific: manualios roman de arpentage esseva lectionate pro lo que includite geometria.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages |author=Edward Grant |year=1996 |pages=13–14 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-56137-X |oclc=185336926}}</ref> [[File:Aratea 93v.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Diagramma del 9e seculo que monstra le positiones observate e computate del septe planetas le 18 de martio 816.]] Le deurbanisation reduceva le ambito del education e al 6e seculo le instruction e le apprender se moviva a scholas monastic e cathedral, con le centro de education esse le studio del Biblia.<ref>Pierre Riché, ''Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century'' (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Pr., 1976), pp. 100–29.</ref> Education del laicos surviviva de maniera modeste in Italia, Hispania, e le parte meridional de Gallia, ubi le influentias roman esseva le plus durabile. Al 7e seculo, le apprender comenciava a emerger in Irlanda e le paises Celtic, ubi latin esseva un lingua estranie e textos latin esseva studiate e ensegnate con entusiasmo.<ref>Pierre Riché, ''Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century'' (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Pr., 1976), pp. 307–23.</ref> Le principal scholares del prim seculos esseva ecclesiasticos pro qui le studio del natura esseva ma un parte parve de lor interesse. Illes viveva in un atmosphera que provideva pauco appoio institutional pro le studio disinteressate de phaenomenos natural. Le studio del natura esseva perseque plus pro rationes practic que como un inquire abstracte: le necessitate de curar le malades conduciva al studio de medicina e de textos ancian sur medicamentes,<ref>Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," ''Isis'', 70(1979):250–68; reprinted in M. H. Shank, ed., ''The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages'', (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000).</ref> le necessitate pro monachos de determinar le tempore juste pro pregar les conduciva al studio del motion del stellas,<ref>Stephen C. McCluskey, "Gregory of Tours, Monastic Timekeeping, and Early Christian Attitudes to Astronomy," ''Isis'', 81(1990):9–22; reprinted in M. H. Shank, ed., ''The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages'', (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000).</ref> le necessitate de computar le data de Pascha les conduciva al studio e ensegnamento de mathematica rudimentari e del motiones del Sol e Luna.<ref>Stephen C. McCluskey, ''Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe'' (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1998), pp. 149–57.</ref> Lectores moderne poterea trovar disconcertante que a vices le mesme obras discute tanto le detalios technic de phaenomenos natural como lor signification symbolic.<ref>Faith Wallis, "'Number Mystique' in Early Medieval Computus Texts," pp. 179–99 in T. Koetsier and L. Bergmans, eds. ''Mathematics and the Divine: A Historical Study'' (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005).</ref> Verso le anno 800, [[Carolo Magne]], adjutate per le monacho anglese Alcuino de York, initiava lo que deveniva cognoscite como le Renascentia Carolingian, un programma de revitalisation cultural e reforma educational. Le aspecto scientific principal del reforma educational de Carolo Magno concerneva le studio e le ensegnamento de astronomia, tanto como un arte practic que le clericos requireva pro calcular le data de Pascha, como un disciplina theoric.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Butzer |editor-first=Paul Leo |editor2-last=Lohrmann |editor2-first=Dietrich |title=Science in Western and Eastern Civilization in Carolingian Times |place=Basel / Boston / Berlin |publisher=Birkhäuser Verlag |year=1993 |isbn=0-8176-2863-0 }}</ref> A partir del anno 787, decretos esseva emittite recommendante le restauration de scholas ancian e le fundation de nove in tote le imperio. Institutionalmente, iste nove scholas esseva sub le responsabilitate de un [[monasterio]], un [[cathedral]], o un curia nobili. Le labor scientific del periodo post Carolo Magno non esseva tanto concernite con investigation original como illo esseva con le studio active e le investigation de textos scientific roman antique.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eastwood |first=Bruce S. |title=Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astrology and Cosmology in the Caroligian Renaissance |place=Leiden / Boston |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |page=23 |isbn=978-90-04-16186-3 }}</ref> Iste investigation aperiva le cammino pro le effortio posterior de studiosos occidental de recuperar e traducer textos grec ancian in philosophia e scientias. === Alte Medievo (1000–1300) === {{Further|[[Renascentia del seculo XII]]|[[Traductiones latin del seculo XII]]}} [[File:Tavernier Jean Mielot.jpg|thumb|left|Le traduction de operes grec e arabe permitteva le plen developmento del philosophia christian e le methodo [[Scholastica|scholastic]].]] A comenciar circa le anno 1050, eruditos europee edificava super lor cognoscentia existente cercante cognoscentia antique in textos grec e arabe que illes traduceva in latino. Illes se incontrava con un grande varietate de textos classic grec, algun de quales ja esseva traducite in arabe, accompagnate per commentarios e opera independente de pensatores islamic.<ref>Charles Homer Haskins (1927), ''The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century'' (Cambridge: Harvard UP), pp. 278–302.</ref> Gerard de Cremona es un bon exemplo: un italiano qui viagiava a Espania pro copiar un sol texto, ille remaneva pro traducer circa septanta obras.<ref>{{cite book|author=Howard R. Turner|title=Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction|year=1995|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=0-292-78149-0|oclc=231712498|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/scienceinmedieva0000turn}}</ref> Su biographia describe como ille arrivava a Toledo: "Ille esseva instruite ab infantia in centros de studio philosophic e habeva acquirate cognoscentia de omne que esseva cognoscite per le Latinos; ma pro amore del Almagesto, que ille non poteva trovar del toto inter le Latinos, ille se dirigeva a Toledo; ibi, vidente le abundantia de libros in arabe sur cata subjecto e regretante le paupertate del Latinos in iste cosas, ille apprendeva le lingua arabe, a fin de esser capace de traducer."<ref>{{cite book |title=A Source Book in Medieval Science |author=Edward Grant |year=1974 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-82360-5 |page=35}}</ref> [[File:Map of Medieval Universities.jpg|thumb|220px|Mapa de universitates medieval. Illos initiava un nove infrastructura que esseva necesse pro communitates scientific.]] In iste periodo, nos videva etiam le nascentia de universitates medieval, que beneficiava materialmente del textos traducite e provideva un nove infrastructura pro communitates scientific. Alicun de iste nove universitates esseva registrate como institutiones de excellentia international per le [[Sacre Imperio Roman]], recipiente le titulo de ''Studium Generale''. Le major parte del prime ''Studia Generali'' se trovava in [[Italia]], [[Francia]], [[Anglaterra]] e [[Espania]], e iste esseva considerate le locos plus prestigiose de apprendimento in Europa. Iste lista cresceva rapidemente durante que nove universitates esseva fundate a traverso de Europa. Isto se produciva al minus al comenciar del 13e seculo, quando scholares de un ''Studium Generale'' esseva incoragiate a dar cursos de lectura in altere institutes a trans Europa e a compartir documentos, e isto conduceva al cultura academic actual vidite in le universitates european moderne. Le rediscoperta del obras de Aristotele permitteva le plen developmento del nove philosophia christian e le methodo scholastic. Al 1200, il habeva translationes latino relativemente accurate del obras principal de [[Aristotele]], [[Euclide]], [[Ptolemeo]], [[Archimedes]] e [[Galeno]]—il es dicite, de omne le autores antique intellectualmente crucial excepte [[Platon]]. Anque, multe del textos clave medieval arab e judee, como le obras principal de [[Avicenna]], [[Averroes]] e [[Maimonides]], deveniva disponibile in latino. Durante le 13e seculo, le [[Scholastica|scholasticos]] expandeva le philosophia natural de iste textos con commentarios (associate con lection in le universitates) e tractatos independente. Notabile inter istos esseva le obras de Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, John de Sacrobosco, Alberto Magno e Duns Scoto. Le scholasticos credeva in le empirismo e le appoio a doctrinas catholic a traverso studio secular, ration, e logica. Le plus famose esseva Thomas de Aquino (postea declarate un "[[Doctor del Ecclesia]]"), qui dirigeva le cambio ab le platonismo e au[[augustinismo]] rso le aristotelismo (ben que le philosophia natural non esseva su interesse principal). Intertanto, precursores del methodo scientific moderne se poteva vider ja in le emphase de Grosseteste sur le mathematica como maniera de comprender le natura e in le approcio empiric admirate per Roger Bacon. [[File:Optics from Roger Bacon's De multiplicatone specierum.jpg|thumb|250px|Diagramma optic monstrante le refraccion de luce per un recipiente spheric de vitro plen de aqua (ex Roger Bacon, ''De multiplicatione specierum'').]] Grosseteste esseva le fundator del famose schola franciscan de Oxford. Ille basava su travalio sur le vision aristotelic del duplice via del rationamento scientific. Concluder ab observationes particular a un lege universal, e alora retro: ab leges universal a predictiones de particular. Grosseteste appellava isto "resolution e composition". Plus, Grosseteste diceva que ambes vias debe esser verificate per experimento a fin de verificar le principios. Iste ideas establiva un tradition que portava al futuro a Padua e Galileo Galilei in le 17e seculo. Sub le tutela de Grosseteste e inspirate per le scripturas de [[Alchimia|alchimistas]] arab qui habeva preservate e construite sur le portrait de Aristotele del induction, Bacon describeva un cyclo repetitive de observation, [[Hypothese|hypothese]], experimento, e le necessitate de verification independente. Ille registrava le maniera in le qual ille conducite su experimentos con un precision detaliate de modo que alteres poteva reproducer e testar independentemente su resultados - un fundamento del [[methodo scientific]], e un continuation del labor de investigatores como Al Battani. Bacon e Grosseteste conduciteva investigationes in [[optica]], ben que multo de illo esseva simile a lo que esseva facite al tempore per scholares arab. Bacon faceva un importante contribution al disveloppamento del scientia in le Europa medieval per scriber al [[Papa]] pro incitar al studio del scientia natural in cursos universitari e compiler plure volumines que registrava le stato del cognoscentia scientific in multe campos al tempore. Ille descripeva le possibile construction de un telescopio, ma non ha evidente forte de haber facite un. === Tarde Medievo (1300–1500) === Durante le prime medietate del 14e seculo, vidite le labor scientific de grande pensatores. Le studios logic de William de Occam lo conduxisse a postular un formulation specific del principio de parsimonia, cognoscite hodie como la razor de Occam. Iste principio es un del principal heuristicas usate per le scientia moderne pro seliger inter duo o plus theorias subdeterminate, ben que sia justo notar que iste principio esseva usate explicitemente per Ambrosio e [[Aristotele]] ante ille. A medida que le studiosos occidental deveniva plus consciente (e plus acceptante) de tractatos scientific controversial del Imperios Byzantine e Islamic, iste lecturas inspirava nove perspectivas e speculationes. Le obras del prime studioso Byzantine John Philoponus inspirava studiosos occidental como Jean Buridan a questionar le sapientia acceptate del [[Mechanica classic|mechanica]] de Aristoteles. Buridan disveloppava le theoria de impeto, que esseva un passo verso le concepto moderne de inertia. Buridan anticipava [[Isaac Newton]] quando ille scribeva: [[File:Galileo-1638-173.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Le demonstration de [[Galileo]] del lege del spatio percorrite in caso de moto uniformemente variabile - como [[Oresme]] habeva demonstrate seculos anteriormente.]] {{Citation|...post haber lasciate le bracio del lanciator, le projectil esseva movite per un impetus date a illo per le lanciator e continuarerea a esser movite tanto que le impetus remaneva plus forte que le resistantia, e esserea de durata infinite si non esseva diminuite e corrupte per un fortia contrari resistente illo o per alique inclinante illo a un motion contrari.}} Thomas Bradwardine e su associate, le Calculatores de Merton College, Oxford, distingueva cinetica de dinamica, accentuante le cinetica, e investigante velocitate instantaneous. Illes formulava le theorema del velocitate medie: un corpore moviente con velocitate constante percorre distantia e tempore equal a un corpore accelerante cuje velocitate es le medietate del velocitate final del corpore accelerante. Illes anque demonstrava iste theorema — le essentia de "Lege del Corpores Cadente" — multo ante [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], a qui se attribue generalmente iste theorema.<ref>[[Clifford Truesdell]] (1968), ''Essays in the History of Mechanics'' New York: Springer-Verlag.</ref> A su vice, Nicole Oresme monstrava que le rationes proponite per le physic de Aristoteles contra le movemento del Terra non esseva valide e adduceva le argumento de simplicitate pro le theoria que le Terra se move, e non le caelos. Nonobstante iste argumento a favor del motion del Terra, Oresme retrocedeva al opinion commun que "omnes affirman, e ego ipse creo, que le caelos se move e non le terra."<ref>{{cite book |author=Nicole Oresme |author-link=Nicole Oresme |editor1-last=Menut |editor1-first=Albert D. |editor2-last=Denomy |title=Le Livre du ciel et du monde |year=1968 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |pages=536–7 |editor2-first=Alexander J.}}</ref> Le historia del scientia Ronald Numbers nota que le assumption scientific moderne del naturalismo methodologic pote esser tractate al travalio de iste pensatores medieval: {{Citation|Al fin del Medievo le recerca de causas natural deveniva typic del labor de philosophos natural christian. Ben que characteristicamente lassante le porta aperite pro le possibilitate de intervento divin directe, illes frequentemente exprimeva contemptu pro contemporaneos debile de mente qui invocava miraculos invicem que cercava explicationes natural. Le cleric del Universitate de Paris Jean Buridan (ca. 1295–ca. 1358), describite como "probabilemente le magistro de artes le plus brillante del Medievo", contrastava le recerca del philosopho pro "causas natural appropriates" con le habitude erronee del populo de attribuer phenomena astronomic insolite al supernatural. In le 14e seculo, le philosopho natural Nicole Oresme (ca. 1320–82), qui deveniva postea un episcopo catholic roman, admoniva que, durante le discussion de varie miraculos del natura, "non existe ration a recurrer al caelos, le ultime refugio del debile, o demonios, o al nostre Deo gloriose como si ille produceria iste effectos directemente, plus que ille effectos cujas causas nos crede ben cognite."<ref>[[Ronald L. Numbers]] (2003). "Science without God: Natural Laws and Christian Beliefs" in ''When Science and Christianity Meet'', edited by David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, p. 267.</ref>}} Tamen, un serie de eventos que devenirea cognoscite como le Crise del Tardo Medievo esseva in curso. Quando veniva le [[Peste nigre|Morte Nigre]] de 1348, illo sigillava un fin subite al epocha precedente de progresso scientific. Le peste occideva un tertie del population in Europa, specialmente in le conditiones crowdate del urbes, ubi se trovava le nucleo del innovationes. Recurrentias del peste e altere catastrophes causava un declino continuae del population pro un seculo. === Renascentia (15e seculo) === [[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|''[[Homo Vitruvian]]'' de [[Leonardo da Vinci]].]] Le 15e seculo viderea le initio del movimento cultural del Reanscentia. Le rediscoverimento de textos scientific grec, tanto antiques como medieval, accelerava quando le [[Imperio Byzantin]] cedeva al [[Imperio Ottoman|Ottomanos]] e multe studiosos byzantin cercava refugio in Occidente, particularmente in [[Italia]]. In tote, le invento del impression habeva grande effectos sur le societate europee: le dissemination facilitate del parolas impressite democratizava le apprentissage e permitteva un propagation plus rapide de nove ideas. Quando le Renascentia se diffundeva al Europa del Nord, le scientia essera revivificate per figuras como [[Nicolaus Copernico|Copernico]], [[Francis Bacon]] e [[René Descartes|Descartes]] (ben que Descartes es frequentemente describite como un pensator del prime Enlichtenment, plus que del fin del Renaissance). == Influentias Byzantin e Islamic == === Interactiones byzantin === Le [[Imperio Byzantin|scientia byzantin]] ha jocate un importante rolo in le transmission de cognoscentia classic al mundo islamic e al Italia del Renascentia, e etiam in le transmission de cognoscentia arab medieval al Italia del Renaissance. Su rica tradition historiographic ha conservate cognoscentia antique super le qual [[arte]], [[architectura]], [[litteratura]] e successos technologic magnificente esseva construite. Scientistas byzantine ha conservate e continuate le hereditage del grandes mathematicos del antiquitate grec e les ha applicate in practica. In le Byzantium prime (5e-7e seculos), le architectos e mathematicos Isidore de Milet e Anthemius de Tralles usava formulas mathematic complexe pro construer le grande templo "Hagia Sophia," un breakthrough technologic magnificente pro su epocha e pro seculos postea, a causa de su geometria impressionante, designo audace e altezza. In le Byzantium tardive (9e-12e seculos), mathematicos como Michael Psellos considerava le mathematica como un medio pro interpreter le mundo. Ioanne Philopono, un scholare byzantine del 6e seculo, esseva le prime persona a questionar systematicamente le doctrina de physica de Aristotele.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/historians-miscellaneous-biographies/john-philoponus|title=John Philoponus &#124; Encyclopedia.com|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=May 7, 2020}}</ref> Isto serviva como inspiration pro Galileo Galilei dece seculos plus tarde, dato que Galileo citava substantialmente Philoponus in su obras quando Galileo argumentava proque le physica aristotelic esseva defective durante le Revolution Scientific.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. Page 162.</ref><ref>{{Cite book | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/ |title = The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|chapter = John Philoponus|year = 2018|publisher = Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref> === Interactiones islamic === [[File:Westerner and Arab practicing geometry 15th century manuscript.jpg|159px|right|thumb|Un [[Mundo occidental|occidental]] e un [[arabe]] apprendent [[geometria]] in le 15e seculo.]] Le Imperio Byzantine initialmente provideva al mundo islamic medieval textos [[Greco ancian|antique grec]] sur astronomia e mathematica pro translation al [[Lingua arabe|arabe]]. Postea, con le emergentia del mundo islamic, scientistas byzantin como Gregorio Chioniades traduceva textos arabe sur astronomia, mathematica e scientia islamic in greco medieval, includente le obras de Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi,<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2998/ |title=Introduction to Astronomy, Containing the Eight Divided Books of Abu Ma'shar Abalachus |website=[[World Digital Library]] |year=1506 |access-date=2013-07-16 |accessdate=2024-01-10 |archivedate=2019-10-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012043331/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2998/ }}</ref> Ibn Yunus, al-Khazini,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pingree |first1=David |author-link=David Pingree |name-list-style=vanc |year=1964 |title=Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=18 |pages=135–60 |doi=10.2307/1291210 |jstor=1291210 }}</ref> [[Mohamet ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reviews: ''The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Volume I: The Zij al- Ala'i'' by Gregory Chioniades, David Pingree; ''An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomy'' by Alexander Jones|first=David A.|last=King|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=82|issue=1|date=March 1991|pages=116–8|doi=10.1086/355661}}</ref> e Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī inter alteres. Il habeva etiam scientistas byzantine qui usava translitterationes arabe pro describer certe conceptos scientific in vice de equivalentes terminos antique grec (como le uso del arabe "talei" in vice del antique grec "horoscopus"). Assi, le scientia byzantine jocava un rolo importante non solmente in transmitter cognoscentia antique grec a Europa Occidental e al mundo islamic, ma etiam in transmitter cognoscentia islamic a Europa Occidental. Scientistas byzantine deveniva cognite etiam con le astronomia sassanide e indian per citationes in alcun obras arabe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pingree |first1=David |author-link=David Pingree |name-list-style=vanc |year=1964 |title=Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=18 |pages=135–60 (139, fn. 33) |doi=10.2307/1291210|jstor=1291210 }}</ref> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == *{{cite book |last=Crombie |first=A. C. |author-link=Alistair Cameron Crombie |title=Augustine to Galileo: The History of Science A.D. 400 - 1650 |orig-year=1952 |edition=Revised |year=1969 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14-055074-7 |oclc=668995}} *{{cite book |author=Grant, Edward |author-link=Edward Grant |title=The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional, and intellectual contexts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56762-9 }} *{{cite book |author=Grant, Edward |author-link=Edward Grant |title=A source book in medieval science |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1974 |isbn=0-674-82360-5 }} *{{cite book |last=Hannam |first=James |title=The Genesis of Science: How the Christian Middle Ages Launched the Scientific Revolution |publisher=Regnery |year=2011 |location=Washington, DC |pages=454 |isbn=978-1-59698-155-3}} *{{cite book |author=Huff, Toby E. |author-link=Toby Huff |title=The rise of early modern science: Islam, China, and the West |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-52994-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLxRGjr1gYQC&pg=PA245}} *{{cite book |last=Lindberg|first=David C. |author-link=David C. Lindberg |title=The Beginnings of Western Science |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind|url-access=registration|year=1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-48230-8 |oclc=185636619}} *{{cite book |author=Lindberg, David C. |author-link=David C. Lindberg |title=Science in the middle ages |publisher=University of Chicago P |location=Chicago |year=1978 |isbn=0-226-48233-2 }} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Lindberg |editor1-first=David C. |editor1-link=David C. Lindberg |editor2-last=Shank |editor2-first=Michael H. |title=The Cambridge History of Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=2, Medieval Science |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-521-59448-6 |url=http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/ebook.jsf?bid=CHO9780511974007 |access-date=2014-01-17 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110954/http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/ebook.jsf?bid=CHO9780511974007 |url-status=dead }} *{{cite book |title=Breakthroughs. A chronology of great achievements in science and mathematics, 1200-1930 |author=Parkinson, Claire |year=1985 |publisher=Mansell |isbn=0-7201-1800-X }} *{{cite book |author=Restivo, Sal P. |title=Science, technology, and society: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2005 |isbn=0-19-514193-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1uHrupcekRsC&pg=PA531}} *{{cite book |author=Shank, Michael H. |title=The scientific enterprise in antiquity and the middle ages: readings from Isis |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=2000 |isbn=0-226-74951-7 }} *{{cite book |author=Walsh, James |author-link=James Joseph Walsh |title=The Popes and Science: The History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time |year=1908 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |orig-year=1908 |isbn=0-7661-3646-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/popesandscience00goog}} :Review: {{cite journal |doi=10.1097/00000658-190903000-00030 |last1= Walsh|first1= James J.|title=The Popes and Science |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-surgery_1909-03_49_3/page/445 |journal=Ann. Surg. |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=445–7 |date=March 1909 |pmc=1407075 }} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Cultura medieval]] [[Categoria:Scientia e technologia in Europa]] [[Categoria:Scientia in le Medievo| ]] p73pt90o53t1pi9ksbfmy3phqotd20j 0 58211 698184 694808 2026-08-03T21:46:59Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698184 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|240px|right|thumb|[[Homo de Vitruvio]] de [[Leonardo da Vinci]], un exemplo del fusion de arte e scientia durante le Renascentia.]] Durante le [[Renascentia]], grande progressos occurreva in [[geographia]], [[astronomia]], [[chimia]], [[physica]], [[mathematica]], [[manufactura]], anatomia, e ingenieria. Le collection de textos scientific antique comenciava seriemente al initio del seculo XV e continuava usque al [[Cadita de Constantinopole]] in 1453, e le invention del imprimeria permitteva un propagation plus rapide de nove ideas. Nonobstante, alcunes ha vidite le Renascentia, al minus in su periodo initial, como un epocha de retrogradation scientific. Historiatores como George Sarton e Lynn Thorndike criticava como le Renascentia affectava le scientia, argumentante que le progresso esseva retardate pro un certe periodo de tempore. Humanistas preferiva subjectos centrate sur le homine como politica e historia sur le studio de philosophia natural o mathematica applicate. Plus recentemente, tamen, studiosos ha recognoscite le influentia positive del Renascentia sur mathematica e scientia, indicante factores como le rediscoverimento de textos perdit o obscure e le augmentate emphasis sur le studio del lingua e le lection correcte de textos.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Rose|first=Paul Lawrence|date=1973|title=Humanist Culture and Renaissance Mathematics: The Italian Libraries of the Quattrocento|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2857013|journal=Studies in the Renaissance|volume=20|pages=46–105|doi=10.2307/2857013|jstor=2857013|issn=0081-8658}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Anglin|first1=W. S.|title=Mathematics in the Renaissance|date=1995|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-0803-7_25|work=The Heritage of Thales|pages=125–131|editor-last=Anglin|editor-first=W. S.|series=Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-0803-7_25|isbn=978-1-4612-0803-7|access-date=2021-04-09|last2=Lambek|first2=J.|editor2-last=Lambek|editor2-first=J.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Jayawardene|first=S. A.|date=June 1978|title=The Italian Renaissance of Mathematics: Studies on Humanists and Mathematicians from Petrarch to Galileo. Paul Lawrence Rose|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/352043|journal=Isis|volume=69|issue=2|pages=298–300|doi=10.1086/352043|issn=0021-1753}}</ref> Marie Boas Hall inventava le termino "Renascentia Scientific" pro designar le prime phase del [[Revolution Scientific]], 1450–1630. Plus recentemente, Peter Dear ha argumentate pro un modelo de duo phases del scientia del epocha moderne: un "Renascentia Scientific" del seculos XV e XVI, concentrante se sur le restoration del cognoscentia natural del ancianos; e un "Revolution Scientific" del seculo XVII, quando scientistas cambiava del recuperation al innovation. == Contexto == Durante e post le [[Renascentia del seculo XII]], Europa experiva un revitalisation intellectual, specialmente in le investigation del mundo natural. Tamen, in le seculo XIV, un serie de eventos que deveniva cognoscite como le Crisis del Tardo Medievo esseva in curso. Quando le Morte Nigre arrivava, ille exterminava tal numero de vidas que illo afficteva tote le systema. Illo ponia subito fin al epocha precedente de massive transformation scientific. Le peste occideva 25–50% del population in Europe, specialmente in le conditiones dense de le urbes, ubi se trovava le nucleo del innovationes. Recurrentias del peste e altere catastrophes causava un declino continue del population pro un seculo. == Renascentia == Le seculo XIV viderea le initio del movimento cultural del [[Renascentia]]. Al initio del seculo XV, un recerca international de manuscriptos ancian esseva in curso e continuarea sin interrupition usque al Cade de Constantinopole in 1453, quando multe scholasticos byzantin esseva obligate a cercar refugio in le [[Occidente]], particularmente [[Italia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hall|first=Marie Boas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnW2YIrn2pEC|title=The Scientific Renaissance 1450-1630|date=1994-01-01|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-28115-5|language=en}}</ref> Al simile, le invento del pressa de impression habeva un grande effecto sur le societate europee: le dissemination facilitate del parola impressite democratizava le apprentissage e permitteva un propagation plus rapide de nove ideas. Initialmente, il non habeva nove developmentos in physica o astronomia, e le reverentia pro le fontes classic consolidava plus ancor le opiniones [[Aristotele|aristotelic]] e [[Ptolemeo|ptolemaic]] del universo. Le philosophia del Renascentia perdeva multo de su rigore, a causa del facto que le regulas del logica e deduction esseva viste como secundari a intuition e emotion. Al mesme tempore, le humanismo del Renascentia accentuava que le natura veniva a esser considerate como un creation animate e spiritual que non esseva governate per le lege o mathematica. Solmente postea, quando non habeva plus manuscriptos a trovar, los humanistas cambiava de colliger a editar e traducer los, e nove labor scientific comenciava con le travalio de figuras como [[Nicolaus Copernico|Copernico]], Cardano, e Vesalio. == Disveloppamentos importante == === Alchimia e chimia === [[File:Alchemy elements chart annotated metatron.jpg|thumb|Diagramma de elementos alchimic.]] Benque differente in alcun aspectos, [[alchimia]] e [[chimia]] frequentemente habeva objectivos simile durante le periodo del Renascentia, e insimul illos es occasionalmente referite como chimia.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence |title=The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |edition=1st |series=Very Short Introductions |location=Oxford}}</ref> Le alchimia es le studio del transmutation de materiales per processos obscur. Ben que illo es frequentemente considerate como un effortio pseudoscientific, multe de su practicantes usava theorias scientific largemente acceptate de lor temporas pro formular hypotheses sur le componentes de materia e le manieras in le quales le materia poteva esser cambiate.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 |date=2007 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd |location=Chicago |pages=290–294}}</ref> Un del objectivos principal de alchimistas esseva trovar un methodo pro crear oro e altere metales pretiose del transmutation de materiales basse.<ref name=":2" /> Un credito commun de alchimistas esseva que il existe un substantia essential ex le qual tote altere substantias formava, e que si on poteva reducer un substantia a iste material original, on poteva alora construer lo in un altere substantia, como plombo a oro.<ref name=":13" /> Alchimistas medieval laborava con duo elementos principal o "principios", sulphur e mercurio.<ref name=":13" /> Paracelso esseva un chimico e medic del periodo del Renascentia qui credeva que, al lato de sulphur e mercurio, le sal era un del principios alchimic principal ex le qual tote le altere cosas esseva facite.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Bruce T. |title=Paracelsus: An Alchemical Life |date=2019 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-78914-144-3 |series=Renaissance lives |location=London, UK}}</ref> Paracelso anque esseva instrumental in contribuer al uso practic del practicas chimic in le medicina a travese de un recognition que le corpore opera per processos que pote esser considerate como chimic in lor natura.<ref name=":03" /> Iste lineas de pensamento entrava in conflicto directemente con multe credos traditionalmente retene, tal como illos popularisate per Aristotele; tamen, Paracelso insisteva que questionar principios de natura esseva essential pro continuar le crescentia general de cognoscentia.<ref name=":03" /> Nonobstante su basamento frequente in lo que pote esser considerate practicas scientific secundo standardes moderne, numeros factores faceva que la chimia como disciplina remaneva separate del academia general usque al fin del Renascentia, quando finalmente illo comenciava a apparer como un parte de alcun education universitari.<ref name=":13" /><ref name="Sarton">{{Cite book |last=Sarton |first=George |title=Six Wings: Men of Science in the Renaissance |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |year=1967}}</ref> Le natura commercial de chymia a ille epocha, junte con le manco de base classical pro le practica, esseva alcun del factores contributive que conduceva al vision general del disciplina como un artisanto plus que un disciplina academic respectabile.<ref name=":13" /> === Astronomia === [[File:1550 SACROBOSCO Tractatus de Sphaera - (16) Ex Libris rare - Mario Taddei.JPG|left|thumb|Paginas ex 1550 ''Annotazione'' super ''De sphaera mundi'' de Sacrobosco, monstrante le systema [[Geocentric model#Ptolemaic model|Ptolemaic]].]] Le astronomia del tardo Medievo basava se super le modelo geocentric descrite per [[Ptolemeo|Claudio Ptolemeo]] in le antiquitate. Probabilemente multo pauc astronomos o astrologos practicante habeva vermente leger le Almagesto de Ptolemeo, que habeva essite traducite al latino per Gerardo de Cremona in le seculo XII. In vice, illes confidava in introductiones al systema ptolemaic tal como le De sphaera mundi de Johannes de Sacrobosco e le genere de manuales cognoscite como Theorica planetarum. Pro le labor de previder le motos planetari, illes se confiava al tabulas alfonsine, un collection de tabulas astronomic basate super le modelos del Almagesto ma incorporate con alcun modificationes plus tard, principalmente le modelo de trepidation attribuite a Thabit ibn Qurra. Al contrario de opinion popular, astronomos del Medievo e del Renascentia non recurreva a "epicyculos super epicyculos" pro corrigir le modelos originalmente ptolemaic—usque avenir a Copernico mesme. Iste revolution in astronomia comenciava alrededor de 1450, quando le mathematico Georg Purbach (1423–1461) initiava un serie de lectiones sur astronomia al Universitate de Vienna. Regiomontanus (1436–1476), qui esseva un de su studentes, collectava su notas del lectiones e postea les publicava como ''Theoricae novae planetarum'' in le annos 1470. Iste "Nove Theorica" substitueva le theorica anterieure como le libro de texto de astronomia avanciate. Purbach anque comenciava a preparar un summario e commentario sur le Almagesto. Ille moriva post haber completate solmente sex libros, tamen, Regiomontanus continuava le tarefa, consultante un manuscripto greco portate de Constantinopole per le Cardinal Bessarion. Quando illo esseva publicate in 1496, le Epitome del Almagesto rendeva le niveles superior de astronomia ptolemaic largemente accessibile a multe astronomos europee pro le prime vice. [[File:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg|right|thumb|[[Nicolaus Copernico]].]] Le ultime evento importante in le astronomia del Renascentia es le travalio de [[Nicolaus Copernico]] (1473–1543). Ille esseva inter le prime generation de astronomos educate con le ''Theoricae novae'' e le ''Epitome''. Poco ante 1514 ille comenciava a reviver le idea de [[Aristarcho]] que le Terra revolveva circa le Sol. Ille passava le resto de su vita a essayar un demonstration mathematic de heliocentrismo. Quando ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' esseva finalmente publicate in 1543, Copernico esseva in su lecto de morte. Un comparation de su travalio con le Almagesto monstra que Copernico esseva, in multe modos, un scientista del Renascentia plus que un revolutionario, proque ille sequiva le methodos de Ptolemeo e mesmo su ordine de presentar le subjecto. Non esque usque le travalios de [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571–1630) e [[Galileo Galilei]] (1564–1642) que le maniera de facer astronomia de Ptolemeo esseva superate. Le uso de tabulas e mathematica plus avanciate dava le impulso pro le establishment del [[calendario gregorian]] in 1582 (primarimente pro reformar le calculation del data de Pasca), que substitueva le calendario julian, que habeva plure errores.<ref name="Sarton" /> === Mathematica === [[File:Parabola and inscribed triangle.svg|left|thumb|La demonstrationes de Archimedes del area de un segmento parabolic in ''[[The Quadrature of the Parabola|Quadrature of the Parabola]]'' inspirava labor sur quadraturas e cubaturas in le seculos XV e XVI.<ref>{{Citation|last=Høyrup|first=Jens|title=Archimedes: Reception in the Renaissance|date=2019|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_892-1|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy|pages=1–7|editor-last=Sgarbi|editor-first=Marco|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_892-1|isbn=978-3-319-02848-4|s2cid=212949014|access-date=2021-04-23}}</ref>]] Le successos de mathematicos grec ha sobrevivite a toto le Tardo Antiquitate e le Medievo a traverson de un historia longe e indirecte. Multe del labor de [[Euclide]], [[Archimedes]] e [[Apollonio]], conjunctemente con autorias plus tarde como Hero e Pappus, esseva copiate e studiate tanto in le cultura byzantin como in le centros islamic de apprentissage. Translationes de iste operationes comenciava ja in le seculo XII, con le labor de traductores in Hispania e Sicilia, que laborava principalmente a partir de fontes arabic e grec in le latino. Duo del traductores plus prolific esseva Gerard de Cremona e William de Moerbeke. Le plus grande de tote le effortios de translation, tamen, occurreva in le seculos XV e XVI in Italia, como attestate per le numeros manuscritos de iste periodo que se trova actualmente in bibliothecas europee. Practicamente omne mathematicianos principal de iste epocha esseva obsedite per le necessitate de restaurar le operationes mathematic del antiques. Non solmente humanistas adjuvava mathematicos con le recuperation de manuscriptos grec, ma anque illes prendeva un rolo active in le translation de iste operationes in latino, frequentemente commissionate per lideres religiose como Nicholas V e le Cardinal Bessarion.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1993-01-08|title=Mathematics - Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture {{!}} Exhibitions - Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vatican/math.html|access-date=2021-04-09|website=www.loc.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gouwens|first=Kenneth|date=1996-09-22|title=Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library and Renaissance Culture|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=00344338&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA18881400&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|journal=Renaissance Quarterly|language=English|volume=49|issue=3|pages=618–620|doi=10.2307/2863370|jstor=2863370|s2cid=191382178 }}</ref> Alcun del figuras principal in iste effortio include Regiomontanus, qui facieva un copia del Archimedes latino e initiava un programma pro imprimir operationes mathematic; Commandino (1509–1575), qui anque produceva un edition de Archimedes, como anque editiones de operationes per Euclides, Hero e Pappus; e Maurolyco (1494–1575), qui non solmente traduceva le operationes de mathematicianos antie, ma addeva multo de su proprie labor a illos. Lor translationes garantiva que le proxime generation de mathematicos possederea technicas multo plus avantiate que lo que generalmente esseva disponibile durante le Medievo.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Il debe esser retinite que le production mathematic del seculos XV e XVI non esseva exclusivemente limitate al operationes del antiques grec. Alcun mathematicos, como Tartaglia e Luca Paccioli, acceptava e expandeva le traditiones medieval de scholasticos islamic e personas como Jordano e Fibonnacci.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2006-02-01|title=Renaissance notions of number and magnitude|journal=Historia Mathematica|language=en|volume=33|issue=1|pages=63–81|doi=10.1016/j.hm.2004.11.011|issn=0315-0860|doi-access=free|last1=Malet|first1=Antoni}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Høyrup|first=Jens|title=Practitioners – school teachers – "mathematicians": The divisions of pre-Modern mathematics and its actors|date=2003|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.862}}</ref> Giordano Bruno anque criticava le operationes de personas como Aristotele, que ille credeva haber un logica defective, e developpava un doctrina mathematic pro le computation de physica partial, con Bruno a tentar transformar theorias de natura.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gatti |first=Hilary |title=Giordano Bruno and Renaissance Science |publisher=Cornell University |year=1999 |isbn=0-8014-3529-3 |pages=144}}</ref> === Physica === Le progresso que se faceva in mathematica esseva complementate per avancos in physica, con personas como [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] que tentava unir le spacios inter le duo campos e questionar le ideas aristotelic.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |title=Art, Science, and History in the Renaissance |date=1970 |publisher=Johns Hopkins Press |isbn=978-0-8018-0602-5 |editor-last=Singleton |editor-first=Charles Southward |edition=2. printing |series=The Johns Hopkins Humanities Seminars |location=Baltimore, Md. |pages=310–318}}</ref> Le renovate investigation de physica aperiva multe opportunitates in subdisciplinas como mechanica, optica, navigation e cartographia.<ref name="Sarton" /> Theorias mechanic habeva su origine con le grecos, specialmente [[Aristotele]] e [[Archimedes]].<ref name="Sarton" /> Mechanica e philosophia habeva essite disciplinas relationate in le [[Grecia antique]], e solmente durante le [[Renascentia]] le duo subjectos comenciava a diverger.<ref name="Sarton" />  Multo del labor de disveloppar nove ideas e theorias mechanic esseva conducite per italianos como Rafael Bombelli, ben que le flamenco Simon Stevin anque offereva multe ideas.<ref name="Sarton" />  Galileo contribueva etiam al avancamento de iste campo con un tractato sur mechanica in 1593,<ref name=":32" /> adjuvante a disveloppar ideas sur relativitate, corporas que cai liberemente e motion linear accelerante,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Asim |first=Gangopadhyaya |date=2017 |title=Galileo's Contribution to Mechanics |url=https://ecommons.luc.edu/physics_facpubs/49/?utm_source=ecommons.luc.edu/physics_facpubs/49&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages |journal=Loyola eCommons |language=en |pages=90–94}}</ref> ben que ille mancava del medias pro communicar su trovas de un maniera adequate a ille tempore.<ref name=":32" /> In junio 1609, le interesses de Galileo se dirigeva a su investigationes telescopic post haber essite proxime a revolutionar le scientia de mechanica.<ref name=":32" /> Navigation esseva un topico importante de ille epocha, e multe innovationes esseva facite que, con le introduction de naves melior e le applicationes del compasso, portarea plus tarde a discopertas geographic.<ref name="Sarton" />  Le calculationes associate con navigation se monstrava difficile, con le technologia de ille epocha incapace de predir accuratemente le tempore o determinar le position geographic de un persona. Determinar le longitud de un persona monstrava esser particularmente difficile, proque le tempore local del persona deberea esser calculite sur le base de un observation astronomical.<ref name="Sarton" />  Un theoria que esseva essayate esseva registrar le tempore de un eclisse e usar le ''''Ephemerides'' de Regiomontanus pro comparar lo con le tempore de Nuremberg o le ''Almanach perpetuum'' de Zacuto pro comparar lo con le tempore de Salamanca, ben que le margine de error in tal calculationes esseva inacceptabilemente grande (approximativemente 25.5 grados).<ref name="Sarton" />  Donec que le longitud poteva esser determinate con precision, navigatores esseva obligate a confiar sur ''dead reckoning'', con su multe incertitudines.<ref name="Sarton" /> === Medicina === Con le Renascentia veniva un augmento in le investigation experimental, principalmente in le campo del dissection e examination del corpore, avantiando assi nostre cognoscentia del anatomia human.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Siraisi | first1 = N. G. | title = Medicine, 1450–1620, and the History of Science | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_2012-09_103_3/page/491 | doi = 10.1086/667970 | journal = Isis | volume = 103 | issue = 3 | pages = 491–514 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23286188| s2cid = 6954963 }}</ref> Le disveloppamento del neurologia moderne comenciava in le seculo XVI con Andreas Vesalius, qui descripeva le anatomia del cerebro e altere organos; ille habeva pauc cognoscentia del function del cerebro, credeva que illo se trovava principalmente in le ventriculos. Le comprension del scientias medical e del diagnosticos meliorava, ma con pauc beneficio directe al cura de sanitate. Pauc medicamentos efficace existeva, ultra [[opio]] e chinino. [[William Harvey]] forniva un description raffinate e complete del [[Systema circulatori|systema circulatori]]. Le tomos le plus utile in medicina, usate tanto per studentes como per medicos experte, esseva le materiae medicae e le pharmacopoeiae. === Geographia e le Nove Mundo === [[File:Viagem de Fernão de Magalhães - Museu Naval.jpg|thumb|Carta del viages del prime exploratores.]] In le historia del geographia, le clave texto classical esseva le ''Geographia'' de [[Ptolemeo|Claudio Ptolemeo]] (seculo II). Illo esseva traducite al latino in le seculo XV per Jacopo d'Angelo.<ref name=":33" /> Illo esseva legeremente in manuscripto e passava per multe editiones post su prime impression in 1475. Regiomontanus laborava in preparar un edition pro impression previemente a su morte; su manuscriptos esseva consultate per mathematicos posterior in Nuremberg. Le Geographia de Ptolemaeo deveniva le basi pro le majoritate de mapas facite in Europa durante le seculo XV.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Hunt |first=Arthur |date=2000 |title=2000 Years of Map Making |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40573370 |journal=Geography |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=3–14 |jstor=40573370 |issn=0016-7487}}</ref> In mesura que nove cognoscentia comenciava a reimplaciar le contento de mapas vetule, le rediscoverto del systema cartographic de Ptolemaeo, includente le uso de coordinationes e projection, adjuvava a redefinir le campo total de cartographia como un perscrutation scientific al minus que artistic.<ref name=":33" /> Le information fornite per Ptolemaeo, assi como Plinio le Seniore e altere fontes classical, presto se revelava in contradiction con le terras explorate in le Epocha de Discoperta.<ref name=":33" /> Le nove discopertas revelava defectos in le cognoscentia classical; illos anque aperiva le imagination european a nove possibilitates. In particular, le viage de Christopher Columbus al Novo Mundo in 1492 contribueva a establir le tono pro lo que presto deveniria un unda de expansion europee.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cortada |first=James W. |date=1974 |title=Who Was Christopher Columbus? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43464886 |journal=Renaissance and Reformation / Renaissance et Réforme |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=99–102 |doi=10.33137/rr.v10i2.13735 |jstor=43464886 |issn=0034-429X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Utopia de Thomas More esseva inspirate partialmente per le discoperta del Novo Mundo. Le majoritate de mapas disveloppate ante iste periodo subestimava grossemente le extension del terras que separava Europe de India sur un ruta verso le occidente a traverso le Novo Mundo; tamen, per le contribution de exploratores como Ferdinand Magellan, effortios esseva facite pro crear mapas plus accurate durante iste periodo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heawood |first=Edward |date=1921 |title=The World Map Before and After Magellan's Voyage |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1780791 |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=431–442 |doi=10.2307/1780791 |jstor=1780791 |bibcode=1921GeogJ..57..431H |issn=0016-7398}}</ref> {{Referentias}} == Bibliographia == * Dear, Peter. ''Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. * [[Debus, Allen G.]] ''Man and Nature in the Renaissance''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. * Grafton, Anthony, et al. ''New Worlds, Ancient Texts: The Power of Tradition and the Shock of Discovery''. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992. * Hall, Marie Boas. ''The Scientific Renaissance, 1450–1630''. New York: Dover Publications, 1962, 1994. [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] [[Categoria:Renascentia]] {{Historia del scientia}} 9h7goqljwybc7eqbsqxw3jt6c4bl2fh 0 58214 698253 693588 2026-08-03T23:42:11Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698253 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} {{Wikificar}} Le '''Revolution Scientific''' esseva un serie de eventos que marcase le emergentia del scientia moderne durante le periodo moderne initial, quando progressos in mathematica, physica, astronomia, biologia (incluse anatomia human) e chimia transformava le perspectivas del societate sur le natura.<ref name="Galileo">Galilei, Galileo (1974) ''Two New Sciences'', trans. [[Stillman Drake]], (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 217, 225, 296–67.</ref><ref name="Moody">{{cite journal|author=Moody, Ernest A.|year=1951|title=Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_1951-04_12_2/page/163|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume=12|issue=2|pages=163–93|doi=10.2307/2707514|jstor=2707514}}</ref><ref name="Clagett">Clagett, Marshall (1961) ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages''. Madison, Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 218–19, 252–55, 346, 409–16, 547, 576–78, 673–82</ref><ref>[[Anneliese Maier|Maier, Anneliese]] (1982) "Galileo and the Scholastic Theory of Impetus," pp. 103–23 in ''On the Threshold of Exact Science: Selected Writings of Anneliese Maier on Late Medieval Natural Philosophy''. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Pr. {{ISBN|0-8122-7831-3}}</ref><ref name="Hannam, James 2011 p342">[[#Hannam|Hannam]], p. 342</ref><ref name="Grant" /> Le Revolution Scientific occurreva in Europa in le secunde parte del periodo Renaissance, con le publication in 1543 del opus De revolutionibus orbium coelestium de Nicolaus Copernicus (Sur le Revolutiones del Spheras Celestial) frequentemente citate como su initio.<ref>Juan Valdez, The Snow Cone Diaries: A Philosopher's Guide to the Information Age, p 367.</ref> Le epocha del Renaissance Scientific dirigeva, a certe grado, a recuperar le cognoscentia del antiques e es considerate haber culminate in le publication in 1687 del Principia de Isaac Newton, que formulate le lege del motion e le gravitation universal,<ref>{{cite web |title=PHYS 200 – Lecture 3 – Newton's Laws of Motion – Open Yale Courses |url=http://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-200/lecture-3 |website=oyc.yale.edu |access-date=2 August 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930201050/https://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-200/lecture-3 |url-status=live }}</ref> complendo assi le synthesis de un nove cosmologia. Le subsequente Age of Enlightenment vide le concepto de un revolution scientific emerger in le obras del seculo XVIII de Jean Sylvain Bailly, qui descripeva un processo de duo stadios pro expulsar le vetule e establir le nove.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=I. Bernard |year=1976 |title=The Eighteenth-Century Origins of the Concept of Scientific Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_april-june-1976_37_2/page/257 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=257–88 |doi=10.2307/2708824 |jstor=2708824}}</ref> Il continua a esser un participation scholar sur le limites del Revolution Scientific e su chronologia. == Introduction == Grandes progressos in le scientia ha essite nominate "revolutiones" desde le seculo XVIII. Pro exemplo, in 1747, le mathematico francese Alexis Clairaut scribeva que "Newton esseva dicite in su proprie vita haber create un revolution".<ref> {{Cite journal|first=Alexis-Claude |last=Clairaut|year=1747|title=Du système du Monde, Dans Les Principes de la gravitation universelle}} </ref> Le parola esseva etiam usate in le prefatio al obra de 1789 de Antoine Lavoisier que annunciava le discoverta de oxygene. "Poc revolutions in le scientia ha immediatemente excitate tanto attention general como le introduction del theoria de oxygene ... Lavoisier vidit su theoria acceptate per omnes le homines eminentissime de su epocha e stabilite sur un grande parte de Europa intra pauc annos post su prime promulgation."<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the inductive sciences|year=1837|first=William |last=Whewell|volume=2|pages=275, 280|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyinductiv05whewgoog#page/n279/mode/2up}}</ref> In le seculo XIX, William Whewell describeva le revolution in le scientia mesme – le methodo scientific – que habeva occurrite in le seculo XV–XVI. "Inter le revolutiones plus conspicue que opiniones sur iste subjecto ha subite, es le transition de un fide implicit in le poter interior del mente human a un dependita professo in observation exterior; e de un reverentia sin limites pro le sapientia del passato, a un fervide expectation de cambio e melioramento."<ref>{{cite book|title=Philosophy of the Inductive sciences|year=1840|first=William |last=Whewell|volume=2|page=318|url=https://archive.org/stream/philosophyinduc04whewgoog#page/n328/mode/2up}}</ref> Isto generava le vision commun del Revolution Scientific hodie: {{Citation|Un nove perspectiva de natura emergeva, substituente le perspectiva greco que habeva dominante le scientia pro quasi 2,000 annos. Le scientia deveniva un disciplina autonome, distincte al vices de philosophia e technologia, e deveniva regardate como habente objectivos utilitarian.<ref> {{cite book|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|chapter=Physical Sciences|edition=15th|volume=25|page=830|year=1993}}</ref>}} Le Revolution Scientific es traditionalmente assumente initiar con le Revolution Copernican (initiate in 1543) e esser complete in le "grand synthesis" del Principia de Isaac Newton de 1687. Multo del cambio de attitude proveniva de Francis Bacon<ref name="Sweet Briar College">{{cite web |url=http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/Empiricism.htm |title=Empiricism: The influence of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and David Hume |publisher=Sweet Briar College |access-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708012140/http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/Empiricism.htm |archive-date=8 July 2013 |accessdate=11 January 2024 |archivedate=8 July 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708012140/http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/Empiricism.htm }}</ref>, cuje "annonciation confidente e emphatic" sur le progresso moderne del scientia inspirava le creation de societates scientific como le Royal Society,<ref>Syfret (1948) p. 75</ref> e Galileo, qui defendeva Copernico e disveloppava le scientia del motion.<ref name="Schuster 1996">{{cite book |author-last=Schuster |author-first=John A. |year=1996 |orig-year=1990 |editor1-last=Cantor |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Olby |editor2-first=Robert |editor3-last=Christie |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Hodge |editor4-first=Jonathon |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |chapter=Scientific Revolution |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |location=[[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=217–242 |isbn=9780415145787}}</ref> Le Revolution Scientific esseva facilitate per progressos in le production de libros.<ref>Owen Gingerich, "Copernicus and the Impact of Printing." ''Vistas in Astronomy'' 17 (1975): 201-218.</ref><ref>Anthony Corones, "Copernicus, Printing and the Politics of Knowledge." in ''1543 and All That'' (Springer, Dordrecht, 2000) pp. 271-289.</ref> Ante le advento del pressa de imprimir, introducite in Europa in le 1440 per Johannes Gutenberg, non habeva un mercado de massas in le continente pro tractatos scientific, como il habeva pro libros religiose. Le pressa de imprimir cambiava decisivemente le maniera in le qual le scientia esseva create, como etiam in le maniera in le qual il esseva disseminate. Ille permitteva que diagrammas accurate, mappas, disegnos anatomic, e representationes de flora e fauna essere reproducite, e le pressa de imprimir faceva libros scientific plus largemente accessibile, permittente a investigatores de consulter textos antique liberemente e de confrontar lor proprie observationes con illos de collegas.<ref name="Martyn Lyons 2011">Martyn Lyons, ''Books: A Living History''. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2011, 71.</ref> Ben que errores de impressores sovente resultava in le propagation de datos false (pro exemplo, in le Sidereus Nuncius de Galileo, publicate in Venetia in 1610, le imagines telescopic del superficie lunar appariva erroneemente invertite), le disveloppamento de placas de metal gravate permetteva que information visual accurate esseva rendite permanente, un cambio respecte al passato quando le illustrationes in xylographia se deteriorava per uso repetitive. Le capacitate de acceder a recercas scientific previe significava que le investigatores non sempre debeva comenciar ab initio in facer sensu de lor proprie datos observationale.<ref name="Martyn Lyons 2011"/> In le seculo XX, Alexandre Koyré introduciva le termino "revolution scientific", centrando su analyse sur Galileo. Le termino esseva popularisate per Herbert Butterfield in su Origines del Scientia Moderne. Le obra de Thomas Kuhn de 1962, Le Structura del Revolutiones Scientific, emphasize que differentes systemas theoretic — tal como le theoria de relativitate de Einstein e le theoria de gravitate de Newton, que illo replaceva — non pote esser comparate directemente sin perdita de signification. === Significance === Le periodo vidit un transformation fundamental in le ideas scientific trans mathematica, physica, astronomia e biologia, tanto in le institutiones que supporta le investigation scientific como in le imagine de universo que era detenite per le majoritate.<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> Le Revolution Scientific conduci al establishmento de plure scientias moderne. In 1984, Joseph Ben-David scribeva: {{Citation|Le accumulation rapide de cognoscentia, que ha characterisate le disveloppamento del scientia desde le seculo XVII, nunquam occurreva ante iste tempore. Le nove typo de activitate scientific emergeva solmente in pauc paises de Europa occidental, e illo esseva limitate a ille parve area pro circa duo centos annos. (Desde le seculo XIX, le cognoscentia scientific ha essite assimilate per le resto del mundo).<ref>{{Cite book | last = Hunt | first = Shelby D. | title = Controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=07lchJbdWGgC | publisher = M.E. Sharpe | year = 2003 | page = 18 | isbn = 978-0-7656-0932-8}}</ref>}} Multes scriptores contemporanee e historicos moderne asseri que il habeva un cambio revolutionary in le vision del mundo. In 1611, le poeta anglese John Donne scribeva: {{Citation|[Le] nova Philosophia mette tote in dubito,<br /> Le elemento de foco es completemente extinguite;<br /> Le Sol es perdite, e le terra, e le ingenio de nulle homine<br /> Pote ben guidar lo ubi cercar illo.<ref>Donne, John ''An Anatomy of the World'', quoted in Kuhn, Thomas S. (1957) ''The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought''. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr. p. 194.</ref>}} Butterfield esseva minus turbate, ma tamen vidite le cambio como fundamental: {{Citation|Dato que ille revolution cambiava le autoritate in anglese non solmente del Medievo ma etiam del antiquitate—dato que ille comenciava non solmente con le eclisse del philosophia scholastic ma con le destruction del physica aristotelian—illo supera omne post le ascension del christianismo e reduce le Renaissance e le Reformation al rango de simplic episodios, simplic displacementos interne intra le systema del christianitate medieval.... [Illo] se eleva tanto como le ver origine tanto del mundo moderne como del mentalitate moderne que nostre periodisation customary del historia europee ha devenite un anachronismo e un impedimento.<ref>Herbert Butterfield, ''[https://archive.org/details/originsofmoderns007291mbp The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800]'', (New York: Macmillan Co., 1959) p. viii.</ref>}} Le historico Peter Harrison attribue al christianismo haber contribuite al ascension del Revolution Scientific: {{Citation|historicos del scientia ha multo tempore cognoscite que factores religiose ha jocate un rolo significative e positive in le emergentia e persistencia del scientia moderne in le Occidente. Non solmente multe del figuras clave in le ascension del scientia esseva individuos con commitmentos religiose sincere, ma le nove approches al natura que illes pionerava esseva subvenite de varie manieras per assumptiones religiose. ... Tamen, multe del figuras principal in le revolution scientific se imaginava esser defensores de un scientia que era plus compatibile con le christianismo que le ideas medieval sur le mundo natural que illes replaceva.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Harrison|first1=Peter|title=Christianity and the rise of western science|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=8 May 2012|url=http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm|access-date=28 August 2014|archive-date=9 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809040202/http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}} == Antiquitate e contextu medieval == [[File:PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png|thumb|[[Systema ptolemaic|Modello ptolemaic]] del spheras pro [[Venus]], [[Marte]], [[Jupiter]], e [[Saturno]]. [[Georg von Peuerbach]], ''Theoricae novae planetarum'', 1474.]] Le Revolution Scientific esseva construite super le fundamento del cognoscentia e scientia greco antique e del medioevo, como illo esseva elaborate e ulteriormente disveloppate per le scientia roman/byzantin e le scientia islamic medieval.<ref name="Grant">[[#Grant|Grant]], pp. 29–30, 42–47.</ref> Alicun scholares ha notate un ligamine directe inter "aspectos particular de christianismo traditional" e le ascension del scientia.<ref>{{cite web | last = Noll | first = Mark | title = Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" | publisher = The Biologos Foundation | page = 4 | url = http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf | access-date = 14 January 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf | archive-date = 22 March 2015 | url-status = dead | accessdate = 11 January 2024 | archivedate = 22 March 2015 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Lindberg | first = David C. | coauthors = Numbers, Ronald L. | title = God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science | place = Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1986 | chapter = Introduction | pages = 5, 12 | isbn = 978-0-520-05538-4 | quote = Esse insustenibile affirmar, con [[Reijer Hooykaas|Hooykaas]] e [[Stanley Jaki|Jaki]], que le christianismo esseva fundamentalmente responsabile pro le successos del scientia del seculo XVII. Il esserea un error de equal magnitudine, nonobstante, negliger le intricate interconnexion de preoccupationes scientific e religiose durante tote le seculo.}}</ref> Le "tradition aristotelic" era ancora un importante schema intellectual in le seculo XVII, ben que a iste tempore philosophos natural habeva se distanciate de gran parte de illo.<ref name="Hannam, James 2011 p342"/> Idees scientific clave que datava al antiquitate classic habeva cambiate drasticamente trans le annos e, in multe casos, esseva discreditate.<ref name="Hannam, James 2011 p342"/> Le ideas que remaneva, que esseva fundamentalmente transformate durante le Revolution Scientific, include: * Le cosmologia de Aristotele que collocava le Terra al centro de un cosmos hierarchic spheric. Le regiones terrestrial e celestial esseva formate per differente elementos con differente typos de movimento natural. ** Secundo Aristotele, le region terrestrial consisteva in spheras concentric del quatro elementos classic—terra, aqua, aere, e foco. Omne corporas moveva naturalmente in lineas recte usque a que illos attingeva le sphera appropriate a lor composition elemental—lor loco natural. Omne altere motiones terrestre esseva non-natural o violente.[26][27] ** Le region celestial esseva formate per le quinte elemento, aethere, que esseva immutabile e moveva naturalmente con un movimento circular uniforme.[28] In le tradition aristotelic, theorias astronomic cercava explicar le observate motion irregular de objectos celestial per le effectos combinate de multe motiones circular uniforme.[29] * Le modelo ptolemaic de motion planetari: basate sur le modelo geometric de Eudoxo de Cnido, le Almagest de Ptolomeo demonstrava que calculationes pote computar le positiones exacte del Sol, Luna, stellas e planetas in le futuro e in le passato, e monstrava como iste modelos computational esseva derivate del observationes astronomic. Assi illos formava le modelo pro posterior disveloppamentos astronomic. Le fundamento physic pro los modelos ptolemaic invocava stratas de spheras spherical, ben que le modelos le plus complexe esseva inconsistentes con iste explication physic.[30] Existeva precedente antique pro theorias alternative e disveloppamentos que prefigurava subsequentie discopertas in le dominio de physic e mechanica; ma a causa del numero limitate de obras que ha supervivite le translation in un periodo quando multe libros esseva perdite a causa de guerras, ille disveloppamentos remaneva obscur pro seculos e es traditonalmente considerate haber habite pauco effecto sur le re-discoverimento de tal phenomenas; ubi le invention del pressa de imprimir rendeva le ampla dissemination de iste avances incrementari de cognoscentia commun. Interim, tamen, progresso significante in geometria, mathematica, e astronomia esseva facite in le medioevo. Il es etiam ver que multe del figuras importante del Revolution Scientific participava in le respecto general del Renaissance pro le cognoscentia antique e citava pedigrees antique pro lor innovationes. Copernico,[31] Galileo,[1][2][3][32] Johannes Kepler[33] e Newton[34] omnes traheva differente parentelas antique e medieval pro le systema heliocentric. In le Scholium Axiomatic de su Principia, Newton diceva que su tres leyes axiomatique de motion esseva jam acceptate per mathematicos como Christiaan Huygens, Wallace, Wren e alteres. Durante le preparation de un edition revise de su Principia, Newton attribueva su lege de gravitate e su prime lege de motion a un serie de figuras historic.[34][35] Nonobstante iste qualificationes, le theoria standard del historia del Revolution Scientific assevera que le seculo XVII esseva un periodo de cambios scientific revolutionary. Non solmente habeva revolutionari disveloppamentos theoretical e experimental, sed anque, lo que es ancora plus importante, le maniera in le qual scientistas laborava esseva radicalmente cambiate. Per exemplo, ben que indicios del concepto de inertia esseva suggere sporadicamente in le disputation antique sur le motion,[36][37] le puncto saliente es que le theoria de Newton differiva del comprehension antique in modos clave, tal como que un fortia externe esseva un requisito pro motion violent in le theoria aristotelic.[38] == Methodo scientific == Sub le methodo scientific como concepite in le seculo XVII, circunstantias natural e artificial esseva ponite de latere como un tradition de recerca de experimento systematic esseva gradualmente acceptate per le communitate scientific. Le philosophia de usar un approche inductive pro obtener cognoscentia—abandonar assumptiones e tentar observar con un mente aperte—contrastava con le approche anterie, aristotelic, de deduction, in le qual le analysi de factos cognoscite producerea un plus grande comprension. In practica, multe scientistas e philosophos credeva que un mescla san de ambos era necessitate—le disposition a questionar assumptiones, ma etiam a interpreter observationes que se presumeva haber alcun grado de validitate. Al fin del Revolution Scientific, le mundo qualitative de philosophos qui legeva libros habeva cambiate a un mundo mechanical e mathematic que esseva cognoscite per recerca experimental. Ben que non sia ver que le scientia newtonian resembleva le scientia moderne in omne aspectos, illo la resembleva conceptualmente in multe manieras. Multe del characteristicas distinctive del scientia moderne, specialmente in relation al su institutionalisation e professionalisation, non deveniva standard usque le medio del seculo XIX. === Empirismo === Le principal modo de interaction con le mundo del tradition scientific aristotelic esseva per observation e le cercar de circumstantias "natural" a travese de rationamento. Conjunctemente con iste approche, il habeva le conviction que eventos rares que semblava contradictar modelos theoretical esseva aberrationes, narrante nihil super le natura tal como ille esseva "naturalmente". Durante le Revolution Scientific, perceptiones cambiate concernente le rolo del scientista in relation al natura e le valor de evidentia, experimental o observate, dirigeva verso un methodologia scientific in le qual le empirismo jocava un grande rolo. Al comenciamento del Revolution Scientific, le empirismo jam habeva devenite un componente importante del scientia e philosophia natural. Pensatores precedente, incluse le philosopho nominalista del initio del seculo XIV, William de Ockham, habeva comenciate le movimento intellectual verso le empirismo.[39] Le termino "empirismo britannic" comenciava a esser usate pro describer differentias philosophic percipite inter duo de su fundatores, Francis Bacon, descrite como empirista, e René Descartes, qui esseva descrite como rationalista. Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, e David Hume esseva le principales exponentes de iste philosophia qui disveloppava un tradition empiric sophisticate como base del cognoscentia human. Un formulation influente de empirismo esseva le obra de John Locke, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689), in le qual ille affirmava que le unico ver cognoscentia accessibile al mente human esseva ille que se basava super experientia. Ille scribeva que le mente human esseva create como un "tabula rasa," un "tabula blanc," super le qual impressiones sensorial esseva registrate e le cognoscentia esseva construite a travese de un processo de reflection. === Contributiones de Bacon === Le bases philosophic del Revolution Scientific esseva presentate per Francis Bacon, qui ha essite nominate le patre del empirismo.[14] Su obras establiva e popularisava methodologias inductive pro investigation scientific, frequentemente appellate le methodo baconian, o simplicemente le methodo scientific. Su demanda pro un procedura planificate de investigation de tote cosas natural marcava un nove direction in le cadra rhetoric e theoretical pro le scientia, grande parte del qual ancora cerca conceptiones de un methodologia proprie hodie.[40] Bacon proponeva un grande reformation de tote le processo de cognoscentia pro le promotion de le erudition divine e human, que ille appellava Instauratio Magna (Le Grande Instauration). Pro Bacon, iste reformation conducerea a un grande progresso in le scientia e un progenie de inventiones que alliviarea le miserias e necessitates del humanitate. Su Novum Organum esseva publicate in 1620, in le qual ille argumentava que le homine es "le ministro e interprete del natura", "cognoscentia e potentia human es synonymos", "effectos es producite per medio de instrumentos e auxiliares", "le homine, durante que ille opera, pote solmente applicar o remover corporas natural; le natura internemente effectua le resto", e "le natura pote esser comandate solmente per obeir a ille".[41] Ecce un abstracto del philosophia de iste obra, que per le cognoscentia del natura e le uso de instrumentos, le homine pote governar o dirigir le labor natural del natura pro producer resultatos definite. Assi, que le homine, cercante cognoscentia del natura, pote attinger potentia super illo — e ergo restabilir le "Imperio del Homine sur le creation", que habeva essite perdite per le Peccato Original insimul con le puritate original del homine. De iste maniera, ille credeva, le humanitate essera elevate supra conditiones de impotentia, paupertate e miseria, e entrar in un stato de pace, prosperitate e securitate.[42] Pro iste objectivo de obtener cognoscentia e potentia sur le natura, Bacon delineava in iste obra un nove systema de logica que ille credeva esser superior al vetere modos de syllogismo, disveloppante su methodo scientific, consistente in proceduras pro isolamento del causa formal de un phenomenon (como calor, per exemplo) a travese de induction eliminative. Secundo ille, le philosopho debe proceder per rationamento inductive ab facto a axiom a lege physic. Ante iniciar iste induction, tamen, le inquirer debe librar su mente de certe false notiones o tendentias que distorque le veritate. In particular, ille trovava que le philosophia esseva troppo preoccupate con parolas, specialmente discurso e disputa, plus que observar vermente le mundo material: "Nam dum homines credunt rationem su reger parolas, de facto, parolas torna e reflecte lor potentia super le intellectu, e assi render le philosophia e le scientia sophistic e inactive."[43] Bacon considerava que il es de maxim importance pro le scientia non perseverar in discussiones intellectual o cercar meremente objectivos contemplative, ma que illo debe laborar pro meliorar le vita del humanitate per producer nove inventiones, affirmante mesme "inventiones es etiam, quasi, nove creationes e imitationes del opera divine".[41] Ille explorava le character extensive e mundiales de inventiones, como le pressa de imprimir, le polvere de pucro, e le compasso. Nonobstante su influentia sur le methodologia scientific, ille rejectava theorias novel correcte tal como le magnetismo de William Gilbert, le heliocentrismo de Copernico, e le leges del motion planetari de Kepler.[44] === Experimentation scientific === Bacon describeva prime le methodo experimental. Remane le experientia simple; que, si prehendite tal qual, es appellate accidente, si cercate, experimento. Le ver methodo de experientia primarmente illumina le candela [hypothese], e postea per medio del candela monstra le via [arrange e delimita le experimento]; comencianto como illo facite con experientia debite ordinate e digerite, non ineperte o erratic, e inde deducente axiomata [theorias], e ab axiomatas stabilitate iterum nove experimentos. — Francis Bacon. Novum Organum. 1620.[45] Gilbert esseva un advocato prime de iste methodo. Ille rejectava con passion tanto le philosophia aristotelic prevailing como le methodo scholastic de docentia universitari. Su libro "De Magnete" esseva scripte in 1600, e ille es considerate per alcunes como le patre del electricitate e magnetismo.[46] In iste obra, ille descripe multes de su experimentos con su modello de Terra nominate le terrella. Ex iste experimentos, ille concludeva que le Terra mesme esseva magnetic e que isto esseva le ration pro le quales compassos apunta al nord. Diagramma de "De Magnete" per William Gilbert, un obra pionier de scientia experimental "De Magnete" esseva influential a causa del interesse inherente de su subjecto assi como pro le maniera rigorous in le qual Gilbert describe su experimentos e su rejection de theorias antique de magnetismo.[47] Secundo Thomas Thomson, "Le libro de Gilbert super magnetismo publicate in 1600, es un del excellente exemplos de philosophia inductive que jam ha essite presentate al mundo. Illo es plus notabile, proque illo precedeva le Novum Organum de Bacon, in le qual le methodo inductive de philosophar esseva explicate primarimente."[48] Galileo Galilei ha essite nominate le "patre del astronomia observation modern,"[49] le "patre del physica modern,"[50] le "patre del scientia,"[51] e "le Patre del Scientia Moderne."[52] Su contributiones original al scientia del motion esseva facite per un combina innovative de experimento e mathematica.[53] Galileo esseva un del prime pensatores modern a declarar clarmente que le leges del natura es mathematic. In "The Assayer" ille scribeva "Le philosophia es scribite in iste grande libro, le universo ... Illo es scribite in le lingua del mathematica, e su characteres es triangulos, circulos, e altere figuras geometric;...."[54] Su analyses mathematic es un evolution plus avantiate de un tradition usate per le philosophos natural scholastic tarte, que Galileo apprendeva durante su studio de philosophia.[55] Ille ignorava le aristotelismo. In un senso plus large, su obra marcava un altere passo verso le separation eventual de scientia ab ambes philosophia e religione; un developmento major in le pensamento human. Ille esseva frequentemente disponite a cambiar su opiniones in concordantia con observation. Pro facer su experimentos, Galileo deberea establir standardes de longitud e tempore, de tal maniera que mesurationes facite in differente dies e in differente laboratorios poteva esser comparate de un maniera reproducibile. Isto forniva un fundamento reliable pro confirmar le leges mathematic usando rationamento inductive. Galileo monstrava un appreciation pro le relation inter mathematica, physica theoretical, e physica experimental. Ille comprehendeva le parabola, tanto in terminos de sectiones conic como in terminos del ordinate (y) variante como le quadrato del abscissa (x). Galilei affirmava que le parabola esseva le trajectoria theoreticamente ideal de un projectil accelerite uniformemente in absentia de friction e altere perturbationes. Ille concedeva que il existe limites al validitate de iste theoria, notante sur bases theoretical que un trajectoria de projectil de un dimension approximativemente equivalente a ille de le Terra non poterea possibilemente esser un parabola,[56] ma nonobstante ille manteneva que pro distantias usque al campo de action del artilleria de su epocha, le deviation de un trajectoria de projectil de un parabola esserea solmente assatis leve.[57][58] === Mathematisation === Le Aristotelicos affirmava que le scientia, secundo illes, se occupava del establimento de causas ver e necessari de cosas.[59] Usque al puncto que philosophos natural medieval usava problemas mathematic, illes limitava le studio social a analysi theoritic de velocitate local e altere aspectos del vita.[60] Le mesura effective de un quantitate physic e le comparation de iste mesura con un valor computate super le base de theorias esseva principalmente limitate al disciplinas mathematic de astronomia e optica in Europa.[61][62] In le seculos 16 e 17, scientistas europee comenciava sempre plus a applicar mesuras quantitative al mensuration de phenomenonas physic sur le Terra. Galileo affirmava con fermitate que le mathematica provideva un sorte de certitude necessari que poteva esser comparate al Deo: "...in relation a istas pauco [propositiones mathematic] que le intellecto human comprende, io crede que su cognoscentia equala al Divin in certitude objective..."[63] Galileo anticipa le concepto de un interpretation mathematic systematice del mundo in su libro "Il Saggiatore": Le philosophia [i.e., physic] es scribite in iste grande libro — io intende le universo — que sta continualmente aperite ante nostre oculos, ma illo non pote esser comprehendite a minus que on apprende primarimente a comprender le lingua e interpretar le characteres in le quales illo es scribite. Illo es scribite in le lingua del mathematica, e su characteres es triangulos, circulos, e altere figuras geometric, sin le quales illo es humanemente impossibile comprender un singule parola; sin istos, on erra circumvagate in un labyrintho obscur.[64] In 1591, François Viète publicava "In Artem Analyticem Isagoge", que dava le prime notation symbolic de parametres in algebra. Le disveloppamento del calculo infinitesimal per Newton aperi nove applicationes del methodos mathematic al scientia. Newton ensegnava que le theoria scientific debe esser juxtaponite con experimentation rigorous, le qual deveniva le clave del scientia moderne. === Philosophia mechanic === Aristoteles recognosceva quatro tipos de causas, e, ubi applicabile, le plus importante inter illos es le "causa final". Le causa final esseva le scopo, meta, o intention de alcun processo natural o cosa facite per le homine. Usque al Revolution Scientific, il esseva assatis natural vider tales scopos, como le crescimento de un infante, pro exemplo, conducente a un adulto mature. Intelligentialitate esseva attribuite solmente al intention de artefactos facite per le homine; illo non esseva attribuite a altere animales o al natura. In le "philosophia mechanical", nulle campo o action a distantia es permittite, particulas o corpusculos de materia es fundamentalmente inert. Le motio es causate per collision physicamente directe. Ubi previemente substantias natural esseva comprehendite organicamente, le philosophos mechanical les considerava como machinas.[65] Como resultado, le theoria de Newton pareva como un typo de retorno a "action mysteriose a distantia". Secundo Thomas Kuhn, Newton e Descartes defendeva le principio teleologic que Deo conservava le quantitate de motio in le universo: La gravitate, interpretate como un attraction innate inter cata par de particulas de materia, esseva un qualitate occult del mesme maniera como le "tendentia a cader" del scholasticos lo esseva.... Per le medio del seculo XVIII, iste interpretation esseva quasi universalmente acceptate, e le resultato esseva un ver reversion (que non es le mesme que un retrogradation) a un standard scholastic. Attractions e repulsiones innate se juncteva a dimension, forma, position e motio como proprietates primariamente irreducibile de materia.[66] Newton attribueva specificemente le potentia inherent de inertia al materia, contra le theoria mechanicista que le materia non ha potentias inherent. Ma, durante que Newton negava vehementemente que le gravitate esseva un potentia inherent del materia, su collaborator Roger Cotes faceva le gravitate anque un potentia inherent del materia, como illo esseva presentate in su famose praefation al edition de 1713 del "Principia" que ille editava, e que contradiceva Newton. E esseva le interpretation del gravitate per Cotes e non per Newton que deveniva acceptate. === Institutionalisation === Le prime passos verso le institutionalisation del investigation scientific e su dissemination assumeva le forma del creation de societates, ubi nove discoperimentos esseva presentate, discutite e publicate. Le prime societate scientific que esseva establite esseva le Royal Society de London. Isto resultava ex un gruppo previe, concentrate circa Gresham College in le annos 1640 e 1650. Secundo un historia del college: Le rete scientific que se concentrava circa Gresham College jocava un rolo crucial in le reuniones que conducerea al formation del Royal Society.[67] Iste medices e philosophos natural esseva influentiate per le "nova scientia", como promoteva per Bacon in su Nova Atlantis, ab circa le 1645. Un gruppo cognoscite como "The Philosophical Society of Oxford" esseva dirigite sub un serie de regulas ancora retainite per le Bibliotheca Bodleian.[68] Le 28 de novembre 1660, le "committee de 12 de 1660" annunciava le formation de un "Collegio pro le Promotion de Scientia Physico-Mathematic Experimental", que se reunirea hebdomadalmente pro discuter scientia e realisar experimentos. Al secunde reunion, Robert Moray annunciava que le Rey Charles approbava le congregationes, e un charta royal esseva signate le 15 de julio 1662 pro crear le "Royal Society of London", con Lord Brouncker como le prime presidente. Un secunde charta royal esseva signate le 23 de april 1663, con le rege nominate como le fundator e con le nomine de "the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge"; Robert Hooke esseva nominate como conservator de experimentos in novembre. Iste favor royal initial ha continuante, e desde alora cata monarcha ha essite le patrono del societate.[69] Le Academia de Scientias Francese esseva establite in 1666. Le prime secretario del societate esseva Henry Oldenburg. Su prime reuniones includerea experimentos realisate primemente per Hooke e postea per Denis Papin, qui esseva nominate in 1684. Iste experimentos variava in lor thema e esseva importante in alicun casos e trivial in alteres.[70] Le societate comenciava le publication de Philosophical Transactions ab 1665, le plus antique e longe existente jornal scientific in le mundo, que establiva le principios importante de prioritata scientific e revision per pares.[71] Le Francese establiva le Academia de Scientias in 1666. In contrasto con le origines private de su equivalente britannic, le academia esseva fundate como un organismo governamental per Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Su regulas esseva fixate in 1699 per le Rey Louis XIV, quando ille reciveva le nomine de 'Academia Royal de Scientias' e esseva installate in le Louvre de Paris. == Nove ideas == Inquanto le Revolution Scientific non esseva marcate per un singule cambio, le sequente nove ideas contribueva a lo que es cognoscite como le Revolution Scientific. Multes de illos esseva revolutiones in lor proprie campos. === Astronomia === ==== Heliocentrismo ==== Pro quasi cinque millennios, le modelo geocentric del Terra como le centro del universo esseva acceptate per omne excepte paucissime astronomos. In le cosmologia de Aristotele, le position central del Terra forsan esseva minus significante que su identification como un reino de imperfection, inconstantia, irregularitate, e cambio, al contrario del "caelos" (Luna, Sol, planetas, stellas), que esseva regardate como perfecte, permanente, inalterabile, e, in le pensiero religiose, le reino de esseres celestial. Le Terra mesme esseva composta de differente material, le quatro elementos "terra", "aqua", "foc" e "aer", durante que sufficientemente alte super su superficie (approximativemente le orbita del Luna), le caelos esseva composte de un differente substantia cognoscite como "aethere". Le modelo heliocentric que lo remplaciava involveva le displacemento radical del Terra verso un orbita circum le Sol; compartir un position con le altere planetas implicava un universo de componentes celestial facite del mesme substantias alterabile como le Terra. Le motiones celestial non necessitava plus esser governate per un perfection theoric, limitate a orbitas circular. Le prime passos verso le institutionalisation del investigation scientific e su dissemination prendeva le forma del establimento de societates, ubi nove discoverimentos esseva enunciate, discutite, e publicate. Le prime societate scientific a esser establite esseva le Royal Society de London. Isto derivava ex un gruppo previe concentrate circa Gresham College in le annos 1640 e 1650. Secundo un historia del collegio: Le rete scientific que se centrava in Gresham College jocava un parte crucial in le reuniones que conducea al formation del Royal Society. Iste medicos e philosophos natural esseva influentiate per le "nova scientia", como promovite per Bacon in su Nova Atlantis, desde approximativemente 1645. Un gruppo cognoscite como Le Societate Philosophic de Oxford esseva gestionate sub un serie de regulas que ancora es retinite per le Bibliotheca Bodleian. Le 28 de novembre 1660, le "committee de 12 de 1660" annunciava le formation de un "Collegio pro le Promotion del Scientia Physico-Mathematic Experimental", que se incontrarea hebdomadalmente pro discuter scientia e facer experimentos. Al secunde reunion, Robert Moray annunciava que le rege Carlos approbava le congregationes, e un carta royal esseva signate le 15 de julio 1662 pro crear le "Royal Society de London", con Lord Brouncker como le prime presidente. Un secunde carta royal esseva signate le 23 de april 1663, con le rege notate como le fundator e con le nomine de "le Royal Society de London pro le Melioration del Scientia Natural"; Robert Hooke esseva nominate como curator de experimentos in novembre. Iste favor initial royal ha continuato, e desde alora cata monarca ha essite le patrono del societate. Le prime secretario del societate esseva Henry Oldenburg. Su prime reuniones includeva experimentos realisate prime per Hooke e postea per Denis Papin, qui esseva nominate in 1684. Iste experimentos variava in lor area de subjecto e esseva importante in certe casos e trivial in alteres. Le societate comenciava le publication del Philosophical Transactions ab 1665, le jornal scientific le plus vetule e longe durabile in le mundo, que establiva le importantissime principios de prioritate scientific e revision per pares. Le Francese establiva le Academia de Scientias in 1666. Al contrario del origines private de su counterparte britannic, le academia esseva fundate como un organismo governamental per Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Su regulas esseva definite in 1699 per le rege Ludovic XIV, quando ille recipiva le nomine de 'Royal Academy of Sciences' e esseva installate in le Louvre de Paris. ==== Gravitation ==== Newton anque disveloppava le theoria del gravitation. In 1679, Newton comenciava a considerar le gravitation e su effecto sur le orbitas del planetas in referentia a le lege planetary de Kepler. Isto sequeva un stimulation per un breve cambio de litteras in 1679–80 con Hooke, aperiente un correspondentia intente a elicitar contributiones de Newton al transactiones del Royal Society. Le reawakening interesse de Newton in themas astronomic reciveva plus stimulation per le apparition de un cometa in le hyeme de 1680–81, sur le qual ille correspondeva con John Flamsteed. Post le communicationes con Hooke, Newton elaborava un demonstration que le forma elliptic de orbitas planetary resultarea de un fortia centripetal inversemente proportional al quadrato del vector de radius. Newton communicava su resultados a Edmond Halley e al Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum in 1684. Iste tractato contineva le nucleo que Newton disveloppava e expandeva pro formar le Principia. Le Principia esseva publicate le 5 de julio 1687 con encouragemento e adjuta financial de Halley. In iste obra, Newton enuncia le tres leges universal del motion que contribueva a multes avantias durante le Revolution Industrial que ben tosto sequeva e que non esserea superate per plus de 200 annos. Multes de iste avantias continua a esser le base de technologias non-relativistic in le mundo moderne. Ille usava le parola latino gravitas (ponder) pro le effecto que deveniva cognoscite como gravitate e definiva le lege de gravitation universal. Le postulato de Newton de un fortia invisible capace de ager sur vastissime distantias faceva que ille esseva criticate pro introducer "agentias occulte" in le scientia. Postea, in le secunde edition del Principia (1713), Newton rejegeva firmemente iste criticas in un "Scholium General" concludente, scribente que il esseva sufficente que le phenomenas implicava un attraction gravitational, como ille faceva; sed illes non indicava usque nunc le causa de isto, e il esseva tanto nonnecessari como nonappropriate formular hypotheses super cosas que non esseva implicite per le phenomenas. (In iste loco, Newton usava le expression que deveniva famose: "hypotheses non fingo"). === Biologia e medicina Le scripturas del medico greco Galeno habeva dominante le pensamento medical european pro plus de un millennio. Le scholare flamenco Andreas Vesalius demonstrateva errores in le ideas de Galeno. Vesalius dissectava cadaveres human, ubi Galeno dissectava cadaveres de animales. Publicate in 1543, le De humani corporis fabrica de Vesalius esseva un obra revolvente de anatomia human. Illo emphasava le prioritate del dissection e lo que deveniva cognoscite como le vision "anatomic" del corpore, vidente le functionamento interne human como un structura essenzialmente corporeal replete con organos arrangiate in spatio tridimensional. Isto esseva in contrasto nette con multe de los modellas anatomic usate previemente, que habeva elementos galenic/ aristotelic e anque elementos de astrologia. In addition al prime bon description del os sphenoide, Vesalius monstrava que le sternum consiste de tres portiones e le sacro de cinque o sex; e ille describeva precise le vestibulo in le interior del os temporal. Ille verificava le observation de Etienne sur le valvulas del venas hepatic, describente le vena azigos e discoperiente le canale que passa in le fetus inter le vena umbilical e le vena cava, desde nunc nominate ducto venose. Ille describeva le omento e su connectiones con le stomaco, le splen e le colon; offriva le prime opiniones correcte del structura del pyloro; observava le parve dimension del appendix cecal in le homine; forniva le prime bon description del mediastino e pleura e le plenissime description del anatomia del cerebro que totevia se promoveva. Ante Vesalius, le notas anatomic de Alessandro Achillini monstrava un description detaliate del corpore human e comparava lo que ille habeva trovate durante su dissectiones con lo que alteres como Galeno e Avicenna habeva trovate e notava lor similaritates e differentias. Niccolo Massa esseva un anatomista italiano qui scribeva un prime texto de anatomia, Anatomiae Libri Introductorius, in 1536, describente le liquido cerebrospinal e essente le autor de plure obras medic. Jean Fernel esseva un medic francese qui introduciva le termino "physiologia" pro describer le studio del function del corpore e esseva le prime persona a describer le canal spinal. Plus travagliante travalio esseva facite per William Harvey, qui publicava De Motu Cordis in 1628. Harvey faceva un analyse detaliate del structura general del corde, procedente a un analyse del arterias, monstrante como lor pulsation depende del contraction del ventriculo sinistre, durante que le contraction del ventriculo dextre propelle su carga de sanguine in le arteria pulmonari. Ille notava que le duo ventriculos moveva quasi simultaneemente e non independentemente como habeva essite pensate previemente per su precessores. Harvey estimava le capacitate del corde, quanto sanguine es expellite per cata pompamento del corde, e le numero de vices que le corde batte in medie hora. Ex iste estimationes, ille monstrava que secundo le theoria de Galeno que le sanguine esseva continualmente producite in le ficato, le absurde grande cifra de 540 libras de sanguine deberia esser producite cata die. Habente iste simple proportion mathematic a mano, que implicarea un rolo apparentemente impossibile pro le ficato, Harvey proceedeva a monstrare como le sanguine circulava in un circulo per medie de innumerabile experimentos initialmente facite sur serpentes e pisces: ligante lor venas e arterias in periodos de tempore separate, Harvey notava le modificationes que occurreva; de facto, como ille ligava le venas, le corde deveniva vacue, durante que como ille faceva le mesme al arterias, le organo deveniva inflamate. Iste processo esseva postea facite sur le corpore humano: le medico ligava un ligatura stricte sur le brachio superior de un persona. Isto prohibiva le fluxo sanguin del arterias e le venas. Quando isto esseva facite, le brachio sub le ligatura esseva frigide e pallide, durante que supra le ligatura illo esseva calide e inflamate. Le ligatura esseva loosate levemente, lo que permetteva le fluxo de sanguine del arterias in le brachio, alicunde le arterias es plus profunde in le carne que le venas. Quando isto esseva facite, le effecto contrari esseva vidite in le brachio inferior. Illo esseva ora calide e inflamate. Le venas anque deveniva plus visible, proque ora illos esseva plen de sanguine. Diverse altere progressos in le comprehension e practica medical esseva facite. Le medic francese Pierre Fauchard initiava le scientia dentari tal como lo cognosce nos hodie, e ille ha essite nominate "le patre del dentisteria moderne". Le chirurgo Ambroise Paré esseva un lider in technicas chirurgic e medicina de campo de battalia, specialmente le tractamento de vulneras, e Herman Boerhaave es occasionalmente referite como un "patre del physiologia" a causa de su excellentia in le ensegnamento in Leida e su tractato Institutiones medicae (1708). === Chimia === Le chimia, e su antecedente alchimia, deveniva un aspecto crescentemente importante del pensamento scientific durante le seculos XVI e XVII. Le importance del chimia es indicate per le gama de eruditos prominente qui participava activemente in recerca chimic. Inter illes esseva le astronomo Tycho Brahe,[93] le physico chimico Paracelsus, Robert Boyle, Thomas Browne e Isaac Newton. A differentia del philosophia mechanical, le philosophia chimic accentuava le potentias active del materia, que le alchimistas exprimeva frequentemente in terminos de principios vital o active—in le spirites que operate in le natura.[94] Tentativas practic pro meliorar le refinemento de minerales e lor extraction pro fusionar metallos esseva un fonte importante de information pro le prime chimicos in le seculo XVI, inter illes Georgius Agricola, qui publicava su grande obra De re metallica in 1556.[95] Su obra descripe le processos altamente developpate e complexe de miniera de minerales metallic, extraction de metallos e metallurgia de ille epocha. Su approchantia removeva le mysticismo associate con le thema, creante le base practic sur le qual alteres poteva construer.[96] Le chimiste Robert Boyle es considerate haber raffinate le methodo scientific moderne pro alchimia e haber separite le chimia ulteriormente del alchimia.[97] Ben que su recerca ha radices clar in le tradition alchimic, Boyle es largemente considerate hodie como le prime chimiste moderne e, pro iste motivo, un del fundatores del chimia moderne, e un del pioneros del methodo scientific experimental moderne. Ben que Boyle non esseva le discoperitor original, ille es meli cognite pro le lege de Boyle, que ille presentava in 1662:[98] le lege describe le relation inversemente proportional inter le pression absolute e volumine de un gas, si le temperatura es mantenite constante in un systema claudite.[99] Boyle es etiam credite pro su publication importantissime The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, que es vidite como un libro fundamental in le campo del chimia. In iste obra, Boyle presenta su hypothese que cata phenomeno esseva le resultado de collisiones de particulas in motion. Boyle incitava le chimicos a experimentar e asseriva que experimentos negava le limitante de elementos chimic solmente al quatro classic: terra, foco, aer, e aqua. Ille anque supplicava que le chimia cessava de esser subalterne a medicina o alchimia, e elevava se al stato de un scientia. Importante, ille defendeva un approcha rigorose al experimento scientific: ille credeva que omne theorias deberea esser testate experimentalmente ante esser considerate como ver. Le obra contine alcun del prime ideas moderne sur atomos, molecules, e reactiones chimic, e marca le initio del chimia moderne. === Physica === ==== Optica ==== In 1604, Johannes Kepler publicava Astronomiae Pars Optica (La Parte Optica de Astronomia). In illo, ille descripe le lege del quadrato invers del intensitate de luce, le reflexion per speculos plan e curve, e le principios de cameras perforate, alsi como le implicationes astronomic de optica tal como parallasse e le dimensiones apparente de corporas celestial. Astronomiae Pars Optica es generalmente recognoscite como le fundamento del optica moderne.[100] In 1621, Willebrord Snellius reperiva le lege mathematic de refractia, ora cognoscite como le lege de Snell, que anteriormente habeva essite publicate in le anno 984 per Ibn Sahl. Postea, René Descartes monstrava, per medio de construction geometric e le lege de refractia (també cognoscite como lege de Descartes), que le radius angular de un arcu iris es de 42° (i.e., le angulo subtendite al oculo per le bordo del arcu iris e le centro del arcu iris es de 42°).[101] Ille anque discoperiva independentemente le lege de reflexion, e su essayo sur optica esseva le prime mention publicate de iste lege. Christiaan Huygens scribeva plure obras in le campo de optica. Inter istas, on trova le Opera reliqua (també cognoscite como Christiani Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma) e le Traité de la lumière. Newton investigava le refractia del luce, demonstrante que un prisma pote decomponer le luce alba in un spectrum de colores, e que un lentia e un secunde prisma pote recomponer le spectrum multicolor in luce alba. Ille anque monstrava que le luce colorate non cambia su proprietates al separar un fasciculo colorate e brillar lo sur diversos objectos. Newton notava que, independentemente si illo esseva reflectite, diffuse o transmitte, illo conservava le mesme color. Assi, ille observava que le color es le resultato de objectos que interactiona con luce ja colorate, e non le objectos generate le color ipse. Isto es cognoscite como le theoria del color de Newton. De iste travalio, ille concludeva que cata telescopio refractante suffrerea de dispersion del luce in colores. Le interesse del Royal Society lo incoragiava a publicar su notas "De Coloribus". Newton argumentava que le luce se componerea de particulas o corpusculos que refracta accelerante verso le medio plus dense, ma ille deviva associar los con ondas pro explicar le diffraction del luce. In su Hypothesi de Luce de 1675, Newton proponava le existentia de l'eter pro transmitter fortias inter particulas. In 1704, Newton publicava "Opticks", in le qual ille exponite su theoria corpuscular del luce. Ille considerava que le luce se compone de corpusculos extrememente subtile, que le materia ordinari consiste de corpusculos plus grosse, e ille speculava que, per un sorte de transmutation alchemic, "Non pote corpora grosse e luce converter se le un in le altere, ...e non pote corpora recipere multo de lor activitate ab le particulas de luce que entra in lor composition?"[102] Antonie van Leeuwenhoek construeva potentissime microscopes con un sol lente e faceva observationes extensive que ille publicava circa 1660, pavimentante le via pro le scientia de microbiologia. ==== Electricitate ==== Guilielmo Gilberto, in "De Magnete," inventava le parola Neo-Latine "electricus" ex ἤλεκτρον (elektron), le parola Greco pro "ambra." Gilberto faceva multes experimentos electric attentemente, in le curso del quales ille discoperiva que multe substantias, excepte ambra, tal como sulphure, cera, vitro, etc.,[103] habeva le capacitate de manifestar proprietates electric. Gilberto notava que un corpore calefacte perdeva su electricitate e que humiditate impediva le electrification de omne corpora. Ille observava que substantias electrisate attrahiva omne altere substantias indiscriminatemente, durante que un magnete attrahiva solmente ferro. Le multe scopertas de iste natura conferiva a Gilberto le titulo de fundator del scientia electric.[104] Investigante le fortias sur un aiguille metallic levi, in equilibrio super un puncto, ille ampliava le lista de corpora electric e discoperiva que multe substantias, incluse metallios e magnetos natural, monstrava nulle fortias attractive quando friccate. Ille notava que le tempore sec con vento de nord o de oriente esseva le condition atmospheric le plus favorabile pro exhibir phenomena electric—un observation susceptibile de miscomprehension usque que le differentia inter conductor e isolator esseva comprehendite.[105] Robertus Boyle frequentava le nove scientia del electricitate e addava plure substantias al lista de electricos de Gilberto. Ille lasciava un detallate relation de su investigationes sub le titulo "Experimentos sur le Origine del Electricitate."[105] In 1675, Boyle affirmava que attraction e repulsion electric pote operar trans un vacuo. Un de su importantissime discopertas esseva que corpora electric in un vacuo attraherea substantias leves, indicante que le effecto electric non dependeva de le aere como medio.[103][104][106][107][108] Isto esseva sequite in 1660 per Otto von Guericke, qui inventava un generator electrostatic primeve. Al fin del seculo 17, cercatores habeva disveloppate medias practic de generar electricitate per friction con un generator electrostatic, ma le disveloppamento de machinas electrostatic non comenciava seriosemente usque le seculo 18, quando illos deveniva instrumentos fundamental in le studios sur le scientia del electricitate. Le prime uso del parola "electricitate" es attribuite a Thomas Browne in su obra de 1646, "Pseudodoxia Epidemica." In 1729, Stephanus Gray demonstrava que electricitate pote esser "transmittite" per filamentas metallic.[109] == Dispositivos mechanic == Como adjuta al investigation scientific, diverse utensiles, instrumentos de mesura e calculatores esseva disveloppate in iste periodo. === Calculatores === [[File:Napier's Bones.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Un set de Ossos de Napier, un prime calculatore inventate per John Napier.]] John Napier introduciva logarithmos como un potentia instrumento mathematic. Con le adjuta de Henry Briggs, lor tabulas logarithmic representava un avanto computational que rendeva le calculos manual plus rapide.[110] Su Ossos de Napier usava un serie de stecas numerate como un utensile de multiplication usante le systema de multiplication de grilia. Le cammino esseva aperite a subsequentes avantes scientific, particularmente in astronomia e dynamica. A Oxford University, Edmund Gunter construeva le prime dispositivo analogic pro adjutar computation. Le 'Scala de Gunter' era un grande scala plan, incise con varios scalas o lineas. Lineas natural, tal como le linea de chordas, le linea de senos e tangentias es locates a un latere del scala e le correspondentias artificial o logarithmic se trovava al altere latere. Iste utensile de calculation esseva un precursor del regula de calculo. Il esseva William Oughtred qui primarimente usava duo tal scalas glissante le un con le altere pro facer multiplication e division directe e, assi, es creditate como le inventor del regula de calculo in 1622. Blaise Pascal inventava le calculatore mechanic in 1642.[111] Le introduction de su Pascalina in 1645 initiava le disveloppamento de calculatores mechanic, prime in Europa e postea in tote le mundo.[112][113] Gottfried Leibniz, basante se super le labor de Pascal, deveniva un del inventores plus prolific in le campo de calculatores mechanic; ille esseva le prime a describer un calculatore con rotas dentate in 1685,[114] e ille inventava le rota de Leibniz, usate in le arithmometro, le prime calculatore mechanic mass-producite. Ille etiam perfectionava le systema de numeration binari, le fundamento de quasi totes le architecturas de computatores moderne.[115] John Hadley esseva le inventor del octante, le precursor del sextante (inventate per John Bird), que meliorava considerablemente le scientia de navigation. === Machinas Industrial === [[File:Savery-engine.jpg|upright|thumb|Le Machina de Savery de 1698 esseva le prime machina de vapor reussite.]] Denis Papin esseva meli cognite pro su invento pioner del digester de vapor, le antecessor del machina de vapor.[116][117] Le prime machina de vapor funcional esseva patentate in 1698 per le inventor anglese Thomas Savery, como "...un nove invento pro elevar aqua e causar motion a omne typo de labor de molino per le fortia impellente del foco, que essera de grande utilitate e avantagio pro drenar minas, provider urbes con aqua, e pro le operation de omne typo de molinos ubi illes non ha le beneficio de aqua o ventos constante."[118] Le invento esseva demonstrate al Royal Society le 14 de junio 1699, e le machina esseva describite per Savery in su libro "Le Amico del Minero; o, Un Machina pro Elevar Aqua per Foco" (1702),[119] in le qual ille affirmava que poteva pompas aqua foras de minas. Thomas Newcomen perfectionava le machina de vapor practic pro pompar aqua, le machina de vapor de Newcomen. Consequentemente, Newcomen pote esser considerate como un antecessor del Revolution Industrial.[120] Abraham Darby I esseva le prime, e le plus famose, de tres generationes del familia Darby qui jocava un rolo importante in le Revolution Industrial. Ille disveloppava un methodo de producer ferro de grado superior in un furno de fusione alimentate per coque in vice de carbon de lignito. Isto representava un passo importante in le production de ferro como materia prima pro le Revolution Industrial. === Telescopios === Telescopios refractive appareva pro le prime vice in le Nederlandias in 1608, apparentemente le resultato de experimentos per fabricatores de spectaculos con lentos. Le inventor es incognite, ma Hans Lipperhey demandava le prime patent, sequite per Jacob Metius de Alkmaar.[121] Galileo esseva un del prime scientistas a usar iste instrumento pro su observationes astronomic in 1609.[122] Le telescopio reflector esseva describite per James Gregory in su libro "Optica Promota" (1663). Ille argumentava que un speculo formate como le parte de un section conic corrigeria le aberration spheric que deturpava le precision del telescopios refractive. Su designo, le "telescopio gregorian", tamen, remaneva non-construite. In 1666, Newton argumentava que le defectos del telescopio refractive esseva fundamental proque le lente refractava le lumine de differente colores de maniera differente. Ille concludeva que le lumine non poteva esser refractate per un lente sin causar aberrationes cromatic.[123] Ex iste experimentos, Newton concludeva que nulle melioramento poteva esser facite in le telescopio refractive.[124] Tamen, ille poteva demonstrar que le angulo de reflection remaneva le mesme pro omne colores, assi ille decideva a construer un telescopio reflector.[125] Illo esseva complete in 1668 e es le plus ancian telescopio reflector functional cognoscite.[126] 50 annos postea, Hadley disveloppava methodos pro producer speculos objective aspheric e parabolic con precision pro telescopios reflector, construente le prime telescopio Newtonian parabolic e un telescopio gregorian con speculos formate accuratemente.[127][128] Illos esseva demonstrate con successo al Royal Society.[129] === Altere Dispositivos === Pompa de aere construite per Robert Boyle. Multe nove instrumentos esseva devise in iste periodo, le quales grandemente adjuvava in le expansion del cognoscentia scientific. Le invento del bomba de vacuo aperiva le cammino pro le experimentos de Robert Boyle e Robert Hooke sur le natura del vacuo e le pression atmospheric. Le prime tal dispositivo esseva facite per Otto von Guericke in 1654. Illo consisteva de un piston e un cylindro de pistone con valvulas que poteva succionar le aere de qualcunque recipiente al qual illo esseva connectite. In 1657, ille extraheva le aere ex duo hemispherios coniuncte e demonstrava que un equipa de dece-sex caballos non poteva separar los.[130] Le construction del bomba de aere esseva meliorate grandemente per Hooke in 1658.[131] Evangelista Torricelli inventava le barometro de mercurio in 1643. Le motivation pro le invento esseva meliorar le bombas de suction que esseva usate pro elevar aqua ex le minas. Torricelli construeva un tubo selate plen con mercurio, installate verticalmente in un basino del mesme substantia. Le columna de mercurio cadeva verso le basso, creante un vacuo torricellian superne.[132] === Material, construction, e esthetica === Instrumentos conservate de iste periodo[133][134][135][136] tende a esser facite de metalls durabile como bronzo, oro, o aciero, ben que exemplos como telescopios[137] facite de ligno, carton, o con componentes de cuero existe.[138] Illos instrumentos que existe in collectiones hodie tende a esser exemplares robuste, facite per artifices habil pro e al costo de patronos affluent.[139] Illos pote haber essite commissionate como exhibitiones de ricchessa. Alsi, le instrumentos preservate in collectiones poterea non haber recipite un uso intensive in labor scientific; instrumentos que habeva visibilmente recipite uso intensive esseva typicalmente destruite, considerate inapte pro exhibition, o exclude del collectiones toto.[140] On postula alsi que le instrumentos scientific preservate in multe collectiones esseva seligite proque illos esseva plus attractive a collectores, per lor ornamento, lor portabilitate, o lor fabrication con material de qualitate superior.[141] Bombas de aere integre es particularmente rar.[142] Le bomba a dextera includeva un sphera de vitro pro permitter demonstrationes dentro del camera de vacuo, un uso commun. Le base esseva de ligno, e le bomba cylindric esseva de bronzo.[143] Altre camaras de vacuo que ha survivite esseva facite de hemispherios de bronzo.[144] Fabricatores de instrumentos del tardo seculo 17 e principio del seculo 18 esseva commissionate per organisationes qui cercava adjuta con navigation, levation de plano, guerra, e observation astronomic.[142] Le augmentation in usos pro tal instrumentos, e lor uso generalisate in exploration global e conflictos, creava un necessitate de nove methodos de fabrication e reparation, le quales esseva satisfacite per le Revolution Industrial.[140] == Criticas == Le idea que le scientia moderne occurreva como un revolution ha essite debattite inter historicos.[145] Un debilitate del idea de un revolution scientific es le manco de un approchio systematic al question del cognoscentia in le periodo inter le seculos 14 e 17,[146] conduce a miscomprehensiones sur le valor e rolo de autores moderne. De iste puncto de vista, le these del continuitate es le hypothesis que il non habeva un discontinuitate radical inter le disveloppamento intellectual del Medievo e le disveloppamentos in le Renaissance e le periodo moderne initial, e illo ha essite profunde e largemente documentate per le obras de scholares como Pierre Duhem, John Hermann Randall, Alistair Crombie e William A. Wallace, qui probava le preexistencia de un amplie gamma de ideas usate per le sequitores del these del Revolution Scientific pro substantiar lor asseres. Assi, le idea de un revolution scientific sequente le Renaissance es—secundo le these del continuitate—un mytho. Alcun theoristas del continuitate indica revolutiones intellectual plus prime in le Medievo, generalmente referente a un Renaissance european del seculo 12[147][148] o un revolution scientific medieval musulman,[149][150][151] como un signo de continuitate.[152] Un altere puncto de vista contrari ha essite recentemente proponite per Arun Bala in su historia dialogic del nascentia del scientia moderne. Bala propone que le cambios involve in le Revolution Scientific—le revolution verso le realismo mathematic, le philosophia mechanic, le atomismo, le rolo central assignate al Sol in le heliocentrismo copernican—debe esser vidite como radicate in influentias multicultural in Europa. Ille vede influentias specific in le theoria physic optical de Alhazen, le technologias mechanic chines que portava al perception del mundo como un machina, le systema de numeration hindu-arabe, que portava implicitemente un nove modo de pensar atomic mathematic, e le heliocentrismo radicate in ideas religiose antique e associate con le hermetismo.[153] Bala argumenta que per ignorar tal impactos multicultural nos ha essite guidate a un conception eurocentric del Revolution Scientific.[154] Tamen, ille dice: "Le facitores del revolution—Copernico, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Newton, e multes alteres—habeva a appropriate selective ideas pertinente, transformar los, e crear nove conceptos auxiliar pro completer lor labor... In le ultime analyse, ben que le revolution se basa super un fundamento multicultural, illo es le achievemento de europeos in Europa."[155] Criticos nota que, mancante evidentia documentary de transmission de ideas scientific specific, le modelo de Bala remanera "un hypothesis de labor, non un conclusion".[156] Un tertie approchio prende le termino "Renaissance" literalmente como un "renascentia". Un studio plus approfondite del philosophia greco e del mathematica greco demonstra que quasi totes le resultatos appellate revolutive del appellate Revolution Scientific esseva in realitate restatimentos de ideas que in multe casos esseva plus vetule que illos de Aristotele e in quasi totes le casos al minus tan vetule como Archimede. Aristotele mesme argue mesmo contra alcun del ideas que esseva propalate durante le Revolution Scientific, como le heliocentrismo. Le ideas fundamental del methodo scientific esseva ben cognite a Archimede e su contemporaneos, como demostrate per le discopertamento del levitate. Iste approchio al Revolution Scientific reduce lo a un periodo de reapprender de ideas classic que es multo un extension del Renaissance. Iste viso non denega que un cambio occurreva ma argumenta que illo esseva un reaffermation de cognition previe (un renascentia) e non le creation de nove cognition. Illo cita declarationes de Newton, Copernico e alteres in favore del vision pythagorean como evidentia.[157][158] In un plus recente analysi del Revolution Scientific durante iste periodo, il ha habite critica del dominio del scientistas masculin de ille tempore.[159] Feminas scholares non habeva le opportunitates que un scholare masculin haberea habite, e le incorporation del travalio de feminas in le scientias durante iste periodo tende a esser obscuro. Scholares {{Ref}} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Revolution scientific]] [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] jj1i7rhst7w3f2cdvrazsncpc66rirv 0 58309 698219 669608 2026-08-03T22:52:06Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 4 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698219 wikitext text/x-wiki Le '''scientia del seculo 19 esseva multo influentiate per le Romanticismo''' (o le Epocha del Reflexion,<ref>Ernst Behler, ''German Romantic Literary Theory'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 137.</ref> circa 1800–40), un movimento intellectual que se originava in Europa Occidental como un contramovimento al Illuminismo del tardo seculo 18.<ref name=Cunningham>{{cite book|editor1=Cunningham, A. |editor2=Jardine, N.|title=Romanticism and the Sciences}}</ref>  Le Romanticismo incorporava multe campos de studio, includente politica, le artes, e le humanitates. Al contrario del philosophia natural mechanistic del Illuminismo, scientistas european del periodo Romantic considerava que observer le natura implicava comprender le mesme e que le cognoscentia del natura "non debe esser obtinite per fortia". Illes sentiva que le Illuminismo habeva encouragiate le mal uso del scientias, e illes cercava promover un nove maniera pro augmentar le cognoscentia scientific, un maniera que illes sentiva que esserea plus beneficial non solmente pro le humanitate, ma etiam pro le natura.<ref name=Bossi>{{cite book|editor1=Bossi, M. |editor2=Poggi, S.|title=Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 1790–1840}}</ref>  Le Romanticismo promulga multe themas: ille promoveva le anti-reductionismo (que le toto es plus valorose que le partes sol), e le optimistic epistemologic (le homine esseva connexite al natura), e ille encourageva le creativitate, le experientia, e le genio.<ref>Molvig, Ole, ''History of the Modern Sciences in Society'', lecture course, Sept. 26.</ref> Ille emphasizeva anque le rolo del scientista in le discovery scientific, affirmante que acquirer cognoscentia del natura significava comprender le homine alsi; pro iste motivo, iste scientistas dava grande importantia al respecto pro le natura.<ref name=Bossi/> Le Romanticismo declinava a comenciar circa 1840 quando un nove movimento, le positivismo, prendeva possession del intellectuales, e durava usque circa 1880. Como con le intellectuales qui previemente esseva disincantate con le Illuminismo e qui cercava un nove approtio al scientia, le personas ora perdeva interesse in le Romanticismo e cercava studiar le scientia per un processo plus rigorose. == Scientia Romantic vs. Scientia del Illuminismo == Como le Illuminismo habeva un fixe prehension in [[Francia]] durante le ultime decadas del seculo 18, le vision romantic del scientia esseva un movimento que floreva in le [[Grande Britannia]] e specialmente in [[Germania]] durante le prime medietate del seculo 19.<ref name=Bossi/><ref name=Cunningham/>  Ambes voleva augmentar le auto-comprehension individual e cultural recognoscendo le limites del cognoscentia human per le studio del natura e le capacitates intellectual del homine. Le movimento romantic, tamen, resultava como un crescente aversion de multe intellectuales pro le principios promovite per le [[Illuminismo]]; alcun sentiva que le emphase del pensato illuministe sur le ratione a travese del rationalisation deductive e le mathematicisation del philosophia natural habeva create un approche al scientia que esseva troppo frigide e que essayava a controlar le natura, plus que co-exister pacificemente con illa.<ref name=Cunningham/> Secundo le philosophes del Illuminismo, le cammino al cognoscentia complete requirerea le dissection de information sur qualcunque subjecto e un division de cognoscentia in subcategorias de subcategorias, cognoscite como reductionismo. Isto esseva considerate necessari pro construer super le cognoscentia del antiques, tal como [[Ptolemeo]], e le pensatores del Renascentia, tal como [[Nicolaus Copernico|Copernico]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], e Galileo. On credeva largemente que le pur potentia intellectual del homine sol mesme esseva sufficiente pro comprender cata aspecto del natura. Exemplos de eminentes scholasticos del Illuminismo includite Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (physica e mathematica), [[Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]] (philosophia e mathematica), e [[Carl Linnæus]] (botanic e medico). == Principios del Romanticismo == [[File:Adam and Eve by Lucas Cranach (I).jpg|thumb|Adam e Eve per Lucas Cranach.]] Romanticismo habeva quatro principios basic: "le unitate original del homine e le natura in un Epoque Auree; le subsequente separation del homine de natura e le fragmentation de facultates human; le interpretabilitate del historia del universo in terminos human, spiritual; e le possibilitate de salvation per le contemplation del natura."<ref name=Cunningham/> Le supra-mentionate Epoque Auree es un referentia al [[Mythologia grec|mythologia]] e le legenda grec del Epochas del Homine. Pensatores romantic cercava reunir le homine con le natura e, per consequentia, con su stato natural.<ref name=Cunningham/> Pro le romanticos, "le scientia non debe producer ulle division inter natura e homine." Romanticos credeva in le aptitude intrinsec del humanitate pro comprender le natura e su phenomenas, simile al philosophos illimuniste, ma illes preferiva non dissecar information como un sorta de insatiate sete de cognoscentia e non promoveva lo que illes videva como le manipulation de natura. Illes videva le Illuminismo como le "tentativa sin corde de extorquer cognoscentia ab natura" que collocava le homine super le natura, plus que como un parte harmoniose de illa; al contrario, illes voleva "improvisar sur natura como un grande instrumento."<ref name=Cunningham/> Le philosophia del natura esseva dedicate al observation de factos e experimento curiose, un approcha multo plus "manos-libre" pro comprender le scientia que le perspectiva del Illuminismo, como illo esseva considerate troppo controlante.<ref name=Bossi/> Secundo le romanticos, le scientia natural involveva le rejection de metaphores mechanic in favor de illes organic; in altere parolas, illes elegiva vider le mundo como componite de esseres vivente con sentimentos, plus que objectos que functiona simplemente. Sir Humphry Davy, un pensator romantic eminente, affirmava que comprender le natura requireva "un attitude de admiration, amor e adoration, ... un responsa personal."<ref name=Cunningham/>  Ille credeva que le cognoscentia esseva attingibile solmente per illes qui vermente appreciava e respectava le natura. Auto-comprehension esseva un aspecto importante del Romanticismo. Illo habeva minus a facer con probar que le homine esseva capace de comprender le natura (per su intellecto nascente) e ergo controlar lo, e plus a facer con le appello emotional de connecter se con le natura e comprender la a travese de un co-existentia harmoniose.<ref name=Bossi/> == Operas importante in le scientia romantic == Quando categorisante le multe disciplinas del scientia que se disveloppava durante iste periodo, romanticos credeva que le explicationes de varios phenomenas deberea basar se super vera causa, lo que significava que causas jam cognoscite producera effectos simile in altere locos.<ref name=Cunningham/>  In iste maniera, le Romanticismo esseva multo anti-reductioniste: illes non credeva que le scientias inorganique esseva al summitate del hierarchia ma al fundo, con le scientias vital sequente e le psychologia in un position ancora plus alte.<ref name=Cunningham/>  Isto reflecteva le ideal romantic del scientia, proque le organismo integre prendeva plus importance super le materia inorganique, e le complexitates del mente human prendeva ancora plus preeminence, dato que le intellecto human esseva sacre e necessari pro comprender le natura circumstante e reunir se con illa. Diverse disciplinas sur le studio del natura que esseva cultivate per le Romanticismo includeva: le ''Naturphilosophie'' de Schelling; [[cosmologia]] e cosmogonia; [[Geologia|historia developmental del terra]] e [[Paleontologia|su creaturas]]; le nove scientia del biologia; investigationes de statos mental, consciente e inconsciente, normal e anormal; disciplinas experimental pro revelar le fortias occulte del natura – electricitate, magnetismo, galvanismo e altere fortias vital; physiognomia, frenologia, meteorologia, mineralogia, anatomia "philosophic", inter altere.<ref name=Cunningham/> == ''Naturphilosophie'' == {{AP|Naturphilosophie}} In le ''Naturphilosophie'' de Friedrich Schelling, ille explicava su these sur le necessitate de reunir le homine con le natura; it was this German work that first defined the Romantic conception of science and vision of natural philosophy. Ille appellava le natura "un historia del cammino verso libertate" e incitava un reunion del spirito human con le natura.<ref name=Bossi/> === Biologia === Le "nove scientia de biologia" esseva nominate [[biologia]] per Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1801, e esseva "un disciplina scientific independente nascent al fin de un longe processo de erosion de 'philosophia mechanical', consistente in un crescente conscientia que le phenomenos del natura vital non pote esser comprehendite al lumine del leyes del physica ma require un explication ad hoc."<ref name=Bossi/>  Le philosophia mechanic del seculo 17 tentava explicar le vita como un systema de partes que opera o interage como illos de un machina. Lamarck affirmava que le scientias vital deberea separar se del scientias physica e laborava pro crear un campo de recerca que esseva differente del conceptos, leyes, e principios del physica. Al rejectar le mechanismo sin abandonar toto le studio del phenomena material que occur in le natura, ille poteva indicar que "le esseres vivente ha characteristicas specific que non pote esser reducite a illos possedite per corporas physic" e que le natura vital esseva "un collection d'objectos metaphysic" ("un assemblage de objectos metaphysic").<ref name=Bossi/>  Ille non 'discoperiva' le biologia; ille aggregava previe operationes e les organisava in un nove scientia.<ref name=Bossi/> === Goethe === [[File:Goethe, Farbenkreis zur Symbolisierung des menschlichen Geistes- und Seelenlebens, 1809.jpg|thumb|Anello de colores de Goethe.]] {{AP|Scientia goethean}} {{Vide anque|Theoria del colores}} Le experimentos de [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Johann Goethe]] con optica esseva le resultato directe de su application del ideales romantic de observation e negligentia del proprie travalio con le optica de Newton. Ille credeva que le colore non esseva un phenomenon physicamente exterior ma interne al humanitate; Newton concludeva que le luce albe esseva un mixtura de altere colores, ma Goethe credeva haber disprovate iste affirmation per su experimentos de observation. Ille dava emphasis al capacitate human de vider le colore, le capacitate human de acquirer cognoscentia per "scintillas de perspicacitate", e non un equation mathematic que poteva describer lo analyticamente.<ref name=Cunningham/> === Humboldt === {{AP|Scientia humboldtian}} Alexander von Humboldt esseva un fervente advogate del collection de datos empirical e le necessitate del scientista natural in usar experientia e quantification pro comprender le natura. Ille cercava trovar le unitate del natura, e su libros ''Aspects of Nature'' e ''Kosmos'' lodava le qualitates aesthetic del mundo natural describente le scientia natural in tonos religiose.<ref name=Cunningham/> Ille credeva que le scientia e le belleza poteva complemettar se reciprocamente. === Historia natural === Le Romanticismo jocava anque un grande rolo in le historia natural, particularmente in le [[Evolution|theoria evolutionari biologic]]. Nichols (2005) examina le connectiones inter scientia e poesia in le mundo angloroman durante le seculos 18 e 19, focalisante se in le obras del historico natural american William Bartram e le naturalista britannic [[Charles Darwin]]. Le Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida de Bartram (1791) descripeva le flora, fauna, e paisages del Sud america con un cadentia e energia que se prestava a imitation e deveniva un fonte de inspiration pro poetas romantic de ille epocha como [[William Wordsworth]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], e [[William Blake]]. Le obras de Darwin, includente ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection'' (1859), marcava le fin del epocha romantic, quando usar le natura como un fonte de inspiration creative esseva commun, e conduceva al ascension del realismo e le uso de analogia in le artes.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ashton Nichols|title=Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-american-philosophical-society_2005-09_149_3/page/304|journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|year=2005|volume=149|issue=3|pages=304–315}}</ref> === Mathematica === Alexander (2006) argumenta que le natura del mathematica cambiava in le seculo 19 de un practica intuitive, hierarchical, e narrative usate pro resolver problemas concrete a un theoric uno in le qual logica, rigor, e consistentia interne deveniva importante. Nov campos inexpectate emergeva, como le geometria non-euclidean e le statisticas, como anque le theoria de gruppos, le theoria de conjunctos, e le logica symbolic. Con le cambio del disciplina, cambia anque le natura del homines involvite, e le imagine del tragic genio romantic sovente trovate in arte, litteratura, e musica pote esser applicate anque a mathematicos como Évariste Galois (1811–32), [[Niels Henrik Abel]] (1802–29), e János Bolyai (1802–60). Le plus grande del mathematicos romantic esseva [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1777–1855), qui faceva contributiones major in multe ramos del mathematica.<ref>Bossi and Poggi, ed. ''Romanticism in Science''.</ref> === Physica === Christensen (2005) monstrava que le labor de [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] (1777–1851) esseva basate in Romanticismo. Le discoperta de Ørsted del electromagnetismo in 1820 se dirigeva contra le physica newtonian mathematic del Illuminismo; Ørsted considerava que le technologia e le applicationes practic del scientia esseva dissociate del vera recerca scientific. Fortemente influentiate per le critica de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] del theoria corpuscular e per su amicitia e collaboration con Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1776–1809), Ørsted adheriva a un philosophia natural romantic que rejecteva le idea del extension universal de principios mechanic comprehendite per mathematica. Pro ille le scopo del philosophia natural esseva detacher se del utilitate e devenir un enterprise autonom, e ille compartiva le conviction romantic que le homine mesme e su interaction con le natura esseva al puncto focal del philosophia natural.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dan Ch. Christensen|title=The Ørsted-Ritter Partnership and the Birth of Romantic Natural Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-science_1995-03_52_2/page/153|journal=Annals of Science|year=1995|volume=52|issue=2|pages=153–185|doi=10.1080/00033799500200161}}</ref> === Astronomia === [[File:PSM V09 D079 Herschel 40 foot telescope at slough.jpg|thumb|Le telescopio de 40 pedes de Herschel.]] Le astronomo [[William Herschel]] (1738–1822) e su soror [[Caroline Herschel]] (1750–1848) esseva dedicate al studio del stellas; illes cambiaran le conception public del systema solar, le Via Lactea, e le signification del universo.<ref name=Holmes>{{cite book|author=Richard Holmes|title=The Age of Wonder: The Romantic Generation and the Discovery of the Beauty and Terror of Science|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4000-3187-0}}</ref> === Chemia === Sir Humphry Davy esseva "le homine de scientia le plus importante in Britannia qui pote esser describe como un romantic."<ref name=Cunningham/> Su nove approche a lo que ille appellava "philosophia chimic" esseva un exemplo de principios romantic in uso que influentiva le campo de chemia; ille accentuava un discoperta del "causas primitive, simple, e limitate in numero del phenomenonas e cambios observate" in le mundo physico e le elementos chimic ja cognoscite, illos que habeva essite discoperite per Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, un philosopho del Illuminismo.<ref name=Bossi/>  Fidel al anti-reductionismo romantic, Davy affirmava que ille non esseva le componentes individual, ma "le poteres associate con illos, que dava character al substantias"; con altere parolas, non lo que le elementos esseva individualmente, ma como illos se combinava pro producer reactiones chimic e, pro consequente, completer le scientia de chemia.<ref name=Bossi/><ref name=Holmes/> ==== Chemia organic ==== Le disveloppamento del chemia organic in le seculo 19 exigeva le acceptation per chemistas de ideas que derivava del ''Naturphilosophie'', modificante le conceptos del Illuminismo sur le composition organic presentate per Lavoisier. De central importantia esseva le labor sur le constitution e synthese de substantias organic per chemistas contemporanee.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Reinhard Löw|title=The Progress of Organic Chemistry During the Period of the German Romantic 'Naturphilosophie' (1795–1825)|journal=Ambix|year=1980|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1179/amb.1980.27.1.1}}</ref> == Imagine popular del scientia == Un altere pensator romantic, qui non esseva un scientista ma un scriptor, esseva [[Mary Shelley]]. Su famose libro ''[[Frankenstein]]'' transmitteva anque aspectos importante del Romanticismo in le scientia, includente elementos de anti-reductionismo e manipulation del natura, ambe themas clave que concerneva le Romanticos, assi como le campos scientific de chemia, anatomia, e philosophia natural.<ref>Shelley, M. ''Frankenstein,'' p. 26–27.</ref> Illa insisteva sur le rolo e le responsabilitate del societate in le relation con le scientia, e per le morale de su historia, illa supportava le position romantic que le scientia poteva facilemente disviar a minus que le homines prendeva plus attention a appretiar le natura que a controlar la.<ref name=Cunningham/>  Le representation popular del scientia Le depiction de John Keats de "philosophia frigide" in le poema "Lamia"<ref name=Cunningham/>  influentiva le sonetto de [[Edgar Allan Poe]] de 1829 ''Al Scientia' e le libro de Richard Dawkins de 1998, ''Unweaving the Rainbow''. == Declino del Romanticismo == Le ascension del [[positivismo]] de Auguste Comte in 1840 contribueva al declino del approcha romantic al scientia. {{Referentias}} == Biblioraphia == *{{cite journal | author = Alexander, Amir R | year = 2006 | title = Tragic Mathematics: Romantic Narratives and the Refounding of Mathematics in the Early Nineteenth Century | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_2006-12_97_4/page/714 | journal = Isis | volume = 97 | issue = 4| pages = 714–726 | doi=10.1086/509952| pmid = 17367007 | s2cid = 38520228 }} *Bossi, M., and Poggi, S., ed. ''Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 1790–1840''. Kluwer: Boston, 1994. *Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. ''Romanticism and the Sciences''. (1990). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521356857 excerpt and text search] * Fulford, Tim, Debbie Lee, and Peter J. Kitson, eds. ''Literature, Science and Exploration in the Romantic Era: Bodies of Knowledge'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521039959 excerpt and text search] * Holmes, Richard. ''The Age of Wonder: The Romantic Generation and the Discovery of the Beauty and Terror of Science'' (2009) {{ISBN|978-1-4000-3187-0}}, focus on [[William Herschel]] the astronomer and [[Humphry Davy]] the chemist *Holland, Jocelyn. ''German Romanticism and Science: The Procreative Poetics of Goethe, Novalis, and Ritter'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415993261 excerpt and text search] * McLane, Maureen N. ''Romanticism and the Human Sciences: Poetry, Population, and the Discourse of the Species'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521028205 excerpt and text search] *Murray, Christopher, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 1760–1850'' (2 vol 2004); 850 articles by experts; 1600pp * Richardson, Alan. ''British Romanticism and the Science of the Mind'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521020409 excerpt and text search] * {{cite journal | author = Snelders, H. A. M. | year = 1970 | title = Romanticism and Naturphilosophie and the Inorganic Natural Sciences, 1797–1840: An Introductory Survey | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-romanticism_summer-1970_9_3/page/193 | journal = Studies in Romanticism | volume = 9 | issue = 3| pages = 193–215 | doi=10.2307/25599763| jstor = 25599763 }} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] [[Categoria:Romanticismo]] 4sh5rdmkq51h490hx1ai09ly3zsio5z 0 58732 698200 696205 2026-08-03T22:22:33Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 5 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698200 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Euclid-proof.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Un demonstration ex ''Elementos'' de [[Euclide]] (circa 300 a.Chr.), largemente considerate le manual le plus influente de tote le tempore.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Euclid of Alexandria p. 119">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Euclid of Alexandria" p. 119}}</ref>]] Le '''historia del mathematica''' tracta del origine del discoperitas in [[mathematica]] e del [[Historia del notation mathematic|methodos e notationes mathematic del passato]]. Ante le [[era moderne]] e le diffusion mundial del cognoscentia, exemplos scripte de nove disveloppamentos mathematic ha venite al lumine solmente in pauc locos. Desde 3000 a.Chr. le statos [[Mesopotamia|mesopotamic]] de [[Sumer]], [[Akkad (region)|Akkad]] e [[Assyria]], sequite de vicin per le [[Antique Egypto]] e le stato levantin de [[Ebla]], comenciava a usar [[arithmetica]], [[algebra]] e [[geometria]] pro [[taxation]], [[commercio]], excambio, e in [[astronomia]], pro registrar le tempore e formular [[calendario|calendarios]]. Le prime textos mathematic disponibile es de Mesopotamia e del [[Antique Egypto|Egypto]] – ''[[Plimpton 322]]'' ([[Mathematica babylonian|babylonian]] {{circa|2000}} – 1900 a.Chr.),<ref>Friberg, J. (1981). "Methods and traditions of Babylonian mathematics. Plimpton 322, Pythagorean triples, and the Babylonian triangle parameter equations", ''Historia Mathematica'', 8, pp. 277–318.</ref> le ''[[Papyro Mathematic de Rhind]]'' ([[Mathematica egyptian|egyptian]] c. 1800 a.Chr.)<ref name=":1">{{Cite book | edition = 2 | publisher = [[Dover Publications]] | last = Neugebauer | first = Otto | author-link = Otto E. Neugebauer | title = The Exact Sciences in Antiquity | series = Acta Historica Scientiarum Naturalium et Medicinalium | orig-year = 1957 | year = 1969 | volume = 9 | pages = 1–191 | pmid = 14884919 | isbn = 978-0-486-22332-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JVhTtVA2zr8C}} Chap. IV "Egyptian Mathematics and Astronomy", pp. 71–96.</ref> e le ''[[Papyro Mathematic de Moscova]]'' (egyptian c. 1890 a.Chr.). Tote iste textos mentiona le si-nominate [[tripleta pythagoric|tripletas pythagoric]], assi, per inferentia, le [[theorema de Pythagoras]] sembla esser le disveloppamento mathematic le plus antique e diffundite, post le arithmetica e geometria de base. Le studio del mathematica como un "disciplina demonstrative" comenciava in le 6e seculo a.Chr. con le [[pythagoricos]], qui creava le termino "mathematica" ex le antique [[lingua grec]] ''μάθημα'' (''mathema''), significante "subjecto de instruction".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Turnbull|title=A Manual of Greek Mathematics|journal=Nature|volume=128|issue=3235|page=5|bibcode=1931Natur.128..739T|year=1931|doi=10.1038/128739a0|s2cid=3994109}}</ref> Le [[mathematica grec]] raffinava grandemente le methodos (specialmente per le introduction del ratiocination deductive e del [[rigor mathematic]] in le [[demonstration mathematic|probas]]) e expandeva le materia del mathematica.<ref>Heath, Thomas L. (1963). ''A Manual of Greek Mathematics'', Dover, p. 1: "In the case of mathematics, it is the Greek contribution which it is most essential to know, for it was the Greeks who first made mathematics a science."</ref> Le [[antique romanos]] usava [[mathematica applicate]] in [[agrimensura]], [[ingenieria structural]], [[ingenieria mechanic]], [[contabilitate]], creation de [[calendario lunar|calendarios lunar]] e [[calendario solar|solar]], e mesmo in [[arte roman|artes e mestieros]]. Le [[mathematica chinese]] faceva contributiones precoce, includente un [[systema de valor de position]] e le prime uso de [[numero negative|numeros negative]].<ref name=":2">Joseph, George Gheverghese (1991). ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics''. Penguin Books, London, pp. 140–48.</ref><ref>Ifrah, Georges (1986). ''Universalgeschichte der Zahlen''. Campus, Frankfurt/New York, pp. 428–37.</ref> Le [[systema de numeration indo-arabic]] e le regulas pro le uso de su operationes, in uso in tote le mundo hodie, evolveva durante le curso del prime millennio p.Chr. in [[mathematica indian|India]] e esseva transmittite al [[mundo occidental]] via le [[mathematica islamic]] a transverso del obra de [[Mohamet ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|Khwārizmī]].<ref>Kaplan, Robert (1999). ''The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of Zero''. Allen Lane/The Penguin Press, London.</ref><ref>"The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. the importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of Antiquity, Archimedes and Apollonius." – Pierre Simon Laplace http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html</ref> Le mathematica islamic, a su vice, disveloppava e expandeva le mathematica cognoscite per iste civilisationes.<ref>[[Adolf Yushkevich|Juschkewitsch, A. P.]] (1964). ''Geschichte der Mathematik im Mittelalter''. Teubner, Leipzig.</ref> Contemporanee a ma independente de iste traditiones esseva le mathematica disveloppate per le [[civilisation maya]] de [[Mexico]] e [[America Central]], ubi le concepto de [[zero]] recipeva un symbolo standard in le [[numerales maya]]. Multe textos grec e arabic sur le mathematica esseva [[Traductiones latin del seculo XII|traducite in latino]] a partir del 12e seculo, ducente a un ulterior disveloppamento del mathematica in le [[Medievo|Europa medieval]]. Desde le antiquitate usque al [[Medievo]], periodos de discoperita mathematic esseva frequentemente sequite per seculos de stagnation.<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''History of Mathematics'', 6th Edition, "After Pappus, Greek mathematics ceased to be a living study, ..." p. 185; "The Athenian school struggled on against growing opposition from Christians until the latter finally, in A.D. 529, obtained a decree from Emperor Justinian that closed the doors of the school forever." p. 186; "The period starting with the fall of the Roman Empire, in the middle of the fifth century, and extending into the eleventh century is known in Europe as the Dark Ages... Schooling became almost nonexistent." p. 258.</ref> Comenciante in le Italia del [[Renascentia]] in le 15e seculo, nove disveloppamentos mathematic, interagente con nove discoperitas scientific, esseva facite a un [[crescentia exponential|rhythmo crescente]] que continua usque al presente. Isto include le obra pioner de [[Isaac Newton]] e [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] in le disveloppamento del [[calculo]] infinitesimal durante le 17e seculo e le discoperitas posterior de [[Lista de mathematicos german|mathematicos german]] como [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] e [[David Hilbert]]. <div> {| class="wikitable zebra" |+ Tabula de numerales |- |Europee <small>(descendite de Arabic Occidental)</small> |0 ||1 ||2 ||3 ||4 ||5 ||6 ||7 ||8 ||9 |- |Arabic-Indic |٠ ||١ ||٢ ||٣ ||٤ ||٥ ||٦ ||٧ ||٨ ||٩ |- |Est Arabic-Indic <small>(Persian e Urdu)</small> |۰ ||۱ ||۲ ||۳ ||۴ ||۵ ||۶ ||۷ ||۸ ||۹ |- |Devanagari <small>(Hindi)</small> |० ||१ ||२ ||३ ||४ ||५ ||६ ||७ ||८ ||९ |- |Chinese – Japanese |零 ||一 ||二 ||三 ||四 ||五 ||六 ||七 ||八 ||九 |- |Tamil | ||௧ ||௨ ||௩ ||௪ ||௫ ||௬ ||௭ ||௮ ||௯ |} </div> == Prehistoria == Le origines del pensamento mathematic jace in le conceptos de [[numero]], [[patronos in natura]], [[magnitude (mathematica)|magnitude]], e [[Configuration (geometria)|forma]].<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Origins p. 3">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Origins" p. 3}}</ref> Studios moderne de cognition animal ha monstrate que iste conceptos non es unic al humanos. Tal conceptos haberea essite parte del vita quotidian in societates de [[chassator-collectores]]. Le idea del concepto de "numero" evoluente gradualmente con le tempore es supportate per le existentia de linguas que preserva le distinction inter "un", "duo", e "multe", sed non de numeros plus grande que duo.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Origins p. 3"/> Le uso de filo per [[Neanderthal]]es circa 40.000 annos retro in un sito in Abri du Maras in le sud de Francia suggere que illes cognosceve conceptos basic in mathematica.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hardy |first1=B. L. |last2=Moncel |first2=M.-H. |last3=Kerfant |first3=C. |last4=Lebon |first4=M. |last5=Bellot-Gurlet |first5=L. |last6=Mélard |first6=N. |date=2020-04-09 |title=Direct evidence of Neanderthal fibre technology and its cognitive and behavioral implications |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=4889 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-61839-w |pmid=32273518 |issn=2045-2322|pmc=7145842 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.4889H }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rigby |first=Sara |date=2020-04-14 |title=40,000-year-old yarn suggests Neanderthals had basic maths skills |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/40000-year-old-yarn-suggests-neanderthals-had-basic-maths-skills |access-date=2025-02-21 |website=BBC Science Focus Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Le [[Osso de Ishango]], trovate proxime al fontes del fluvio [[Nilo]] (nord-est del [[Republica Democratic del Congo|Congo]]), pote haber plus de [[Paleolithico Superior|20.000]] annos e consiste de un serie de marcas insculpite in tres columnas que curre al longo del osso. Interpretationes commun es que le osso de Ishango monstra o un ''tally'' (conto) del prime demonstration cognoscite de [[sequentia]]s de [[numero prime|numeros prime]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Everett |first=Caleb |year=2017 |title=Numbers and the Making of Us: Counting and the Course of Human Cultures |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674504431 |pages=35–36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2f1aDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35}}</ref> o un calendario lunar de sex menses.<ref>{{Citation|last=Huylebrouck|first=Dirk|title=Africa and Mathematics|chapter=Missing Link|date=2019|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04037-6_9|series=Mathematics, Culture, and the Arts|pages=153–166|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04037-6_9|isbn=978-3-030-04036-9|s2cid=239306457|access-date=2021-10-19}}</ref><ref name=Marshack>Marshack, Alexander (1991). ''The Roots of Civilization'', Colonial Hill, Mount Kisco, NY.</ref> Peter Rudman argue que le developpamento del concepto de numeros prime poteva solmente haber occurrite post le concepto de division, le qual ille data a post 10.000 a.Chr., con numeros prime probabilemente non essente comprendite usque a circa 500 a.Chr. Ille scribe etiam que "nulle tentativa ha essite facite pro explicar proque un conto de alique deberea exhibir multiplos de duo, numeros prime inter 10 e 20, e alcun numeros que es quasi multiplos de 10."<ref>{{cite book|last=Rudman|first=Peter Strom|title=How Mathematics Happened: The First 50,000 Years|year=2007|publisher=Prometheus Books|isbn=978-1-59102-477-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/howmathematicsha0000rudm/page/64 64]|url=https://archive.org/details/howmathematicsha0000rudm/page/64}}</ref> Le osso de Ishango, secundo le erudito [[Alexander Marshack]], pote haber influentiate le developpamento posterior del mathematica in Egypto proque, como alcun entratas in le osso de Ishango, le arithmetica egyptie faceva etiam uso del multiplication per 2; isto, totevia, es disputate.<ref>Marshack, A. (1972). ''The Roots of Civilization: the Cognitive Beginning of Man's First Art, Symbol and Notation''. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> [[Egypto predynastic|Egyptios predynastic]] del 5te millennio a.Chr. representava pictorialmente designos geometric. On ha pretendite que monumentos [[megalitho|megalithic]] in [[Anglaterra]] e [[Scotia]], datante del 3tie millennio a.Chr., incorpora ideas geometric tal como [[circulo]]s, [[ellipse]]s, e [[triplette pythagoree|triplettes pythagoree]] in lor designo.<ref>Thom, Alexander; Archie Thom (1988). "The metrology and geometry of Megalithic Man", pp. 132–51 in Ruggles, C. L. N. (ed.), ''Records in Stone: Papers in memory of Alexander Thom''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-33381-4}}.</ref> Tote le precedentes es disputate, totevia, e le documentos mathematic actualmente le plus ancian e non disputate es de fontes babylonic e egyptie dynastic.<ref>{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Damerow|date=1996 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c4yBmjnY1JIC&pg=PA199|title=Abstraction & Representation: Essays on the Cultural Evolution of Thinking (Boston Studies in the Philosophy & History of Science)|chapter=The Development of Arithmetical Thinking: On the Role of Calculating Aids in Ancient Egyptian & Babylonian Arithmetic|isbn=0792338162|publisher=Springer|access-date=2019-08-17}}</ref> == Babilonic == {{AP|Mathematica babilonic}} {{Vide anque|Plimpton 322}} Le mathematica [[babylonic]] se refere a omne mathematica del populos de [[Mesopotamia]] (le moderne [[Irak]]) desde le dies del prime [[Sumer]]ios usque al [[periodo hellenistic]], quasi usque al aurora del [[christianismo]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Mesopotamia" p. 24}}</ref> Le majoritate del travalio mathematic babylonic proveni de duo periodos amplemente separate: le prime pauc centos de annos del secunde millennio a.Chr. (periodo paleo-babylonic) e le ultime pauc seculos del prime millennio a.Chr. (periodo [[seleucida]]).<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 26">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Mesopotamia" p. 26}}</ref> Illo es nominate mathematica babylonic debite al rolo central de [[Babylonia]] como un loco de studio. [[File:Geometry problem-Sb 13088-IMG 0593-white.jpg|thumb|Problema de geometria sur un tabletta de argilla pertinente a un schola pro scribas; [[Susa]], prime medietate del secunde millennio a.Chr.]] In contrasto con le raritate de fontes in le [[mathematica egyptie]], le cognoscentia del mathematica babylonic es derivate de plus de 400 tablettas de argilla excavate desde le annos 1850.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 25">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Mesopotamia" p. 25}}</ref> Scripte in [[scriptura cuneiforme]], le tablettas esseva inscribite durante que le argilla esseva humide, e cocite dur in un furno o per le calor del sol. Alcubunos de istos pare esser devere domestic corrigite.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 41">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Mesopotamia" p. 41}}</ref> Le prime evidentia de mathematica scripte data del ancian [[Sumer]]ios, qui construeva le prime civilisation in Mesopotamia. Illes developpava un complexe systema de [[metrologia]] ab 3000 a.Chr. que se occupava principalmente del contabilitate administrative e financiari, tal como distributiones de granos, travaliatores, pesos de argento, o mesmo liquidos, inter altere cosas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sharlach |first=Tonia |title=Calendars and Counting |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203096604.ch15 |work=The Sumerian World |year=2006 |pages=307–308 |access-date=2023-07-07 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203096604.ch15 |isbn=978-0-203-09660-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ab circa 2500 a.Chr. in avante, le sumerios scribeva [[tabula de multiplication|tabulas de multiplication]] sur tablettas de argilla e tractava exercitios geometric e problemas de [[Division (mathematica)|division]]. Le prime tracias del numerales babylonic anque data de iste periodo.<ref>Melville, Duncan J. (2003). [http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/3Mill/chronology.html Third Millennium Chronology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707213616/http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/3Mill/chronology.html |date=2018-07-07 }}, ''Third Millennium Mathematics''. [[St. Lawrence University]].</ref> [[Image:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumb|left|Le tabletta mathematic babylonic [[Plimpton 322]], datate de 1800 a.Chr.]] Le mathematica babylonic esseva scripte usante un [[systema sexagesimal]] (base 60).<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 25"/> De isto deriva le uso moderne de 60 secundas in un minuta, 60 minutas in un hora, e 360 (60 × 6) grados in un circulo, assi como le uso de secundas e minutas de arco pro denotar fractiones de un grado. On pensa que le systema sexagesimal esseva initialmente usate per le scribas sumerie proque 60 pote esser dividite equalmente per 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 e 30,<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 25"/> e pro le scribas (distribuente le mentionate rationes de granos, registrante pesos de argento, etc.) esser capace de calcular facilemente a mano esseva essential, e assi un systema sexagesimal es pragmaticamente plus facile pro calcular a mano; totevia, existe le possibilitate que le uso de un systema sexagesimal esseva un phenomeno ethno-linguistic (que forsan nunquam essera cognoscite), e non un decision mathematic o practic.<ref name="Powell 1976 p. 418">{{Citation |last=Powell |first=M. |title=The Antecedents of Old Babylonian Place Notation and the Early History of Babylonian Mathematics |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82557367.pdf |work=Historia Mathematica |volume=3 |pages=417–439 |year=1976 |access-date=July 6, 2023}}</ref> Anque, a differentia del egyptios, grecos, e romanos, le babylonios habeva un systema de valor de position, ubi le digitos scripte in le columna sinistre representava valores plus grande, multo como in le [[systema decimal]]. Le potentia del systema de notation babylonic jaceva in le facto que illo poteva esser usate pro representar fractiones tan facilemente como numeros integre; assi, multiplicar duo numeros que contineva fractiones non esseva differente de multiplicar numeros integre, simile al notation moderne. Le systema de notation del babylonios esseva le melior de omne civilisation usque al [[Renascentia]], e su potentia permitteva attinger un remarcabile precision computational; per exemplo, le tabletta babylonic [[YBC 7289]] da un approximation de {{radic|2}} accurate usque a cinque locos decimal.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 27">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Mesopotamia" p. 27}}</ref> Le babylonios careva, totevia, de un equivalente del puncto decimal, e assi le valor de position de un symbolo sovente debeva esser inferite ex le contexto.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 26"/> Verso le periodo seleucida, le babylonios habeva developpate un symbolo de zero como un substituto pro positiones vacue; totevia, illo esseva usate solmente pro positiones intermedie.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 26"/> Iste signo de zero non appare in positiones terminal; assi, le babylonios arrivava proxime ma non developpava un ver systema de valor de position.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 26"/> Altere topicos tractate per le mathematica babylonic include fractiones, algebra, equationes quadratic e cubic, e le calculation de [[numero regular|numeros regular]] e lor [[Inverso multiplicative|pares reciproc]].<ref>{{cite book | author-link = Aaboe | last = Aaboe | first = Asger | title = Episodes from the Early History of Mathematics | year = 1998 | publisher = Random House | location = New York | pages = 30–31}}</ref> Le tablettas anque include tabulas de multiplication e methodos pro solver [[equation linear|equationes linear]], [[equation quadratic|quadratic]], e [[equation cubic|cubic]], un remarcabile complimento pro le epocha.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Mesopotamia" p. 33}}</ref> Tablettas del periodo paleo-babylonic anque contine le prime enunciation cognoscite del [[theorema de Pythagoras]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Mesopotamia" p. 39}}</ref> Totevia, como in le mathematica egyptie, le mathematica babylonic monstra nulle conscientia del differentia inter solutiones exacte e approximate, o le solvibilitate de un problema, e le plus importante, nulle enunciation explicite del necessitate de [[demonstration mathematic|demonstrationes]] o principios logic.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Mesopotamia p. 41"/> == Egyptian == {{AP|Mathematica Egyptian}} Le mathematica [[Egypto|egyptie]] se refere al mathematica scripte in le [[lingua egyptie]]. A partir del [[periodo hellenistic]], le [[lingua grec|greco]] reimplaciava le egyptio como le lingua scripte del eruditos [[egyptios|egyptie]]. Evidentia archeologic ha suggerite que le systema de numeration del ancian Egypto habeva origines in [[Africa subsaharian]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eglash |first1=Ron |title=African fractals : modern computing and indigenous design |date=1999 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn=0813526140 |pages=89,141}}</ref> In plus, designos de geometria fractal que es extense inter le culturas african subsaharian se trova anque in le architectura e le signos cosmologic egyptie.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eglash, R. |title=Fractal Geometry in African Material Culture |journal=Symmetry: Culture and Science |date=1995 |volume=6-1 |pages=174–177}}</ref> Structuras megalithic situate in [[Nabta Playa]], in le Alte Egypto, presentava [[astronomia]], arrangiamentos de calendario in alignamento con le levar heliac de [[Sirius]] e supportava le calibration del calendario annual pro le inundation annual del Nilo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24410-5 |pages=107-110 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ancient_Africa/S5KjEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=christopher+ehret+nabta+playa&printsec=frontcover |language=en}}</ref> Le texto mathematic egyptie le plus extense es le [[papyro de Rhind]] (alcun vices anque appellate le Papyro de Ahmes secundo su autor), datate a circa 1650 a.Chr. sed probabilemente un copia de un documento plus ancian del [[Regno Medie de Egypto|Regno Medie]] de circa 2000–1800 a.Chr.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Egypt p. 11">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Egypt" p. 11}}</ref> Illo es un manual de instruction pro studentes in arithmetica e geometria. In plus de dar formulas de area e methodos pro multiplication, division e labor con fractiones unitari, illo contine anque evidentia de altere cognoscentia mathematic,<ref>[https://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath340/kmath340.htm Egyptian Unit Fractions] at MathPages</ref> includente numeros [[numero composite|composite]] e [[numero prime|prime]]; medias [[media arithmetic|arithmetic]], [[media geometric|geometric]] e [[media harmonic|harmonic]]; e comprehension simplista tanto del [[cribro de Eratosthenes]] como del [[numero perfecte|theoria de numeros perfecte]] (a saper, illo del numero 6).<ref>[<!-- http://mathpages.com/home/rhind.htm -->https://mathpages.com/home/kmath340/kmath340.htm Egyptian Unit Fractions]</ref> Illo monstra anque como solver [[equation linear|equationes linear]] de prime ordine<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Egyptian_papyri.html|title=Egyptian Papyri|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref> assi como [[serie arithmetic|series arithmetic]] e [[serie geometric|geometric]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egypt_algebra.html#areithmetic+series|title=Egyptian Algebra – Mathematicians of the African Diaspora|website=www.math.buffalo.edu}}</ref> Un altere texto mathematic egyptie significante es le [[papyro de Moscova]], anque del periodo del [[Regno Medie de Egypto|Regno Medie]], datate a circa 1890 a.Chr.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Egypt p. 19">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Egypt" p. 19}}</ref> Illo consiste de lo que hodie es appellate ''word problems'' (problemas de parolas) o ''story problems'' (problemas de narration), que esseva apparentemente intendite como devertimento. Un problema es considerate de particular importantia proque illo da un methodo pro trovar le volumine de un [[frustum|trunco de pyramide]]. Finalmente, le [[Berlin Papyrus 6619|Papyro de Berlin 6619]] (circa 1800 a.Chr.) monstra que le ancian egyptios poteva solver un [[equation algebraic]] de secunde ordine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin|title=Egyptian Mathematical Papyri – Mathematicians of the African Diaspora|website=www.math.buffalo.edu}}</ref> == Grec == {{AP|Mathematica grec}} [[File:Pythagorean.svg|thumb|sinistra|Le [[theorema de Pythagoras]]. Le [[pythagoricos]] es generalmente creditate con le prime prova del theorema.]] Le mathematica grec se refere al mathematica scripte in le [[lingua grec]] ab le tempore de [[Thales de Mileto]] (~600 a.Chr.) usque al clausura del [[Academia de Platon|Academia de Athenas]] in 529 p.Chr.<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders, {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}}</ref> Le mathematicos grec viveva in citates spergite super tote le Mediterraneo oriental, ab Italia usque al Africa del Nord, sed esseva unite per cultura e lingua. Le mathematica grec del periodo sequente [[Alexandro le Magne]] es a vices appellate mathematica [[periodo hellenistic|hellenistic]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 99}}</ref> Le mathematica grec esseva multo plus sophisticate que le mathematica que habeva essite disviluppate per culturas anterior. Tote le registrationes supervivente de mathematica pre-grec monstra le uso de [[raciocinio inductive]], es dicer, observationes repetite usate pro stabilir regulas empiric. Le mathematicos grec, per contrasto, usava [[raciocinio deductive]]. Le grecos usava le logica pro derivar conclusiones ab definitiones e axiomas, e usava [[rigor mathematic]] pro probar los.<ref>Bernal, Martin (2000). "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science", pp. 72–83 in Michael H. Shank, ed. ''The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 75.</ref> On pensa que le mathematica grec comenciava con [[Thales de Mileto]] (c. 624–c. 546 a.Chr.) e [[Pythagoras de Samos]] (c. 582–c. 507 a.Chr.). Ben que le extension del influentia es disputate, illes probabilemente esseva inspirate per le [[mathematica egyptie]] e le [[mathematica babylonic]]. Secundo le legenda, Pythagoras viagiava a Egypto pro apprender mathematica, geometria, e astronomia ab sacerdotes egyptie. Thales usava le [[geometria]] pro solver problemas tal como calcular le altitude de [[pyramides]] e le distantia de naves ab le costa. Ille es creditate con le prime uso de raciocinio deductive applicate al geometria, per derivar quatro corollarios al [[theorema de Thales]]. Como resultato, ille ha essite salutate como le prime ver mathematico e le prime individuo cognoscite a qui un discoperta mathematic ha essite attribuite.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 43}}</ref> Pythagoras stabiliva le [[pythagoricos|Schola Pythagorean]], cuje doctrina esseva que le mathematica regeva le universo e cuje motto esseva "Tote es numero".<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 49}}</ref> Esseva le pythagoricos qui creava le termino "mathematica", e con qui le studio del mathematica per se mesme comencia. Le pythagoricos es creditate con le prime prova del [[theorema de Pythagoras]],<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders, {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}}.</ref> ben que le enunciation del theorema ha un longe historia, e con le prova del existentia de [[numeros irrational]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Discovery of Incommensurability by Hippasus of Metapontum|author=Kurt Von Fritz|journal=The Annals of Mathematics|year=1945}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Pentagram and the Discovery of an Irrational Number|journal=The Two-Year College Mathematics Journal|author=Choike, James R. |year=1980|volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=312–316 |doi=10.2307/3026893 |jstor=3026893 }}</ref> Ben que ille esseva precedite per le babylonios, le indianos e le chineses,<ref name="Nature"/> le mathematico [[neopythagorismo|neopythagoric]] [[Nicomacho]] (60–120 p.Chr.) forniva un del plus antique [[tabula de multiplication|tabulas de multiplication]] greco-roman, dum le plus antique tabula de multiplication grec existente se trova in un tabletta de cera datate del 1e seculo p.Chr. (ora trovate in le [[British Museum]]).<ref>David E. Smith (1958), ''History of Mathematics, Volume I: General Survey of the History of Elementary Mathematics'', New York: Dover Publications (a reprint of the 1951 publication), {{ISBN|0-486-20429-4}}, pp. 58, 129.</ref> Le association del neopythagoricos con le invention occidental del tabula de multiplication es evidente in su nomine [[Medievo|medieval]] posterior: le ''mensa Pythagorica''.<ref>Smith, David E. (1958). ''History of Mathematics, Volume I: General Survey of the History of Elementary Mathematics'', New York: Dover Publications (a reprint of the 1951 publication), {{ISBN|0-486-20429-4}}, p. 129.</ref> [[Platon]] (428/427 a.Chr. – 348/347 a.Chr.) es importante in le historia del mathematica pro inspirar e guidar alteres.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 86}}</ref> Su [[Academia de Platon|Academia]], in [[Athenas]], deveniva le centro mathematic del mundo in le 4e seculo a.Chr., e esseva ab iste schola que le mathematicos principal del epoca, tal como [[Eudoxo de Cnido]] (c. 390 - c. 340 a.Chr.), veniva.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=The Age of Plato and Aristotle p. 88">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 88}}</ref> Platon anque discuteva le fundamentos del mathematica,<ref>{{cite web |last=Calian |first=George F. |year=2014 |url=http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobleja/2013-2014/FLORIN%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf |title=One, Two, Three… A Discussion on the Generation of Numbers |publisher=New Europe College |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015233836/http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobleja/2013-2014/FLORIN%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-15 |accessdate=2026-03-09 |archivedate=2015-10-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015233836/http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobleja/2013-2014/FLORIN%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf }}</ref> clarificava alicun del definitiones (p.ex. illo de un linea como "longitude sin latitude"). Eudoxo disviluppava le [[methodo de exhaustion]], un precursor del [[integral|integration]] moderne<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 92}}</ref> e un theoria de rationes que evitava le problema de [[magnitudes incommensurabile]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 93}}</ref> Le prime permitteva le calculationes de areas e volumines de figuras curvilinee,<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 91}}</ref> dum le secunde habilitava geometros subsequente a facer avantiamentos significante in geometria. Ben que ille faceva nulle discoperta mathematic technic specific, [[Aristotele]] (384–322 a.Chr.) contribueva significantemente al disviluppamento del mathematica per poner le fundamentos del [[logica]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 98}}</ref> [[File:P. Oxy. I 29.jpg|dextra|thumb|Un del plus antique fragmentos supervivente del ''Elementos'' de Euclide, trovate in [[Oxyrhyncho]] e datate de circa 100 p.Chr. Le diagrama accompania le Libro II, Proposition 5.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html |title=One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid |author=Bill Casselman |author-link=Bill Casselman (mathematician) |publisher=University of British Columbia |access-date=2008-09-26}}</ref>]] In le 3e seculo a.Chr., le centro principal de education e recerca mathematic esseva le [[Museo de Alexandria]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Euclid of Alexandria" p. 100}}</ref> Esseva ibi que [[Euclide]] (circa 300 a.Chr.) inseniava, e scribeva le ''[[Elementos de Euclide|Elementos]]'', amplemente considerate le libro de texto le plus succedite e influente de tote le tempores.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Euclid of Alexandria p. 119"/> Le ''Elementos'' introduceva [[rigor mathematic]] per medio del [[methodo axiomatic]] e es le exemplo le plus antique del formato ancora usate in mathematica hodie, illo de definition, axioma, theorema, e prova. Ben que le major parte del contento del ''Elementos'' esseva jam cognoscite, Euclide lo arrangiava in un sol structura logic coherente.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Euclid of Alexandria p. 104">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Euclid of Alexandria" p. 104}}</ref> Le ''Elementos'' esseva cognoscite per tote le personas educate in le Occidente usque al medie del 20e seculo e su contento es ancora inseniate in classes de geometria hodie.<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders. {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}} p. 141: "Nulle obra, excepte [[Le Biblia]], ha essite plus amplemente usate..."</ref> In addition al theoremas familiar del [[geometria euclidean]], le ''Elementos'' esseva intendite como un libro de texto introductori a tote le subjectos mathematic del tempore, tal como [[theoria de numeros]], [[algebra]] e [[geometria solide]],<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Euclid of Alexandria p. 104"/> includente provas que le radice quadrate de duo es irrational e que existe infinitemente multe numeros prime. Euclide anque [[Euclide#Altere obras|scribeva extensemente]] super altere subjectos, tal como [[sectiones conic]], [[optica]], [[geometria spheric]], e mechanica, sed solmente le medietate de su scriptos supervive.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Euclid of Alexandria" p. 102}}</ref> [[File:Archimedes pi.svg|thumb|sinistra|vertical=1.2|Archimedes usava le [[methodo de exhaustion]] pro approximar le valor de [[pi]].]] [[Archimedes]] (circa 287–212 a.Chr.) de [[Siracusa]], amplemente considerate le plus grande mathematico del antiquitate,<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 120}}</ref> usava le [[methodo de exhaustion]] pro calcular le [[area]] sub le arco de un [[parabola]] con le [[serie (mathematica)|summation de un serie infinite]], in un maniera non multo differente del calculo moderne.<ref name="Boyer1991">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 130}}</ref> Ille anque monstrava que on poteva usar le methodo de exhaustion pro calcular le valor de π con tante precision quanto desirate, e obteneva le valor le plus accurate de π tunc cognoscite, {{nowrap|3+{{sfrac|10|71}} < π < 3+{{sfrac|10|70}}}}.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 126}}</ref> Ille anque studiava le [[spiral de Archimedes|spiral]] que porta su nomine, obteneva formulas pro le [[volumine]]s de [[superficie de revolution|superficies de revolution]] (paraboloide, ellipsoide, hyperboloide),<ref name="Boyer1991" /> e un ingeniose methodo de [[exponentiation]] pro exprimer numeros multo grande.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 125}}</ref> Ben que ille es anque cognoscite pro su contributiones al physica e plereque apparatos mechanic avantiate, Archimedes mesme dava multo plus valor al productos de su pensamento e principios mathematic general.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 121}}</ref> Ille considerava como su plus grande complimento su discoperta del area superficial e volumine de un sphera, lo que ille obteneva per probar que istos es 2/3 del area superficial e volumine de un cylindro circumscribente le sphera.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 137}}</ref> [[File:Conic sections 2.png|thumb|dextra|vertical=1.25|[[Apollonio de Perga]] faceva avantiamentos significante in le studio de [[sectiones conic]].]] [[Apollonio de Perga]] (circa 262–190 a.Chr.) faceva avantiamentos significante al studio de [[sectiones conic]], monstrante que on pote obtener tote le tres varietates de section conic per variar le angulo del plano que secca un cono de duple nappa.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 145}}</ref> Ille anque creava le terminologia in uso hodie pro sectiones conic, a saper [[parabola]] ("ponite juxta" o "comparation"), "ellipse" ("deficientia"), e "hyperbola" ("un jecto ultra").<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 146}}</ref> Su obra ''Conicas'' es un del obras mathematic le plus cognoscite e preservate del antiquitate, e in illo ille deriva multe theoremas concernente sectiones conic que se provarea inestimabile pro mathematicos e astronomos posterior studiante le motion planetari, tal como Isaac Newton.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 152}}</ref> Ben que ni Apollonio ni necun altere mathematico grec faceva le salto al geometria de coordinatas, le tractamento de curvas per Apollonio es in certe manieras simile al tractamento moderne, e alicun de su obra sembla anticipar le disviluppamento del geometria analytic per Descartes circa 1800 annos plus tarde.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 156}}</ref> Circa le mesme tempore, [[Eratosthenes de Cyrene]] (circa 276–194 a.Chr.) concipeva le [[cribro de Eratosthenes]] pro trovar [[numeros prime]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 161}}</ref> Le 3e seculo a.Chr. es generalmente considerate como le "Epocha de Oro" del mathematica grec, con avantiamentos in mathematica pur de hic in avante in declino relative.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 175}}</ref> Tamen, in le seculos que sequeva, avantiamentos significante esseva facite in mathematica applicate, plus notabilemente le [[trigonometria]], in grande parte pro responder al necessitates del astronomos.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> [[Hipparcho de Nicea]] (circa 190–120 a.Chr.) es considerate le fundador del trigonometria pro compilar le prime tabula trigonometric cognoscite, e a ille es anque debite le uso systematic del circulo de 360 grados.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 162}}</ref> [[Heron de Alexandria]] (circa 10–70 p.Chr.) es creditate con le [[formula de Heron]] pro trovar le area de un triangulo scalen e con esser le prime a recognoscer le possibilitate de numeros negative possedente radices quadrate.<ref>S.C. Roy. ''Complex numbers: lattice simulation and zeta function applications'', p. 1 [https://books.google.com/books?id=J-2BRbFa5IkC&dq=Heron+imaginary+numbers&pg=PA1]. Harwood Publishing, 2007, 131 paginas. {{ISBN|1-904275-25-7}}</ref> [[Menelao de Alexandria]] (circa 100 p.Chr.) esseva un pionero del [[trigonometria spheric]] per medio del [[theorema de Menelao]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 163}}</ref> Le obra trigonometric le plus complete e influente del antiquitate es le ''[[Almagesto]]'' de [[Claudio Ptolemeo|Ptolemeo]] (circa 90–168 p.Chr.), un tractato astronomic historic cuje tabulas trigonometric esseva usate per astronomos durante le proxime mille annos.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 164}}</ref> Ptolemeo es anque creditate con le [[theorema de Ptolemeo]] pro derivar quantitates trigonometric, e le valor le plus accurate de π foras de China usque al periodo medieval, 3,1416.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 168}}</ref> [[File:Diophantus-cover.png|thumb|dextra|vertical|Pagina de titulo del edition de 1621 del ''Arithmetica'' de Diophanto, traducite in [[latino]] per [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]].]] Post un periodo de stagnation post Ptolemeo, le periodo inter 250 e 350 p.Chr. es a vices appellate le "Epocha de Argento" del mathematica grec.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 178}}</ref> Durante iste periodo, [[Diophanto]] faceva avantiamentos significante in algebra, particularmente le [[equation indeterminate|analyse indeterminate]], que es anque cognoscite como "analyse diophantine".<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 180}}</ref> Le studio de [[equationes diophantine]] e [[approximationes diophantine]] es un area significante de recerca usque hodie. Su obra principal esseva le ''Arithmetica'', un collection de 150 problemas algebraic tractante de solutiones exacte a equationes determinate e indeterminate.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 181}}</ref> Le ''Arithmetica'' habeva un influentia significante sur mathematicos posterior, tal como [[Pierre de Fermat]], qui arrivava a su famose [[ultime theorema de Fermat]] post essayar generalisar un problema que ille habeva legite in le ''Arithmetica'' (illo de divider un quadrato in duo quadratos).<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 183}}</ref> Diophanto anque faceva avantiamentos significante in notation, le ''Arithmetica'' essente le prime instantia de symbolismo algebraic e syncopation.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> [[File:Hagia Sophia Mars 2013.jpg|thumb|sinistra|Le [[Hagia Sophia]] esseva designate per le mathematicos [[Anthemio de Tralles]] e [[Isidoro de Mileto]].]] Inter le ultime grande mathematicos grec es [[Pappo de Alexandria]] (4e seculo p.Chr.). Ille es cognoscite pro su [[theorema de hexagone de Pappo|theorema de hexagone]] e [[theorema de centroide de Pappo|theorema de centroide]], assi como le [[configuration de Pappo]] e le [[grapho de Pappo]]. Su ''Collection'' es un fonte major de cognoscentia sur le mathematica grec proque le major parte de illo ha supervivite.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" pp. 183–90}}</ref> Pappo es considerate le ultime innovator major in le mathematica grec, con le travalio subsequente consistente principalmente de commentarios sur travalios anterior. Le prime femina mathematico registrate esseva [[Hypatia]] de Alexandria (350–415 p.Chr.), qui scribeva multe obras sur mathematica applicate. A causa de un disputa politic, le [[Christianismo in le Imperio Roman|communitate christian]] in Alexandria la faceva dispoliar publicamente e executar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/hypatia.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> Su morte es a vices prendite como le fin del era del mathematica grec alexandrin, ben que le travalio continuava in Athenas durante un altere seculo con figuras tal como [[Proclo]], [[Simplicio de Cilicia|Simplicio]] e [[Eutocio]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" pp. 190–94}}</ref> Ben que Proclo e Simplicio esseva plus philosophos que mathematicos, lor commentarios sur obras anterior es fontes preciose sur le mathematica grec. Le clausura del [[Academia de Platon|Academia]] neoplatonic de Athenas per le imperator [[Justiniano]] in 529 p.Chr. es traditionalmente considerate como marcante le fin del era del mathematica grec, ben que le tradition grec continuava sin interruption in le [[Imperio Byzantin]] con mathematicos tal como [[Anthemio de Tralles]] e [[Isidoro de Mileto]], le architectos del [[Hagia Sophia]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 193}}</ref> Tamen, le mathematica byzantin consisteva principalmente de commentarios, con pauc in le via de innovation, e le centros de innovation mathematic se trovava in altere locos a iste tempore.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 194}}</ref> == Roman == {{Vide anque|Abaco roman e Numeros roman}} [[File:Pythagorean.svg|thumb|sinistra|Le [[theorema de Pythagoras]]. Le [[pythagoricos]] es generalmente creditate con le prime prova del theorema.]] Le mathematica grec se refere al mathematica scripte in le [[lingua grec]] ab le tempore de [[Thales de Mileto]] (~600 a.Chr.) usque al clausura del [[Academia de Platon|Academia de Athenas]] in 529 p.Chr.<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders, {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}}</ref> Le mathematicos grec viveva in citates spergite super tote le Mediterraneo oriental, ab Italia usque al Africa del Nord, sed esseva unite per cultura e lingua. Le mathematica grec del periodo sequente [[Alexandro le Magne]] es a vices appellate mathematica [[periodo hellenistic|hellenistic]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 99}}</ref> Le mathematica grec esseva multo plus sophisticate que le mathematica que habeva essite disviluppate per culturas anterior. Tote le registrationes supervivente de mathematica pre-grec monstra le uso de [[raciocinio inductive]], es dicer, observationes repetite usate pro stabilir regulas empiric. Le mathematicos grec, per contrasto, usava [[raciocinio deductive]]. Le grecos usava le logica pro derivar conclusiones ab definitiones e axiomas, e usava [[rigor mathematic]] pro probar los.<ref>Bernal, Martin (2000). "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science", pp. 72–83 in Michael H. Shank, ed. ''The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 75.</ref> On pensa que le mathematica grec comenciava con [[Thales de Mileto]] (c. 624–c. 546 a.Chr.) e [[Pythagoras de Samos]] (c. 582–c. 507 a.Chr.). Ben que le extension del influentia es disputate, illes probabilemente esseva inspirate per le [[mathematica egyptie]] e le [[mathematica babylonic]]. Secundo le legenda, Pythagoras viagiava a Egypto pro apprender mathematica, geometria, e astronomia ab sacerdotes egyptie. Thales usava le [[geometria]] pro solver problemas tal como calcular le altitude de [[pyramides]] e le distantia de naves ab le costa. Ille es creditate con le prime uso de raciocinio deductive applicate al geometria, per derivar quatro corollarios al [[theorema de Thales]]. Como resultato, ille ha essite salutate como le prime ver mathematico e le prime individuo cognoscite a qui un discoperta mathematic ha essite attribuite.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 43}}</ref> Pythagoras stabiliva le [[pythagoricos|Schola Pythagorean]], cuje doctrina esseva que le mathematica regeva le universo e cuje motto esseva "Tote es numero".<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 49}}</ref> Esseva le pythagoricos qui creava le termino "mathematica", e con qui le studio del mathematica per se mesme comencia. Le pythagoricos es creditate con le prime prova del [[theorema de Pythagoras]],<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders, {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}}.</ref> ben que le enunciation del theorema ha un longe historia, e con le prova del existentia de [[numeros irrational]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Discovery of Incommensurability by Hippasus of Metapontum|author=Kurt Von Fritz|journal=The Annals of Mathematics|year=1945}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Pentagram and the Discovery of an Irrational Number|journal=The Two-Year College Mathematics Journal|author=Choike, James R. |year=1980|volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=312–316 |doi=10.2307/3026893 |jstor=3026893 }}</ref> Ben que ille esseva precedite per le babylonios, le indianos e le chineses,<ref name="Nature"/> le mathematico [[neopythagorismo|neopythagoric]] [[Nicomacho]] (60–120 p.Chr.) forniva un del plus antique [[tabula de multiplication|tabulas de multiplication]] greco-roman, dum le plus antique tabula de multiplication grec existente se trova in un tabletta de cera datate del 1e seculo p.Chr. (ora trovate in le [[British Museum]]).<ref>David E. Smith (1958), ''History of Mathematics, Volume I: General Survey of the History of Elementary Mathematics'', New York: Dover Publications (a reprint of the 1951 publication), {{ISBN|0-486-20429-4}}, pp. 58, 129.</ref> Le association del neopythagoricos con le invention occidental del tabula de multiplication es evidente in su nomine [[Medievo|medieval]] posterior: le ''mensa Pythagorica''.<ref>Smith, David E. (1958). ''History of Mathematics, Volume I: General Survey of the History of Elementary Mathematics'', New York: Dover Publications (a reprint of the 1951 publication), {{ISBN|0-486-20429-4}}, p. 129.</ref> [[Platon]] (428/427 a.Chr. – 348/347 a.Chr.) es importante in le historia del mathematica pro inspirar e guidar alteres.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 86}}</ref> Su [[Academia de Platon|Academia]], in [[Athenas]], deveniva le centro mathematic del mundo in le 4e seculo a.Chr., e esseva ab iste schola que le mathematicos principal del epoca, tal como [[Eudoxo de Cnido]] (c. 390 - c. 340 a.Chr.), veniva.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=The Age of Plato and Aristotle p. 88">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 88}}</ref> Platon anque discuteva le fundamentos del mathematica,<ref>{{cite web |last=Calian |first=George F. |year=2014 |url=http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobleja/2013-2014/FLORIN%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf |title=One, Two, Three… A Discussion on the Generation of Numbers |publisher=New Europe College |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015233836/http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobleja/2013-2014/FLORIN%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-15 |accessdate=2026-03-09 |archivedate=2015-10-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015233836/http://www.nec.ro/pdfs/publications/odobleja/2013-2014/FLORIN%20GEORGE%20CALIAN.pdf }}</ref> clarificava alicun del definitiones (p.ex. illo de un linea como "longitude sin latitude"). Eudoxo disviluppava le [[methodo de exhaustion]], un precursor del [[integral|integration]] moderne<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 92}}</ref> e un theoria de rationes que evitava le problema de [[magnitudes incommensurabile]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 93}}</ref> Le prime permitteva le calculationes de areas e volumines de figuras curvilinee,<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 91}}</ref> dum le secunde habilitava geometros subsequente a facer avantiamentos significante in geometria. Ben que ille faceva nulle discoperta mathematic technic specific, [[Aristotele]] (384–322 a.Chr.) contribueva significantemente al disviluppamento del mathematica per poner le fundamentos del [[logica]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="The Age of Plato and Aristotle" p. 98}}</ref> [[File:P. Oxy. I 29.jpg|dextra|thumb|Un del plus antique fragmentos supervivente del ''Elementos'' de Euclide, trovate in [[Oxyrhyncho]] e datate de circa 100 p.Chr. Le diagrama accompania le Libro II, Proposition 5.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html |title=One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid |author=Bill Casselman |author-link=Bill Casselman (mathematician) |publisher=University of British Columbia |access-date=2008-09-26}}</ref>]] In le 3e seculo a.Chr., le centro principal de education e recerca mathematic esseva le [[Museo de Alexandria]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Euclid of Alexandria" p. 100}}</ref> Esseva ibi que [[Euclide]] (circa 300 a.Chr.) inseniava, e scribeva le ''[[Elementos de Euclide|Elementos]]'', amplemente considerate le libro de texto le plus succedite e influente de tote le tempores.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Euclid of Alexandria p. 119"/> Le ''Elementos'' introduceva [[rigor mathematic]] per medio del [[methodo axiomatic]] e es le exemplo le plus antique del formato ancora usate in mathematica hodie, illo de definition, axioma, theorema, e prova. Ben que le major parte del contento del ''Elementos'' esseva jam cognoscite, Euclide lo arrangiava in un sol structura logic coherente.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Euclid of Alexandria p. 104">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Euclid of Alexandria" p. 104}}</ref> Le ''Elementos'' esseva cognoscite per tote le personas educate in le Occidente usque al medie del 20e seculo e su contento es ancora inseniate in classes de geometria hodie.<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders. {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}} p. 141: "Nulle obra, excepte [[Le Biblia]], ha essite plus amplemente usate..."</ref> In addition al theoremas familiar del [[geometria euclidean]], le ''Elementos'' esseva intendite como un libro de texto introductori a tote le subjectos mathematic del tempore, tal como [[theoria de numeros]], [[algebra]] e [[geometria solide]],<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=Euclid of Alexandria p. 104"/> includente provas que le radice quadrate de duo es irrational e que existe infinitemente multe numeros prime. Euclide anque [[Euclide#Altere obras|scribeva extensemente]] super altere subjectos, tal como [[sectiones conic]], [[optica]], [[geometria spheric]], e mechanica, sed solmente le medietate de su scriptos supervive.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Euclid of Alexandria" p. 102}}</ref> [[File:Archimedes pi.svg|thumb|sinistra|vertical=1.2|Archimedes usava le [[methodo de exhaustion]] pro approximar le valor de [[pi]].]] [[Archimedes]] (circa 287–212 a.Chr.) de [[Siracusa]], amplemente considerate le plus grande mathematico del antiquitate,<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 120}}</ref> usava le [[methodo de exhaustion]] pro calcular le [[area]] sub le arco de un [[parabola]] con le [[serie (mathematica)|summation de un serie infinite]], in un maniera non multo differente del calculo moderne.<ref name="Boyer1991">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 130}}</ref> Ille anque monstrava que on poteva usar le methodo de exhaustion pro calcular le valor de π con tante precision quanto desirate, e obteneva le valor le plus accurate de π tunc cognoscite, {{nowrap|3+{{sfrac|10|71}} < π < 3+{{sfrac|10|70}}}}.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 126}}</ref> Ille anque studiava le [[spiral de Archimedes|spiral]] que porta su nomine, obteneva formulas pro le [[volumine]]s de [[superficie de revolution|superficies de revolution]] (paraboloide, ellipsoide, hyperboloide),<ref name="Boyer1991" /> e un ingeniose methodo de [[exponentiation]] pro exprimer numeros multo grande.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 125}}</ref> Ben que ille es anque cognoscite pro su contributiones al physica e plereque apparatos mechanic avantiate, Archimedes mesme dava multo plus valor al productos de su pensamento e principios mathematic general.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 121}}</ref> Ille considerava como su plus grande complimento su discoperta del area superficial e volumine de un sphera, lo que ille obteneva per probar que istos es 2/3 del area superficial e volumine de un cylindro circumscribente le sphera.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Archimedes of Syracuse" p. 137}}</ref> [[File:Conic sections 2.png|thumb|dextra|vertical=1.25|[[Apollonio de Perga]] faceva avantiamentos significante in le studio de [[sectiones conic]].]] [[Apollonio de Perga]] (circa 262–190 a.Chr.) faceva avantiamentos significante al studio de [[sectiones conic]], monstrante que on pote obtener tote le tres varietates de section conic per variar le angulo del plano que secca un cono de duple nappa.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 145}}</ref> Ille anque creava le terminologia in uso hodie pro sectiones conic, a saper [[parabola]] ("ponite juxta" o "comparation"), "ellipse" ("deficientia"), e "hyperbola" ("un jecto ultra").<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 146}}</ref> Su obra ''Conicas'' es un del obras mathematic le plus cognoscite e preservate del antiquitate, e in illo ille deriva multe theoremas concernente sectiones conic que se provarea inestimabile pro mathematicos e astronomos posterior studiante le motion planetari, tal como Isaac Newton.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 152}}</ref> Ben que ni Apollonio ni necun altere mathematico grec faceva le salto al geometria de coordinatas, le tractamento de curvas per Apollonio es in certe manieras simile al tractamento moderne, e alicun de su obra sembla anticipar le disviluppamento del geometria analytic per Descartes circa 1800 annos plus tarde.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Apollonius of Perga" p. 156}}</ref> Circa le mesme tempore, [[Eratosthenes de Cyrene]] (circa 276–194 a.Chr.) concipeva le [[cribro de Eratosthenes]] pro trovar [[numeros prime]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 161}}</ref> Le 3e seculo a.Chr. es generalmente considerate como le "Epocha de Oro" del mathematica grec, con avantiamentos in mathematica pur de hic in avante in declino relative.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 175}}</ref> Tamen, in le seculos que sequeva, avantiamentos significante esseva facite in mathematica applicate, plus notabilemente le [[trigonometria]], in grande parte pro responder al necessitates del astronomos.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> [[Hipparcho de Nicea]] (circa 190–120 a.Chr.) es considerate le fundador del trigonometria pro compilar le prime tabula trigonometric cognoscite, e a ille es anque debite le uso systematic del circulo de 360 grados.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 162}}</ref> [[Heron de Alexandria]] (circa 10–70 p.Chr.) es creditate con le [[formula de Heron]] pro trovar le area de un triangulo scalen e con esser le prime a recognoscer le possibilitate de numeros negative possedente radices quadrate.<ref>S.C. Roy. ''Complex numbers: lattice simulation and zeta function applications'', p. 1 [https://books.google.com/books?id=J-2BRbFa5IkC&dq=Heron+imaginary+numbers&pg=PA1]. Harwood Publishing, 2007, 131 paginas. {{ISBN|1-904275-25-7}}</ref> [[Menelao de Alexandria]] (circa 100 p.Chr.) esseva un pionero del [[trigonometria spheric]] per medio del [[theorema de Menelao]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 163}}</ref> Le obra trigonometric le plus complete e influente del antiquitate es le ''[[Almagesto]]'' de [[Claudio Ptolemeo|Ptolemeo]] (circa 90–168 p.Chr.), un tractato astronomic historic cuje tabulas trigonometric esseva usate per astronomos durante le proxime mille annos.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 164}}</ref> Ptolemeo es anque creditate con le [[theorema de Ptolemeo]] pro derivar quantitates trigonometric, e le valor le plus accurate de π foras de China usque al periodo medieval, 3,1416.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration" p. 168}}</ref> [[File:Diophantus-cover.png|thumb|dextra|vertical|Pagina de titulo del edition de 1621 del ''Arithmetica'' de Diophanto, traducite in [[latino]] per [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]].]] Post un periodo de stagnation post Ptolemeo, le periodo inter 250 e 350 p.Chr. es a vices appellate le "Epocha de Argento" del mathematica grec.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 178}}</ref> Durante iste periodo, [[Diophanto]] faceva avantiamentos significante in algebra, particularmente le [[equation indeterminate|analyse indeterminate]], que es anque cognoscite como "analyse diophantine".<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 180}}</ref> Le studio de [[equationes diophantine]] e [[approximationes diophantine]] es un area significante de recerca usque hodie. Su obra principal esseva le ''Arithmetica'', un collection de 150 problemas algebraic tractante de solutiones exacte a equationes determinate e indeterminate.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 181}}</ref> Le ''Arithmetica'' habeva un influentia significante sur mathematicos posterior, tal como [[Pierre de Fermat]], qui arrivava a su famose [[ultime theorema de Fermat]] post essayar generalisar un problema que ille habeva legite in le ''Arithmetica'' (illo de divider un quadrato in duo quadratos).<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 183}}</ref> Diophanto anque faceva avantiamentos significante in notation, le ''Arithmetica'' essente le prime instantia de symbolismo algebraic e syncopation.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> [[File:Hagia Sophia Mars 2013.jpg|thumb|sinistra|Le [[Hagia Sophia]] esseva designate per le mathematicos [[Anthemio de Tralles]] e [[Isidoro de Mileto]].]] Inter le ultime grande mathematicos grec es [[Pappo de Alexandria]] (4e seculo p.Chr.). Ille es cognoscite pro su [[theorema de hexagone de Pappo|theorema de hexagone]] e [[theorema de centroide de Pappo|theorema de centroide]], assi como le [[configuration de Pappo]] e le [[grapho de Pappo]]. Su ''Collection'' es un fonte major de cognoscentia sur le mathematica grec proque le major parte de illo ha supervivite.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" pp. 183–90}}</ref> Pappo es considerate le ultime innovator major in le mathematica grec, con le travalio subsequente consistente principalmente de commentarios sur travalios anterior. Le prime femina mathematico registrate esseva [[Hypatia]] de Alexandria (350–415 p.Chr.), qui scribeva multe obras sur mathematica applicate. A causa de un disputa politic, le [[Christianismo in le Imperio Roman|communitate christian]] in Alexandria la faceva dispoliar publicamente e executar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/hypatia.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> Su morte es a vices prendite como le fin del era del mathematica grec alexandrin, ben que le travalio continuava in Athenas durante un altere seculo con figuras tal como [[Proclo]], [[Simplicio de Cilicia|Simplicio]] e [[Eutocio]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" pp. 190–94}}</ref> Ben que Proclo e Simplicio esseva plus philosophos que mathematicos, lor commentarios sur obras anterior es fontes preciose sur le mathematica grec. Le clausura del [[Academia de Platon|Academia]] neoplatonic de Athenas per le imperator [[Justiniano]] in 529 p.Chr. es traditionalmente considerate como marcante le fin del era del mathematica grec, ben que le tradition grec continuava sin interruption in le [[Imperio Byzantin]] con mathematicos tal como [[Anthemio de Tralles]] e [[Isidoro de Mileto]], le architectos del [[Hagia Sophia]].<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 193}}</ref> Tamen, le mathematica byzantin consisteva principalmente de commentarios, con pauc in le via de innovation, e le centros de innovation mathematic se trovava in altere locos a iste tempore.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Revival and Decline of Greek Mathematics" p. 194}}</ref> == Chinese == [[File:Qinghuajian, Suan Biao.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Le [[Tsinghua Bamboo Slips]], continente le plus antique [[decimal]] tabula de multiplication del mundo, datate de 305 a.Chr. durante le periodo del [[Statos Combatte]]]] Un analyse del prime mathematica chinese ha demonstrate su developpamento unic comparate a altere partes del mundo, ducente le eruditos a assumer un developpamento completemente independente.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 201}}</ref> Le plus antique texto mathematic existente de China es le ''[[Zhoubi Suanjing]]'' (周髀算經), datate variemente inter 1200 a.Chr. e 100 a.Chr., ben que un data de circa 300 a.Chr. durante le [[Periodo del Statos Combatte]] pare rationabile.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 196">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 196}}</ref> Tamen, le [[Tsinghua Bamboo Slips]], continente le plus antique cognoscite [[decimal]] [[tabula de multiplication]] (ben que le antique babylonios habeva unes con un base de 60), es datate circa 305 a.Chr. e es forsan le plus antique supervivente texto mathematic de China.<ref name="Nature">{{cite journal | url =https://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482| title =Ancient times table hidden in Chinese bamboo strips | journal =Nature |first=Jane|last=Qiu|author-link=Jane Qiu|date=7 January 2014| access-date =15 September 2014| doi =10.1038/nature.2014.14482 | s2cid =130132289 | doi-access =free}}</ref> [[File:Chounumerals.svg|thumb|left|[[Numerales de virgas de contar]]]] De nota particular es le uso in le mathematica chinese de un systema de notation positional decimal, le assi-nominate "numerales de virgas" in le quales cifras distincte esseva usate pro numeros inter 1 e 10, e cifras additional pro potentias de dece.<ref>{{Harvnb|Katz|2007|pp=194–99}}</ref> Assi, le numero 123 serea scribite usante le symbolo pro "1", sequite per le symbolo pro "100", postea le symbolo pro "2" sequite per le symbolo pro "10", sequite per le symbolo pro "3". Iste esseva le systema de numeros le plus avantiate in le mundo a ille tempore, apparentemente in uso plure seculos ante le era commun e multo ante le developpamento del systema de numerales indian.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 198}}</ref> [[Counting rods|Numerales de virgas]] permitteva le representation de numeros tan grande como on voleva e permitteva que calculos esseva executate sur le ''[[suanpan|suan pan]]'', o abaco chinese. Le data del invention del ''suan pan'' non es certe, sed le plus antique mention scripte data de 190 p.Chr., in le ''Notas Supplementari sur le Arte de Figuras'' de [[Xu Yue (mathematician)|Xu Yue]]. Le plus antique obra existente sur geometria in China veni del canon philosophic [[Mohism|mohist]] {{circa|330 a.Chr.}}, compilate per le sequaces de [[Mozi]] (470–390 a.Chr.). Le ''Mo Jing'' describeva varie aspectos de multe campos associate con le scientia physic, e forniva un parve numero de theoremas geometric tamben.<ref>{{Harv|Needham|Wang|1995|pp=91–92}}</ref> Illo defini etiam le conceptos de [[circumferentia]], [[diametro]], [[radio]], e [[volumine]].<ref>{{Harv|Needham|Wang|1995|p=94}}</ref> [[File:九章算術.gif|thumb|upright|right|''[[Le Novem Capitulos sur le Arte Mathematic]]'', un del plus antique supervivente textos mathematic de [[China]] (2e seculo p.Chr.).]] In 212 a.Chr., le Imperator [[Qin Shi Huang]] ordinava que tote le libros in le [[Imperio Qin]] altere que le officialmente sanctionate esseva comburite. Iste decreto non esseva universalmente obedite, sed como consequentia de iste ordine pauc es cognoscite sur le antique mathematica chinese ante iste data. Post le [[Combustion de libros e sepultura de eruditos|combustion de libros]] de 212 a.Chr., le [[dynastia Han]] (202 a.Chr.–220 p.Chr.) produceva obras de mathematica que presumibilemente expandeva sur obras que ora es perdite. Le plus importante de istes es ''[[Le Novem Capitulos sur le Arte Mathematic]]'', cuje titulo complet appareva verso 179 p.Chr., sed existeva in parte sub altere titulos previemente. Illo consiste de 246 problemas de parolas involvente agricultura, commercio, empleo de geometria pro calcular altitudes e rationes de dimension pro turres de [[pagoda chinese]], ingenieria, [[agrimensura]], e include material sur [[triangulo rectangulo|triangulos rectangule]].<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 196"/> Illo creava le prova mathematic pro le [[theorema de Pythagoras]],<ref>{{Harv|Needham|Wang|1995|p=22}}</ref> e un formula mathematic pro le [[elimination gaussian]].<ref>{{Harv|Straffin|1998|p=164}}</ref> Le tractato etiam provide valores de [[Pi|π]],<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 196"/> le quales le mathematicos chinese originalmente approximava como 3 usque quando [[Liu Xin (scholar)|Liu Xin]] (m. 23 p.Chr.) forniva un cifra de 3,1457 e subseguentemente [[Zhang Heng]] (78–139) approximava pi como 3,1724,<ref>{{Harv|Needham|Wang|1995|pp=99–100}}</ref> assi como 3,162 prendente le [[radice quadrate]] de 10.<ref>{{Harv|Berggren|Borwein|Borwein|2004|p=27}}</ref><ref>{{Harv|de Crespigny|2007|p=1050}}</ref> [[Liu Hui]] commentava sur le ''Novem Capitulos'' in le 3e seculo p.Chr. e [[Liu Hui's π algorithm|dava un valor de π]] accurate a 5 locos decimal (i.e. 3,14159).<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 202">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 202}}</ref><ref>{{Harv|Needham|Wang|1995|pp=100–01}}</ref> Ben que plus un question de stamina computational que de intuition theoretic, in le 5e seculo p.Chr. [[Zu Chongzhi]] computava [[Milü|le valor de π]] a septe locos decimal (inter 3,1415926 e 3,1415927), lo que remaneva le valor le plus accurate de π pro quasi le proxime 1000 annos.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 202"/><ref>{{Harv|Berggren|Borwein|Borwein|2004|pp=20, 24–26}}</ref> Ille etiam stabiliva un methodo que plus tarde serea appellate [[principio de Cavalieri]] pro trovar le volumine de un [[sphera]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Calculus: Early Transcendentals |edition=3 |first1=Dennis G. |last1=Zill |first2=Scott |last2=Wright |first3=Warren S. |last3=Wright |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7637-5995-7 |page=xxvii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Hk4Uhb1Z0C}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Hk4Uhb1Z0C&pg=PR27 Extract of p. 27] </ref> Le puncto culminante del mathematica chinese occurreva in le 13e seculo durante le secunde medietate del [[dynastia Song]] (960–1279), con le developpamento del algebra chinese. Le texto le plus importante de ille periodo es le ''[[Preciose Speculo del Quatro Elementos]]'' per [[Zhu Shijie]] (1249–1314), tractante le solution de equationes algebric simultanee de ordine superior usante un methodo simile al [[methodo de Horner]].<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 202"/> Le ''Preciose Speculo'' contine etiam un diagrama del [[triangulo de Pascal]] con coefficientes de expansiones binomial usque al octave potentia, ben que ambes appare in obras chinese tan kora como 1100.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 205">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 205}}</ref> Le chineses faceva etiam uso del complexe diagrama combinatori cognoscite como le [[quadrato magic]] e [[Magic circle (mathematics)|circulos magic]], describite in tempores antique e perfectionate per [[Yang Hui]] (1238–1298 p.Chr.).<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 205" /> Mesme post que le mathematica europee comenciava a florer durante le [[Renascentia]], le mathematicas europee e chinese esseva traditiones separate, con un production mathematic chinese significante in declino a partir del 13e seculo in avante. Missionarios [[Jesuita|jesuita]] como [[Matteo Ricci]] portava ideas mathematic de retro e a avante inter le duo culturas del 16e al 18e seculos, ben que a iste puncto multo plus ideas mathematic entrava in China que ne exiva.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 205"/> [[Mathematica japonese]], [[mathematica korean]], e [[mathematica vietnamese]] es traditionalmente vidite como proveniente del mathematica chinese e pertinente al [[Sphaera cultural de Asia Oriental]] basate sur le [[Confucianismo]].<ref>{{Harv|Volkov|2009|pp=153–56}}</ref> Le mathematicas korean e japonese esseva multo influentiate per le obras algebric producite durante le dynastia Song de China, dum le mathematica vietnamese esseva multo debitor a obras popular del [[dynastia Ming]] de China (1368–1644).<ref>{{Harv|Volkov|2009|pp=154–55}}</ref> Per exemplo, ben que le tractatos mathematic vietnamese esseva scripte o in [[Characteres chinese|characteres chinese]] o in le scriptura indigene vietnamese [[Chữ Nôm]], tote illos sequeva le formato chinese de presentar un collection de problemas con [[algorithmo]]s pro solver los, sequite per responsas numeric.<ref>{{Harv|Volkov|2009|pp=156–57}}</ref> Le mathematica in Vietnam e Corea esseva principalmente associate con le bureaucratia de corte professional de [[Historia del astronomia|mathematicos e astronomos]], dum in Japon illo esseva plus prevalente in le dominio del [[schola private|scholas private]].<ref>{{Harv|Volkov|2009|p=155}}</ref> == Indian == [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Le numerales usate in le [[manuscrito de Bakhshali]], datate inter le 2e seculo a.Chr. e le 2e seculo p.Chr.]] [[File:Page from Lilavati, the first volume of Siddhānta Śiromaṇī. Use of the Pythagorean theorem in the corner.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Pagina de ''Lilavati'', le prime volumine de ''[[Siddhānta Śiromaṇī]]''. Uso del theorema de Pythagoras in le angulo. Edition de 1650]] Le civilisation le plus antique sur le subcontinente indian es le [[civilisation del Valle del Indo]] (secunde phase matur: 2600 a 1900 a.Chr.) que floriva in le bassino del [[flumine Indo]]. Lor citates esseva disponite con regularitate geometric, sed nulle documento mathematic cognoscite supervive de iste civilisation.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> Le plus ancian registros mathematic existente de India es le [[Sulba Sutras]] (datate variemente inter le 8e seculo a.Chr. e le 2e seculo p.Chr.),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> appendices a textos religiose que da regulas simple pro construer altares de varie formas, tal como quadratos, rectangulos, parallelogrammas, e alteres.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Como in Egypto, le preoccupation con functiones del templo puncta a un origine del mathematica in rituales religiose.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Le Sulba Sutras da bethodos pro construer un [[quadratura del circulo|circulo con approximatemente le mesme area que un quadrato date]], lo que implica plure differente approximationes del valor de π.<ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref>{{efn|1=Le valores approximate pro π es 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), e 339/108 (3.1389)}} In plus, illos computa le [[radice quadrate]] de 2 a plure locos decimal, lista triples pythagoric, e da un enunciation del [[theorema de Pythagoras]].<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Tote iste resultatos es presente in le mathematica babylonic, indicante influentia mesopotamic.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> On non sape in qual mesura le Sulba Sutras influentiava mathematicos indian posterior. Como in China, il ha un manca de continuitate in le mathematica indian; avantiamentos significante es separate per longe periodos de inactivitate.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> [[Pāṇini]] (c. 5e seculo a.Chr.) formulava le regulas pro le [[grammatica sanskrite]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Bronkhorst | first=Johannes | author-link= Johannes Bronkhorst | title=Panini and Euclid: Reflections on Indian Geometry | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-indian-philosophy_2001-04_29_1-2/page/43 | journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=29 |issue=1–2 | year=2001 | pages=43–80 | doi=10.1023/A:1017506118885 | s2cid=115779583 }}</ref> Su notation esseva simile al notation mathematic moderne, e usava metaregulas, [[Transformation (geometria)|transformationes]], e [[recursion]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadvany|first=John|date=2008-02-08|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|language=en|volume=35|issue=5–6|pages=487–520|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|issn=0022-1791|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref> [[Pingala]] (approximatemente 3e a 1e seculos a.Chr.) in su tractato de [[prosodia]] usa un dispositivo correspondente a un [[systema numeral binari]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Julio |last2=Canton |first2=Maria P. |title=Microcontroller programming : the microchip PIC |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9 |page=37 }}</ref><ref>Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> Su discussion del [[combinatoria]] de [[metro (musica)|metros]] corresponde a un version elementari del [[theorema binomial]]. Le obra de Pingala contine anque le ideas de base del [[numeros de Fibonacci]] (nominate ''mātrāmeru'').<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hall | first1 = Rachel W. | year = 2008 | title = Math for poets and drummers | url = http://people.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf | journal = Math Horizons | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 10–11 | doi = 10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 | s2cid = 3637061 }}</ref> Le proxime documentos mathematic significante de India post le ''Sulba Sutras'' es le ''Siddhantas'', tractatos astronomic del 4e e 5e seculos p.Chr. ([[periodo Gupta]]) que monstra forte influentia hellenistic.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 208}}</ref> Illos es significante proque illos contine le prime instantia de relationes trigonometric basate sur le medie-chorda, como es le caso in le trigonometria moderne, in loco del chorda complete, como esseva le caso in le trigonometria ptolemaic.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 209}}</ref> Per un serie de errores de traduction, le parolas "sinus" e "cosinus" deriva del sanskrito "jiya" e "kojiya".<ref name=autogenerated2 /> [[File:Yuktibhasa.svg|upright|left|thumb|Explication del [[lege del sinus]] in ''[[Yuktibhāṣā]]'']] Circa 500 p.Chr., [[Aryabhata]] scribeva le ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'', un volumine svelte, scribite in verso, intendite pro completar le regulas de calculation usate in astronomia e mensuration mathematic, ben que sin senso de logica o methodologia deductive.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 210}}</ref> Es in le ''Aryabhatiya'' que le systema decimal de valor de position appare pro le prime vice. Plure seculos plus tarde, le [[mathematica islamic|mathematico musulman]] [[Abu Rayhan Biruni]] describeva le ''Aryabhatiya'' como un "mixtura de calculos commun e crystallos costose".<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 211}}</ref> In le 7e seculo, [[Brahmagupta]] identificava le [[theorema de Brahmagupta]], le [[identitate de Brahmagupta]] e le [[formula de Brahmagupta]], e pro le prime vice, in ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta]]'', ille explicava lucidemente le uso del [[0 (number)|zero]] como e un substituto de position e un [[digito decimal]], e explicava le [[systema numeral hindu-arabic]].<ref name="Boyer Siddhanta">{{cite book|last=Boyer|ref=none|author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer|title=History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye|url-access=registration|year=1991|chapter=The Arabic Hegemony|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/226 226]|publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780471543978|quote=Verso 766 nos apprende que un obra astronomico-mathematic, cognoscite per le arabes como le ''Sindhind'', esseva apportate a Bagdad ab India. On pensa generalmente que isto esseva le ''Brahmasphuta Siddhanta'', ben que illo poteva haber essite le ''Surya Siddhanata''. Alcun annos plus tarde, forsan circa 775, iste ''Siddhanata'' esseva traducite in arabe, e non multo postea (ca. 780) le ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' astrologic de Ptolemeo esseva traducite in arabe ab le greco.}}</ref> Esseva ab un traduction de iste texto indian sur mathematica (c. 770) que mathematicos islamic esseva introducite a iste systema numeral, le qual illes adaptava como [[numerales arabic]]. Eruditos islamic portava le cognoscentia de iste systema de numeros a Europa verso le 12e seculo, e illo ha ora displaciate tote le ancian systemas de numeros in tote le mundo. Varie ensembles de symbolos es usate pro representar numeros in le systema numeral hindu-arabic, omnes del quales evolveva ab le [[numerales brahmi]]. Ciascun del circa un dozena de scripturas major de India ha su proprie glyphos numeral. In le 10e seculo, le commentario de [[Halayudha]] sur le obra de [[Pingala]] contine un studio del [[sequentia de Fibonacci]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Parmanand |date=1985-08-01 |title=The so-called fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0315-0860%2885%2990021-7 |journal=Historia Mathematica |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=229–244 |doi=10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7 |issn=0315-0860|url-access=subscription }}</ref> e del [[triangulo de Pascal]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramasubramanian |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEe9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Selected+Works+of+Radha+Charan+Gupta+on+History+of+Mathematics+pascal&pg=PA289 |title=Gaṇitānanda: Selected Works of Radha Charan Gupta on History of Mathematics |date=2019-11-08 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-13-1229-8 |language=en}}</ref> In le 12e seculo, [[Bhāskara II]], qui viveva in le sud de India, scribeva extensemente sur le cognoscentia mathematic de su tempore. In su obra astronomic, ille describeva resultatos que ha essite interpretate per eruditos posterior como semblante a methodos infinitesimal precoce. Su scriptos include ideas approximatemente equivalente a infinitesimales e un caso special del [[theorema del valor medie]] in interpolation inverse de sinus. Ille faceva anque contributiones significante al algebra, includente methodos pro solver equationes indeterminate del typo cognoscite plus tarde como equationes de Pell, le quales ille tractava usante proceduras cyclic tal como le methodo chakravāla.<ref name=stillwell>{{citation | year=2002 | title = Mathematics and its history | author-link1=John Stillwell | author1=John Stillwell | edition=2nd | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-0-387-95336-6 | pages=72–76 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNjRrqTm62QC&pg=PA72}}</ref><ref>Plofker 2009 pp. 197–98; George Gheverghese Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics'', Penguin Books, London, 1991 pp. 298–300; Takao Hayashi, "Indian Mathematics", pp. 118–30 in ''Companion History of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences'', ed. I. Grattan. Guinness, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1994, p. 126.</ref> In le 14e seculo, [[Narayana Pandita (mathematician)|Narayana Pandita]] completava su ''[[Ganita Kaumudi]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Narayana - Biography |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Narayana/ |access-date=2022-10-03 |website=Maths History |language=en}}</ref> Anque in le 14e seculo, [[Madhava de Sangamagrama]], le fundator del [[Schola de Kerala de Astronomia e Mathematica|Schola de Mathematica de Kerala]], trovava le [[formula de Leibniz pro pi|serie de Madhava–Leibniz]] e obteneva de illo un [[Approximationes de π#Medievo|serie transformate]], cuje prime 21 terminos ille usava pro computar le valor de π como 3,14159265359. Madhava trovava anque [[serie de Gregory|le serie de Madhava-Gregory]] pro determinar le arctangente, le [[serie de potentia]] de Madhava-Newton pro determinar sinus e cosinus e [[serie de Taylor|le approximation de Taylor]] pro functiones de sinus e cosinus.<ref>Plofker 2009 pp. 217–53.</ref> In le 16e seculo, [[Jyesthadeva]] consolidava multe del disveloppamentos e theoremas del Schola de Kerala in le ''Yukti-bhāṣā''.<ref name="rajujournal"> {{cite journal| author1=Raju, C. K. | title=Computers, mathematics education, and the alternative epistemology of the calculus in the Yuktibhāṣā |url=https://ckraju.net/papers/Hawaii.pdf | journal=Philosophy East & West | volume=51 | issue=3 | date=2001 | pages=325–362 | doi=10.1353/pew.2001.0045 | s2cid=170341845 | access-date=2020-02-11 }} </ref><ref>Divakaran, P. P. (2007). "The first textbook of calculus: Yukti-bhāṣā", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' 35, pp. 417–33.</ref> On ha arguite que certe ideas de calculo como series infinite e series de Taylor de alcun functiones trigonometric esseva transmittite a Europa in le 16e seculo<ref name=":2" /> via missionarios [[jesuita]] e commerciantes qui esseva active circa le ancian porto de [[Muziris]] al epoca e, como resultato, influentiava directemente disveloppamentos europee posterior in analyse e calculo.<ref name=almeida>{{cite journal |last1 = Almeida|first1= D. F.|first2= J. K.|last2= John |first3= A.|last3= Zadorozhnyy |title = Keralese mathematics: its possible transmission to Europe and the consequential educational implications | journal = Journal of Natural Geometry |volume= 20 |year =2001 |pages=77–104 |issue=1 }}</ref> Tamen, altere eruditos argue que le Schola de Kerala non formulava un theoria systematic de [[derivata|differentiation]] e [[integral|integration]], e que il non ha alcun evidentia directe de lor resultatos essente transmittite foras de Kerala.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Pingree | first = David | author-link = David Pingree | title = Hellenophilia versus the History of Science | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1992-12_83_4/page/554 | journal = Isis | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 554–563 |date=December 1992 | jstor = 234257 | doi = 10.1086/356288 | quote = Un exemplo que io pote dar vos se refere al demonstration del indian Mādhava, circa 1400 p.Chr., del series de potentia infinite de functiones trigonometric usante argumentos geometric e algebraic. Quando isto esseva describite pro le prime vice in anglese per Charles Whish, in le annos 1830, illo esseva proclamate como le discoperta del calculo per le indianos. Iste assertion e le complimentos de Mādhava esseva ignorate per le historiographos occidental, presumibilemente al initio proque illes non poteva admitter que un indiano discoperiva le calculo, sed plus tarde proque nemo legeva plus le ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society'', in le qual le articulo de Whish esseva publicate. Le question resurgeva in le annos 1950, e ora nos ha le textos sanskrite correctemente editate, e nos comprende le modo ingeniose in que Mādhava derivava le series ''sin'' le calculo; sed multe historiographos ancora trova impossibile conciper le problema e su solution in terminos de altere cosa que le calculo e proclama que le calculo es lo que Mādhava trovava. In iste caso le elegantia e brillantia del mathematica de Mādhava es distortate dum illos es sepultate sub le solution mathematic currente a un problema al qual ille discoperiva un solution alternative e potente.| bibcode = 1992Isis...83..554P | s2cid = 68570164 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Bressoud | first = David | author-link = David Bressoud | title = Was Calculus Invented in India? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_college-mathematics-journal_2002-01_33_1/page/n2 | journal = College Mathematics Journal | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–13 | year = 2002 | doi=10.2307/1558972| jstor = 1558972 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Plofker | first = Kim | author-link = Kim Plofker | title = The 'Error' in the Indian "Taylor Series Approximation" to the Sine | journal = Historia Mathematica | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | page = 293 |date=November 2001 | doi = 10.1006/hmat.2001.2331 | quote =Il non es inusual incontrar in discussiones de mathematica indian tal assertiones como que 'le concepto de differentiation esseva comprendite [in India] ab le tempore de Manjula (... in le 10e seculo)' [Joseph 1991, 300], o que 'nos pote considerar Madhava como le fundator del analyse mathematic' (Joseph 1991, 293), o que Bhaskara II pote pretender esser 'le precursor de Newton e Leibniz in le discoperta del principio del calculo differential' (Bag 1979, 294).... Le punctos de semblantia, particularmente inter le prime calculo europee e le obra de Kerala sur series de potentia, ha mesmo inspirate suggestiones de un possibile transmission de ideas mathematic ab le costa de Malabar in o post le 15e seculo al mundo erudite latin (p.ex., in (Bag 1979, 285))... On deberea considerar, tamen, que tal emphase sur le similitude del mathematica sanskrite (o malayalam) e latin risca de deminuer nostre capacitate de vider e comprender plenmente le prime. Parlar del 'discoperta indian del principio del calculo differential' obscura un pauc le facto que le technicas indian pro exprimer cambios in le Sinus per medio del Cosinus o vice versa, como in le exemplos que nos ha vidite, remaneva intra ille contexto trigonometric specific. Le 'principio' differential non esseva generalisate a functiones arbitrari – de facto, le notion explicite de un function arbitrari, sin mentionar illo de su derivata o un algorithmo pro prender le derivata, es irrelevante hic| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Katz | first = Victor J. | title = Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India | journal = Mathematics Magazine | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 163–74 |date=June 1995 | url = https://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Math/Aydin/Teach/Fall12/128/CalcIslamIndia.pdf | jstor = 2691411 | doi=10.2307/2691411 }}</ref> == Imperios islamic == {{AP|Mathematica in le medievo Islamic}} {{Vide anque|Historia del systema de numeration hindu-arabe}} {{AP|Mathematica in le Islam medieval}} {{Vide etiam|Historia del systema de numeration hindu-arabic}} [[File:Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg|thumb|Pagina de ''[[Le Libro Compendiose super le Calculation per Completamento e Balanciamento]]'' per [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] (c.&nbsp;820 p.Chr.)]] Le [[Caliphato|Imperio Islamic]] establite a trans le [[Oriente Proxime]], [[Asia Central]], [[Africa del Nord]], [[Peninsula Iberic|Iberia]], e in partes de [[Historia de India|India]] in le 8e seculo faceva contributiones significante al mathematica. Ben que le majoritate del textos islamic sur le mathematica esseva scripte in [[Lingua arabe|arabe]], illos non esseva omnes scripte per [[Arabe]]s, post que multo como le stato del greco in le mundo hellenistic, le arabe esseva usate como le lingua scripte de eruditos non-arabe in tote le mundo islamic de ille tempore.<ref>Abdel Haleem, Muhammad A. S. "The Semitic Languages", https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110251586.811, "Le arabe deveniva le lingua del erudition in scientia e philosophia in le 9e seculo quando le ‘movimento de traduction’ videva un travalio concertate sur traductiones de textos medical, philosophic e scientific grec, indian, persian e chinese", p. 811.</ref> In le 9e seculo, le mathematico persian [[Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] scribeva un libro importante sur le [[Numeros hindu-arabic]] e un altere sur methodos pro solver equationes. Su libro ''Sur le Calculation con Numeros Hindu'', scripte circa 825, insimul con le obra de [[Al-Kindi]], esseva instrumental in diffunder le [[Mathematica indian]] e le [[Systema de numeration hindu-arabic|numeros indian]] al Occidente. Le parola ''[[algorithmo]]'' es derivate del latinisation de su nomine, Algoritmi, e le parola ''algebra'' del titulo de un de su obras, ''[[Le Libro Compendiose super le Calculation per Completamento e Balanciamento|Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala]]'' (''Le Libro Compendiose super le Calculation per Completamento e Balanciamento''). Ille dava un explication exhaustive pro le solution algebraic de equationes quadratic con radices positive,<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Le hegemonia arabe" p. 230}} "Le sex casos de equationes date supra exhauri tote le possibilitates pro equationes linear e quadratic que ha radices positive. Tan systematic e exhaustive esseva le exposition de al-Khwārizmī que su lectores debeva haber habite pauc difficultate in maestrar le solutiones."</ref> e ille esseva le prime a inseniar algebra in un [[Algebra elementari|forma elementari]] e pro su proprie merito.<ref>Gandz e Saloman (1936). "Le fontes del algebra de Khwarizmi", ''Osiris'' i, pp. 263–77: "In un senso, Khwarizmi ha plus derecto a esser appellate 'le patre del algebra' que Diophanto proque Khwarizmi es le prime a inseniar algebra in un forma elementari e pro su proprie merito, Diophanto se occupa primarimente del theoria del numeros".</ref> Ille etiam discuteva le methodo fundamental de "[[Reduction (mathematica)|reduction]]" e "balanciamento", referente se al transposition de terminos subtrahite al altere latere de un equation, es dicer, le cancellation de terminos simile in lateres opposite del equation. Iste es le operation que al-Khwārizmī describeva originalmente como ''al-jabr''.<ref name=Boyer-229>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="Le hegemonia arabe" p. 229}} "Il non es certe exactemente lo que le terminos ''al-jabr'' e ''muqabalah'' significa, sed le interpretation usual es simile a illo implicate in le traduction supra. Le parola ''al-jabr'' presumibilemente significava alique como 'restauration' o 'completamento' e pare referer se al transposition de terminos subtrahite al altere latere de un equation; le parola ''muqabalah'' se dice referer se a 'reduction' o 'balanciamento' – es dicer, le cancellation de terminos simile in lateres opposite del equation."</ref> Su algebra etiam non se occupava plus "de un serie de problemas a resolver, sed de un [[Scriptura expositive|exposition]] que comencia con terminos primitive in le quales le combinationes debe dar tote le prototypicos possibile pro equationes, que de ora in avante constitue explicitemente le ver objecto de studio." Ille etiam studeva un equation pro su proprie merito e "de un maniera generic, in tanto que illo non emerge simplemente in le curso del solution de un problema, sed es specificamente appellate pro definir un classe infinite de problemas."<ref name=Rashed-Armstrong>{{Cite book | last1=Rashed | first1=R. | last2=Armstrong | first2=Angela | year=1994 | title=Le developpamento del mathematica arabe | publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | isbn=978-0-7923-2565-9 | oclc=29181926 | pages=11–12}}</ref> In Egypto, [[Abu Kamil]] extendeva le algebra al insimul del [[Numeros irrational|numeros irrational]], acceptante radices quadrate e radices quarte como solutiones e coefficientes de equationes quadratic. Ille etiam developpava technicas usate pro solver tres equationes simultanee non-linear con tres variabiles incognite. Un characteristica unic de su obras esseva le tentativa de trovar tote le solutiones possibile a alicun de su problemas, includente un ubi ille trovava 2676 solutiones.<ref name="HSTM">{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Springer| pages = 4–5| last = Sesiano| first = Jacques| title = Abū Kāmil | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia del historia del scientia, technologia, e medicina in culturas non-occidental| year= 1997}}</ref> Su obras formava un fundamento importante pro le developpamento del algebra e influentiava mathematicos posterior, tal como al-Karaji e Fibonacci. Developpamentos ulterior in algebra esseva facite per [[Al-Karaji]] in su tractato ''al-Fakhri'', ubi ille extende le methodologia pro incorporar potentias integre e radices integre de quantitates incognite. Alique proxime a un [[Demonstration mathematic|demonstration]] per [[induction mathematic]] appare in un libro scripte per Al-Karaji circa 1000 p.Chr., qui lo usava pro provar le [[theorema binomial]], le [[triangulo de Pascal]], e le summa de [[Cubo (algebra)|cubos]] integre.<ref>{{Harv|Katz|1998|loc=pp. 255–59}}</ref> Le [[historico]] del mathematica, F. Woepcke,<ref>Woepcke, F. (1853). ''Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi''. [[Paris]].</ref> laudava Al-Karaji pro esser "le prime qui introduceva le [[theoria]] del [[calculo]] [[algebraic]]." Etiam in le 10e seculo, [[Abul Wafa]] traduceva le obras de [[Diophanto]] in arabe. [[Ibn al-Haytham]] esseva le prime mathematico a derivar le formula pro le summa del quarte potentias, usante un methodo que es facilemente generalisabile pro determinar le formula general pro le summa de omne potentias integre. Ille effectuava un integration pro trovar le volumine de un [[paraboloide]], e esseva capace de generalisar su resultato pro le integrales de [[polynomio]]s usque al [[Polynomio quartic|quarte grado]]. Ille assi arrivava proxime a trovar un formula general pro le integrales de polynomios, sed ille non se occupava de alcun polynomio plus alte que le quarte grado.<ref name=Katz>{{cite journal | last1 = Katz | first1 = Victor J. | year = 1995 | title = Ideas de calculo in le Islam e India | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_mathematics-magazine_1995-06_68_3/page/163 | journal = Mathematics Magazine | volume = 68 | issue = 3| pages = 163–74 | doi=10.2307/2691411| jstor = 2691411 }}</ref> Al fin del 11e seculo, [[Omar Khayyam]] scribeva ''Discussiones del Difficultates in Euclide'', un libro sur lo que ille percipiva como defectos in le ''[[Elementos de Euclide|Elementos]]'' de Euclide, specialmente le [[postulato de parallelas]]. Ille esseva etiam le prime a trovar le solution geometric general pro [[Equation cubic|equationes cubic]]. Ille esseva etiam multo influente in le [[reforma del calendario]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alam|first=S|year=2015|title=Mathematica pro omnes e pro sempre|url=https://www.iisrr.in/mainsite/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/IISRR-IJR-1-Mathematics-for-All-...-Syed-Samsul-Alam.pdf|journal=Indian Institute of Social Reform & Research International Journal of Research}}</ref> In le 13e seculo, [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] (Nasireddin) faceva avantiamentos in [[trigonometria spheric]]. Ille etiam scribeva un obra influente sur le [[postulato de parallelas]] de Euclide. In le 15e seculo, [[Ghiyath al-Kashi]] computava le valor de π usque al 16-te loco decimal. Kashi etiam habeva un algorithmo pro calcular radices ''n''-esime, lo que esseva un caso special del methodos date multe seculos plus tarde per [[Paolo Ruffini (mathematico)|Ruffini]] e [[William George Horner|Horner]]. Altere complimentos de mathematicos musulman durante iste periodo include le addition del notation del [[puncto decimal]] al [[numeros arabic]], le discoperta de tote le [[function trigonometric|functiones trigonometric]] moderne ultra le sino, le introduction de [[cryptanalyse]] e [[analyse de frequentia]] per [[al-Kindi]], le disveloppamento de [[geometria analytic]] per [[Ibn al-Haytham]], le comenciamento de [[geometria algebraic]] per [[Omar Khayyam]] e le disveloppamento de un [[notation mathematic|notation algebraic]] per [[Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī|al-Qalasādī]].<ref name=Qalasadi>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Qalasadi|title= Abu'l Hasan ibn Ali al Qalasadi}}</ref> Durante le tempore del [[Imperio Ottoman]] e [[Imperio Safavide]] ab le 15e seculo, le disveloppamento de mathematica islamic deveniva stagnante. == Maya == [[File:Maya Hieroglyphs Fig 40.jpg|thumb|Le [[numerales maya]] pro le numeros de 1 a 19, scripte in le [[scriptura maya]]]] In le [[Americas precolumbian]], le [[civilisation maya]] que floriva in [[Mexico]] e [[America Central]] durante le prime millennio p.Chr. developpava un tradition unic de mathematica que, debite a su isolation geographic, esseva completemente independente del mathematicas existente europee, egyptie, e asian.<ref name="Goodman 2016 p121">{{Harv|Goodman|2016|p=121}}</ref> Le [[numerales maya]] usava un [[Radix|base]] de vinti, le systema [[vigesimal]], in loco de un base de dece que forma le base del systema [[decimal]] usate per le majoritate del culturas moderne.<ref name="Goodman 2016 p121"/> Le mayas usava le mathematica pro crear le [[calendario maya]] assi como pro predicer phenomenos astronomic in lor native [[astronomia maya]].<ref name="Goodman 2016 p121"/> Ben que le concepto de [[zero]] debeva esser inferite in le mathematica de multe culturas contemporanee, le mayas developpava un symbolo standard pro illo.<ref name="Goodman 2016 p121"/> == Europee medieval == {{Vide etiam|Traductiones latin del seculo XII}} Le interesse europee medieval in le mathematica esseva motivate per preoccupationes multo differente de illos del mathematicos moderne. Un elemento determinante esseva le credentia que le mathematica forniva le clave pro comprender le ordine create del natura, frequentemente justificate per le ''[[Timaeus (dialogo)|Timaeus]]'' de [[Platon]] e le passage biblic (in le ''[[Libro del Sapientia]]'') que Deo habeva ''ordinate tote le cosas in mesura, e numero, e peso''.<ref>''Sapientia'', 11:20</ref> [[Boethio]] forniva un loco pro le mathematica in le curriculo in le 6e seculo quando ille creava le termino ''[[quadrivium]]'' pro describer le studio de arithmetica, geometria, astronomia, e musica. Ille scribeva ''De institutione arithmetica'', un traduction libere ex le greco del ''Introduction al Arithmetica'' de [[Nicomacho]]; ''De institutione musica'', anque derivate de fontes grec; e un serie de excerptos del ''Elementos'' de Euclide. Su operas esseva theoretic, plus tosto que practic, e esseva le base del studio mathematic usque al recuperation del operas mathematic grec e arabe.<ref>Caldwell, John (1981). "The ''De Institutione Arithmetica'' and the ''De Institutione Musica''", pp. 135–54 in [[Margaret Gibson (historian)|Margaret Gibson]], ed., ''Boethius: His Life, Thought, and Influence,'' (Oxford: Basil Blackwell).</ref><ref>Folkerts, Menso (1970). ''"Boethius" Geometrie II'', Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.</ref> In le 12e seculo, eruditos europee viagiava a Espania e Sicilia [[Traductiones latin del seculo XII|cercante textos scientific arabe]], incluse le ''[[Libro Compendiose super le Calculo per Completamento e Balanciamento]]'' de [[al-Khwārizmī]], traducite in latino per [[Robert de Chester]], e le texto complete del ''Elementos'' de Euclide, traducite in varie versiones per [[Adelard de Bath]], [[Herman de Carinthia]], e [[Gerard de Cremona]].<ref>[[Marie-Thérèse d'Alverny]], "Translations and Translators", pp. 421–62 in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, ''Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century'', (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982).</ref><ref>Beaujouan, Guy. "The Transformation of the Quadrivium", pp. 463–87 in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, ''Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982.</ref> Iste e altere nove fontes scintillava un renovation del mathematica. Leonardo de Pisa, ora cognoscite como [[Fibonacci]], apprendeva per hasardo super le [[numeros hindu-arabe]] in un viage a lo que es ora [[Béjaïa]], [[Algeria]] con su patre mercante. (Europa usava ancora [[numeros roman]].) Ibi, ille observava un systema de [[arithmetica]] (specificamente [[algorismo]]) que, debite al [[notation positional]] del numeros hindu-arabe, esseva multo plus efficiente e facilitava grandemente le commercio. Leonardo scribeva ''[[Liber Abaci]]'' in 1202 (actualisate in 1254) introducente le technica in Europa e initiante un longe periodo de popularisation de illo. Le libro anque apportava a Europa lo que es ora cognoscite como le [[sequentia de Fibonacci]] (cognoscite per mathematicos indian durante centos de annos ante illo)<ref>Singh, Parmanand (1985). "The So-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India", Historia Mathematica, 12 (3): 229–44, doi:10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7</ref> que Fibonacci usava como un exemplo non remarcabile. Le 14e seculo videva le developpamento de nove conceptos mathematic pro investigar un ample gamma de problemas.<ref>Grant, Edward and John E. Murdoch, eds. (1987). ''Mathematics and Its Applications to Science and Natural Philosophy in the Middle Ages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-32260-X}}.</ref> Un contribution importante esseva le developpamento del mathematica del motion local. [[Thomas Bradwardine]] proponeva que le velocitate (V) cresce in proportion arithmetic a mesura que le ration de fortia (F) a resistentia (R) cresce in proportion geometric. Bradwardine exprimeva isto per un serie de exemplos specific, ma ben que le logarithmo non habeva ancora essite concipite, nos pote exprimer su conclusion anachronisticamente scribente: V = log (F/R).<ref>Clagett, Marshall (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 421–40.</ref> Le analyse de Bradwardine es un exemplo de transferer un technica mathematic usate per [[al-Kindi]] e [[Arnald de Villanova]] pro quantificar le natura de medicinas composite a un problema physic differente.<ref>Murdoch, John E. (1969). "''Mathesis in Philosophiam Scholasticam Introducta:'' The Rise and Development of the Application of Mathematics in Fourteenth Century Philosophy and Theology", in ''Arts libéraux et philosophie au Moyen Âge'' (Montréal: Institut d'Études Médiévales), pp. 224–27.</ref> [[File:Oresme.jpg|thumb|[[Nicole Oresme]] (1323–82), monstrate in iste [[manuscrito illuminate]] contemporanee con un [[sphera armillar]], esseva le prime a offerer un prova mathematic pro le [[serie divergente|divergentia]] del [[serie harmonic (mathematica)|serie harmonic]].<ref>{{citation|title=The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics|first=Clifford A.|last=Pickover|author-link=Clifford A. Pickover|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4027-5796-9|page=104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA104|quotation=Nicole Oresme ... esseva le prime a probar le divergentia del serie harmonic (c. 1350). Su resultatos esseva perdite durante plure seculos, e le resultato esseva probate de novo per le mathematico italiano [[Pietro Mengoli]] in 1647 e per le mathematico suisse [[Johann Bernoulli]] in 1687.}}</ref>]] Un del [[Calculatores de Oxford]] del 14e seculo, [[William de Heytesbury]], mancante de [[calculo differential]] e del concepto de [[limite de un function|limites]], proponeva mesurar le velocitate instantanee "per le sentiero que ''esserea'' describite per [un corpore] ''si''... illo se moverea uniformemente al mesme grado de velocitate con le qual illo se move in ille instante date".<ref>Clagett, Marshall (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 210, 214–15, 236.</ref> Heytesbury e alteres determinava mathematicamente le distantia percurrite per un corpore submittite a un motion uniformemente accelerate (hodie solvite per integration), affirmante que "un corpore movente que acquire o perde uniformemente ille incremento [de velocitate] percurrera in alicun tempore date un [distantia] completemente equal a illo que illo percurrerea si illo se moverea continuemente durante le mesme tempore con le grado medie [de velocitate]".<ref>Clagett, Marshall (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 284.</ref> [[Nicole Oresme]] al [[Universitate de Paris]] e le italiano [[Giovanni di Casali]] forniva independentemente demonstrationes graphic de iste relation, asserente que le area sub le linea que depinge le acceleration constante representava le distantia total percurrite.<ref>Clagett, Marshall (1961) ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 332–45, 382–91.</ref> In un commentario mathematic posterior super le ''Elementos'' de Euclide, Oresme faceva un analyse general plus detaliate in le qual ille demonstrava que un corpore acquirera in cata incremento successive de tempore un incremento de qualcunque qualitate que cresce como le numeros impare. Post que Euclide habeva demonstrate que le summa del numeros impare es le numeros quadrate, le qualitate total acquirite per le corpore cresce como le quadrato del tempore.<ref>Oresme, Nicole. "Questions on the ''Geometry'' of Euclid" Q. 14, pp. 560–65, in Marshall Clagett, ed., ''Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.</ref> == Renascentia == {{plus|Mathematica e arte}} Durante le [[Renascentia]], le developpamento del mathematica e del [[contabilitate]] esseva interligate.<ref>Heeffer, Albrecht: ''On the curious historical coincidence of algebra and double-entry bookkeeping'', Foundations of the Formal Sciences, [[Universitate de Ghent]], novembre 2009, p. 7 [http://logica.ugent.be/albrecht/thesis/FOTFS2008-Heeffer.pdf]</ref> Ben que il non ha un relation directe inter algebra e contabilitate, le inseniamento del materias e le libros publicate esseva frequentemente destinate al filios de commerciantes qui esseva inviate a scholas de calculo (in [[Flandra]] e [[Germania]]) o [[schola de abaco|scholas de abaco]] (cognoscite como ''abbaco'' in Italia), ubi illes apprendeva le habilitates utile pro le negotio e le commercio. Probabilemente il non ha necessitate de algebra pro realisar operationes de [[contabilitate]], sed pro complexe operationes de excambio o le calculo de [[interesse composite]], un cognoscentia basic de arithmetica esseva obligatori e le cognoscentia de algebra esseva multo utile. [[Piero della Francesca]] (c. 1415–1492) scribeva libros super [[geometria solide]] e [[Perspectiva (graphic)|perspectiva linear]], includente ''[[De Prospectiva Pingendi]] (Super le perspectiva pro le pictura)'', ''Trattato d’Abaco (Tractato del abaco)'', e ''[[De quinque corporibus regularibus]] (Super le cinque solidos regular)''.<ref>della Francesca, Piero (1942). ''De Prospectiva Pingendi'', ed. G. Nicco Fasola, 2 vols., Florentia.</ref><ref>della Francesca, Piero. ''Trattato d'Abaco'', ed. G. Arrighi, Pisa (1970).</ref><ref>della Francesca, Piero (1916). ''L'opera "De corporibus regularibus" di Pietro Franceschi detto della Francesca usurpata da Fra Luca Pacioli'', ed. G. Mancini, Roma.</ref> [[File:Pacioli.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Portrait de Luca Pacioli]]'', un pictura traditionalmente attribuite a [[Jacopo de' Barbari]], 1495, ([[Museo di Capodimonte]]).]] Le ''[[Summa de arithmetica|Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalità]]'' de [[Luca Pacioli]] (italiano: "Revision de [[arithmetica]], [[geometria]], [[ration]] e [[Proportionalitate (mathematica)|proportionalitate]]") esseva imprimite e publicate pro le prime vice in [[Venetia]] in 1494. Illo includeva un tractato de 27 paginas super contabilitate, ''"Particularis de Computis et Scripturis"'' (italiano: "Detalios de calculo e registration"). Illo esseva scribite primarimente pro, e vendite principalmente a, commerciantes qui usava le libro como un texto de referentia, como un fonte de placer per le [[enigmas mathematic]] que illo contineva, e pro adjutar le education de lor filios.<ref>Sangster, Alan; Greg Stoner & Patricia McCarthy: [http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/3201/1/final_final_proof_Market_paper_050308.pdf "The market for Luca Pacioli’s Summa Arithmetica"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126012523/http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/3201/1/final_final_proof_Market_paper_050308.pdf |date=2018-01-26 }} (Accounting, Business & Financial History Conference, Cardiff, septembre 2007) pp. 1–2.</ref> In ''Summa Arithmetica'', Pacioli introduceva symbolos pro [[plus e minus]] pro le prime vice in un libro imprimite, symbolos que deveniva notation standard in le mathematica del Renascentia italian. ''Summa Arithmetica'' esseva etiam le prime libro cognoscite imprimite in Italia que contineva algebra. Pacioli obteneva multe de su ideas de Piero della Francesca, a qui ille plagiava. In Italia, durante le prime medietate del 16e seculo, [[Scipione del Ferro]] e [[Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia]] discoperiva solutiones pro [[equation cubic|equationes cubic]]. [[Gerolamo Cardano]] publicava los in su libro de 1545 ''[[Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano)|Ars Magna]]'', insimul con un solution pro le [[equation quartic|equationes quartic]], discoperite per su studente [[Lodovico Ferrari]]. In 1572 [[Rafael Bombelli]] publicava su ''L'Algebra'' in le qual ille monstrava como tractar le [[numero imaginari|quantitates imaginari]] que poteva apparer in le formula de Cardano pro solver equationes cubic. ''[[De Thiende]]'' ('le arte del decimas') de [[Simon Stevin]], publicate pro le prime vice in nederlandese in 1585, contineva le prime tractamento systematic de [[notation decimal]] in Europa, lo que influentiava tote le travalio posterior super le [[systema de numeros real]].<ref>[[Roshdi Rashed]] (1996) ''Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science'', capitulo 10: Numeration and Arithmetic, pagina 315, [[Routledge]] {{doi|10.4324/9780203403600}}</ref><ref name="GS35">{{Cite journal |last=Sarton |first=George |date=1935 |title=The First Explanation of Decimal Fractions and Measures (1585). Together with a History of the Decimal Idea and a Facsimile (No. XVII) of Stevin's Disme |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/225223 |journal=Isis |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=153–244 |doi=10.1086/346940 |jstor=225223 |s2cid=143395001 |issn=0021-1753}}</ref> Impellite per le demandas de navigation e le necessitate crescente de mappas accurate de grande areas, le [[trigonometria]] cresceva usque a devenir un branca major del mathematica. [[Bartholomaeus Pitiscus]] esseva le prime a usar le parola, publicante su ''Trigonometria'' in 1595. Le tabula de sinus e cosinus de Regiomontanus esseva publicate in 1533.<ref>{{cite book | last = Grattan-Guinness | first = Ivor | year = 1997 | title = The Rainbow of Mathematics: A History of the Mathematical Sciences | publisher = W.W. Norton | isbn = 978-0-393-32030-5}}</ref> Durante le Renascentia, le desiderio del artistas de representar le mundo natural de maniera realistic, insimul con le philosophia rediscoperite del grecos, duceva le artistas a studiar le mathematica. Illes esseva etiam le ingenieros e architectos de ille tempore, e assi habeva necessitate de mathematica in omne caso. Le arte de pinger in perspectiva, e le developpamentos in geometria que esseva implicate, esseva studiate intensemente.<ref name="Kline"> {{cite book | last = Kline | first = Morris | author-link =Morris Kline | title = Mathematics in Western Culture | publisher = Pelican | year = 1953 | location=Great Britain | pages= 150–51}}</ref> == Mathematica durante le Revolution Scientific == === 16e seculo === In le 16e seculo, [[Viète]] poneva le fundationes del [[algebra]] in 1591.<ref>{{cite web |title=In artem analyticem isagoge |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k108865t.r=vi%C3%A8te+1591.langFR |website=Gallica |publisher=Bibliothèque nationale de France |date=1591 |language=la }}</ref> Isto esseva fundamental pro le mathematica de [[Descartes]]. ===17e seculo=== [[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|upright|sinistra|[[Johannes Kepler]]]] [[File:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Bernhard Christoph Francke.jpg|thumb|upright|dextra|[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]]] Le 17e seculo videva un augmento sin precedente de ideas mathematic e scientific a transverso de Europa. [[Tycho Brahe]] habeva colligite un grande quantitate de datos mathematic describente le positiones del planetas in le celo. Per su position como assistente de Brahe, [[Johannes Kepler]] esseva primo exponite a e interacteva seriemente con le topico del motion planetari. Le calculos de Kepler esseva facite plus simple per le invention contemporanee de [[logarithmo]]s per [[John Napier]] e [[Jost Bürgi]]. Kepler succedeva in formular leges mathematic del motion planetari.<ref>{{cite book | last =Struik | first =Dirk | title =A Concise History of Mathematics | publisher =Courier Dover Publications | edition =3rd. | year =1987 | pages =[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000stru_m6j1/page/89 89] | isbn =978-0-486-60255-4 | url =https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000stru_m6j1/page/89 }}</ref> Le [[geometria analytic]] disveloppate per [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650) permitteva que ille orbitas esseva traciate sur un graphico, in [[coordinatas cartesian]]. Basante se sur labor anterior per multe predecessores, [[Isaac Newton]] discoperiva le leges del physica que explica le [[Leges de Kepler]], e reuniva le conceptos ora cognoscite como [[calculo]]. Independentemente, [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] disveloppava le calculo e multo del notation de calculo ancora in uso hodie. Ille anque raffinava le systema de [[numero binari]], que es le fundamento de quasi tote le [[computator]]es digital ([[Calculator scientific|electronic]], [[Solid-state electronics|stato solide]], [[Logic gate|logica discrete]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=2021: 375th birthday of Leibniz, father of computer science |url=https://people.idsia.ch/~juergen/leibniz-father-computer-science-375.html |website=people.idsia.ch}}</ref> Le scientia e le mathematica habeva devenite un effortio international, que bentosto se expanderea sur le mundo integre.<ref>Eves, Howard (1990). ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders. {{ISBN|0-03-029558-0}}, p. 379, "... le conceptos de calculo... (es) si de longe attingente e ha exercite tal impacto sur le mundo moderne que il es forsan correcte dicer que sin alcun cognoscentia de illos un persona hodie a pena pote pretender de esser ben educate."</ref> In addition al application del mathematica al studios del celos, le [[mathematica applicate]] comenciava a expander se in nove areas, con le correspondentia de [[Pierre de Fermat]] e [[Blaise Pascal]]. Pascal e Fermat stabiliva le base pro le investigationes del [[theoria de probabilitate]] e le regulas correspondente de [[combinatoria]] in lor discussiones super un joco de [[hazardo]]. Pascal, con su [[Pari de Pascal|pari]], tentava usar le novemente disveloppate theoria de probabilitate pro arguer pro un vita dedicate al religion, sur le base que mesmo si le probabilitate de successo esseva parve, le recompensas esseva infinite. In certe senso, isto prefigurava le disveloppamento del [[theoria de utilitate]] in le 18e e 19e seculos. === 18e seculo === [[File:Leonhard Euler - Jakob Emanuel Handmann (Kunstmuseum Basel).jpg|right|thumb|upright=.7|[[Leonhard Euler]]]] Le mathematico le plus influente del 18e seculo esseva probabilemente [[Leonhard Euler]] (1707–83). Su contributiones varia del fundation del studio del [[theoria de graphos]] con le problema del [[Septe pontes de Königsberg]] al standardisation de multe terminos e notationes mathematic moderne. Per exemplo, ille nominava le radice quadrate de minus 1 con le symbolo [[Unitate imaginari|<span style="font-family:times new Roman;">''i''</span>]], e ille popularisava le uso del littera grec <math>\pi</math> pro representar le ration del circumferentia de un circulo a su diametro. Ille faceva numerose contributiones al studio del topologia, theoria de graphos, calculo, combinatorica, e analyse complexe, como es evidente per le multitudine de theoremas e notationes nominate in su honor.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Debnath |first=Lokenath |author-link=Lokenath Debnath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPRpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA370 |title=The Legacy of Leonhard Euler: A Tricentennial Tribute |publisher=Imperial College Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84816-525-0 |location=London |pages=370 |language=en}}</ref> Altere mathematicos europee importante del 18e seculo includeva [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]], qui faceva travalio pionier in theoria de numeros, algebra, calculo differential, e le calculo de variationes, e [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], qui, in le era de [[Napoleon]], faceva travalio importante super le fundationes del [[mechanica celestial]] e super le [[statistica]].<ref name="eb1911">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Laplace, Pierre Simon |volume=16 |pages=200–202 |first=Agnes Mary |last=Clerke|author-link= Agnes Mary Clerke|short=1}}</ref> == Moderne == === 19e seculo === [[Imagine:Carl Friedrich Gauss.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.7|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]]] Durante le 19e seculo le mathematica deveniva crescentemente abstracte.<ref>Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, 6te edition, 1990, "In le 19e seculo, le mathematica experientiava un grande colpo in avante ... . Le nove mathematica comenciava a liberar se de su ligamines con le mechanica e le astronomia, e un perspectiva plus pur evolveva." p. 493</ref> [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1777–1855) faceva labor revolutionari sur [[function (mathematica)|functiones]] de [[variabile complexe|variabiles complexe]], in [[geometria]], e sur le convergentia de [[serie (mathematica)|series]], lassante de latere su multe contributiones al scientia. Ille etiam dava le prime provas satisfactori del [[theorema fundamental del algebra]] e del lege de [[reciprocitate quadratic]].<ref>Gauss, DA&nbsp;§&nbsp;4, arts 107&ndash;150. {{cite book | last = Gauss | first = Carl Friedrich | author-link = Carl Friedrich Gauss | translator-last1= Clarke | translator-first1 = Arthur A. | title = Disquisitiones Arithemeticae | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | place = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-387-96254-9| edition = Secunde, corrigite}}</ref> [[Augustin-Louis Cauchy]],<ref>{{citation |title=Who Gave You the Epsilon? Cauchy and the Origins of Rigorous Calculus |first=Judith V. |last=Grabiner |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |date=March 1983 |volume=90 |pages=185–194 |url=http://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Ford/Grabiner185-194.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129124944/http://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Ford/Grabiner185-194.pdf |archive-date=2014-11-29 |url-status=live |doi=10.2307/2975545 |issue=3 |jstor=2975545 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Judith V. |last=Grabiner |title=The Origins of Cauchy's Rigorous Calculus |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofcauchys00judi |url-access=registration |location=Cambridge |publisher=MIT Press |year=1981 |isbn=0-387-90527-8 }}</ref> [[Bernhard Riemann]],<ref>Le integral de Riemann esseva introducite in le articulo de Riemann "[https://books.google.com/books?id=PDVFAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA87 On the representability of a function by a trigonometric series]". Illo esseva publicate in 1868 in ''Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen'' (Actas del Societate Philosophic Regal de Göttingen), vol. 13, paginas 87-132.</ref> e [[Karl Weierstrass]] reformulava le calculo in un maniera plus rigorose.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 Feb 2025 |title=Karl Weierstrass |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Weierstrass |access-date=31 July 2025 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> In plus, pro le prime vice, le limites del mathematica esseva explorate. [[Paolo Ruffini]], [[Niels Henrik Abel]], e [[Évariste Galois]] provava que il non existe alcun methodo algebraic general pro solver equationes polynomial de grado superior a quatro ([[theorema de Abel-Ruffini]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ayoub |first=Raymond G. |date=1980-09-01 |title=Paolo Ruffini's contributions to the quintic |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00357046 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |language=en |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=253–277 |doi=10.1007/BF00357046 |s2cid=123447349 |issn=1432-0657|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Altere mathematicos del 19e seculo usava isto in lor provos que le regula e le circino sol non es sufficiente pro [[trisecar un angulo arbitrari]], pro construer le latere de un cubo con le duple del volumine de un cubo date, [[Quadratura del circulo|ni pro construer un quadrato equal in area a un circulo date]].<ref name=lindemann>{{cite journal |last1=Lindemann |first1=F.|author-link=Ferdinand von Lindemann |title=Über die Zahl π |journal=[[Mathematische Annalen]] |date=1882 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=213–225 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044102917051;view=1up;seq=237 |trans-title=On the number π |language=de |doi=10.1007/bf01446522|s2cid=120469397}}</ref> Le mathematicos habeva tentate vanmente solver iste problemas depost le ancian grecos. Del altere latere, le limitation de tres [[dimension]]es in geometria esseva surpassate in le 19e seculo per medio de considerationes de [[spatio de parametros]] e [[numero hypercomplexe|numeros hypercomplexe]].<ref>{{citation |first=Thomas |last=Hawkins |title=Hypercomplex numbers, Lie groups, and the creation of group representation theory |journal=[[Archive for History of Exact Sciences]] |volume=8 |pages=243–287 |year=1972 |issue=4 |doi=10.1007/BF00328434 |s2cid=120562272 }}</ref> Le investigationes de Abel e Galois super le solutiones de varie equationes polynomial preparava le terreno pro ulterior disveloppamentos del [[theoria de gruppos]], e le campos associate del [[algebra abtracte]]. In le 20e seculo, physicos e altere scientistas ha vidite le theoria de gruppos como le modo ideal pro studiar le [[symmetria]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Lowe, John P |author2=Peterson, Kirk | title=Quantum Chemistry | publisher=Academic Press| edition=Third | year=2005 | isbn=0-12-457551-X}}</ref> [[Imagine:Georg Cantor (Porträt).jpg|thumb|right|upright=.8|[[Georg Cantor]]]] In le fin del 19e seculo, [[Georg Cantor]] stabiliva le prime fundationes del [[theoria de ensembles]], lo que permitteva le tractamento rigorose del notion de infinitate e ha devenite le linguage commun de quasi tote le mathematica. Le theoria de ensembles de Cantor, e le surgimento del [[logica mathematic]] in le manos de [[Peano]], [[L.E.J. Brouwer]], [[David Hilbert]], [[Bertrand Russell]], e [[A.N. Whitehead]], initiava un longe debatto super le [[fundationes del mathematica]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Axiomatic Set Theory|first=Patrick|last=Suppes|author-link=Patrick Suppes|year=1972|publisher=Dover|isbn=9780486616308|page=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxr4LrgJGeAC&pg=PA1|quote=Con pauc rar exceptiones le entitates que es studiate e analysate in mathematica pote esser reguardate como certe ensembles o classes particular de objectos.... Como consequentia, multe questiones fundamental super le natura del mathematica pote esser reducite a questiones super le theoria de ensembles.}}</ref> Le 19e seculo videva le fundation de un numero de societates mathematic national: le [[London Mathematical Society]] in 1865,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Collingwood |first=E. F. |date=1966 |title=A Century of the London Mathematical Society |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1112/jlms/s1-41.1.577 |journal=Journal of the London Mathematical Society |language=en |volume=s1-41 |issue=1 |pages=577–594 |doi=10.1112/jlms/s1-41.1.577|url-access=subscription }}</ref> le [[Société mathématique de France]] in 1872,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nous connaître {{!}} Société Mathématique de France |url=https://smf.emath.fr/la-smf/connaitre-la-smf |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=smf.emath.fr}}</ref> le [[Circolo Matematico di Palermo]] in 1884,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mathematical Circle of Palermo |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Societies/Palermo/ |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=Maths History |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grattan-Guinness |first1=Ivor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mC9GcTdHqpcC&pg=PA656 |title=The Rainbow of Mathematics: A History of the Mathematical Sciences |last2=Grattan-Guinness |first2=I. |date=2000 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-32030-5 |language=en}}</ref> le [[Edinburgh Mathematical Society]] in 1883,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rankin |first=R. A. |date=June 1986 |title=The first hundred years (1883–1983) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/23AAB4A7D96568FC8E9003DE64AA8EF3/S0013091500016849a.pdf/div-class-title-the-first-hundred-years-1883-1983-div.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society |language=en |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=135–150 |doi=10.1017/S0013091500016849 |issn=1464-3839}}</ref> e le [[American Mathematical Society]] in 1888.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Archibald |first=Raymond Clare |date=January 1939 |title=History of the American Mathematical Society, 1888–1938 |url=https://projecteuclid.org/journals/bulletin-of-the-american-mathematical-society/volume-45/issue-1/History-of-the-American-Mathematical-Society-18881938/bams/1183501056.full |journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.1090/S0002-9904-1939-06908-5 |issn=0002-9904|doi-access=free }}</ref> Le prime societate international de interesse special, le [[Quaternion Association]], esseva formate in 1899, in le contexto de un [[hyperbolic quaternion#Historical review|controversia vectorial]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Molenbroek |first1=P. |last2=Kimura |first2=Shunkichi |date=3 October 1895 |title=To Friends and Fellow Workers in Quaternions |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/052545a0.pdf |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=52 |issue=1353 |pages=545–546 |doi=10.1038/052545a0 |bibcode=1895Natur..52..545M |s2cid=4008586 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> In 1897, [[Kurt Hensel]] introduceva le [[numero p-adic|numeros p-adic]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murty |first=M. Ram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SseFAwAAQBAJ&dq=p-adic+numbers+hensel+1897&pg=PR9 |title=Introduction to $p$-adic Analytic Number Theory |date=2009-02-09 |publisher=American Mathematical Soc. |isbn=978-0-8218-4774-9 |language=en}}</ref> === 20e seculo === Le 20e seculo videva le mathematica devenir un profession major. Al fin del seculo, millenas de nove doctoratos in mathematica esseva conferite cata anno, e empleos esseva disponibile tanto in le inseniamento como in le industria.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dpcpsi.nih.gov/sites/default/files/opep/document/Final_Report_(03-517-OD-OER)%202006.pdf|title=Doctoratos del SUA in le seculo 20|access-date=5 de april 2023|website=nih.gov|date=junio 2006|author1=Lori Thurgood|author2=Mary J. Golladay|author3=Susan T. Hill}}</ref> Un effortio pro catalogar le areas e applicationes del mathematica esseva interprendite in le [[Encyclopedia de Klein]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pitcher |first=A. D. |date=1922 |title=Encyklopâdie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften. |url=https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1922-28-09/S0002-9904-1922-03635-X/S0002-9904-1922-03635-X.pdf |journal=[[Bulletin del Societate Mathematic American]] |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=474 |doi=10.1090/s0002-9904-1922-03635-x}}</ref> In un discurso de 1900 al [[Congresso International de Mathematicos]], [[David Hilbert]] presentava un lista de [[Problemas de Hilbert|23 problemas non solvite in mathematica]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hilbert |first=David |date=1902 |title=Mathematical problems |url=https://www.ams.org/bull/1902-08-10/S0002-9904-1902-00923-3/ |journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society |language=en |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=437–479 |doi=10.1090/S0002-9904-1902-00923-3 |issn=0002-9904|doi-access=free }}</ref> Iste problemas, que imbracia multe areas del mathematica, formava un foco central pro multo del mathematica del 20e seculo. 10 ha essite solvite, 7 partialmente solvite, e 2 es ancora aperte. Le 4 restante es formulate troppo vagamente pro esser declarate como solvite o non.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hilbert's 23 problems {{!}} mathematics {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Hilberts-23-problems |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Imagine:Four Colour Map Example.svg|thumb|left|upright=.7|Un mappa illustrante le [[Theorema del quatro colores]]]] Notabile conjecturas historic esseva finalmente provate. In 1976, [[Wolfgang Haken]] e [[Kenneth Appel]] provava le [[theorema del quatro colores]], controverse al tempore pro le uso de un computator pro facer lo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gonthier |first=Georges |date=December 2008 |title=Formal Proof—The Four-Color Theorem |url=https://www.ams.org/notices/200811/tx081101382p.pdf |journal=[[Notices of the AMS]] |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=1382}}</ref> [[Andrew Wiles]], construente super le travalio de alteres, provava le [[Ultime theorema de Fermat]] in 1995.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Castelvecchi |first=Davide |date=2016-03-01 |title=Fermat's last theorem earns Andrew Wiles the Abel Prize |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2016.19552 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=531 |issue=7594 |pages=287 |doi=10.1038/nature.2016.19552 |pmid=26983518 |bibcode=2016Natur.531..287C |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> [[Paul Cohen]] e [[Kurt Gödel]] provava que le [[hypothese del continuo]] es [[independentia logic|independente]] de (poteva ni esser provate ni esser refutate per) le [[ZFC|axiomas standard del theoria de ensembles]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Paul |date=2002-12-01 |title=The Discovery of Forcing |url=https://projecteuclid.org/journals/rocky-mountain-journal-of-mathematics/volume-32/issue-4/The-Discovery-of-Forcing/10.1216/rmjm/1181070010.full |journal=Rocky Mountain Journal of Mathematics |volume=32 |issue=4 |doi=10.1216/rmjm/1181070010 |issn=0035-7596}}</ref> In 1998, [[Thomas Callister Hales]] provava le [[conjectura de Kepler]], etiam usante un computator.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wolchover |first=Natalie |date=22 February 2013 |title=In Computers We Trust? |url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/in-computers-we-trust-20130222/ |access-date=28 January 2024 |work=[[Quanta Magazine]]}}</ref> Collaborationes mathematic de magnitude e scopo sin precedente occurreva. Un exemplo es le [[classification de gruppos simple finite]] (etiam appellate le "theorema enorme"), cuje prova inter 1955 e 2004 requireva circa 500 articulos de jornal per circa 100 autores, e plenava dece milles de paginas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Un theorema enorme: le classification de gruppos simple finite |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/enormous-theorem-classification-finite-simple-groups |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=Plus Maths |language=en}}</ref> Un gruppo de mathematicos francese, includente [[Jean Dieudonné]] e [[André Weil]], publicante sub le [[pseudonymo]] "[[Nicolas Bourbaki]]", tentava exponer tote le mathematica cognoscite como un toto coherente e rigorose. Le plure dozena de volumines resultante ha habite un influentia controversial super le education mathematic.<ref>Maurice Mashaal, 2006. ''Bourbaki: Un societate secrete de mathematicos''. [[American Mathematical Society]]. {{ISBN|0-8218-3967-5|978-0-8218-3967-6}}.</ref> [[File:Relativistic precession.svg|thumb|Orbita newtonian (rubie) vs. einsteinian (blau) de un planeta solitari orbitante un stella, con [[General relativity#Orbital effects and the relativity of direction|precession relativistic de apsides]]]] Le [[geometria differential]] attingeva su plen maturitate quando [[Albert Einstein]] lo usava in le [[relativitate general]].<ref name="spivak2">Spivak, M., 1975. A comprehensive introduction to differential geometry (Vol. 2). Publish or Perish, Incorporated.</ref> Areas completemente nove del mathematica como le [[logica mathematic]], le [[topologia]], e le [[theoria de jocos]] de [[John von Neumann]] cambiava le typos de questiones que poteva esser respondite per methodos mathematic.{{Citation needed|date=januario 2024}} Omne typo de [[Structura mathematic|structuras]] esseva abstracte usante axiomas e recipeva nomines como [[spatio metric|spatios metric]], [[spatio topologic|spatios topologic]] etc.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sutherland|first=W. A.|title=Introduction to metric and topological spaces|date=1975|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=0-19-853155-9|location=Oxford [England]|oclc=1679102}}</ref> Le concepto de un structura abstracte esseva se ipse abstracte e duceva al [[theoria de categorias]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Marquis |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Category Theory |date=2023 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/category-theory/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |edition=Fall 2023 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> [[Grothendieck]] e [[Jean-Pierre Serre|Serre]] reformulava le [[geometria algebric]] usante le [[Theoria de fasces|theoria de fasces]].<ref>{{Citation |last = Pragacz |first = Piotr |title = Topics in Cohomological Studies of Algebraic Varieties: Impanga Lecture Notes |year = 2005 |chapter = Notes on the life and work of Alexander Grothendieck |chapter-url = http://www.landsburg.com/grothendieck/pragasz.pdf |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.landsburg.com/grothendieck/pragasz.pdf |archive-date = 2022-10-09 |url-status = live |publisher = Birkhäuser |editor-last = Pragracz |editor-first = Piotr }}</ref> Grande progressos esseva facite in le studio qualitative de [[Theoria de systemas dynamic|systemas dynamic]] que [[Henri Poincaré|Poincaré]] habeva comenciate in le annos 1890.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Poincaré |first1=Henri |translator1-last=Popp |translator1-first=Bruce D. |title=The three-body problem and the equations of dynamics: Poincaré's foundational work on dynamical systems theory |date=2017 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-319-52898-4}}</ref> [[Theoria del mesura]] esseva disveloppate al fin del 19e seculo e al initio del 20e seculo. Applicationes de mesuras include le [[integral de Lebesgue]], le axiomatisation del [[theoria de probabilitate]] de [[Kolmogorov]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.probabilityandfinance.com/articles/04.pdf |title="The origins and legacy of Kolmogorov's Grundbegriffe", by Glenn Shafer and Vladimir Vovk |access-date=2012-02-12}}</ref> e le [[theoria ergodic]]. [[Theoria de nodos]] se expandeva grandemente.<ref name=Soss>Alexei Sossinsky (2002) ''Knots, Mathematics with a Twist'', [[Harvard University Press]] {{ISBN|0-674-00944-4}}</ref> Le [[mechanica quantic]] adjutava le disveloppamento del [[analyse functional]],<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehzvAAAAMAAJ | title=Functional Analysis | isbn=978-0-07-054225-9 | last1=Rudin | first1=Walter | date=1973 | publisher=McGraw-Hill }}</ref> un branca de mathematica disveloppate per [[Stefan Banach]] e su collaboratores qui formava le [[Schola de Mathematica de Lwów]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Stefan-Banach|title=Stefan Banach - Polish Mathematician|website=britannica.com|date=27 August 2023 }}</ref> Altere nove areas include le [[Distribution (mathematics)|theoria de distributiones]] de [[Laurent Schwartz]], le [[Fixed-point theorem|theoria de puncto fixe]], le [[theoria de singularitate]] e le [[theoria de catastrophe]] de [[René Thom]], le [[theoria de modellos]], e le [[Benoit Mandelbrot|fractales]] de Mandelbrot.<ref name="RLD">{{cite journal |last=Devaney |first=Robert L. |author-link=Robert L. Devaney |title=Mandelbrot's Vision for Mathematics |journal=Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics |volume=72 |number=1 |publisher=American Mathematical Society |year=2004 |url=http://www.math.yale.edu/mandelbrot/web_pdfs/jubileeletters.pdf |access-date=5 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209093734/http://www.math.yale.edu/mandelbrot/web_pdfs/jubileeletters.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209093734/http://www.math.yale.edu/mandelbrot/web_pdfs/jubileeletters.pdf |date=9 December 2006 }}</ref> [[Theoria de Lie]] con su [[gruppos de Lie]] e [[algebras de Lie]] deveniva un del major areas de studio.<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Hawkins |authorlink=Thomas W. Hawkins Jr. |year=2000 |title=Emergence of the Theory of Lie Groups: an essay in the history of mathematics, 1869–1926 |url=https://archive.org/details/emergenceoftheor0000hawk |url-access=registration |publisher=Springer |isbn=0-387-98963-3 }}</ref> [[Analyse non-standard]], introducite per [[Abraham Robinson]], rehabilitava le approche [[infinitesimal]] al calculo, que habeva cadite in disreputo in favor del theoria de [[Limite de un function|limites]], per extender le campo del numeros real al [[Numero hyperreal|numeros hyperreal]] que include quantitates infinitesimal e infinite.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Hyperreal Number |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}</ref> Un systema de numeros ancora plus grande, le [[numero surreal|numeros surreal]] esseva discoperite per [[John Horton Conway]] in connexion con [[joco combinatorial|jocos combinatorial]].<ref name="O'Connor">{{citation | url = http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Conway.html | title = John Horton Conway | last1 = O'Connor | first1 = J.J. | last2 = Robertson | first2 = E.F. | access-date = 2008-01-24 | date= June 2004 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080314152337/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Conway.html | archive-date = 14 March 2008 | work= School of Mathematics and Statistics | publisher= University of St Andrews, Scotland | url-status= dead}}</ref> Le disveloppamento e melioration continue de [[computator]]es, initialmente machinas analogic mechanic e postea machinas electronic digital, permitteva al [[Industria private|industria]] tractar quantitates de datos de plus in plus grande pro facilitar le production in massa e le distribution e communication, e nove areas de mathematica esseva disveloppate pro tractar isto: le [[theoria del computabilitate]] de [[Alan Turing]]; le [[Theoria del complexitate computational|theoria del complexitate]]; le uso de [[ENIAC]] per [[Derrick Henry Lehmer]] pro avantiar le theoria de numeros e le [[test de primalitate de Lucas–Lehmer]]; le [[theoria de functiones recursive]] de [[Rózsa Péter]]; le [[theoria del information]] de [[Claude Shannon]]; le [[processamento de signales]]; le [[analyse de datos]]; le [[Optimisation mathematic|optimisation]] e altere areas de [[recerca operational]].{{Citation needed|date=januario 2024}} In le seculos precedente, multo del foco mathematic esseva sur le calculo e le functiones continue, sed le surgimento del computation e del retes de communication duceva a un importantia crescente de conceptos [[mathematica discrete|discrete]] e al expansion del [[combinatoria]] includente le [[theoria de graphos]]. Le velocitate e le capabilitates de processamento de datos del computatores anque permitteva le manipulation de problemas mathematic que esseva troppo costose in tempore pro esser tractate per calculos con crayon e papiro, ducente a areas tal como le [[analyse numeric]] e le [[algebra computational]].<ref name="original-mccarthy-paper">{{cite journal |title=Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine, Pt I |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_association-for-computing-machinery-communications_1960-04_3_4/page/184 |last=McCarthy |first=John |date=april 1960 |journal=[[Communications of the ACM]] |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=184–195 |doi=10.1145/367177.367199 |doi-access=free |citeseerx=10.1.1.422.5235 |s2cid=1489409}}</ref> Alcun del methodos e [[algorithmo]]s le plus importante del 20e seculo es: le [[algorithmo simplex]], le [[transformate de Fourier rapide]], le [[codigo de correction de errores|codigos de correction de errores]], le [[filtro de Kalman]] del [[theoria de controlo]] e le [[algorithmo RSA]] del [[cryptographia de clave public]].{{Citation needed|date=januario 2024}} Le disveloppamento e le melioration continue de [[computator]]es, initialmente machinas analogic mechanic e postea machinas electronic digital, permitteva al [[Industria private|industria]] tractar quantitates de datos de plus in plus grande pro facilitar le production in massa e le distribution e communication, e nove areas del mathematica esseva disveloppate pro tractar isto: le [[theoria del computabilitate]] de [[Alan Turing]]; le [[theoria del complexitate computational]]; le uso de [[ENIAC]] per [[Derrick Henry Lehmer]] pro avantiar le theoria de numeros e le [[test de primalitate de Lucas–Lehmer]]; le [[theoria de functiones recursive]] de [[Rózsa Péter]]; le [[theoria del information]] de [[Claude Shannon]]; le [[processamento de signales]]; le [[analyse de datos]]; le [[Optimisation mathematic|optimisation]] e altere areas del [[recerca operational]].{{Citation needed|date=januario 2024}} In le seculos precedente, multo del foco mathematic esseva sur le calculo e le functiones continue, sed le surgimento del computation e del retes de communication duceva a un importantia crescente de conceptos [[mathematica discrete|discrete]] e al expansion del [[combinatoria]], incluse le [[theoria de graphos]]. Le velocitate e le capacitates de tractamento de datos del computatores etiam permitteva le manipulation de problemas mathematic que esseva troppo costose in tempore pro esser tractate per calculos con crayon e papiro, ducente a areas tal como le [[analyse numeric]] e le [[algebra computational]].<ref name="original-mccarthy-paper"/> Alcun del methodos e [[algorithmo]]s le plus importante del 20e seculo es: le [[algorithmo simplex]], le [[transformation rapide de Fourier]], le [[codigo de correction de errores|codices de correction de errores]], le [[filtro de Kalman]] del [[theoria de controlo]] e le [[algorithmo RSA]] del [[cryptographia de clave public]].{{Citation needed|date=januario 2024}} Al mesme tempore, profundes perspectivas esseva facite re le limitationes del mathematica. In 1929 e 1930, [[Mojżesz Presburger]] provava que le veritate o falsitate de tote le assertiones formulate re le [[numero natural|numeros natural]] plus o le addition o le multiplication (sed non ambos), esseva [[Decidabilitate (logica)|decidibile]], i.e. poteva esser determinate per alcun algorithmo.<ref>{{cite report | author=Ryan Stansifer | title=Presburger's Article on Integer Arithmetic: Remarks and Translation | type=Technical Report | location=Ithaca/NY | publisher=Dept. of Computer Science, Cornell University | volume=TR84-639 | url=http://cs.fit.edu/~ryan/papers/presburger.pdf | date=Sep 1984 | access-date=2014-10-10 | archive-date=2015-02-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206092011/http://cs.fit.edu/~ryan/papers/presburger.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | author=Mojżesz Presburger and Dale Jacquette | title=On the Completeness of a Certain System of Arithmetic of Whole Numbers in Which Addition Occurs as the Only Operation | journal=History and Philosophy of Logic | volume=12 | pages=225–33 | year=1991 | issue=2 | doi=10.1080/014453409108837187 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wolfram|first=Stephen|title=A New Kind of Science|publisher=Wolfram Media, Inc.|year=2002|page=1152|isbn=1-57955-008-8}}</ref> In 1931, [[Kurt Gödel]] trovava que isto non esseva le caso pro le numeros natural plus e le addition e le multiplication; iste systema, cognoscite como le [[arithmetica de Peano]], esseva de facto [[theorema de incompletude|incomplete]]. (Le arithmetica de Peano es adequate pro un bon parte del [[theoria de numeros]], incluse le notion de [[numero prime]].) Un consequentia del duo [[theorema de incompletude|theoremas de incompletude]] de Gödel es que in omne systema mathematic que include le arithmetica de Peano (incluse tote le [[analyse mathematic|analyse]] e le geometria), le veritate necessarimente excede le demonstration, i.e. il ha assertiones ver que [[Theorema de incompletude|non pote esser provate]] intra le systema. Ergo le mathematica non pote esser reducite al logica mathematic, e le somnio de [[David Hilbert]] de render tote le mathematica complete e consistente debeva esser reformulate.<ref>{{cite book | isbn=0-465-02656-7 | author=Douglas Hofstadter | title=Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid | location=New York | publisher=Basic Books | year=1979 }} Here: ''Introduction'' / ''Consistency, completeness, Hilbert's program''; "Gödel published his work which in some sense completely destroyed Hilbert's program."</ref> [[Image:GammaAbsSmallPlot.png|thumb|right|Le [[valor absolute]] del function Gamma sur le plano complexe]] Un del figuras plus colorate in le mathematica del 20e seculo esseva [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] (1887–1920), un [[autodidacto]] indian<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Ono |first=Ken |date=2006 |title=Honoring a Gift from Kumbakonam |url=https://www.ams.org/notices/200606/fea-ono.pdf |journal=[[Notices of the AMS]] |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=640–651}}</ref> qui conjecturava o provava plus de 3000 theoremas,<ref>{{Cite book |title= Ramanujan's Notebooks |volume = Part 5 |last= Berndt |first=Bruce C. |date=12 December 1997 |publisher= Springer Science & Business |isbn=978-0-38794941-3 |page = 4}}</ref> incluse proprietates de [[numero altemente composite|numeros altemente composite]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alaoglu |first1=L. |author-link=Leonidas Alaoglu |last2=Erdős |first2=Paul |author-link2=Paul Erdős |date=14 February 1944 |title=On highly composite and similar numbers |url=https://community.ams.org/journals/tran/1944-056-00/S0002-9947-1944-0011087-2/S0002-9947-1944-0011087-2.pdf |journal=[[Transactions of the American Mathematical Society]] |volume=56 |pages=448–469|doi=10.1090/S0002-9947-1944-0011087-2 }}</ref> le [[function de partition (theoria de numeros)|function de partition]]<ref name=":3" /> e su [[asymptotica]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Murty |first=M. Ram |date=2013 |title=The Partition Function Revisited |url=https://mast.queensu.ca/~murty/partition.pd |journal=The Legacy of Srinivasa Ramanujan, RMS-Lecture Notes Series |volume=20 |pages=261–279}}</ref> e [[function theta de Ramanujan|functiones mock theta]].<ref name=":3" /> Ille etiam faceva investigationes major in le areas de [[function gamma|functiones gamma]],<ref>{{Citation |last=Bradley |first=David M. |title=Ramanujan's formula for the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function |date=2005-05-07 |arxiv=math/0505125 |bibcode=2005math......5125B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Askey |first=Richard |date=1980 |title=Ramanujan's Extensions of the Gamma and Beta Functions |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2321202 |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=346–359 |doi=10.2307/2321202 |jstor=2321202 |issn=0002-9890}}</ref> [[forma modular|formas modular]],<ref name=":3" /> [[serie divergente|series divergente]],<ref name=":3" /> [[function hypergeometric general|series hypergeometric]]<ref name=":3" /> e theoria de numeros prime.<ref name=":3" /> [[Paul Erdős]] publicava plus articulos que omne altere mathematico in le historia,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://oakland.edu/enp/trivia/ | title=Grossman – the Erdös Number Project | accessdate=2026-03-09 | archivedate=2023-03-07 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307031034/https://oakland.edu/enp/trivia/ }}</ref> laborante con centos de collaboratores. Mathematicos ha un joco equivalente al [[Joco de Kevin Bacon]], lo que duce al [[numero de Erdős]] de un mathematico. Isto describe le "distantia collaborative" inter un persona e Erdős, mesurate per le co-autorato de articulos mathematic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goffman |first=Casper |date=1969 |title=And What Is Your Erdos Number? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2317868 |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |volume=76 |issue=7 |pages=791 |doi=10.2307/2317868 |jstor=2317868 |issn=0002-9890|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=grossman - The Erdös Number Project |url=https://sites.google.com/oakland.edu/grossman/home/the-erdoes-number-project |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=sites.google.com |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Emmy Noether]] ha essite describite per multes como le femina le plus importante in le historia del mathematica.<ref>{{citation|author-link=Pavel Alexandrov|last=Alexandrov|first=Pavel S.|chapter=In Memory of Emmy Noether | title = Emmy Noether: A Tribute to Her Life and Work|editor1-first =James W | editor1-last = Brewer | editor2-first = Martha K | editor2-last = Smith | place = New York | publisher= Marcel Dekker | year= 1981 | isbn = 978-0-8247-1550-2 |pages= 99–111}}.</ref> Illa studiava le theorias de [[anello (mathematica)|anellos]], [[corpore (mathematica)|corpores]], e [[algebra super un corpore|algebras]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Angier |first=Natalie |date=2012-03-26 |title=The Mighty Mathematician You've Never Heard Of |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/27/science/emmy-noether-the-most-significant-mathematician-youve-never-heard-of.html |access-date=2024-04-20 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Como in le major parte del areas de studio, le explosion de cognoscentia in le era scientific ha ducite al specialisation: verso le fin del seculo, il habeva centenas de areas specialisate in mathematica, e le [[Classification de Materias Mathematic]] habeva dozens de paginas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ams.org/mathscinet/msc/pdfs/classifications2000.pdf|title=Mathematics Subject Classification 2000|accessdate=5 April 2023}}</ref> Plus e plus [[jornal mathematic|jornales mathematic]] esseva publicate e, verso le fin del seculo, le developpamento del [[World Wide Web]] ha ducite al publication in linea. === 21e seculo === {{Vide etiam|Lista de problemas non solvite in mathematica#Problemas solvite depost 1995}} In 2000, le [[Clay Mathematics Institute]] annunciava le septe [[Problemas del Premio del Millennio]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dickson |first=David |date=2000-05-01 |title=Mathematicians chase the seven million-dollar proofs |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/35013216 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=405 |issue=6785 |pages=383 |doi=10.1038/35013216 |pmid=10839504 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> In 2003 le [[conjectura de Poincaré]] esseva solvite per [[Grigori Perelman]] (qui declinava acceptar un premio, proque ille esseva critic del institutiones mathematic).<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 August 2006 |title=Maths genius declines top prize |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5274040.stm |access-date=28 January 2024 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> Le majoritate del jornales mathematic ora ha versiones in linea assi como versiones imprimite, e multe jornales exclusivemente in linea es lanceate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Journal of Humanistic Mathematics - an online-only, open access, peer reviewed journal {{!}} Current Journals {{!}} Claremont Colleges |url=https://scholarship.claremont.edu/jhm/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=scholarship.claremont.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Electronic Math Journals |url=https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~mathsurv/ejournals.html |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=www.stat.berkeley.edu}}</ref> Il ha un impulso crescente verso le [[Accesso aperte (publication)|publication de accesso aperte]], primo facite popular per [[arXiv]]. Multe altere problemas importante ha essite solvite in iste seculo. Exemplos include le [[theorema de Green–Tao]] (2004), le [[Yitang Zhang#Recerca|existentia de lacunas finite inter numeros prime arbitrariemente grande]] (2013), e le [[theorema de modularitate]] (2001). Le [[test de primalitate AKS]] esseva publicate in 2002, lo que es le prime algorithmo que pote determinar si un numero es prime o composite in [[Complexitate temporal|tempore polynomial]]. Un prova del [[conjectura debile de Goldbach]] esseva publicate per [[Harald Helfgott]] in 2013; a partir de 2025, le prova ancora non ha essite completemente revidite. Le prime [[Problema de Einstein|einstein]] esseva discoperite in 2023. In plus, multe travalio ha essite facite verso de projectos de longe duration que comenciava in le 20e seculo. Per exemplo, le [[classification del gruppos simple finite]] esseva completate in 2008. Similarmen, le travalio sur le [[programma de Langlands]] ha progredite significatemente, e il ha habite provas del [[lemma fundamental (programma de Langlands)|lemma fundamental]] (2008), assi como un prova proponite del [[correspondentia de Langlands geometric]] in 2024. == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == *{{Cite book |surname=de Crespigny |given=Rafe |author-link=Rafe de Crespigny |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |location=Leiden |publisher=Koninklijke Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-04-15605-0 |postscript=.}} * {{Cite book |first1=Lennart |last1= Berggren | first2= Jonathan M. | last2= Borwein | first3= Peter B. | last3 = Borwein |title=Pi: A Source Book | place= New York |publisher= Springer |year= 2004 |isbn=978-0-387-20571-7}} * {{Cite book |first=C.B. |last=Boyer |author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer |title=A History of Mathematics |edition=2nd |place=New York |publisher=Wiley |year=1991 |orig-year=1989 |isbn=978-0-471-54397-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye }} * {{Cite book |first=Serafina |last=Cuomo |title=Ancient Mathematics| place= London |publisher= Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-16495-5}} <!--UNUSED* {{citation |first=Howard |last=Eves |authorlink=Howard Eves|title=An Introduction to the History of Mathematics |publisher=Saunders |year=1990 |isbn=0-03-029558-0}}--> * {{Cite book |first=Michael |last=Goodman |title=An introduction of the Early Development of Mathematics| place= Hoboken |publisher= Wiley |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-119-10497-1}} * {{Cite book |first=Jan |last=Gullberg |title=Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers |place=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton and Company |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-393-04002-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicsfromb1997gull }} * {{Cite book |last=Joyce|first=Hetty|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|title=Form, Function and Technique in the Pavements of Delos and Pompeii|date=July 1979|volume=83|number=3|jstor=505056|doi=10.2307/505056|pages=253–63|s2cid=191394716|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book |first=Victor J. |last=Katz |title=A History of Mathematics: An Introduction |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-321-01618-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00katz }} * {{Cite book | year=2007 | last=Katz | first=Victor J. | title=The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook | place= Princeton, NJ | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-0-691-11485-9 }} * {{Cite book | year= 1995 | orig-year= 1959 | last1=Needham | first1=Joseph | last2=Wang | first2=Ling | title= Science and Civilization in China: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth | volume= 3 | place= Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | author-link1= Joseph Needham| author-link2= Wang Ling (historian)| isbn=978-0-521-05801-8}} * {{Cite book | year= 2000 | orig-year= 1965 | last1=Needham | first1=Joseph | last2=Wang | first2=Ling | title= Science and Civilization in China: Physics and Physical Technology: Mechanical Engineering | volume= 4 | place= Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | edition = reprint| isbn=978-0-521-05803-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Sleeswyk|first=Andre|journal=Scientific American|title=Vitruvius' odometer|date=October 1981|volume=252|number=4|pages=188–200|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1081-188|bibcode=1981SciAm.245d.188S|postscript=.}} * {{Cite book | year=1998 | last=Straffin | first=Philip D. | title=Liu Hui and the First Golden Age of Chinese Mathematics | journal= Mathematics Magazine | volume= 71 | number= 3 | pages=163–81 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1998.11996627 }} * {{Cite book |last=Tang|first=Birgit|title=Delos, Carthage, Ampurias: the Housing of Three Mediterranean Trading Centres|year=2005|location=Rome|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider (Accademia di Danimarca)|isbn=978-88-8265-305-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nw5eupvkvfEC|postscript=.}} <!--UNUSED*{{citation | last=Plofker | first1=Kim | authorlink1 = Kim Plofker | year=2009 | title=Mathematics in India: 500 BCE–1800 CE | place=Princeton, NJ | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn= 0-691-12067-6 }}--> * {{Cite book | year=2009 | editor1= Robson, Eleanor | editor2= Stedall, Jacqueline | last=Volkov | first=Alexei | title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Mathematics | chapter=Mathematics and Mathematics Education in Traditional Vietnam | place= Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | pages=153–76 | isbn=978-0-19-921312-2}} {{Historia del scientia}} [[Categoria:Historia del mathematica]] [[Categoria:Historia del scientia]] 1cyk1it9xr8wd9p51tosaeel7nd6lwh 0 59010 698198 672398 2026-08-03T22:18:28Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698198 wikitext text/x-wiki Un '''mycotoxina''' (del grec μύκης ''mykes'' 'fungo' e τοξικός ''toxicikos'' 'toxic') es un [[metabolito]] secondari [[Toxicitate|toxic]] producite per [[fungo]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Richard JL |title=Some major mycotoxins and their mycotoxicoses – an overview |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol. |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=3–10 |year=2007 |pmid=17719115 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.019}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last1=Çimen |first1=Duygu |last2=Bereli |first2=Nilay |last3=Denizli |first3=Adil |date=2022-06-01 |title=Patulin Imprinted Nanoparticles Decorated Surface Plasmon Resonance Chips for Patulin Detection |journal=Photonic Sensors |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=117–129 |doi=10.1007/s13320-021-0638-1 |bibcode=2022PhSen..12..117C |s2cid=239220993 |issn=2190-7439|doi-access=free }}</ref> Exemplos de mycotoxinas causante [[maladia]]s human o animal include: {{Ill|es|aflatoxina}}, {{Ill|es|citrinina}}, {{Ill|es|fumonisina}}, {{Ill|ca|ochratoxina A}}, {{Ill|es|patulina}}, {{Ill|en|trichotheceno|trichothecene}}, {{Ill|es|zearalenona}} e {{Ill|es|ergotamina}}.<ref name="Mycotoxins">{{cite journal |pmc=164220|year=2003|last1=Bennett|first1=J. W.|title=Mycotoxins|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-microbiology-reviews_2003-07_16_3/page/497|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3|pages=497–516|last2=Klich|first2=M|doi=10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003|pmid=12857779}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Food safety |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-safety |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Un specie de [[mucor]] pote producir differente mycotoxinas e plure species pote producir le mesme mycotoxina.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Robbins CA, Swenson LJ, Nealley ML, Gots RE, Kelman BJ |title=Health effects of mycotoxins in indoor air: a critical review |journal=Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=773–84 |year=2000 |pmid=11036728 |doi=10.1080/10473220050129419}}</ref> [[Cancere|Carcinogenic]] mycotoxinas son presente in [[alimento]]s, supertoto [[farina]] e [[ris]].<ref>{{Cite web|author=Redbran |title=De puissants cancérigènes naturels découverts dans ces aliments quotidiens |url=https://www.techno-science.net/actualite/puissants-cancerigenes-naturels-decouverts-ces-aliments-quotidiens-N25130.html |site=Techno-Science.net |date=2024-06-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Sher Ali, Bruna Battaglini Franco, Vanessa Theodoro Rezende, Lucas Gabriel Dionisio Freire, Esther Lima de Paiva, Maria Clara Fogacio Haikal, Eloiza Leme Guerra, Roice Eliana Rosim, Fernando Gustavo Tonin, Ivan Savioli Ferraz, Luiz Antonio Del Ciampo, Carlos Augusto Fernandes de Oliveira|title=Exposure assessment of children to dietary mycotoxins: A pilot study conducted in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0963996924001571 |journal=Food Research International |volume=180 |issue=114087 |date=March 2024 |issn=0963-9969 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114087}}</ref> {{Refer}} [[Categoria:Toxinas]] 0dq3xqjxw4pzvjrkmxzvs0iw2yvwger 0 59077 698195 672991 2026-08-03T22:07:27Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698195 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Seppuku-2.jpg|thumb|alt=|300px|Un samurai facente ''seppuku'']] Le '''suicidio''' esse le acto de causar intentionalmente le [[morte]] de se ipse.<ref name=Sted2006>{{cite book|title=Stedman's Medical Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/stedmansmedicald00sted_3 |url-access=registration |year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-7817-3390-8 |edition=28th}}</ref> Disordines mental e physic, atque abuso de substantias, esse factores que mitte a risco de suicidio un persona.<ref name=Hawton2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hawton K, van Heeringen K | s2cid = 208790312 | title = Suicide | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-18-24-2009_373_9672/page/1372 | journal = Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9672 | pages = 1372–81 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19376453 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60372-X }}</ref><ref name=Autism2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Richa S, Fahed M, Khoury E, Mishara B | s2cid = 25741716 | title = Suicide in autism spectrum disorders | journal = Archives of Suicide Research | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 327–39 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24713024 | doi = 10.1080/13811118.2013.824834 }}</ref><ref name=Dod2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dodds TJ | title = Prescribed Benzodiazepines and Suicide Risk: A Review of the Literature | journal = The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28257172 | doi = 10.4088/PCC.16r02037 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Alicun suicidios esse actiones impulsive debite al stress, problemas in le relationes, [[persecution]] e [[intimidation]].<ref name=WHO2016/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bottino SM, Bottino CM, Regina CG, Correia AV, Ribeiro WS | title = Cyberbullying and adolescent mental health: systematic review | journal = Cadernos de Saude Publica | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 463–75 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25859714 | doi = 10.1590/0102-311x00036114 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Suicide rates rising across the U.S. |url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2018/p0607-suicide-prevention.html |website=CDC Online Newsroom |access-date=19 September 2019 |language=en-us |date=11 April 2019|quote=Relationship problems or loss, substance misuse; physical health problems; and job, money, legal or housing stress often contributed to risk for suicide.}}</ref> Illes qui habe jam essayate de suicidar·se habe un risco plus alte de retentar le acto.<ref name=WHO2016/> Effortios efficace pro le prevention del suicidio include le limitation del accesso al methodos de suicidio – sicut armas, drogas e veneno – le tractamento del disordines mental e abuso de substantias, sed etiam le melioramento del conditiones economic.<ref name=WHO2016>{{cite web|title=Suicide Fact sheet N°398|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs398/en/|website=WHO|access-date=3 March 2016|date=April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192347/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs398/en/|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/resource_media.pdf|title=Preventing Suicide A Resource for Media Professionals|year=2008|publisher=World Health Organization. Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse |isbn=978-92-4-159707-4}}</ref> Quamquam il habe numeros commun a telephonar in tempore de crisis, lor efficacia non ha essite adhuc ben studite.<ref name=Sak2011>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sakinofsky I | title = The current evidence base for the clinical care of suicidal patients: strengths and weaknesses | journal = Canadian Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 52 | issue = 6 Suppl 1 | pages = 7S–20S | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17824349 | quote = Other suicide prevention strategies that have been considered are crisis centers and hotlines, method control, and media education... There is minimal research on these strategies. Even though crisis centers and hotlines are used by suicidal youth, information about their impact on suicidal behavior is lacking. }}</ref><ref name=Zal2016>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zalsman G, Hawton K, Wasserman D, van Heeringen K, Arensman E, Sarchiapone M, Carli V, Höschl C, Barzilay R, Balazs J, Purebl G, Kahn JP, Sáiz PA, Lipsicas CB, Bobes J, Cozman D, Hegerl U, Zohar J | display-authors = 6 | title = Suicide prevention strategies revisited: 10-year systematic review | journal = The Lancet. Psychiatry | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | pages = 646–59 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27289303 | doi = 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30030-X | quote = Other approaches that need further investigation include gatekeeper training, education of physicians, and internet and helpline support. | hdl = 1854/LU-8509936 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Opiniones re le suicidio ha essite influentiate per grosse themas existential sicut le [[religion]], [[honor]] e le senso del [[vita]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Tomer A |title=Existential and Spiritual Issues in Death Attitudes|date=2013|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-67690-1|page=282|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hJTruwsicuoC&pg=PA282 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | veditors = Ritzer G, Stepnisky J |title=The Wiley-Blackwell companion to major social theorists |date=2011 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-1-4443-9660-7 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDwdmVUMIh8C&pg=PA65 }}</ref> Le religiones abrahamic considera traditionalmente le suicidio ut un offensa a Deo nam le credentia in le sanctitate del vita.<ref>{{cite book|title=God, Religion, Science, Nature, Culture, and Morality|date=2014|publisher=Archway Publishing|isbn=978-1-4808-1124-9|page=254|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xGGVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA254 }}</ref> Dum le era del [[samurai|samurais]] in [[Japon]], un forma de suicidio cognite ut ''seppuku'' ({{Lang|ja|腹切り}}, {{Lang|ja-Latn|harakiri}}) esseva respectate pro compensar un fallimento, vel ut un forma de protesta.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Colt GH |title=The enigma of suicide|date=1992|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=978-0-671-76071-7|page=139|edition=1st Touchstone|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOz3hStePfYC&pg=PA139 }}</ref> Le suicidio e le tentativas de suicidio esseva illegal in le majoritate del paises occidental, sed il non esse plus assi,<ref name=White2010>{{cite book| vauthors = White T |title=Working with suicidal individuals : a guide to providing understanding, assessment and support|year=2010|publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers|location=London|isbn=978-1-84905-115-6|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_ZvK-DBYfIC&pg=PT12 }}</ref> quamquam illo remane un offensa criminal in alicun paises.<ref name=Islam2006>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lester D | s2cid = 35754641 | title = Suicide and islam | journal = Archives of Suicide Research | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 77–97 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16287698 | doi = 10.1080/13811110500318489 }}</ref> Le suicidio es considerate ut un grosse catastrophe que causa multe [[dolor]] al parentes del decedite, al amicos e membros del communitate, ergo illo es vise negativemente ubique in le mundo.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Russell N | title = The Taboo of Suicide | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychiatry_1968-05_31_2/page/173 | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 173–183 | date = May 1968 | pmid = 27780435 | doi = 10.1080/00332747.1968.11023545 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Vaughan M |title=The 'discovery' of suicide in Africa |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/5PPwm7sf3xy78q7lz4tdpWC/the-discovery-of-suicide-in-africa |work=BBC |access-date=16 June 2020 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Suicide |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide |work=World Health Organization |access-date=16 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> == Referentias == {{reflist|2}} [[Category:Causas de morte]] p6fqvxbokb64q4whpmpmar2r51m2n7i 0 59094 698269 673060 2026-08-04T00:06:35Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698269 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Emilybronte retouche.jpg|thumb|alt=|300px|Portrait de Emily Brontë]] '''Emily Brontë''' ([[30 de julio]] [[1818]] – [[19 de decembre]] [[1848]]) esseva un scriptrice de [[romanes romantic]] e poetessa anglese qui esse famose pro scriber ''[[Summas Tempestuose]]'', su unic obra nunc considerate un classico del [[litteratura anglese]] que illa publicava sub le pseudonymo de '''Ellis Bell'''. Illa etiam publicava un libro de poesias insimul a su sorores [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]] e [[Anne Brontë|Anne]], titulate ''Poemas per Currer, Ellis e Acton Bell''. In iste obra, su talento duceva la a esser acclamate ut un genio poetic. Nate in [[Thornton]], [[Anglaterra]], ab un matre anglese e un patre irlandese, Emily esseva le secunde soror le plus juvene del fratres Brontë, post Maxwell e ante Anne. Inspirate per un presente recepte per su fratre Maxwell, le juvene Brontës incipeva a scriber contos quando illes esseva solo pueros.<ref> Mezo, Richard E. ''A Student's Guide to Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë'' (2002), p. 1</ref> Con su soror Anne illa creava contos re un mundo phantastic appellate ‘Gondal’, un insula fictive cuje mythos e legendas velle preoccupar le sorores per le resto de lor vita. Nam su natura solitari, illa esse un figura mysteriose pro biographos.<ref>Lorna Sage ''The Cambridge Guide to Women's Writing in English'' (1999), p. 90</ref><ref>Claire O'Callaghan, Emily Brontë Reappraised (2018), p. 5</ref><ref>U. C. Knoepflmacher, ''Emily Brontë: Wuthering Heights'' (1989), p. 112</ref> Excepte un par de personas, il non pare que illa habeva amicos foras del membros de su familia. Su amica le plus intime esseva su soror Anne, con quem illa compartiva le mundo phantastic de Gondal e qui esseva sicut un gemina pro Emily.<ref name="Fraser 39">Fraser, ''A Life of Anne Brontë'', p. 39</ref><ref name="Barker 195">Barker, ''The Brontës'', p. 195</ref> Un septimana post le funeral del fratre Maxwell in le septembre 1848, illa prehendeva un sever rheuma que rapido disveloppava se in un inflammation al pulmones e, postea, in un [[tuberculosis]].<ref name="Benvenuto 24">Benvenuto, ''Emily Brontë'', p. 24</ref> Illa moriva le 19 de decembre 1848, interim illa sedeva super su sofa.<ref name="Robinson 308">Robinson, ''Emily Brontë'', p. 308</ref> == Referentias == {{reflist|2}} === Fontes === *{{cite journal|last=Austin|first=Linda|title=Emily Brontë's Homesickness|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_victorian-studies_summer-2002_44_4/page/573|journal=Victorian Studies|volume=44|issue=4|date=Summer 2002|pages=573–596|pmid=12751528}} *{{cite book|last=Barker|first=Juliet R. V.|author-link=Juliet Barker|title=The Brontës|year=1995|publisher=Phoenix House|location=London|isbn=1-85799-069-2}} *{{cite book|last=Benvenuto|first=Richard|title=Emily Brontë|year=1982|publisher=Twayne Publishers|location=Boston|isbn=0-80576-813-0|url=https://archive.org/details/emilybront00benv}} *{{cite book|last=Fraser|first=Rebecca|authorlink=Rebecca Fraser|title=The Brontës: Charlotte Brontë and her family|year=1988|publisher=Crown Publishers|location=New York|isbn=0-517-56438-6|url=https://archive.org/details/brontscharlott00fras}} *{{cite book|last=Fraser|first=Rebecca|authorlink=Rebecca Fraser|title=Charlotte Bronte: A Writer's Life|year=2008|publisher=Pegasus Books|location=New York|isbn=9781933648880 |url=https://archive.org/details/charlottebrontew0000fras}} *{{cite book|last=Gaskell|first=Elizabeth Cleghorn|author-link=Elizabeth Gaskell|title=The Life of Charlotte Brontë|volume=2|year=1857|publisher=D. Appleton|location=London}} *{{cite book|last=Gérin|first=Winifred|author-link=Winifred Gérin|title=Emily Brontë|url=https://archive.org/details/emilybrontbiogra0000grin|url-access=registration|year=1971|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=01-9812-018-4}} *{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Lucasta|author-link=Lucasta Miller|title=The Bronte Myth|year=2013|publisher=Vintage|location=London|isbn=978-1-44642-621-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5vRJTVs9r7YC}} *{{cite book| last1=Paddock | first1=Lisa |last2=Rollyson |first2=Carl |year=2003 |title=The Brontës A to Z|url=https://archive.org/details/brontstozessenti0000padd|url-access=registration| location=New York |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=0-8160-4303-5}} *{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=F. Mary A.|author-link=Agnes Mary Frances Duclaux|title=Emily Brontë|url=https://archive.org/details/emilybront00robi|year=1883|publisher=Roberts Brothers|location=Boston}} *{{cite book|last=Vine|first=Steven|title=Emily Brontë|year=1998|publisher=Twayne Publishers|location=New York|isbn=0-80571-659-9|url=https://archive.org/details/emilybronte00vine}} == Vide etiam == * [[Charlotte Brontë]] * [[Summas Tempestuose]] {{DEFAULTSORT:Brontë, Emily}} [[Category:Poetas]] [[Category:Scriptores]] c7m043mwnsfoxaeo5xrmvfl5rcbw237 0 59580 698231 698144 2026-08-03T23:10:40Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 4 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698231 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = ''Viola'' | fossil_range = | image = Viola reichenbachiana LC0128.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Viola reichenbachiana]]'' | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Planta]]e <!--| superdivisio = [[Embryophyta]]--> | divisio = [[Tracheophyta]] <!--| subdivisio = [[Spermophyta]]--> | superclassis = [[Angiospermae]] | classis = [[Eudicotyledoneae]] | legio = [[Rosidae]] | sublegio = [[Fabidae]] | ordo = [[Malpighiale]] | familia = [[Violaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Violoideae]] | tribus = [[Violeae]] | taxon_rank = [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|Genere]] | taxon = ''Viola'' | authority = [[Carl von Linné|L.]] | type_species = ''[[Viola odorata]]'' | type_species_authority = L. | synonyms_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Viola L. {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000540-2 |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=Plants of the World Online |language=en}}</ref> | synonyms = {{hidden begin|title = Lista}} * ''Chrysion'' <small>Spach</small> * ''Cittaronium'' <small>Rchb.</small> * ''Crocion'' <small>Nieuwl.</small> * ''Dischidium'' <small>Rchb.</small> * ''Erpetion'' <small>DC. ex Sweet</small> * ''Grammeionium'' <small>Rchb.</small> * ''Ion'' <small>Medik.</small> * ''Jacea'' <small>Opiz</small> * ''Lophion'' <small>Spach</small> * ''Mnemion'' <small>Spach</small> * ''Oionychion'' <small>Nieuwl.</small> {{hidden end}} }} '''''Viola''''', le '''violettas''', es un [[Genere (rango taxonomic)|genere]] de [[planta]]s [[Angiospermae|floral]] del [[Familia (rango taxonomic)|familia]] [[Violaceae]]. Es le plus grande genere del familia, con plus de 680 [[specie]]s. Si multe species vive in [[temperate]] [[Nord Hemispherio]], le genere origina de [[Sud America]] e se trova in divergente areas como [[Andes]], [[Australasia]] o [[Oceania]]. Alcun ''Viola'' species son [[Planta perenne|perenne]], alteres [[Planta annual|annual]], o plus rarment parve [[arbusto]]s. In [[horticultura]], [[pensata]]s son [[cultivar]]es con grande floras multicolor, generalmente annual o biennal. ==Systematica== Le revision del classification de 2022 identifica 2 [[Subgenere (rango taxonomic)|subgeneres]], 31 [[Section (rango taxonomic)|sectionnes]] (cuje 8 de un sol specie) e 20 subsectiones:<ref>{{doi|10.3390/plants11172224}}</ref> * subgen. ''[[Neoandinium]]'' <small>Marcussen</small> ** sect. ''[[Viola nassauvioides|Confertae]]'' ** sect. ''[[Viola fluehmannii|Ericoidium]]'' ** sect. ''[[Grandiflos]]'' ** sect. ''[[Inconspicuiflos]]'' ** sect. ''[[Relictium]]'' ** sect. ''[[Rhizomandinium]]'' ** sect. ''[[Rosulatae]]'' ** sect. ''[[Sempervivum]]'' ** sect. ''[[Subandinium]]'' ** sect. ''[[Triflabellium]]'' ** sect. ''[[Viola beati|Xylobasis]]'' * subgen. ''Viola'' <small>Marcussen</small> ** sect. ''[[Abyssinium]]'' <small>Marcussen</small> Africa: equatorial high mountains ** sect. ''[[Chamaemelanium]]'' <small>Ging.</small> ''[[s.lat.]]'' N America, northeast Asia (include ''Dischidium'', ''Orbiculares'') ** sect. ''[[Chilenium]]'' <small>W.Becker</small> southern S America{{sfn|BioLib|2019}} ** sect. ''[[Viola hybanthoides|Danxiaviola]]'' <small>W. B. Liao et Q. Fan</small> (1) China{{sfn|Fan et al|2015}} ** sect. ''[[Delphiniopsis]]'' <small>W.Becker</small> west Eurasia: sud de Espania; [[Balkanes]]{{sfn|CSIC|2020}} ** sect. ''[[Erpetion]]'' <small>(Banks) W.Becker</small> eastern Australia; Tasmania ** sect. ''[[Viola kunawurensis|Himalayum]]'' <small>Marcussen</small> ** sect. ''[[Leptidium]]'' <small>Ging.</small> Sud America{{sfn|Freitas|Sosa|2002}} ** sect. ''[[Melanium]]'' <small>Ging.</small> West Eurasia (pensatas){{sfn|Yockteng et al|2003}}{{sfn|Magrini|Scoppola|2015}} ***subsect. ''Bracteolatae '' ***subsect. ''Cleistogamae '' ***subsect. ''Dispares '' ***subsect. ''Ebracteatae '' ***subsect. ''Pseudorupestres'' ** sect. ''[[Viola decumbens|Melvio]]'' <small>Marcussen</small> [[Sudafrica]] ** sect. ''[[Viola filicaulis|Nematocaulon]]'' <small>Marcussen</small> [[Nove Zelanda]] ** sect. ''[[Nosphinium]]'' <small>W.Becker</small> N, C e nord de Sud America; [[Beringia]]; [[Hawaii]]{{sfn|Marcussen|2012}} ***subsect. ''Borealiamericanae'' ***subsect. ''Clausenianae'' ***subsect. ''Langsdorffianae'' ***subsect. ''Mexicanae'' ***subsect. ''Nosphinium'' ***subsect. ''Pedatae'' ** sect. ''[[Plagiostigma]]'' <small>Godr.</small> nord hemispherio (include ''Diffusae''){{sfn|Ning|2012}}{{sfn|Zhou|2008}}{{sfn|Tikhomirov |2015}} ***subsect. ''Australasiaticae '' ***subsect. ''Bilobatae'' ***subsect. ''Bulbosae'' ***subsect. ''Diffusae'' ***subsect. ''Formosanae'' ***subsect. ''Patellares'' ***subsect. ''Stolonosae'' ** sect. ''[[Rubellium]]'' <small>W.Becker</small> Sud America: [[Chile]]{{sfn|Ballard et al|1998}} ** sect. ''Sclerosium'' <small>W.Becker</small> Nord Africa ad Sudwest Asia{{sfn|Shahrestani et al|2014}} ** sect. ''[[Spathulidium]]'''' <small>Marcussen</small> west e central Asia: del nord de Iraq ad Mongolia{{sfn|Fan et al|2015}} ** sect. ''[[Viola tridentata|Tridens]]'' <small>W.Becker</small> sud de S America ** sect. ''[[Viola (section)|Viola]]''  nord hemispherio (violettas) (include ''Repentes''){{sfn|Malobecki et al|2016}} ***subsect. ''Rostratae'' <small>Kupffer (W.Becker)</small>{{sfn|Danihelka|2010}} (dog violets) ***subsect. ''Viola'' ** sect. ''[[Xanthidium]]'' <small>Marcussen</small> [[Andes]] ** sect. ''[[Xylinosium]]'' <small>W.Becker</small> region mediterranee ==Phylogenia== Le cladogramma (non exhaustive) del differente [[Section (rango taxonomic)|sectiones]] es le sequente: {{clade |style=font-size:85%; line-height:100%; |label1='''''Viola'''''&nbsp; |1={{clade |label1=subgen.''Viola'' |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1="Melvio" gruppo |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1=''[[Viola (section)|Viola]]''&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=''Rostratae'' |2=''Viola'' }} |2=''Nosphinium'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Himalayum'' |2=''Xylinosium'' }} }} |2=''Melanium'' }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Spathulidium'' |2=''Abyssinium'' }} |2=''Delphiniopsis'' }} }} |label2="Cham" gruppo |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Plagiostigma'' |2={{clade |1=''Chamaemelanium 2'' |2=''Danxiaviola'' }} }} |2=''Chamaemelanium 1'' }} }} <!-- basal gruppo--> |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Lepidium'' |2=''Rubellium'' }} |2=''Chilenium'' }} }} |label2=subgen.''[[Neoandinium]]''&nbsp; |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Subandinium'' |2=''Rosulatae'' }} |2=''Sempervivum'' }} }} }} {{Refer}} ==Bibliographia== ===Articulos=== * {{cite journal |last1=Baskin |first1=Jerry M. |last2=Baskin |first2=Carol C. |title=Physiological Ecology of Germination of Viola rafinesquii |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |date=November 1972 |volume=59 |issue=10 |pages=981–988|doi=10.2307/2441480|jstor=2441480}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Batista |first1=Francisco |last2=Sosa| first2=Pedro A.|title=Allozyme Diversity in Natural Populations of Viola palmensis Webb & Berth. (Violaceae) from La Palma (Canary Islands): Implications for Conservation Genetics |journal=[[Annals of Botany]] |date=31 October 2002 |volume=90 |issue=6 |pages=725–733 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcf256|pmid=12451028|pmc=4240367}} * {{Cite journal|last=Beattie|first=A. J.|title=Pollination Mechanisms in Viola|date=March 1971|journal=[[New Phytologist]]|volume=70|issue=2|pages=343–360|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1971.tb02533.x|doi-access=}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Beattie|first1=A. J.|last2=Lyons|first2=N.|title=Seed Dispersal in Viola (Violaceae): Adaptations and Strategies|date=August 1975|journal=[[American Journal of Botany]]|volume=62|issue=7|pages=714–722|doi=10.2307/2442060|jstor=2442060}} * {{cite journal |last1=Clausen |first1=Jens |title=Cytotaxonomy and distributional ecology of western North American violets |url=https://archive.org/details/madronowest1719631964cali/page/n205/mode/2up |journal=[[Madroño (journal)|Madroño]] |date=1964 |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=173–197 |jstor=41423141 |issn=0024-9637 }}, ''also at'' [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/170319#/summary BHL] * {{cite journal |last1=Culley |first1=Theresa M. |last2=Grubb |first2=Thomas C. |title=Genetic effects of habitat fragmentation in Viola pubescens (Violaceae), a perennial herb with chasmogamous and cleistogamous flowers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-ecology_2003-11_12_11/page/2919 |journal=Molecular Ecology |date=1 October 2003 |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=2919–2930 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01971.x|pmid=14629373 |bibcode=2003MolEc..12.2919C |s2cid=22916831 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Culley |first1=Theresa M. |last2=Klooster |first2=Matthew R. |title=The Cleistogamous Breeding System: A Review of Its Frequency, Evolution, and Ecology in Angiosperms |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225503104 |journal=[[The Botanical Review]] |date=January 2007 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1663/0006-8101(2007)73[1:TCBSAR]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=12223087 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Culley |first1=T. M. |last2=Sbita |first2=S. J. |last3=Wick |first3=A. |title=Population Genetic Effects of Urban Habitat Fragmentation in the Perennial Herb Viola pubescens (Violaceae) using ISSR Markers |journal=[[Annals of Botany]] |date=13 March 2007 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=91–100 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcm077|pmid=17556381|pmc=2735295|ref={{harvid|Culley et al|2007}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Culver |first1=David C. |last2=Beattie |first2=Andrew J. |title=Myrmecochory in Viola: Dynamics of Seed-Ant Interactions in Some West Virginia Species |journal=[[The Journal of Ecology]] |date=March 1978 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=53–72 |doi=10.2307/2259181|jstor=2259181|bibcode=1978JEcol..66...53C }} * {{cite journal |last1=Elisafenko |first1=T. V. |title=Features of seed germination in different ecological groups of the species of the section Violidum, subgenus Nomimium, genus Viola L. (Violaceae) |journal=Contemporary Problems of Ecology |date=19 August 2015 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=523–533 |doi=10.1134/S199542551504006X|s2cid=16291866 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Freitas |first1=L. |last2=Sosa|first2=M.|title=Floral Biology and Pollination Mechanisms in Two Viola Species-From Nectar to Pollen Flowers? |journal=[[Annals of Botany]] |date=19 December 2002 |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=311–317 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcg025|pmid=12547683|pmc=4244963}} * {{cite journal |last1=Hildebrandt |first1=U. |last2=Kaldorf |first2=M. |last3=Bothe |first3=H. |title=The Zinc Violet and its Colonization by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi |journal=[[Journal of Plant Physiology]] |date=May 1999 |volume=154 |issue=5–6 |pages=709–717 |doi=10.1016/S0176-1617(99)80249-1|ref={{harvid|Hildebrandt et al|1999}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kopper |first1=Brian J. |last2=Charlton |first2=Ralph E. |last3=Margolies |first3=David C. |title=Oviposition Site Selection by the Regal Fritillary, Speyeria idalia, as Affected by Proximity of Violet Host Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-insect-behavior_2000-09_13_5/page/651 |journal=Journal of Insect Behavior |date=2000 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=651–665 |doi=10.1023/A:1007887809621|s2cid=19315345 |ref={{harvid|Kopper et al|2000}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Łańcucka-Środoniowa |first1=Maria |title=Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) |journal=Acta Palaeobotanica |date=1979 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=3–117 |url=http://bomax.botany.pl/cgi-bin/pubs/data/article_pdf?id=2798 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Lord |first1=E. M. |title=Cleistogamy: A tool for the study of floral morphogenesis, function and evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_botanical-review_october-december-1981_47_4/page/421 |journal=[[The Botanical Review]] |date=October 1981 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=421–449 |doi=10.1007/BF02860538|jstor=4353990|s2cid=19754210 }} *{{cite journal|last1=Park|first1=Sungkyu|display-authors=etal|title=Cyclotide evolution: Insights from the analyses of their precursor sequences, structures and distribution in Violets (Viola)|journal=Frontiers in Plant Science|year=2017|volume=8|pages=92–110|doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.02058|pmid=29326730|pmc=5741643|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last=Saint-Hilaire|first=Augustin|author-link=Augustin Saint-Hilaire|title=Tableau monographique des plantes de la flore du Brésil méridional appartenant au groupe (classe Br.) qui comprend qui comprend les Droséracées, les Violacées, les Cistinées et les Frankenicées: Violacées|journal=Annales du museum national d'histoire naturelle|volume=72|pages=445–498|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ouJaAAAAcAAJ|year=1824|language=fr}} * {{cite journal |last1=Shuey |first1=John |last2=Jacquart |first2=Ellen |last3=Orr |first3=Stuart |last4=Becker |first4=Fiona |last5=Nyberg |first5=Alyssa |last6=Littiken |first6=Robert |last7=Anchor |first7=Ted |last8=Luchik |first8=Derek |title=Landscape-scale response to local habitat restoration in the regal fritillary butterfly (Speyeria idalia) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) |journal=Journal of Insect Conservation |date=9 September 2016 |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=773–780 |doi=10.1007/s10841-016-9908-4|s2cid=25321534 |ref={{harvid|Shuey et al|2016}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Thiele |first1=Kevin R |last2=Prober |first2=Suzanne M |title=New species and a new hybrid in the Viola hederacea species complex, with notes on Viola hederacea Labill. |journal=[[Muelleria (journal)|Muelleria]] |date=2003 |volume=18 |pages=7–25 |doi=10.5962/p.254920 |s2cid=251005673 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268277479 |doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last1=Tikhomirov |first1=V. N |title=A revision of the genus Viola section Plagiostigma (Violaceae) in Republic of Belarus. |journal=Botanicheskiĭ Zhurnal |date=2015 |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=490–500 |url=https://www.cabi.org/ISC/abstract/20153338855 |language=ru |access-date=2020-03-17 |archive-date=2020-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317203452/https://www.cabi.org/ISC/abstract/20153338855 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317203452/https://www.cabi.org/ISC/abstract/20153338855 |date=2020-03-17 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Yockteng |first1=R. |last2=Jr Ballard |first2=H. E. |last3=Mansion |first3=G. |last4=Dajoz |first4=I. |last5=Nadot |first5=S. |title=Relationships among pansies ( Viola section Melanium ) investigated using ITS and ISSR markers |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225488190 |jstor=23645153 |journal=[[Plant Systematics and Evolution]] |date=1 November 2003 |volume=241 |issue=3–4 |pages=153–170 |doi=10.1007/s00606-003-0045-7 |ref={{harvid|Yockteng et al|2003}} |citeseerx=10.1.1.721.5590 |s2cid=25104565 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Wahlert |first1=Gregory A. |last2=Marcussen |first2=Thomas |last3=de Paula-Souza |first3=Juliana |last4=Feng |first4=Min |last5=Ballard |first5=Harvey E. |title=A Phylogeny of the Violaceae (Malpighiales) Inferred from Plastid DNA Sequences: Implications for Generic Diversity and Intrafamilial Classification |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256545045 |journal=[[Systematic Botany]] |date=1 March 2014 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=239–252 |doi=10.1600/036364414X678008 |s2cid=86452033 |ref={{harvid|Wahlert et al|2014}} }} * {{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=John M. |last2=Flores |first2=R. |title=A new name in section Andinium W.becker of the genus Viola L. (Violaceae) |journal=[[Gayana. Botánica]] |date=2003 |volume=60 |issue=2 |doi=10.4067/S0717-66432003000200009|doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=John M. |last2=Flores |first2=Ana R. |last3=Arroyo-Leuenberger |first3=Silvia C. |title=A new Viola (Violaceae) from the Argentinian Andes |url=https://archive.org/details/willdenowia_2019-04_49_1/page/35 |journal=[[Willdenowia (journal)|Willdenowia]] |date=25 March 2019 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=35 |doi=10.3372/wi.49.49105|doi-access=free|ref={{harvid|Watson et al|2019}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=John |last2=Watson |first2=Anita |title=Fire and Ice: Rosulate Viola Evolution Part One – The Stage is Set |journal=North American Rock Garden Society Quarterly |date=Fall 2012 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=360–366 |url=https://nargs.org/sites/default/files/free-rgq-downloads/roga_70-4.pdf }} * {{cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=Ki-Oug |last2=Jang |first2=Su-Kil |title=Infrageneric relationships of Korean Viola based on eight chloroplast markers |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |date=November 2010 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=474–481 |doi=10.1111/j.1759-6831.2010.00102.x|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal | last1=Zhou | first1=J. S. | display-authors=etal | year=2008 | title=''Viola nanlingensis'' (Violaceae), a new species from Guangdong, southern China | url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anb45-free/anb45-233.pdf | journal=Annales Botanici Fennici | volume=45 | issue=3 | pages=233–36 | doi=10.5735/085.045.0312 | s2cid=84616726 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220113006/http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anb45-free/anb45-233.pdf |date=2014-02-20 }} ===Websitos=== * {{cite web |title=Viola |url=https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id38844/ |website=BioLib: Biological library |access-date=28 February 2020 |date=2019 |ref={{harvid|BioLib|2019}} |accessdate=7 May 2025 |archivedate=10 August 2025 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250810083321/https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id38844/ }} (''taxonomy'') ** {{cite web |title=Viola capillaris Pers. |url=https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id418060/ |access-date=19 March 2020 |ref={{harvid|V capillaris|2020}} |accessdate=7 May 2025 |archivedate=22 December 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222163757/https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id418060/ }} * {{cite web |title=American Violet Society |url=http://www.americanvioletsociety.org/index.htm |access-date=1 March 2020 |date=2007 |ref={{harvid|AVS|2007}} |archive-date=19 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219080019/http://www.americanvioletsociety.org/index.htm |url-status=dead |accessdate=7 May 2025 |archivedate=19 February 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219080019/http://www.americanvioletsociety.org/index.htm }} * {{cite web |title=Viola 'Little David' (Vtta) |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/83544/Viola-Little-David-(Vtta)/Details |website=Plants |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=4 March 2020 |date=2020 |ref={{harvid|RHS Little David|2020}} }} * {{cite web |title=Viola 'Königin Charlotte' (Vt) |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/215144/Viola-Konigin-Charlotte-(Vt)/Details |website=Plants |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=4 March 2020 |date=2020 |ref={{harvid|RHS Konigin Charlotte|2020}} }} * {{cite web |title=Violet, Common Blue (Viola papilionacea) |url=http://www.voyageurcountry.com/htmls/floweringplants/plants/violetblue.html |website=Voyageur Country: Flowering plants |access-date=6 March 2020 |date=2020 |ref={{harvid|VC|2020}} }} * {{cite web |title=Natural history and research on Viola cazorlensis |url=http://ebd06.ebd.csic.es/organisms/vcazorlensis/Vcazorlensis.html |website=Alonso-Herrera Lab |publisher=[[Spanish National Research Council]] (CSIC) |access-date=10 March 2020 |ref={{harvid|CSIC|2020}} |archive-date=5 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205175843/http://ebd06.ebd.csic.es/organisms/vcazorlensis/Vcazorlensis.html |url-status=dead |accessdate=7 May 2025 |archivedate=5 February 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205175843/http://ebd06.ebd.csic.es/organisms/vcazorlensis/Vcazorlensis.html }} * {{cite web |last1=Kelly |first1=R.O. |last2=Deng |first2=Z. |last3=Harbaugh |first3=B.K. |title=Evaluation of Viola Cultivars as Bedding Plants for Florida |url=http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/00/17/73/00001/EP32700.pdf |website=Electronic Data Information Source (EDIS) |publisher=Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences]], [[University of Florida]] |access-date=25 March 2020 |date=October 2007 |ref={{harvid|Kelly et al|2007}} |accessdate=7 May 2025 |archivedate=7 March 2025 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307202432/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/00/17/73/00001/EP32700.pdf }} * {{cite web |title=AGM Plants (Ornamental) |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf |access-date=26 March 2020 |pages=109–110 |date=November 2018 |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |ref={{harvid|RHS|2018}} }} [[Categoria:Malpighiales]] ll47hodpt7r6bw62t7o65gdkb2y7xqz 0 59648 698251 680523 2026-08-03T23:40:32Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698251 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Morris Swadesh''' (1909–1967) esseva un linguista american, specialisate in linguistica comparative e historic. Ille nasceva in Holyoke, [[Massachusetts]], ab parentes judeo-bessarabian. Studiante de [[Edward Sapir]], ille completava su baccalaureato e magisterio in linguistica in le Universitate de Chicago, e su doctorato in le [[Universitate de Yale]] in 1933. Su dissertation doctoral, "The Internal Economy of the Nootka Word", esseva supervise per Sapir. == Carriera academica == Swadesh laborava al Universitate de Wisconsin-Madison (1937–1939) e, durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]], collaborava con le Armata e le Office of Strategic Services (OSS) de USA, elaborante materiales linguistic pro le armato. Post guerra, deveniva professor al City College de New York, ma in 1949 esseva licentiate pro su affiliation al Partido Communista. De 1956 a su morte in 1967, Swadesh laborava al Universitate National Autonome de Mexico (UNAM) e al Universitate de Alberta in Canada. en.wikipedia.org == Contributos scientific == Swadesh es celebre pro su elaboration del "Lista Swadesh", un compilation de vocabulario basic que pote esser trovate in omne linguas, como "mano", "aqua", "mama", e "sogno". Iste lista es usate in le methodos de lexicostatistica e glotocronologia pro determinar le relationes genealogic inter linguas. Glotocronologia, conceptuate per Swadesh, assume que vocabulario basic se substitue a un taxa constante, simile al decadimento radioactivo, permitte estimar le tempore de separation inter linguas. Su methodos, tamen, esseva controversate. Criticos argumentava que le substitution de vocabulario basic non occurre a un taxa constante, e que factores sociocultural pote influentiar le retention de vocabulario. Nonobstante, su labor ha influentiate le studi de linguistica historic e comparativa. == Vita personal == Swadesh esseva naturalisate mexicano. Se maritava tres vices: prime con la linguista Mary Rosamund Haas, postea con Frances Leon, e finalemente con la linguista mexicana Evangelina Arana Osnaya. Su vita e obra continua a esser studiate in le campo de linguistica historic e comparativa. == Bibliographia == * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=The Expression of the Ending-Point Relation in English, French, and German |last2=Sapir |first2=Edward |publisher=Linguistic Society of America |year=1932 |editor-last=Morris |editor-first=Alice V. |series=Language Monographs No. 10 |location=Baltimore |pages=125 |oclc=1400339}} * {{Cite journal |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=The Phonemic Principle a Language |journal=[[Language (journal)|Language]] |volume=10 |issn=0097-8507 |oclc=5552875275 |date=1934|doi=10.2307/409603 |jstor=409603 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |date=1937 |title=A Method for Phonetic Accuracy and Speed |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_october-december-1937_39_4/page/728 |journal=[[American Anthropologist]] |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=728–732 |doi=10.1525/aa.1937.39.4.02a00440 |issn=0002-7294 |oclc=5549225298}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=Nootka Texts. Tales and Ethnologic Narratives |last2=Sapir |first2=Edward |publisher=Linguistic Society of America |year=1939 |series=William Dwight Whitney Linguistic Series |location=Philadelphia |oclc=5254767}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Orientaciones Lingüísticas para Maestros en Zonas Indígenas |publisher=Departamento de Asuntos Indígenas de la República Mexicana |year=1940 |location=Mexico |pages=77 |language=es |oclc=419279}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=OnΔyo-da?a.ga. Deyelihwahgwa.ta |year=1940 |editor-last=Lounsbury |editor-first=F. |publisher=Floyd Glenn Lounsbury|location=Oneida, Wisconsin |pages=100 |language=Oneida |trans-title=Oneida Hymn Book |editor-last2=Archequette |editor-first2=Oscar}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Mauricio |title=La Nueva Filología |publisher=El Nacional |year=1941 |series=Biblioteca del Maestro No. 4 |location=Mexico |pages=288 |language=es |oclc=3895563}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=How to Pick up a Foreign Language |publisher=Office of Strategic Services |year=1944 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=14}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Talking Russian before you know it |publisher=H. Holt and Company |year=1945 |location=New York |pages=134 |oclc=1225155}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=The Words you Need in Burmese |publisher=Office of Strategic Services |year=1945 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=35}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Chinese in your Pocket |publisher=H. Holt and Company |year=1948 |location=New York |pages=185 |oclc=1414110}} Reprinted 1964 with the title [https://archive.org/details/conversationalch0000swad ''Conversational Chinese for Beginners'']. * {{Cite journal |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |date=1950 |title=Salish internal relationships |journal=[[International Journal of American Linguistics]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=157–167 |doi=10.1086/464084 |s2cid=145122561 |issn=0020-7071 |jstor=1262898 |oclc=5546476900}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Basic Vocabulary of Glottochronology |year=1951 |publisher=Publisher unknown|location=Denver |type=Mimeo}} * {{Cite journal |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |date=1952 |title=Lexico-statistic dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-american-philosophical-society_1952-08-22_96_4/page/452 |journal=[[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]] |volume=96 |pages=452–463 |jstor=3143802}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Amerindian Non-Cultural Vocabularies |year=1954 |publisher=Publisher unknown|location=Denver |oclc=80278568}} * {{Cite journal |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |date=1955 |title=Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistic dating |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-american-linguistics_1955-04_21_2/page/121 |journal=[[International Journal of American Linguistics]] |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=121–137 |doi=10.1086/464321 |s2cid=144581963 |issn=0020-7071 |jstor=1263939 |oclc=6822154981}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Amerindian Non-Cultural Vocabularies |year=1955 |edition=Revised |publisher=Morris Swadesh |location=Denver |oclc=41054226}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=Native Accounts of Nootka Ethnography |last2=Sapir |first2=Edward |publisher=Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore and Linguistics |year=1955 |volume=1 |location=Bloomington |pages=457 |oclc=2326833}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=Los Otomíes hablamos en Castellano |last2=Castro |first2=A. |last3=Pedraza |first3=J. |last4=Wallis |first4=E. |publisher=Patronato Indígena del Valle del Mezquital e Instituto Lingüístico de Verano |year=1956 |location=Mexico |pages=21 |language=es |type=Mimeo}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Juegos para Aprender Castellano |publisher=Instituto Indigenista Interamericano |year=1956 |location=Mexico |language=es}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Términos de Parentesco Comunes entre Tarasco y Zuñi |publisher=Cuadernos del Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |year=1957 |series=Antropológica |volume=3 |location=Mexico |pages=39 |language=es |oclc=4322563}} * {{Cite journal |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |date=1959 |title=Linguistics as an Instrument of Prehistory |journal=[[Southwestern Journal of Anthropology]] |volume=15 |pages= 20–35|doi=10.1086/soutjanth.15.1.3629001 |s2cid=159796300 |issn=0038-4801 |oclc=5546689895}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Mapas de Clasificación Lingüística de México y las Américas |publisher=Cuadernos del Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |year=1959 |series=Antropológica |volume=6 |location=Mexico |language=es |oclc=6348889}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Indian Linguistic Groups of México |publisher=Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia |year=1959 |location=Mexico, D.F. |oclc=6886339}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Materiales para un Diccionario Comparativo de las Lenguas Amerindias |year=1959–1960}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=La Lingüística como Instrumento de la Prehistoria |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Dirección de Prehistoria |year=1960 |volume=9 |location=Mexico |language=es |oclc=1024559016}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=Yana Dictionary |last2=Sapir |first2=Edward |publisher=University of California Press |year=1960 |location=Berkeley |oclc=568976}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Tras la Huella Lingüística de la Prehistoria |publisher=Universidad Nacional de México |year=1960 |series=Suplemento del Seminario de Problemas Científicos y Filosóficos, 2 |volume=26 |location=Mexico D.F. |language=es |oclc=432897137}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Estudios sobre Lengua y Cultura |publisher=Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia |year=1960 |series=Acta Antropológica |volume=Segunda Época, II-2 |location=Mexico D.F. |language=es |oclc=1120282110}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Proyecto de Libro de Lectura y de Cuaderno de Trabajo de Lengua Nacional para 6º |year=1963 |publisher=Publisher unknown|location=Mexico |language=es}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=Los Elementos del Mixteco Antiguo |last2=Arana Osnaya |first2=Evangelina |publisher=Instituto Nacional Indigenista, Inst. Nacional de Antropología e Historia |year=1965 |location=Mexico |language=es |oclc=253303664}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=Diccionario de Elementos de la Lengua Maya |last2=Álvarez |first2=María Cristina |last3=Arzápalo |first3=Ramón |last4=Bastarrachea |first4=Juan R. |publisher=Seminario de Estudios de la Escritura Maya, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |year=1965–1968 |location=Mexico |language=es}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Mauricio |title=El lenguaje y la vida humana |publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica |year=1966 |isbn=9789681609863 |language=es }} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Mauricio |title=Los Mil Elementos del Mexicano Clásico. Base Analítica de la Lengua Nahua |last2=Sancho |first2=Madalena |publisher=Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas de la UNAM |year=1966 |location=Mexico |language=es |oclc=3170252}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Mauricio |title=El Árabe Literario |last2=Chuairy |first2=María |last3=Gómez |first3=Guido |publisher=El Colegio de México |year=1966 |location=Mexico |language=es |oclc=32149279}} * {{Cite book |last1=Swadesh |first1=Morris |title=Diccionario Analítico de la Lengua Mampruli |last2=Arana |first2=Evangelina |publisher=Museo de las Culturas |year=1967 |location=Mexico |language=es |oclc=651303144}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=Elementos del Tarasco Antiguo |publisher=Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas de la UNAM |year=1968 |language=es}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |title=La Nueva Filología |publisher=E. Arana Swadesh |year=1968 |edition=2nd |series=Colección Obras de Mauricio Swadesh editadas por sus Alumnos |volume=1 |location=Mexico, D.F. |language=es |oclc=1105402796}} * {{Cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |url=https://archive.org/details/origindiversific00swad_0/ |title=The Origin and Diversification of Language |publisher=Aldine |year=1971 |location=Chicago |isbn=9780202010014 |via=[[Archive.org]]}} == Ligamentes externe == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051113082220/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/swadesh_morris.html Morris Swadesh], Minnesota State University, Mankato [[Categoria:Linguistas]] el9k8hkp6rl31kvxulv2pqgbu1z21fp 0 59802 698189 695312 2026-08-03T21:55:28Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698189 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} Le '''Revolution Industrial''', a vices appellate le '''Prime Revolution Industrial''' in contrasto al subsequente [[Secunde Revolution Industrial]], esseva un periodo transitional del [[economia global]] verso processos de manufactura plus extendite, efficiente e stabile, succedente le [[Secunde Revolution Agricultural]]. Comenciante in [[Grande Britannia]] circa 1760, le Revolution Industrial se habeva expandite a [[Europa continental]] e al [[Statos Unite]] verso 1840.<ref>{{cite web |title=Industrial History of European Countries |url=https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries |access-date=2 June 2021 |website=European Route of Industrial Heritage |publisher=Council of Europe |archive-date=23 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623201807/https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries |url-status=live }}</ref> Iste transition includeva le passaggio de [[methodos de production manual]] a [[machina]]s; nove processos de [[industria chimic|manufactura chimic]] e de [[puddlage (metallurgia)|production de ferro]]; le uso crescente de [[energia hydraulic]] e [[machina a vapor|energia de vapor]]; le developpamento de [[machinas-instrumentos]]; e le ascension del [[mechanisation|systema de fabrica mechanisate]]. Le rendimento augmentava grandemente, e le resultato esseva un augmento sin precedente in le population e le [[crescentia del population]]. Le [[industria textile]] esseva le prime a usar methodos de production moderne,<ref name="David S. Landes 1969">{{cite book |last=Landes |first=David S. |title= The Unbound Prometheus. technological change and industrial development in Western Europe from 1750 to the present |date=1969 |publisher=Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-09418-4}}</ref>{{rp|40}} e le [[textile]]s deveniva le industria dominante in terminos de empleo, valor de rendimento, e [[capital (economia)|capital]] investite.<ref name="David S. Landes 1969"/> Mulite [[innovation|innovationes technologic]] e [[architectura industrial britannic|architectural]] esseva britannic.<ref>{{cite book|title= Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution |last1= Horn|first1=Jeff |last2= Rosenband|first2= Leonard|last3= Smith|first3= Merritt|year= 2010|publisher =MIT Press|location=Cambridge MA, London |isbn=978-0-262-51562-7}}</ref><ref>E. Anthony Wrigley, "Reconsidering the Industrial Revolution: England and Wales". ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 49.01 (2018): 9–42.</ref> Verso le medie del seculo 18, Britannia esseva le principal nation commercial,<ref>{{cite book|title= Capitalism: A complete understanding of the nature and value of human economic life|last=Reisman|first= George|year= 1998|isbn= 978-0-915463-73-2|publisher =Jameson Books |page=127}}</ref> controlava un imperio commercial global con [[evolution territorial del Imperio Britannic|colonias]] in America del Nord e le Caribe, e habeva hegemonia militar e politic in le [[subcontinente indian]].<ref name="tong">{{cite book |first=Junie T. |last=Tong |year=2016 |title=Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |publisher=CRC Press |page=151 |isbn=978-1-317-13522-7}}</ref><ref name="esposito">{{cite book |editor-first1=John L. |editor-last1=Esposito |editor1-link=John L. Esposito |year=2004 |title=The Islamic World: Past and Present |volume=1: Abba – Hist. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=174 |isbn=978-0-19-516520-3 |access-date=30 May 2019 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116111739/https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="rayB">{{cite book |first=Indrajit |last=Ray |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |publisher=Routledge |pages=7–10 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1 |access-date=30 May 2019 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116111751/https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="David_Landes_1999"> {{cite book |last=Landes |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/wealthpovertyofn00land_0 |title=The Wealth and Poverty of Nations |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-393-31888-3}}</ref> Le developpamento del commercio e le ascension del affaceres esseva inter le causas major del Revolution Industrial.<ref name="David S. Landes 1969"/>{{rp|15}} Developpamentos in le [[derecto]] facilitava le revolution, tal como decisiones judicial in favor del [[derectos de proprietate]]. Un spirito interprendente e un revolution del consumitor adjutava a ducer le [[industrialisation]].<ref name="Kiely"/> Le Revolution Industrial influentiava quasi omne aspecto del vita. In particular, le revenite medie e le population comenciava a exhibir un crescentia sustenite sin precedente. Le economistas nota que le effecto plus importante esseva que le [[nivello de vita]] pro le majoritate in le [[mundo occidental]] comenciava a augmentar consistentemente pro le prime vice, ben que alteres ha dicite que illo non comenciava a meliorar significativemente usque le seculo 20.<ref name="Lectures on Economic Growth"/><ref name="Feinstein2014"/><ref name="SzreterMooney2014"/> Le [[producto interne brute#PIB per capita|PIB per capita]] esseva largemente stabile ante le Revolution Industrial e le emergentia del economia [[capitalismo|capitalista]] moderne,<ref name="The Industrial Revolution" /> postea on videva un era de [[crescentia economic]] per capita in economias capitalista.<ref name="The Industrial Revolution ''Past and Future''" /> Historicos economic concorda que le initio del Revolution Industrial es le evento plus importante in le [[historia human]], comparabile solmente al [[Revolution Neolitic|adoption del agricultura]] con respecto al progresso material.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=North |first1=Douglass C. |last2=Thomas |first2=Robert Paul |date=May 1977 |title=The First Economic Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/economic-history-review_1977-05_30_2/page/229 |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=30 | issue=2 |pages=229–230 |doi=10.2307/2595144 |jstor=2595144 |issn = 0013-0117 }}</ref> Le initio e fin precise del Revolution Industrial es debattite inter historicos, como lo es le rhythmo del cambios economic e [[cambio social|social]].<ref name="revolution"/><ref name="google1"/><ref name="lorenzen"/> Secundo le professor del [[Universitate de Cambridge]] Leigh Shaw-Taylor, Britannia jam se industrialisava in le seculo 17.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Industrial Revolution began in 17th not 18th century, say academics |last=Hall |first=Rachel |date=5 April 2024 |work=The Guardian |url= https://www.theguardian.com/education/2024/apr/05/industrial-revolution-began-in-17th-not-18th-century-say-academics |access-date=15 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Simpson |first=Craig |date=2024-04-05 |title=Industrial Revolution started in 17th century, historians suggest |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/04/05/industrial-revolution-start-17th-century-historians-suggest/ |access-date=2024-04-05 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=5 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405071731/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/04/05/industrial-revolution-start-17th-century-historians-suggest/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Eric Hobsbawm]] susteneva que le Revolution Industrial comenciava in Britannia in le annos 1780 e non esseva plenmente sentite usque le annos 1830,<ref name="revolution"/> durante que [[T. S. Ashton]] susteneva que illo occurreva inter 1760 e 1830.<ref name="google1"/> Un adoption rapide del filatura textile mechanisate occurreva in Britannia in le annos 1780,<ref name="Gupta">{{cite web|last1=Gupta|first1=Bishnupriya|title=Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600–1850|url=http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf|website=International Institute of Social History|publisher=Department of Economics, University of Warwick|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011065834/http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> e alte tassas de crescentia in energia de [[vapor]] e production de ferro occurreva post 1800. Le production textile mechanisate se expandeva de Britannia a Europa continental e al Statos Unite in le prime parte del seculo 19.<ref name="David S. Landes 1969"/> Un recession occurreva ab le fin del annos 1830 quando le adoption del prime innovationes del Revolution Industrial, tal como le filatura e texidura mechanisate, se rallentava a mesura que le mercatos maturava malgrado le adoption crescente de locomotivas, vapores, e le [[fusion]] de ferro per [[insufflation calide]]. Nove technologias tal como le [[telegrapho electric]], amplemente introducite in le annos 1840 [[telegraphia electric in le Regno Unite|in le RU]] e le Statos Unite, non esseva sufficiente pro ducer alte tassas de crescentia. Un crescentia rapide occurreva novemente post 1870, surgente de nove innovationes in le [[Secunde Revolution Industrial]]. Istos includeva processos de [[processo Bessemer|fabrication de aciero]], [[production in massa]], [[linea de montage|lineas de montage]], systemas de [[rete electric]], manufactura a grande scala de machinas-instrumentos, e le uso de machineria avantiate in fabricas propellite per vapor.<ref name="David S. Landes 1969" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 |last=Taylor |first= George Rogers |isbn= 978-0-87332-101-3|year=1951 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe }}</ref><ref name="Roe1916" /><ref name="Hunter_1985" /> {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Revolution Industrial]] g7dxcysl470qq6pddg0xfa0gt64mbh2 0 59840 698247 695046 2026-08-03T23:32:35Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698247 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} {{Historia de India}} Le humanos anatomicamente moderne arrivava pro le prime vice al subcontinente indian inter 73.000 e 55.000 annos retro. Le plus ancian restos human cognoscite in Asia del Sud data a circa 30.000 annos retro. Le vita sedentari comenciava in Asia del Sud circa 7000 a.Chr.; per 4500 a.Chr., le vita fixate se habeva expandite, e gradualmente evolveva in le Civilisation del Valle del Indo, un del tres cuna de civilisation del Mundo Antique, que prosperava inter 2500 e 1900 a.Chr. in le hodierne Pakistan e nord-occidente de India. Al comenciamento del secunde millennio a.Chr., siccitate persistente causava le dispersion del population del Valle del Indo ab le grande centros urban verso villages. Tribus indo-aryan migrava ab Asia Central al Punjab in plure ondas. Le Periodo Vedic (1500–500 a.Chr.) esseva marcate per le composition de lor collectiones de hymnos (Vedas). Le structura social esseva stratificate in maniera flexibile per le systema de varna, que plus tarde se incorporava al systema actual de jāti. Le indo-aryanos, pastoral e nomade, se expandeva ab le Punjab verso le plano gangetic. Circa 600 a.Chr., un nove cultura interregional emergeva; parve principatos (janapadas) se consolidava in plus grande statos (mahajanapadas). Le secunde urbanisation occurreva, accompaniate per le ascesa de nove movimentos ascetic e conceptos religiose, includente Jainismo e Buddhismo. Le ultime se syncretisava con culturas religiose pre-existente, dando origine a Hinduismo. Chandragupta Maurya abatteva le Imperio Nanda e instaurava le prime grande imperio del India antique, le Imperio Maurya. Le rege Ashoka del Mauryas es ben recognoscite pro le violente Guerra de Kalinga, su acceptation historic de Buddhismo, e su effortios pro diffunder non-violentia e pace. Le Imperio Maurya collabava in 185 a.Chr., quando le imperator Brihadratha esseva assassinate per su general Pushyamitra Shunga, qui fundava le Imperio Shunga in le nord e nord-oriente del subcontinente. Simultanemente, le Regno Greco-Bactrian occupava le nord-occidente e creava le Regno Indo-Greco. Plure partes de India esseva regite per dynastias varie, inter illos le Imperio Gupta (seculos IV–VI EC). Iste periodo, marcate per un resurgentia religiose e intellectual hindu, es cognoscite como le Etate Classic o Etate Auree de India. Aspectos de civilisation, administration, cultura e religione indian se diffundeva a multo de Asia, producendo regnos indianisate e formante le notion de Grande India. Le evento plus significative inter le seculos VII e XI esseva le lucta tripartite pro Kannauj. In le sud de India, plure potentias imperial emergite ab le medio del quinto seculo; le dynastia Chola conquireva le sud de India in le seculo XI. Durante le periodo medieval precoce, le mathematica indian — includente le numeros hindu — influentiava le mathematica e astronomia del mundo arabic, e con illo nasceva le systema numeric hindu-arabic. Le conquestas islamic attingeva partes limitate de Afghanistan moderne e Sindh ja in le seculo VIII, sequite per le invasiones de Mahmud de Ghazni. Le Sultanato de Delhi, fundate in 1206 per turcos de Asia Central, regiva grande partes del nord de India in le seculo XIV, governate per dynastias turcic e afghan, inter illos le Tughlaq. Le imperio declinava verso le fin del seculo XIV post le invasiones de Timur, e emergeva nove sultanatos — Malwa, Gujarat, e Bahmani (iste ultime se divideva in 1518 in le cinque sultanatos del Deccan). Le ric Sultanato de Bengal emergeva etiam como un major potentia, durante plus que tres seculos. In le mesme periodo, forte regnos hindu como le Imperio Vijayanagara e le statos Rajput sub le Regno de Mewar exerceva rolos significative in le scena cultural e politic de India. Le periodo moderne precoce comenciava in le seculo XVI, quando le Imperio Mughal conquireva le major parte del subcontinente, initiate le proto-industrialisation e deveniente le plus grande potentia economic e manufacturari del mundo. Le Mughals declinava gradualmente in le seculo XVIII, principalmente a causa del crescentia potentia del Marathas e de numerose invasiones afghan. Le Compania del Indie Oriental Britannic, agente como un potentia quasi-soveran pro le governamento britannic, acquireva controlo de vaste territorios inter le medio del seculo XVIII e le medio del XIX. Su politicas portava al Rebellion Indian de 1857. Postea, India esseva regite directemente per le Corona Britannic como le Raj Britannic. Post le Prime Guerra Mundial, un lucta national pro independentia esseva lanceate per le Congresso National Indian sub Mahatma Gandhi. Plus tarde, le Liga Islamic Pan-Indian advocava pro un stato separate a majoritate musulman. In augusto 1947, le Imperio Britannic Indian esseva partitionate in le Dominio de India e le Dominio de Pakistan, ambes obtenente lor independentia. == Era prehistorical (ante circa 3300 a.Chr.) == === Paleolithic === Le expansion del hominides ab Africa es estimate haber attingite le subcontinente indian circa duo milliones de annos retro, e possibilemente ja usque a 2,2 milliones de annos retro.[26][27][28] Iste datation es basate super le presentia cognoscite de Homo erectus in Indonesia per 1,8 milliones de annos retro e in Asia Oriental per 1,36 milliones de annos retro, assi como le discoperta de instrumentos de petra a Riwat in Pakistan.[27][29] Ben que certe discopertas plus ancian ha essite clamate, le datas proponite, basate super le datation de sedimentos fluvial, non ha essite verificate independentemente.[28][30] Le plus ancian fossiles hominides del subcontinente indian es illos de Homo erectus o Homo heidelbergensis, del Valle de Narmada in India central, e es datate a circa medie million de annos retro.[27][30] Fossiles plus ancian ha essite clamate, ma es considerate non digne de fide.[30] Revisiones del evidentia archeologic ha suggerite que le occupation del subcontinente per homininos esseva sporadic usque a circa 700.000 annos retro, e esseva largemente diffundite geographicamente per circa 250.000 annos retro.[30][28] Secundo un demographo historic de Asia del Sud, Tim Dyson: {{Citation|Le humanos moderne—Homo sapiens—originava in Africa. Postea, intermittentemente, a un momento inter 60.000 e 80.000 annos retro, parve gruppos de illes comenciava entrar in le nord-occidente del subcontinente indian. Il pare probabile que initialmente illes veniva per le costa. Il es virtualmente certe que Homo sapiens esseva presente in le subcontinente 55.000 annos retro, mesmo si le plus ancian fossiles trovate de illes data solmente a circa 30.000 annos retro.[31]}} Secundo Michael D. Petraglia e Bridget Allchin: {{Citation|Datos del chromosoma-Y e del mtDNA supporta le colonisation de Asia del Sud per humanos moderne originante ab Africa. ... Le datas de coalescentia pro le majoritate del populationes non-europee varia inter circa 73–55 millennios retro.[32]}} Le historico de Asia del Sud, Michael H. Fisher, declara: {{Citation|Studios estima que le prime expansion succedose del extension de Homo sapiens foras de Africa e trans le Peninsula Arabic occurreva ab tanto tosto como 80.000 annos retro usque tanto tarde como 40.000 annos retro, ben que pote haber essite emigrationes non successful anterioremente. Alcunos de lor descendentes extendeva le extension human semper plus longe in cata generation, diffundente se in cata terra habitabile que illes incontrava. Un canal human esseva le terras costal calide e productive del Golfo Persic e del Oceano Indian septentrional. Eventualmente, varie bandos entrava in India inter 75.000 e 35.000 annos retro.[33]}} Evidentia archeologic ha essite interpretate como suggestion del presentia de humanos anatomicamente moderne in le subcontinente indian inter 78.000–74.000 annos retro,[34] ben que iste interpretation es disputate.[35][36] Le occupation de Asia del Sud per humanos moderne, initialmente in formas variate de isolation como cacciatores-collectores, lo ha convertite in un region de grande diversitate, secundari solmente a Africa in diversitate genetic human.[37] Secundo Tim Dyson: {{Citation|Le recerca genetic ha contribuite al cognoscentia del prehistoria del populos del subcontinente in altere respectos. In particular, le nivello de diversitate genetic in le region es extrememente elevate. De facto, solmente le population de Africa es geneticamente plus diverse. Relate a isto, il ha forte evidentia de eventos de “fundatores” in le subcontinente. Isto significa circumstantias ubi un subgruppo—tal como un tribo—deriva de un numero minime de individuos “original”. In plus, comparate con le majoritate del regiones mundial, le populos del subcontinente es relativemente distincte per haber practicate nivellos comparativemente elevate de endogamia.[37]}} === Neolithic === Le vita sedentari emergite in le subcontinente sur le margines occidental del alluvion del Fluvio Indo circa 9.000 annos retro, evolvente gradualmente in le Civilisation del Valle del Indo del tertie millennio a.Chr..[2][39] Secundo Tim Dyson: {{Citation|“Per 7.000 annos retro, le agricultura esseva firmemente establite in Baluchistan... [e] se diffundeva lentemente verso oriente in le valle del Indo.”}} Michael Fisher adde:[40] {{Citation|Le plus ancian exemplo discoperite ... de un societate agricole ben establite e sedentari es a Mehrgarh in le colles inter le Passo Bolan e le planicie del Indo (hodie in Pakistan) (vide Mappa 3.1). Ab tanto tosto como 7000 a.Chr., communitates ibi comenciava investir labor crescite in preparar le terra e in eliger, plantar, curar e recoltar particular plantas producente cereales. Illes etiam domesticava animales, includente ove, capras, porcos e boves (tanto zebu gibbone [Bos indicus] como non gibbone [Bos taurus]). Castrar boves, per exemplo, les transformava de fontes principalmente de carne a animales domestic de trahimento.[40]}} == Etate del Bronzo (circa 3300 – 1800 a.Chr.) == === Civilisation del Valle del Indo === Le Etate del Bronzo in le subcontinente indian comenciava circa 3300 a.Chr.. Le region del Valle del Indo esseva un del tres prime berços de civilisation in le Mundo Antique; le Civilisation del Valle del Indo esseva le plus expansive,[3] e a su apice poteva haber habite plus de cinque milliones de personas.[4] Le civilisation esseva primarimente centrate in le Pakistan moderne, in le basin del fluvio Indo, e secundarimente in le basin del fluvio Ghaggar-Hakra. Le civilisation matur del Indo prosperava ab circa 2600 usque a 1900 a.Chr., marcante le initio del civilisation urban in le subcontinente indian. Illo includeva citates tal como Harappa, Ganweriwal e Mohenjo-daro in le Pakistan moderne, e Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi e Lothal in le India moderne. [[File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|Mohenjo-daro (un del plus grande citates del Indo). Vista del Grande Bano del sito, monstrante le disposition urban circumjacente.]] [[File:DHOLAVIRA SITE (24).jpg|thumb|right|Dholavira, un citate del Civilisation del Valle del Indo, con scalas a gradines pro attinger le nivello de aqua in reservatorios construite artificialmente.[41] <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Shuichi Takezawa|journal=Journal of Architecture and Building Science|volume=117|issue=1492|date=August 2002|page=24|url=http://news-sv.aij.or.jp/jabs/s1/jabs0208-019.pdf|title=Stepwells – Cosmology of Subterranean Architecture As Seen in Adalaj|access-date=18 November 2009}}</ref>]] [[File:The drainage system at Lothal 2.JPG|thumb|right|Restos archeologic de un sistema de escolamento del un lavatorio in Lothal.]] Le habitantes del ancian valle del fluvio Indo, le Harappanos, disveloppava nove technicas in metallurgia e artefactos manual, e produceva cupro, bronze, plumbum e stannio.[42] Le civilisation es notate pro su citates construite in ladrillos, e su systemas de evacuation al long de stratas, e on pensa que illo habeva alcun forma de organisation municipal. Le civilisation disveloppava etiam un scriptura del Indo, le plus ancian del scripturas indian antique, que es actualmente non decipherate.[43] Isto es le motivo proque le lingua harappana non es attestate directemente, e su affiliation resta incert.[44] [[File:Indus script.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Tres sigillos con su impressiones monstrante characteres del scriptura del Indo insimul con animales: unicornio (a sinistra), tauro (al centro) e elephante (a dextra); al Museo Guimet.]] Post le collapso del Civilisation del Valle del Indo, le habitantes emigrava ab le valles fluvial del Indo e del Ghaggar-Hakra verso le pede-montanias himalaian del basin del Ganga-Yamuna.[45] === Cultura de ceramica colorate de ocre === Durante le secunde millennio aEC, le Cultura del Ceramica colorate de ocre esseva presente in le region Doab inter le Ganga e le Yamuna. Illes esseva asentamentos rural con agricultura e chasse. Illes usava instrumentos de cupro, tal como hachas, hastas, flechas e spadas, e habeva animales domestic.[47] == Etate del Ferro (circa 1800 – 200 aEC) == === Periodo vedic (circa 1500 – 600 aEC) === Comenciante circa 1900 aEC, tribos indo-aryan se moveva in le Punjab ab Asia Central in plure ondas de migration.[48][49] Le periodo vedic es le tempore quando le Vedas esseva componite, collectiones de hymnos liturgic del populo indo-aryan. Le cultura vedic esseva localisate in un parte del nord-occidente de India, durante que altere partes de India habeva identitates cultural distincte. Plure regiones del subcontinente indian transiva ab le Chalcolithico al Etate del Ferro in iste periodo.[50] Le cultura vedic es describite in le textos del Vedas, ancora sacre pro le hindus, que esseva componite oralmente e transmittite in sanscrito vedic. Le Vedas es inter le plus ancian textos existente in India.[51] Le periodo vedic, que durava ab circa 1500 usque a 500 aEC,[52][53] contribuiva al fundation de plure aspectos cultural del subcontinente indian. ==== Societate vedic ==== Historicos ha analysate le Vedas pro postular un cultura vedic in le Punjab e in le alte Planicie Gangetic.[50] Le arbore Peepal e le vacca ja esseva sanctificate al tempore del Atharva Veda.[55] Multe del conceptos del philosophia indian elaborate plus tarde, como dharma, tracia lor radices a antecedentes vedic.[56] Le societate vedic primeve es describite in le Rigveda, le plus ancian texto vedic, que se crede haber essite compilate durante le secunde millennio aEC,[57][58] in le region nord-occidental del subcontinente indian.[59] A iste tempore, le societate aryan consisteva majormente de gruppos tribal e pastoral, distincte del civilisation urban harappan que habeva essite abandonate.[60] Le presentia indo-aryan primeve probabilemente corresponde, in parte, al Cultura del Ceramica colorate de ocre in contextos archaeologic.[61][62] Al fin del periodo rigvedic, le societate aryan se expandiva ab le region nord-occidental del subcontinente indian verso le planicie occidental del Ganges. Illo deveniva sempre plus agricole e esseva socialmente organisate circa le hierarchia del quatro varnas, o classes social.[63] Iste structura social se characterisava per le exclusion de alcunes del populos indigene per marcar lor occupationes como impure.[64] Durante iste periodo, multe del previe parve unitates tribal e principatos comenciava coalescer in Janapadas (politias monarchic de nivello estatal).[65] ==== Epicas sanskrit ==== Le epopeas sanscrit Ramayana e Mahabharata esseva componite durante iste periodo.[66] Le Mahabharata remane le plus longe poema unic in le mundo.[67] Historicos postulava anteriormente un “etate epic” como le ambiente de iste duo epopeas, ma hodie illes recognosce que le textos passava per multiple stadios de developpamento durante seculos.[68] Le textos existente de iste epopeas se crede pertiner al etate post-vedic, inter circa 400 aEC e 400 EC.[68][69] ==== Janapadas ==== Le Etate del Ferro in le subcontinente indian, ab circa 1200 aEC usque al 6te seculo aEC, es definite per le ascension del Janapadas, que esseva regiones, republicas e regnos—notabilmente le regnos del ferro de Kuru, Panchala, Kosala e Videha.[70][71] Le Regno de Kuru (circa 1200–450 aEC) esseva le prime societate de nivello estatal del periodo vedic, correspondente al initio del Etate del Ferro in India nord-occidental, circa 1200–800 aEC,[72] assi como al composition del Atharvaveda.[73] Le stato de Kuru organisava le hymnos vedic in collectiones e disveloppava le ritual śrauta pro mantener le ordine social.[73] Duo figuras clave del stato de Kuru esseva le rege Parikshit e su successore Janamejaya, qui transformava iste regno in le potentia politic, social e cultural dominante de India septentrional.[73] Quando le regno de Kuru declinava, le centro del cultura vedic se transferiva a lor vicinos oriental, le regno de Panchala.[73] Le cultura archaeologic PGW (Painted Grey Ware), que prosperava in le regiones de Haryana e Uttar Pradesh occidental in India nord-oriental ab circa 1100 aEC usque a 600 aEC,[61] se crede corresponder al regnos de Kuru e Panchala.[73][74] Durante le Periodo Vedic Tardive, le regno de Videha emergeva como un nove centro de cultura vedic, situate ancora plus a oriente (in lo que hodie es Nepal e le stato de Bihar);[62] illo attingeva su prominentia sub le rege Janaka, cuje corteva dava patronato a sages e philosophos brahmin como Yajnavalkya, Aruni e Gārgī Vāchaknavī.[75] Le parte posterior de iste periodo correspondeva al consolidation de statos e regnos sempre plus grande, appellate Mahajanapadas, trans India septentrional. === Secunde urbanisation (circa 600 – 200 aEC) === Le periodo inter 800 e 200 aEC vide le formation del movimento Śramaṇa, del qual le jainismo e le buddhismo originava. Le prime Upanishads esseva scribite durante iste periodo. Post 500 aEC, le assi-dicite "secunde urbanisation"[nota 1] comenciava, con nove installationes urban emergente in le planitie del Gange. Le fundationes pro iste "secunde urbanisation" esseva ponite ante 600 aEC, in le cultura del Ceramica Gris Picturate (PGW) del Ghaggar-Hakra e del alte planitie del Gange; ben que le major parte del sitos PGW esseva parve villages agricole, "alcun dezenas" de sitos PGW finalmente emergeva como installationes relativemente grande que pote esser characterisate como citates, le plus grande del qual esseva fortificate per fossatos o fossas e terraplenos facite de terra amassate con palissadas de ligno. Le planitie central del Gange, ubi Magadha ganiava prominentia, formante le base del Imperio Maurya, esseva un area cultural distincte, con nove statos emergente post 500 aEC. Illo esseva influentiate per le cultura vedic, ma differeva marcatemente del region Kuru-Panchala. Illo "esseva le area del prime cultivation cognoscite de riz in le Asia del Sud, e per 1800 aEC esseva le loco de un population neolitic avantiate associate con le sitos de Chirand e Chechar". In iste region, le movimentos Śramaṇic floresceva, e le jainismo e le buddhismo originava. ==== Buddhismo e jainismo ==== Le periodo inter 800 a.C. e 400 a.C. vide le composition del plus ancian Upanishads, que forma le base theoretic del hinduismo classic, e que es etiam cognoscite como le Vedanta (conclusion del Vedas). Le crescenti urbanisation de India in le septime e sexte seculos a.C. portava al apparition de nove movimentos ascetic o "Śramaṇa", que contestava le orthodoxia del rituales. Mahavira (ca. 599–527 a.C.), propugnator del jainismo, e Gautama Buddha (ca. 563–483 a.C.), fundator del buddhismo, esseva le plus eminente figuras de iste movimento. Le Śramaṇa generava le concepto del ciclo de nascentia e morte, le concepto de samsara, e le concepto de liberation. Buddha trovava un Via Medie que mitigava le ascetismo extrem trovate in le religiones Śramaṇa. Circa le mesme tempore, Mahavira (le 24e Tirthankara in jainismo) propagava un theologia que postea deveniva jainismo. Totevia, le orthodoxia jainista crede que le doctrinas del Tirthankaras precedeva omne tempore cognoscite, e studiosos crede que Parshvanatha (ca. 872–772 a.C.), considerate como le 23e Tirthankara, esseva un figura historic. On crede que le Vedas documentava alcun Tirthankaras e un ordine ascetic simile al movimento Śramaṇa. ==== Mahajanapadas ==== Le periodo ab circa 600 a.C. usque circa 300 a.C. esseva marcate per le ascension del Mahajanapadas, dece-sex regnos potente e republicas oligarchic in un banda que se extendeva ab Gandhara in le nord-occidente usque a Bengal in le parte oriental del subcontinente indian — includente partes del region trans-Vindhya. Textos buddhista ancian, como le Aṅguttara Nikāya, face frequente referentia a iste dece-sex grande regnos e republicas — Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Malla, Matsya (o Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vṛji, e Vatsa. Iste periodo videva le secunde major ascension de urbanismo in India post le civilisation del Valle de Indo. Le prime “republicas” o gaṇasaṅgha, como le Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, e Licchavis, habeva governamentos republican. Le gaṇasaṅghas, como le Mallakas, con centro in le citate de Kusinagara, e le Liga Vajji, con centro in le citate de Vaishali, existeva ja in le sexte seculo a.C. e persisteva in alcun areas usque al quarte seculo p.C. Le plus famose clan inter le clans confederate dominante del Vajji Mahajanapada esseva le Licchavis. Iste periodo corresponde, in un contexto archaeologic, al cultura del Northern Black Polished Ware. Focalisate specialmente in le plano del Ganges Central ma etiam expandente se trans vaste areas del subcontinente indian septentrional e central, iste cultura se characterisava per le emergentia de grande citates con fortificationes massives, un augmento significative del population, major stratification social, rete de commercio extensive, construction de architectura public e canales de aqua, industrias de artesanato specialisate, un systema de pesos, monetas signate per punctos, e le introduction del scriptura in forma del alphabeto Brahmi e Kharosthi. Le lingua del nobilitate in ille tempore esseva le sanscrito, durante que le linguas del population general del India septentrional es referite como Prakritos. Multes del dece-sex regnos habeva se fusionate in quatro majorios al tempore de Gautama Buddha. Iste quatro esseva Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, e Magadha. ==== Dynastias Maghada temporan ==== Magadha formava un del dece-sex Mahajanapadas (sanskrito: “Grande Regnos”) in India ancian. Le nucleo del regno esseva le region de Bihar al sud del Ganges; su prime capital esseva Rajagriha (moderne Rajgir) e postea Pataliputra (moderne Patna). Magadha se expandava a includer la major parte de Bihar e Bengal con le conquista de Licchavi e Anga respectivemente, sequite per grande partes de Uttar Pradesh oriental e Orissa. Le regno ancian de Magadha es frequentemente mentionate in textos jainista e buddhista. Illo es etiam mentionate in le Ramayana, le Mahabharata e le Puranas. Le plus ancian referentia al populos de Magadha appare in le Atharva-Veda, ubi illes es listate insimul con le Angas, Gandharis, e Mujavats. Magadha habeva un rolo importante in le disveloppamento del jainismo e del buddhismo. Communitates republican (como le communitate de Rajakumara) esseva integrate in le regno de Magadha. Le villages habeva lor proprie assemblate sub lor chefes local, appellate Gramakas. Lor administrationes esseva dividite in functiones executive, judicial, e militar. Fontes ancian, del Canon Pāli buddhista, del Agamas jainista e del Puranas hindu, mentiona que Magadha esseva regite per le dynastia Pradyota e le dynastia Haryanka (ca. 544–413 a.C.) durante circa 200 annos, ca. 600–413 a.C. Rege Bimbisara del dynastia Haryanka conduceva un politica active e expansionista, conquistante Anga in lo que hodie es Bihar oriental e Bengal Occidental. Rege Bimbisara esseva depellite e occidite per su filio, Principe Ajatashatru, qui continuava le politica expansionista de Magadha. Durante iste periodo, Gautama Buddha, le fundator del buddhismo, viveva grande parte de su vita in le regno de Magadha. Ille attingeva illumination in Bodh Gaya, dava su prime sermone in Sarnath e le prime concilio buddhista esseva tenite in Rajagriha. Le dynastia Haryanka esseva depellite per le dynastia Shaishunaga (ca. 413–345 a.C.). Le ultime rege Shishunaga, Kalasoka, esseva assassinate per Mahapadma Nanda in 345 a.C., le prime del assi appellate Novem Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda e su octo filios). ==== Imperio Nanda e campania de Alexandro Magne ==== Le Imperio Nanda (ca. 345–322 a.C.), a su apice, se extendeva ab Bengal in le oriente usque al Punjab in le occidente e tanto sud como le catena Vindhya. Le dynastia Nanda se basava super le fundationes ponite per lor predecessores Haryanka e Shishunaga. Le imperio Nanda habeva construite un exercito immense, consistente de 200.000 infanteros, 20.000 cavalleros, 2.000 carros de guerra e 3.000 elephantes de guerra (secundo le estimationes plus basse). ==== Imperio Maurya ==== Le Imperio Maurya (322–185 a.C.) unificava le major parte del subcontinente indian in un sol stato, e esseva le plus grande imperio que jam existiva in le subcontinente. Al sue extension maxime, le Imperio Maurya se extendeva al nord usque al limites natural del Himalayas e al oriente in lo que hodie es Assam. Al occidente, illo attingeva ultra le Pakistan moderne, usque al montes Hindu Kush in lo que hodie es Afghanistan. Le imperio esseva establite per Chandragupta Maurya con le assistentia de Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in le moderne Bihar), quando ille depellite le Imperio Nanda. Chandragupta rapidemente expandiva su poter verso le occidente trans India central e occidental, e per 317 a.C. le imperio habeva jam completemente occupate le India nord-occidental. Le Imperio Maurya batteva Seleucus I, fundator del Imperio Seleucida, durante le guerra Seleucida–Maurya, e assi ganava territorio additional a occidente del Fluvio Indo. Le filio de Chandragupta, Bindusara, succedeva al throno circa 297 a.C. Al tempore de su morte circa 272 a.C., un grande parte del subcontinente esseva sub la suzeranitate Maurya. Totevia, le region de Kalinga (circa le moderne Odisha) remaneva foras del controlo Maurya, forsan interferente con le commercio verso le sud. Porta sculptate Maurya de Lomas Rishi, un del Grottas Barabar, circa 250 a.C. Bindusara esseva succedite per Ashoka, cujo regno durava usque a su morte circa 232 a.C. Su campania contra le Kalingas circa 260 a.C., ben que victoriose, causava immense perdas de vita e miseria. Isto induceva Ashoka a repudiar le violentia e subsequente a adopter le buddhismo. Post su morte, le imperio comenciava declinar, e le ultime regnator Maurya, Brihadratha, esseva assassinate per Pushyamitra Shunga pro establir le Imperio Shunga. Sub Chandragupta Maurya e su successores, commercio interne e externe, agricultura, e activitates economic prosperava e se expandava trans India gratias al creation de un systema unic e efficiente de finantias, administration e securitate. Le Mauryas construiva le Grande Strata Troncal, un del plus ancian e longe vias major de Asia, que connecteva le subcontinente indian con Asia Central. Post le Guerra de Kalinga, le Imperio experimentava quasi medie seculo de pace e securitate sub Ashoka. India Maurya etiam frueva un era de harmonia social, transformation religiose, e expansion del cognoscentia scientific. Le adoption del jainismo per Chandragupta favoriva renovation e reformation social e religiose, durante que le adoption del buddhismo per Ashoka es considerate como le fundamento de un regno de pace social e politic e de non-violentia in India. Ashoka patrocinava missiones buddhista trans le Indo-Mediterraneo, in Sri Lanka, Asia del Sud-Est, Asia Occidental, Africa del Nord, e Europa Mediterranee. Le Arthashastra, scribite per Chanakya, e le Edictos de Ashoka es le principal fontes scribite del epocha Maurya. Archaeologicamente, iste periodo pertine al era del Northern Black Polished Ware. Le Imperio Maurya esseva fundate super un economia e societate moderne e efficiente, in le qual le vendita de mercantias esseva strictemente regulata per le governamento. Ben que bancas non existeva in le societate Maurya, le usura esseva costume. Un numero significative de documentos referente al sclavitude es trovate, suggerente su prevalentia. Durante iste periodo, un acier de alte qualitate, appellate acier Wootz, esseva disveloppate in India meridional e postea exportate a China e Arabia. ==== Periodo Sangam ==== Durante le periodo Sangam, le litteratura tamil floriva ab le 3e seculo a.C. usque al 4e seculo p.C. Tres dynastias tamil, cognoscite collectivemente como le Tres Reges Coronate de Tamilakam: le dynastia Chera, le dynastia Chola e le dynastia Pandya, regnava partes del India meridional. Le litteratura Sangam tracta del historia, politica, guerras e cultura del populo tamil de iste periodo. Divergente del scriptores sanskritic, qui esseva majormente brahmines, le autores del Sangam proveniva de classes e fundos social varie e esseva in le major parte non-brahmines. Circa 300 a.C. – 200 p.C., le Pathupattu, un anthologia de dece collectiones de libros de medio extension, considerate como parte del litteratura Sangam, esseva componite; equalmente le composition del octo anthologias poetic Ettuthogai, como etiam le composition del dece-octo obras poetic minor Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; durante que le Tolkāppiyam, le plus ancian obra grammatical in lingua tamil, esseva elaborate. Etiam durante le periodo Sangam, duo del Cinquante Grande Epicos del Litteratura Tamil esseva componite. Ilango Adigal componeva le Silappatikaram, un obra non-religiose que revolve circa Kannagi; e le Manimekalai, componite per Chithalai Chathanar, es un sequela del Silappatikaram e narra le historia del filia de Kovalan e Madhavi, qui deveniva un bhikkhuni buddhista. == Periodo classic (circa 200 aEC – 650 EC) == Le tempore inter le Imperio Maurya in le 3e seculo a.C. e le fin del Imperio Gupta in le 6e seculo p.C. es referite como le periodo “Classic” de India. Le Imperio Gupta (4e–6e seculo) es considerate como le Etate Auree de India, ben que multe regnos diverse regnava super India in iste seculos. Equalmente, le litteratura Sangam floriva ab le 3e seculo a.C. usque al 3e seculo p.C. in India meridional. Durante iste periodo, on estima que le economia de India esseva le plus grande del mundo, representate inter un tertio e un quarto del ricchessa mundial, ab 1 p.C. usque 1000 p.C. === Prime periodo classic (circa 200 aEC – 320 EC) === ==== Imperio Shunga ==== Le Shungas originava de Magadha e controlava grande areas del subcontinente indian central e oriental ab circa 187 usque 78 a.C. Le dynastia esseva establite per Pushyamitra Shunga, qui depellite le ultime imperator Maurya. Su capital esseva Pataliputra, ma posteriores imperatores, como Bhagabhadra, habeva etiam corte in Vidisha (hodie Besnagar). Pushyamitra Shunga regnava per 36 annos e esseva succedite per su filio Agnimitra. Il habeva dece regnatores Shunga. Totevia, post le morte de Agnimitra, le imperio rapidemente se disintegrava; inscriptiones e monetas indica que grande partes del India septentrional e central consisteva de parve regnos e citates-statos que esseva independente de omne hegemonia Shunga. Le imperio es notate pro su numerose guerras con poteres tanto estrange como indigene. Illes combatteva contra le dynastia Mahameghavahana de Kalinga, le dynastia Satavahana del Deccan, le Indo-Grecos, e forsan le Panchalas e Mitras de Mathura. Artes, education, philosophia, e altere formas de erudition floriva durante iste periodo, includente monumentos architectonic como le Stupa de Bharhut e le renominate Grande Stupa de Sanchi. Le regnatores Shunga adjuvava a establir le tradition del patrocinio regal del erudition e del arte. Le scriptura usate per le imperio esseva un variante del Brahmi e esseva usate pro scriber le lingua sanskrit. Le Imperio Shunga habeva un rolo imperative in le patronato del cultura indian in un periodo quando alcun del plus importante disveloppamentos del pensamento hindu habeva loco. ==== Imperio Satavahana ==== Le Śātavāhanas habeva su base in Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh, assi ben como in Junnar (Pune) e Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. Le territorio del imperio comprendeva grande partes del India a partir del prime seculo a.C. Le Sātavāhanas comenciava como vassallos del dynastia Maurya, ma declarava independentia con su declino. Le Sātavāhanas es cognoscite pro lor patronato del hinduismo e del buddhismo, lo que resultava in monumentos buddhista ab Ellora (un sito de patrimonio mundial de UNESCO) usque a Amaravati. Illes esseva inter le prime estados indian que emetteva monetas con le effigie de lor reges. Illes formava un ponte cultural e exerceva un rolo vital in le commercio, assi como in le transferentia de ideas e cultura inter le planitia indo-gangetic e le extremo meridional del India. Illes debeva rivalisar con le Imperio Shunga e postea con le dynastia Kanva de Magadha pro establir lor dominio. Plus tarde, illes habeva un rolo crucial in proteger grande partes del India contra invasores estrange, como le Sakas, Yavanas e Pahlavas. In particular, lor luctas con le Kshatrapas Occidental durava multe tempore. Le reges notabile del dynastia Satavahana, Gautamiputra Satakarni e Sri Yajna Sātakarni, poteva vincer le invasores estrange como le Kshatrapas Occidental e impedir lor expansion. In le tertie seculo d.C., le imperio se divideva in estados plus micre. ==== Comercio e viages a India ==== Le commercio de species in Kerala attirava negotiatores de tote le Mundo Antique a India. Le porto sud-occidental de Muziris in India habeva establite se como un centro major del commercio de species jam desde circa 3000 aEC, secundo documentos sumeric. Negotiatores judaic arrivava a Kochi, Kerala, India jam circa 562 aEC. Le mundo greco-roman se implicava in commercio per le ruta del incenso e le itinerarios inter Roma e India. Durante le 2e seculo aEC, naves grec e indian se incontrava pro commerciare in portos arabic como Aden. Durante le prime millennio, le rutas maritime a India esseva controlate per le indianos e le aethiopes, que deveniva le potentia commercial maritime del Mar Rubie. Negotiatores indianos implicate in le commercio de species portava le cuisine indian a Asia del Sud-Est, ubi mixturas de species e currys deveniva popular inter le habitantes indigene. Le buddhismo entrava in China per le Ruta del Seta durante le 1e o 2e seculo EC. Le institutiones religiose hindu e buddhista de Asia del Sud e Sud-Est deveniva centros de production e commercio, pois que illos accumulava capitale donate per patronos. Illos se dedicava al administration de terras, al artesania, e al commercio. In particular, le buddhismo viagiava insimul con le commercio maritime, promovente le litteratura, le arte, e le uso de moneta. ==== Imperio Kushan ==== Le Imperio Kushan se expandiva desde lo que hodie es Afghanistan verso le nord-occidente del subcontinente indian sub le direction de lor prime imperator, Kujula Kadphises, circa le medietate del 1e seculo EC. Le Kushans esseva possibilemente un tribo parlante tocharic, un del cinque ramos del confederation Yuezhi. Al tempore de su nepote, Kanishka le Grande, le imperio se extendeva pro includer grande partes de Afghanistan, e postea le regiones septentrional del subcontinente indian. Imperator Kanishka esseva un grande patrono del buddhismo; tamen, quando le Kushans se expandiva verso le sud, le deitates de lor monetage posterior reflecteva le nove majoritate hindu. Le historico Vincent Smith diceva re Kanishka: {{Citation|Ille jocava le rolo de un secunde Ashoka in le historia del buddhismo.}} Le imperio connecteva le commercio maritime del Oceano Indian con le commercio del Ruta del Seta trans le valle del Indo, incoragiante commercio a longe distantia, in particular inter China e Roma. Le Kushans portava nove tendentias al arte emergente e florente de Gandhara e Mathura, que attingeva su apice durante le regno kushan. Le periodo de pace sub regno kushan es cognoscite como Pax Kushana. Per le 3e seculo, lor imperio in India se disintegrava, e lor ultime grande imperator cognoscite esseva Vasudeva I. === Periodo classic (circa 320 – 650 EC) === ==== Imperio Gupta ==== Le periodo Gupta esseva notate pro su creativitate cultural, specialmente in litteratura, architectura, sculptura, e pictura. Le era Gupta produceva eruditos como Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, e Vatsyayana. Iste periodo marcava un puncto de inflexion in le cultura indian: le Guptas executava sacrificios vedic pro legitimar lor regno, ma illos etiam patronava le buddhismo, un alternative al orthodoxia brahmanic. Le expeditiones militar del prime tres reges – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, e Chandragupta II – portava grande partes de India sub lor dominio. Scientia e administration politic attingeva nove altitudes durante le era Gupta. Forte ligamines commercial etiam faceva del region un centro cultural importante e lo establiva como un base que influentiava regnos e regiones vicin. Le periodo de pace sub regno Gupta es cognoscite como Pax Gupta. Le Guptas posterior resisteva con successo al regnos nord-occidental usque al arrivata del Hunos Alchon, que se establiva in Afghanistan in le prime medietate del 5e seculo EC, con lor capital a Bamiyan. Tamen, grande partes del sud de India, includente Deccan, remaneva in grande parte intacte per iste eventos. ==== Imperio Vākāṭaka ==== Le Imperio Vākāṭaka originava del Deccan in le medio del 3e seculo EC. On crede que lor stato se extendeva ab le marges meridional de Malwa e Gujarat in le nord usque al fluvio Tungabhadra in le sud, e ab le Mar Arabic in le occidente usque al limites de Chhattisgarh in le oriente. Illes esseva le plus importante successores del Satavahanas in le Deccan, contemporaneos del Guptas in le nord de India, e succedite per le dynastia Vishnukundina. Le Vakatakas es notate como patronos del artes, architectura e litteratura. Le viharas e chaityas buddhista excidite in roca del Grottas de Ajanta (Patrimonio del Humanitate UNESCO) esseva construite sub le patronato del imperator Vakataka, Harishena. ==== Regno de Kamarupa ==== Le inscription del columna de Allahabad de Samudragupta (4e seculo) mentiona Kamarupa (Assam Occidental) e Davaka (Assam Central) como regnos de fronteira del Imperio Gupta. Davaka esseva plus tarde absorbite per Kamarupa, que cresceva in un grande regno que se extendeva ab le fluvio Karatoya usque al vicinitates de Sadiya hodierne, e cobria tote le valle del Brahmaputra, Nord Bengal, partes de Bangladesh e, a vices, Purnea e partes de Bengal Occidental. Illo esseva regite per tres dynastias – Varmanas (c. 350–650 EC), dynastia Mlechchha (c. 655–900 EC) e Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 EC) – ab lor capitales in le moderne Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) e Nord Guwahati (Durjaya). Tote tres dynastias clamava descender de Narakasura. Durante le regno del rege Varman Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 EC), le viagiator chinese Xuanzang visitava le region e registrava su viages. Plus tarde, post le debilitamento e disintegration (post le Kamarupa-Palas), le tradition Kamarupa esseva prolongate usque circa 1255 EC per le dynastias Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 EC) e Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 EC). Le regno de Kamarupa finiva in le medio del 13e seculo quando le dynastia Khen sub Sandhya de Kamarupanagara (Nord Guwahati) transferiva su capital a Kamatapur (Nord Bengal) post le invasion del Turcos musulman, e establiva le regno de Kamata. ==== Imperio Pallava ==== Le Pallavas, inter le 4e e le 9e seculos, esseva, insimul con le Guptas del nord, grande patronos del developpamento del sanscrito in le sud del subcontinente indian. Le regno Pallava videva le prime inscriptiones sanscrit in un scriptura appellate Grantha. Le Pallavas precoce habeva differentes connexiones con le paises de Asia del Sud-Est. Illes usava architectura dravidian pro construir importante templos e academias hindu in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram e altere locos; lor regno videva le emergentia de grande poetas. Le practica de dedicar templos a differente deitates deveniva commun, sequite per un stilo artistic fine de architectura e sculptura de templos secundo le Vastu Shastra. Le Pallavas attingeva le apice de lor potentia durante le regno de Mahendravarman I (571–630 EC) e Narasimhavarman I (630–668 EC) e dominava le regiones telugu e septentrional del region tamil usque al fin del 9e seculo. ==== Imperio Kadamba ==== Le Kadambas originava de Karnataka e esseva fundate per Mayurasharma in 345 EC, que plus tarde monstrava potential de devenir un imperio. Rege Mayurasharma deligeva le exercitos del Pallavas de Kanchi, probabilemente con adjuta de alcun tribos indigene. Le fama Kadamba attingeva su apice durante le regno de Kakusthavarma, un rege notabile con le quales le reges del Dynastia Gupta del nord de India cultivava alliantias matrimonial. Le Kadambas esseva contemporaneos del Dynastia Ganga Occidental, e insimul illes formava le prime regnos indigene que regnava le terra con autonomia absolute. Le dynastia plus tarde continuava regnar como feudatorios de plus grande imperios kannada, le Chalukyas e le Rashtrakutas, durante plus de cinquecentos annos, durante le qual illes se ramificava in minor dynastias (Kadambas de Goa, Kadambas de Halasi e Kadambas de Hangal). ==== Imperio de Harsha ==== Harsha regnava le nord de India inter 606 e 647 EC. Ille esseva filio de Prabhakarvardhana e fratre juvene de Rajyavardhana, membros del dynastia Vardhana que regnava Thanesar (in Haryana hodierne). Post le crollo del Imperio Gupta in le medio del 6e seculo, le nord de India retornava a plus parve republicas e statos monarchic. Le vacuo de potentia resultava in le ascension del Vardhanas de Thanesar, que comenciava unificar le republicas e monarchias ab Punjab usque al India central. Post le morte del patre e fratre de Harsha, representantes del imperio coronava Harsha como imperator in april 606 EC, dando le titulo Maharaja. Al apice, su Imperio cobria grande partes del nord e nord-occidente de India, se extendeva al oriente usque a Kamarupa, e al sud usque al fluvio Narmada; finalmente ille faceva Kannauj (in Uttar Pradesh hodierne) su capital, e regnava usque 647 EC. Le pace e prosperitate que prevaleva rendeva su corte un centro de cosmopolitanismo, attirante eruditos, artistas e visitantes religiose. Durante iste tempore, Harsha se convertiva al buddhismo ab le culto de Surya. Le viagiator chinese Xuanzang visitava le corte de Harsha e scribeva un relato multo favorabile de ille, laudante su justitia e generositate. Su biographia Harshacharita (“Factos de Harsha”), scribite per le poeta sanscrit Banabhatta, describe su association con Thanesar e le palatio con un Dhavalagriha (Mansion Blanc) a duo etages. == Periodo medieval primeve (circa 650 – 1200) == Le India medieval precoce comenciava post le fin del Imperio Gupta in le 6e seculo EC. Iste periodo etiam include le “Etate Classic Tardive” del hinduismo, que initiava post le crollo del Imperio de Harsha in le 7e seculo e terminava in le 13e seculo con le ascension del Sultanato de Delhi in le nord de India; le comenciamento del Kannauj Imperial, que conduceva al lucta tripartite; e le fin del Cholas Posterior con le morte de Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in le sud de India; tamen, certe aspectos del periodo classic continuava usque al cadita del Imperio Vijayanagara in le sud circa le 17e seculo. Del 5e usque al 13e seculo, le sacrificios Śrauta declinava, e le supporto pro Shaivismo, Vaishnavismo e Shaktismo se expandiva in le cortes regal, durante que le supporto pro buddhismo declinava. Le manco de attraction inter le massas rural, que in vice adoptava le hinduismo brahmanic formate in le synthese hindu, e le reduction del supporto economic ab le communitates commercial e le elites regal, esseva factores major in le declino del buddhismo. In le 7e seculo, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulava su schola del philosophia Mīmāṃsā e defendeva le position del rituales vedic. Del 8e al 10e seculo, tres dynastias se disputava le controlo del nord de India: le Gurjara-Pratiharas de Malwa, le Palas de Bengal, e le Rashtrakutas del Deccan. Plus tarde, le dynastia Sena assumeva le controlo del Imperio Pala; le Gurjara-Pratiharas se fragmentava in varie statos, notabilemente le Regno de Malwa, le Regno de Bundelkhand, le Regno de Dahala, le Tomaras de Haryana, e le Regno de Sambhar – statos que esseva inter le prime regnos Rajput – durante que le Rashtrakutas esseva annexate per le Chalukyas Occidental. In iste periodo emergeva le dynastia Chaulukya; le Chaulukyas construiva le Templos de Dilwara, le Templo del Sol de Modhera, e Rani ki vav in le stilo de architectura Māru-Gurjara, e lor capital Anhilwara (hodie Patan, Gujarat) esseva una del plus grande citates del subcontinente indian, con un population estimate a circa 100.000 circa le anno 1000. Le Imperio Chola emergeva como un potentia major durante le regnos de Raja Raja Chola I e Rajendra Chola I, que con successo invadeva partes de Asia del Sud-Est e Sri Lanka in le 11e seculo. Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760) esseva un imperator del dynastia Karkoṭa de Kashmir, que exerceva influentia in le nord-occidente de India ab 625 usque 1003, e que esseva sequite per le dynastia Lohara. Kalhana, in su Rajatarangini, attribueva al rege Lalitaditya un campania militar aggressive in India Septentrional e Asia Central. Le dynastia Hindu Shahi regnava partes de Afghanistan oriental, Pakistan septentrional, e Kashmir ab le medio del 7e seculo usque al initio del 11e seculo. In Odisha, le Imperio Ganga Oriental ascendeva al potentia; illo esseva notate pro le progressos in architectura hindu – specialmente le Templo de Jagannath e le Templo del Sol de Konark – e etiam como patrono del arte e litteratura. === Dynastia Gupta tardive === Le dynastia del Guptas Posterior regnava le region de Magadha in India oriental inter le 6e e 7e seculos EC. Le Guptas Posterior succedeva al Guptas imperial como regentes de Magadha, ma il non ha evidentia que connecte le duo dynastias; illos pare esser duo familias distincte. Illes es appellate Guptas Posterior proque le nomines de lor reges terminava con le suffixo “-gupta”, que illes poterea haber adoptate pro presentar se como le legitime successores del Guptas imperial. === Imperio Chalukya === Le Imperio Chalukya regnava grande partes del India meridional e central inter le 6e e le 12e seculos, como tres dynastias interrelatate ma distincte. Le prime dynastia, cognoscite como le Chalukyas de Badami, regnava ab Vatapi (hodie Badami) desde le medio del 6e seculo. Le Chalukyas de Badami comenciava affirmar lor independentia durante le declino del regno Kadamba de Banavasi, e rapidemente ascendeva al prominentia durante le regno de Pulakeshin II. Le regno del Chalukyas marca un momento fundamental in le historia del India meridional e un etate auree in le historia de Karnataka. Le atmosfera politic in le sud de India cambiava de plus parve regnos a grande imperios con le ascension del Chalukyas de Badami. Un regno basate in India meridional prendeva controlo e consolidava le integre region inter le fluvios Kaveri e Narmada. Le ascension de iste imperio videva le nascentia de un administration efficiente, commercio transmarin e mercatura, e le disveloppamento de un nove stilo de architectura appellate architectura Chalukya. Le dynastia Chalukya regnava partes de India meridional e central ab Badami in Karnataka inter 550 e 750, e de novo ab Kalyani inter 970 e 1190. === Imperio Rashtrakuta === Fundate per Dantidurga circa 753, le Imperio Rashtrakuta regnava ab su capital a Manyakheta durante quasi duo seculos. Al apice, le Rashtrakutas regnava ab le Doab del Gange-Yamuna in le nord usque a Capo Comorin in le sud, un periodo fructuose de realisationes architectonic e litterari. Le prime regentes de iste dynastia esseva hindus, ma le regentes posterior esseva fortemente influentiate per le jainismo. Govinda III e Amoghavarsha esseva le plus famose inter le longe linea de administratores capace producite per iste dynastia. Amoghavarsha esseva etiam un autor e scribiva Kavirajamarga, le prime obra cognoscite in kannada super poetic. Architectura attingeva un puncto culminante in le stilo dravidian, del qual le exemplo le plus excellente se vide in le Templo Kailasanath a Ellora. Alteres contributiones importante es le templo Kashivishvanatha e le templo jain Narayana a Pattadakal in Karnataka. Le viagiator arab Suleiman describeva le Imperio Rashtrakuta como un del quatro grande Imperios del mundo. Le periodo Rashtrakuta marcava le initio del etate auree del mathematica in India meridional. Le grande mathematiciano Mahāvīra del sud de India habeva un enorme influentia super le mathematicianos medieval del sud. Le reges Rashtrakuta etiam patrocinava litteratos in un varietate de linguas. === Imperio Gurjara-Pratihara === Le Gurjara-Pratiharas esseva instrumental in limitar le exercitos arabe que moveva a oriente del fluvio Indo. Nagabhata I superava le exercito arabe sub Junaid e Tamin durante le campanias Umayyad in India. Sub Nagabhata II, le Gurjara-Pratiharas deveniva le dynastia le plus potente in India septentrional. Ille esseva succedite per su filio Ramabhadra, qui regnava brevemente ante esser succedite per su filio, Mihira Bhoja. Sub Bhoja e su successor Mahendrapala I, le Imperio Pratihara attingeva su apice de prosperitate e potentia. Al tempore de Mahendrapala, su territorio se extendeva ab le frontiera de Sindh in le occidente usque a Bihar in le oriente, e ab le Himalayas in le nord usque circa le fluvio Narmada in le sud. Le expansion suscitava un lucta tripartite pro le controlo del subcontinente indian inter le imperios Rashtrakuta e Pala. Al fin del decime seculo, plure vassallos del imperio profitava del debilitate temporari del Gurjara-Pratiharas pro declarar lor independentia — in particular le Regno de Malwa, le Regno de Bundelkhand, le Tomaras de Haryana, le Regno de Sambhar, e le Regno de Dahala. === Dynastia Gahadavala === Le dynastia Gahadavala regnava super partes del estados hodierne de Uttar Pradesh e Bihar durante le seculos XI e XII. Lor capital esseva situate in Varanasi. === Dynastia Karnat === In 1097 d.C., le dynastia Karnat de Mithila emergeva in le region de fronteira inter Bihar e Nepal, e manteneva capitales in Darbhanga e Simraongadh. Le dynastia esseva fundate per Nanyadeva, un comandante militar de origine Karnataka. Sub iste dynastia, le lingua Maithili comenciava a sviluppar se, con le prime obra litterari in Maithili, le Varna Ratnakara, producite in le seculo XIV per Jyotirishwar Thakur. Le Karnats anque faceva incursiones in Nepal. Illes cadeva in 1324 a sequela del invasion de Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. === Imperio Pala === Le Imperio Pala esseva fundate per Gopala I. Illo esseva regite per un dynastia buddhista ab Bengal. Le Palas reunificava Bengal post le cadita del Regno de Gauda de Shashanka. Le Palas esseva sequitores del escolas Mahayana e Tantric de buddhismo; illes anque patrocinava le Shaivismo e le Vaishnavismo. Le imperio attingeva su apice sub Dharmapala e Devapala. On crede que Dharmapala conquireva Kanauj e extendeva su influentia usque al limites le plus lontan del India in le nord-occidente. Le Imperio Pala pote esser considerate como le etate auree de Bengal. Dharmapala fundava le Vikramashila e reviveva Nalanda, considerate como un del prime grande universitates in le historia registrate. Nalanda attingeva su apice sub le patronato del Imperio Pala. Le Palas anque construiva multe viharas. Illes manteneva proxime ligamines cultural e commercial con le paises del Asia Sud-Oriental e con Tibet. Le commercio maritim addeva grandemente al prosperitate del Imperio Pala. === Cholas === Le Cholas medieval emergite al prominentia durante le medio del nono seculo e establiva le plus grande imperio que le India meridional habeva vidite. Illes unificava con successo le India meridional sub lor dominio e, per lor fortia naval, extendeva lor influentia in le paises del Asia Sud-Oriental, como Srivijaya. Sub Rajaraja Chola I e su successores — Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola e Kulothunga Chola I — le dynastia deveniva un potentia militar, economic e cultural in Asia del Sud e Asia Sud-Oriental. Le flotta de Rajendra Chola I occupava le costas maritim ab Burma usque a Vietnam, le insulas Andaman e Nicobar, le insulas Lakshadweep (Laccadive), Sumatra, e le Peninsula Malese. Le potentia del nove imperio esseva proclamate al mundo oriental per le expedition al Ganges que Rajendra Chola I emprendite, per le occupation del citates del imperio maritim de Srivijaya in Asia Sud-Oriental, e per le repetite embassadas al China. Illes dominava le affairas politic de Sri Lanka durante plus de duo seculos per repetite invasiones e occupation. Illes habeva etiam contactos commercial continuate con le Arabes e le imperio chinese. Rajaraja Chola I e su filio Rajendra Chola I dava unitate politic a tote le India meridional e establiva le Imperio Chola como un potente maritim respectate. Sub le Cholas, le India meridional attingeva nove apices de excellentia in arte, religion e litteratura. In tote iste sphaeras, le periodo Chola signava le culmination de movimentos que habeva comenciate in un etate anterior sub le Pallavas. Le architectura monumental in forma de majestose templos e le sculptura in petra e bronzo attingeva un subtilitate jammais attingite antea in India. === Imperio Chalukya occidental === Le Imperio Chalukya Occidental regnava super le major parte del Deccan occidental, in India meridional, inter le seculos X e XII. Vast areas inter le fluvio Narmada in le nord e le fluvio Kaveri in le sud cadeva sub le controlo Chalukya. Durante iste periodo, le altere familias dominante del Deccan — le Hoysalas, le Seuna Yadavas de Devagiri, le dynastia Kakatiya e le Kalachuris meridional — esseva subordinates al Chalukyas Occidental e solmente ganiava lor independentia quando le potentia del Chalukya declinava durante le secunde medietate del seculo XII. Le Chalukyas Occidental disveloppava un stilo architectural cognoscite hodie como un stilo transitional, un ligamine inter le stilo del prime dynastia Chalukya e illo del posterior imperio Hoysala. Le major parte de su monumentos se trova in le districtos adjacente al fluvio Tungabhadra in le centro de Karnataka. Exemplos ben cognoscite es le Templo Kasivisvesvara a Lakkundi, le Templo Mallikarjuna a Kuruvatti, le Templo Kallesvara a Bagali, le Templo Siddhesvara a Haveri, e le Templo Mahadeva a Itagi. Isto esseva un periodo importante in le disveloppamento del bellas artes in India meridional, specialmente in litteratura, pois que le reges del Chalukyas Occidental incoragiava scriptores in le lingua native Kannada, e in Sanskrit, como le philosophico e statista Basava e le grande mathematiciano Bhāskara II. == Periodo medieval tardive (circa 1200 – 1526) == Le periodo medieval tardive es characterisate per repetite invasiones per tribos nomadic musulman de Asia Central, per le regno del Sultanato de Delhi, e per le crescentia de altere statos, edificate super le technologia militar del sultanato. === Sultanato de Delhi === Le Sultanato de Delhi esseva un serie de statos islamic successive basate in Delhi, regite per plure dynastias de varie origines. Iste stato dominava grande partes del subcontinente indian ab le seculo XIII usque al initio del seculo XVI. Le sultanato esseva fundate in le seculos XII e XIII per Turcos centro-asiatic, qui invadeva partes del India septentrional e establiva le stato super le possessiones hindu precedente. Le subsequente dynastia Mamluk de Delhi succedite a conquirer vaste areas del India septentrional. Le dynastia Khalji conquireva grande partes del India central, forciava le principal regnos hindu del India meridional a devenir statos vassal. Le sultanato inaugurava un periodo de renascentia cultural in India. Le resultante fusion indo-musulman de culturas lassava monumentos syncretic durabile in architectura, musica, litteratura, religion e vestimento. On pensa que le lingua urdu nasceva durante le periodo del Sultanato de Delhi. Le sultanato esseva le sol stato indo-islamic que enthronisava un del pauc reginas in India: Razia Sultana (r. 1236–1240). Ben que initialmente disruptive proque le potentia passava del elites native indian al elites musulman turc, le Sultanato de Delhi esseva responsabile pro integrar le subcontinente indian in un systema mundial crescente, traheva India in un rete international plus ample, lo que habeva un impacto significative super su cultura e societate. Totevia, le Sultanato de Delhi causava etiam destruction e profanation su larga scala de templos in le subcontinente indian. Le invasion mongol in India esseva repellite con successo per le Sultanato de Delhi durante le regno de Alauddin Khalji. Un factor major in lor successo esseva lor exercito de sclavos turc-mamluk, experte in le mesme stilo de guerra de cavalleria nomadic como le Mongoles. Es possibile que le Imperio Mongol haberea expandite in India si non esseva pro le rolo del Sultanato de Delhi in repeller los. Per repulsar repetitemente le incursiones mongol, le sultanato salvava India del devastation que colpiva Asia occidental e central. Soldatos de ille region e studiosos e administratores fugiente le invasion mongol de Iran immigrava in le subcontinente, creando assi un cultura indo-islamic syncretic in le nord. Un conquistator turco-mongol ab Asia Central, Timur (Tamerlane), attaccava le sultan reinante Nasir-ud-Din Mehmud del dynastia Tughlaq in Delhi. Le exercito del sultan esseva superate le 17 decembre 1398. Timur entrava in Delhi e le citate esseva saccheate, destruite e lassate in ruinas post que le exercito de Timur habeva occidite e pillate durante tres dies e noctes. Ille ordinava que le citate integre sia saccheate excepte le sayyids, le eruditos e le altere musulmanes (como artistas). Es dicite que 100,000 prisioneros de guerra esseva execute in un sol die. Le sultanato suffreva grandemente del saccheamento de Delhi. Ben que reviveva brevemente sub le dynastias Sayyid e Lodi, illo non esseva plus que un ombra de lo que habeva essite. Le regno Lodi in Delhi durava usque al derrota del ultime sultan, Ibrahim Khan Lodi, in 1526 per le forzas de Babur. === Imperio Vijayanagara === Le Imperio de Vijayanagara esseva fundate in 1336 per Harihara I e su fratre Bukka Raya I del dynastia Sangama, que habeva su origine como herede politic del Imperio Hoysala, del Imperio Kakatiya, e del Imperio Pandya. Le imperio se elevava a prominentia como un culmination del tentativas del potentes del India meridional de resister le invasion islamic al fin del 13e seculo. Illo durava usque al anno 1646, ben que su potentia declinava post un major disfacta militar in 1565 per le exercitos combinate del Sultanatos del Deccan. Le imperio prendeva su nomine de su capital, Vijayanagara, cuje ruinas circumfere le moderne Hampi, hodie un Sito de Patrimonio Mundial in Karnataka, India. In le prime duo decennios post le fundation del imperio, Harihara I obteneva controlo super le major parte del territorio al sud del fluvio Tungabhadra e recipiva le titulo de Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara (“dominator del mares oriental e occidental”). Per 1374, Bukka Raya I, successore de Harihara I, habeva vincite le chefato de Arcot, le Reddys de Kondavidu, e le Sultan de Madurai, e habeva obtenite controlo de Goa in le west e del doab Tungabhadra-Krishna in le nord. Harihara II, le secunde filio de Bukka Raya I, consolidava ulteriormente le regno ultra le fluvio Krishna e portava tote le India meridional sub le tutela de Vijayanagara. Le proxime rege, Deva Raya I, emergeva como victoriose contra le Gajapatis de Odisha e initiava importantes obras de fortification e irrigation. Le viagiator italian Niccolò de Conti le describiva como le plus potente regente de India. Deva Raya II succedeva al throno in 1424 e esseva probabilemente le plus capace inter le regentes del dynastia Sangama. Ille reprimeva seniores feudal rebelliose, assi como le Zamorin de Calicut e Quilon in le sud. Ille invadeva le insula de Sri Lanka e deveniva senior super le reges de Birmania in Pegu e Tanasserim. Le Imperatores de Vijayanagara esseva tolerantia de tote religiones e sectas, como monstra le scripturas de visitatores estrange. Le reges usava titulos tal como Gobrahmana Pratipalanacharya (“protector de vaccas e Brahmines”) e Hindurayasuratrana (“defensor del fide hindu”), que testificava lor intention de proteger le hinduismo, e tamen al mesme tempore esseva fortemente islamicate in lor ceremoniales de corte e vestimentos. Le fundatores del imperio, Harihara I e Bukka Raya I, esseva devote Shaivas (adoratores de Shiva), ma faceva donationes al ordine Vaishnava de Sringeri con Vidyaranya como lor sancto patrono, e designava Varaha (un avatar de Vishnu) como lor emblema. Nobiles del regnos timurida del Asia Central veniva etiam a Vijayanagara. Le reges posterior del dynastias Saluva e Tuluva esseva Vaishnava per fide, ma adorava al pede del Senior Virupaksha (Shiva) in Hampi assi como del Senior Venkateshwara (Vishnu) in Tirupati. Un obra sanscrite, Jambavati Kalyanam per Rege Krishnadevaraya, appellava le Senior Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani (“jewel protector del Imperio de Karnata”). Le reges patrocinava le sanctos del ordine dvaita (philosophia del dualismo) de Madhvacharya a Udupi. Le hereditage del imperio include multe monumentos disparse per tote le India meridional, le plus cognoscite del qual es le gruppo a Hampi. Le traditiones anterior de construction de templos in India del Sud se univa in le stilo de architectura Vijayanagara. Le mesclage de omne fides e linguas vernacular inspirava innovation architectonic in le construction de templos hindú. Le mathematica del India meridional prosperava sub le protection del Imperio de Vijayanagara in Kerala. Le mathematician meridional Madhava de Sangamagrama fundava in le 14e seculo le famose Schola Kerala de Astronomia e Mathematica, que produceva multe eminente mathematicos del sud de India, como Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji e Jyeṣṭhadeva. Un administration efficace e un commercio maritim vigorose apportava nove technologias, tal como systemas de gestion de aqua pro irrigation. Le patronato del imperio permitteva que le artes belle e le litteratura attingeva nove apices in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil e Sanscrito, durante que le musica Carnatic evolveva in su forma actual. Vijayanagara entrava in declino post le disfacta in le Battalia de Talikota (1565). Post le morte de Aliya Rama Raya in iste battalia, Tirumala Deva Raya initiava le dynastia Aravidu, transferiva e fundava un nove capital a Penukonda pro replaciar le destruite Hampi, e tentava reconstituir le restos del Imperio de Vijayanagara. Tirumala abdicava in 1572, dividiva le restos de su regno inter su tres filios, e se dedicava a un vita religiose usque a su morte in 1578. Le successores del dynastia Aravidu regnava le region, ma le imperio collabava in 1614, e su ultime restos terminava in 1646, a causa del guerras continuate con le sultanato de Bijapur e alteres. Durante iste periodo, plure regnos in India meridional deveniva independente e se separava de Vijayanagara. Iste includeva le Regno de Mysore, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks de Madurai, Nayaks de Tanjore, Nayakas de Chitradurga e le Regno Nayak de Gingee – tote illos declarava independentia e exerceva un influentia significative super le historia del India meridional in le seculos sequente. === Altere regnos === Durante duo e medie seculos, ab le medietate del 13e seculo, le politica in India septentrional esseva dominate per le Sultanato de Delhi, e in India meridional per le Imperio de Vijayanagara. Totevia, altere potentes regional etiam esseva presente. Post le cadita del Imperio Pala, le dynastia Chero regnava super grande partes de Uttar Pradesh oriental, Bihar e Jharkhand ab le 12e usque al 18e seculos. Le dynastia Reddy con successo defendeva contra le Sultanato de Delhi e extendeva su regno ab Cuttack in le nord usque a Kanchi in le sud, ante esser eventualmentemente integrate in le imperio expandente de Vijayanagara. In le nord, le regnos Rajput remaneva le potentia dominante in India occidental e central. Le dynastia de Mewar sub Maharana Hammir vincite e capturava Muhammad Tughlaq, con le Bargujars como su principales alliatos. Tughlaq esseva obligate a pagar un enorme ransom e a ceder tote le terras de Mewar. Post iste evento, le Sultanato de Delhi non attaccava Chittor durante plure centos de annos. Le Rajputs re-establiva lor independentia, e statos Rajput esseva create usque in Bengal al est e in Punjab al nord. Le Tomaras se establiva a Gwalior, e Man Singh Tomar reconstruiva le fortification de Gwalior. Durante iste periodo, Mewar emergeva como le principal stato Rajput; Rana Kumbha expandeva su regno al detrimento del Sultanatos de Malwa e Gujarat. Le proxime grande regente Rajput, Rana Sanga de Mewar, deveniva le actor principal in India septentrional. Su objectivos cresceva in extension – ille planeava conquistar Delhi. Ma su disfacta in le Battalia de Khanwa consolidava le nove dynastia Mughal in India. Le dynastia de Mewar sub Maharana Udai Singh II suffereva ulteriore disfactas per le imperator Mughal Akbar, con lor capital Chittor capturate. A causa de isto, Udai Singh II fundava Udaipur, que deveniva le nove capital del regno de Mewar. Su filio, Maharana Pratap de Mewar, resisteva firmemente contra le Mughals. Akbar mandava plure campanias contra ille. Finalmente, ille sobreviveva pro reciper controlo de tote Mewar, excludente solmente le Fortification de Chittor. In le sud, le Sultanato Bahmani in le Deccan, nascite in 1347 de un rebellion contra le dynastia Tughlaq, esseva le principal rival de Vijayanagara, e frequentemente causava difficultates pro illes. A partir de 1490, le governatores del Sultanato Bahmani se revolta, e lor statos independente formava le cinque Sultanatos del Deccan; Ahmadnagar declarava independentia, sequite per Bijapur e Berar in le mesme anno; Golkonda deveniva independente in 1518 e Bidar in 1528. Ben que generalmente rivales, illes se alliava contra le Imperio de Vijayanagara in 1565, debilitante permanentemente Vijayanagara in le Battalia de Talikota. In le est, le Regno Gajapati remaneva un forte potentia regional, associate con un apice in le crescentia del cultura e architectura regional. Sub Kapilendradeva, le Gajapatis deveniva un imperio que se extendeva ab le basse Ganga in le nord usque al Kaveri in le sud. In le nord-est de India, le Regno Ahom esseva un major potentia durante sex seculos; sub le direction de Lachit Borphukan, le Ahoms decisivemente vincite le exercito Mughal in le Battalia de Saraighat durante le conflictos Ahom-Mughal. Plus a oriente, in le India nord-oriental, se trovava le Regno de Manipur, que regnava ab lor sedes de poter in le Fortification de Kangla e disveloppava un cultura Hindu Vaishnavita Gaudiya raffinate. Le Sultanato de Bengal esseva le potentia dominante del delta Ganges–Brahmaputra, con un rete de citates monetari disperse per le region. Illo esseva un monarchia musulman sunnita con elites indo-turc, arabe, abyssinian e bengalese musulman. Le sultanato esseva cognoscite pro su pluralismo religiose, ubi communitates non-musulmane coexisteva pacificamente. Le Sultanato de Bengal habeva un circulo de statos vassal, includente Odisha in le sud-west, Arakan in le sud-est, e Tripura in le est. In le initio del 16e seculo, le Sultanato de Bengal attingeva le apice de su expansion territorial con controlo super Kamrup e Kamata in le nord-est e Jaunpur e Bihar in le west. Illo esseva reputate como un nation mercantile prospere e un del plus forte statos de Asia. Le Sultanato de Bengal esseva describite per visitatores contemporanee europee e chinese como un regno relativamente prospere e “le plus ric pais pro commercia”. Le Sultanato de Bengal lassava un forte hereditage architectonic. Edificios del periodo monstra influentias estrange integrate in un distincte stilo bengalese. Le Sultanato de Bengal esseva etiam le plus grande e prestigiose autoritate inter le statos medieval independente regite per musulmanos in le historia de Bengal. Su declino comenciava con un interregno sub le Imperio Suri, sequite per le conquista Mughal e su disintegration in regnos minor. === Movimento Bhakti e Sikhismo === Le movimento Bhakti se refere al tendentia devotional theistic que emergeva in le hinduismo medieval, e que plus tarde esseva revolutionate in le sikhismo. Illo habeva su origine in le sud de India del septime seculo (hodie partes de Tamil Nadu e Kerala), e se diffundeva verso le nord. A partir del 15e seculo, illo se expandiva super le India oriental e septentrional, attingente su apice inter le 15e e le 17e seculos. * Le movimento Bhakti se disveloppava regionalmente circa differente deos e deas, como in le Vaishnavismo (Vishnu), Shaivismo (Shiva), Shaktismo (deas Shakti), e Smartismo. Le movimento esseva inspirate per multe poetas-sanctos, qui defendeva un large varietate de positiones philosophic, ab le dualismo theistic del Dvaita usque al monismo absolut del Advaita Vedanta. * Le sikhismo es un religion monotheistic e panentheistic basate sur le doctrinas spiritual de Guru Nanak, le prime Guru, e le dece successiv Gurus Sikh. Post le morte del decime Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, le scriptura Sikh, Guru Granth Sahib, deveniva le incarnation literal del Guru eterne e impersonale, ubi le parola del scriptura servi como guida spiritual pro le Sikhs. * Le buddhismo in India prosperava in le regnos himalayense del Regno de Namgyal in Ladakh, le Regno de Sikkim in Sikkim, e le Regno Chutia in Arunachal Pradesh durante le periodo medieval tardive. == Periodo moderne prime (1526 – 1858) == Le periodo moderne initial del historia de India es datate ab 1526 usque a 1858, correspondente al ascension e cadita del Imperio Mughal, que habeva hereditate del Renaissance Timurid. Durante iste etate, le economia de India se expandiva, un pace relative esseva mantenite, e le artes esseva patrocinite. Iste periodo videva le ulteriore disveloppamento del architectura indo-islamic; le crescentia del Marathas e del Sikhs les permitteva regnar super partes significative de India in le dies declinante del imperio Mughal. Con le discoperta del via per le Cabo in le annos 1500, le prime europaeos a arrivar per mar e establir se esseva le portugeses in Goa e Bombay. === Imperio Mughal === In 1526, Babur transpassava le Passo de Khyber e fundava le Imperio Mughal, que a su apice comprehendite grande partes del Asia meridional. Totevia, su filio Humayun esseva battite per le guerrero afghan Sher Shah Suri in 1540, e esseva obligate a retraer se a Kabul. Post le morte de Sher Shah, su filio Islam Shah Suri e su general hindu Hemu Vikramaditya establiva un regno secular in India septentrional ab Delhi usque al anno 1556, quando Akbar (r. 1556–1605), nepote de Babur, vincite Hemu in le Secunde Battalia de Panipat le 6 de novembre 1556 post haber ganiate le Battalia de Delhi. Akbar cercava establir bon relationes con le hindus. Ille declarava Amari o le prohibition de occider animales durante le dies sancte del jainismo. Ille aboliva le taxa jizya pro non-musulmanos. Le emperatores Mughal se maritava con le regias local, se alliava con maharajas local, e tentava fusionar lor cultura turco-persian con le stilos antique de India, creando un cultura indo-persian unic e un architectura indo-saracenica. Akbar se maritava con un princessa Rajput, Mariam-uz-Zamani, e illes habeva un filio, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627). Jahangir continuava le politica de su patre. Le dynastia Mughal regnava super le major parte del subcontinente indian verso 1600. Le regno de Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) esseva le etate de aur del architectura Mughal. Ille erigeva numerose monumentos majuscule, le plus famose del qual es le Taj Mahal a Agra. Illo esseva un del plus grande imperios que jam existite in le subcontinente indian, e superava China pro devenir le plus grande potentia economic del mundo, con 24,4% del economia mundial, e le prime position in le industria, producente 25% del production industrial global. Le ascension economic e demographic esseva stimulate per le reformas agrarie Mughal que intensificava le production agricultural, e per un grado relativemente elevate de urbanisation. Le Imperio Mughal attingeva su zenitho de expansion territorial durante le regno de Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), sub cuje regno India superava le China Qing como le plus grande economia del mundo. Aurangzeb esseva minus tolerant que su predeccessores: ille reintroduceva le taxa jizya e destruiva plure templos historic, durante que al mesme tempore ille edificava plus templos hindu que ille destruiva, empleava un numero significativemente plus grande de hindus in su bureaucratia imperial que su antecessores, e promoveva administratores secundo lor capacitate plus tosto que lor religione. Totevia, ille es frequentemente culpate pro le erosion del tradition syncretic tolerant de su predeccessores, assi como pro le crescentia de controversia religiose e centralisation. Le Compania Anglese del Indie Oriental suffereva un disfacta in le Guerra Anglo-Mughal. Le Mughals suffereva plure colpos a causa del invasion del Marathas, Rajputs, Jats e Afghans. In 1737, le general Maratha Bajirao del Imperio Maratha invadeva e pillava Delhi. Sub le general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, le Emperador Mughal inviava 8.000 soldados pro expeller le 5.000 cavalleros Maratha. Baji Rao facilemente disfaceva le inexperte general Mughal. In 1737, in le ultime disfacta decisive del Imperio Mughal, le comandante supremo del exercito Mughal, Nizam-ul-mulk, esseva battite a Bhopal per le exercito Maratha. Isto in essentia apportava un fin al Imperio Mughal. Al mesme tempore, le Stato de Bharatpur sub le regente Jat Suraj Mal subjuga le guarnition Mughal a Agra e pillava le citate. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperador de Iran, vincite le exercito Mughal in le Battalia de Karnal. Post iste victoria, Nader capturava e saccheava Delhi, portant con se tresores includente le Throno del Pavon. Ahmad Shah Durrani initiava su proprie invasiones como regente del Imperio Durrani, e finalmente saccheava Delhi in 1757. Le regno Mughal esseva ancora plus debilitated per le resistentia constante del indianos native: Banda Singh Bahadur conduceva le Khalsa Sikh contra le oppression religiose Mughal; le Rajas hindus de Bengal, Pratapaditya e Raja Sitaram Ray, se rebellava; e Maharaja Chhatrasal del Rajputs Bundela combatteva le Mughals e fundava le Stato de Panna. Per 1757, le dynastia Mughal esseva reducite a regentes marionetta. Le Vadda Ghalughara occurreva sub le governamento provincial musulman basate in Lahore pro exterminar le Sikhs, con circa 30.000 Sikhs occidite – un offensiva que habeva comenciate sub le Mughals con le Chhota Ghalughara e que durava plure decennios sub su statos successores musulman. === Imperio Maratha === Le regno Maratha esseva fundate e consolidate per Chatrapati Shivaji. Totevia, le credito pro haber facite del Marathas un potentia national formidabile va al Peshwa (prime ministro) Bajirao I. Le historico K.K. Datta scribeva que Bajirao I “pote ben esser considerate como le secunde fundator del Imperio Maratha”. In le initio del 18e seculo, sub le Peshwas, le Marathas consolidava lor dominio e regnava super grande partes del Asia meridional. Le Marathas es in grande parte attribuite pro haber ponite fin al regno Mughal in India. In 1737, le Marathas vincite un exercito Mughal in lor capital, in le Battalia de Delhi. Illes continuava lor campanias militar contra le Mughals, le Nizam, le Nawab de Bengal e le Imperio Durrani pro extender ulteriormente lor frontieras. Al apice de su expansion, le dominio del Marathas comprendeva quasi tote le subcontinente indian. Le Marathas mesmo tentava capturar Delhi e discuteva poner Vishwasrao Peshwa sur le throno in loco del emperador Mughal. Le imperio Maratha a su apice se extendeva ab Tamil Nadu in le sud usque a Peshawar (in le actual Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan) in le nord, e Bengal in le est. Le expansion nord-occidental del Marathas esseva arrestate post le Tertie Battalia de Panipat (1761). Totevia, le autoritate maratha in le nord esseva re-stabilite intra un decennio sub Peshwa Madhavrao I. Sub Madhavrao I, le plus forte cavalleros recipeva semi-autonomia, creando un confederation de statos unite Maratha sub le Gaekwads de Baroda, le Holkars de Indore e Malwa, le Scindias de Gwalior e Ujjain, le Bhonsales de Nagpur e le Puars de Dhar e Dewas. In 1775, le Compania del Indie Oriental interveniva in un lucta de succession del familia Peshwa in Pune, lo que conduceva al Prime Guerra Anglo-Maratha, resultante in un victoria maratha. Le Marathas remaneva un major potentia in India usque a lor disfacta in le Secunde e Tertie Guerras Anglo-Maratha (1805–1818). === Imperio Sikh === Le Imperio Sikh esseva un entitate politic que governava le regiones nord-occidental del subcontinente indian, centrate circa le Punjab, ab 1799 usque a 1849. Illo esseva forjate super le fundationes del Khalsa, sub le direction de Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839). Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidava grande partes del India septentrional in un imperio per medio de su Exercito Sikh Khalsa, que esseva trainate in technicas militar europpee e equipate con technologias militar moderne. Ranjit Singh se demonstrava un maestro stratega e eligeva generales ben qualificate pro su exercito. Ille poneva fin con successo al Guerras Afghan-Sikh. Per stades, ille annexeva le Punjab central, le provincias de Multan e Kashmir, e le valle de Peshawar a su imperio. Al apice in le 19e seculo, le imperio se extendeva ab le Passo de Khyber in le west, usque a Kashmir in le nord, a Sindh in le sud, e, sequente le fluvio Sutlej, usque a Himachal in le est. Post le morte de Ranjit Singh, le imperio se debilitava, lo que duceva a conflictos con le Compania Britanni del Indie Oriental. Le Prime Guerra Anglo-Sikh e le Secunde Guerra Anglo-Sikh signava le cadita del Imperio Sikh, facente de illo un del ultime regiones del subcontinente indian a esser conquistate per le Britannicos. === Altere regnos === Le Regno de Mysore in le India meridional se expandava a su plus grande extension sub Hyder Ali e su filio Tipu Sultan in le secunda medietate del 18e seculo. Sub lor dominio, Mysore combatteva un serie de guerras contra le Marathas e le Britannicos o lor fortias combinate. Le Guerra Maratha-Mysore terminava in april 1787, post le finalisation del Tractato de Gajendragad, in le qual Tipu Sultan esseva obligate a pagar tributo al Marathas. Concurrentemente, le Guerras Anglo-Mysore habeva loco, ubi le Mysorianos usava le famose foguettas mysorian. Le Quarte Guerra Anglo-Mysore (1798–1799) videva le morte de Tipu. Le alliantia de Mysore con le Francese esseva considerate como un menacia al Compania Britanni del Indie Oriental, e Mysore esseva attaccate ab tote le quatro latos. Le Nizam de Hyderabad e le Marathas lanceava un invasion ab le nord. Le Britannicos ganiava un victoria decisive al Assedio de Seringapatam (1799). Hyderabad esseva fundate per le dynastia Qutb Shahi de Golconda in 1591. Post un breve dominio Mughal, Asif Jah, un official Mughal, prendeva controlo de Hyderabad e declarava se Nizam-al-Mulk de Hyderabad in 1724. Le Nizams perdeva considerabile territorio e pagava tributo al Imperio Maratha post esser battite in multiple battalias, como le Battalia de Palkhed. Nonobstante, le Nizams manteneva lor souveranitate ab 1724 usque a 1948, primo per pagar tributos al Marathas, e plus tarde como vassallos del Britannicos. Hyderabad deveniva un stato principesque in India Britannic in 1798. Le Nawabs de Bengal deveniva de facto regentes de Bengal post le declino del Imperio Mughal. Totevia, lor dominio esseva intermittite per le Marathas que menava sex expeditiones in Bengal inter 1741 e 1748, como resultato del qual Bengal deveniva un stato tributari del Marathas. Le 23 de junio 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah, le ultime Nawab independente de Bengal, esseva trahite in le Battalia de Plassey per Mir Jafar. Ille perdeva contra le Britannicos, qui prendeva le controlo de Bengal in 1757, installava Mir Jafar sur le masnad (throno) e se stabiliva como un potentia politic in Bengal. In 1765 le systema de "Guberno Dual" esseva establishite, in le qual le Nawabs regnava in nomine del Britannicos e esseva simple marionettas del Britannicos. In 1772 le systema esseva abolite e Bengal esseva portate sub le controlo directe del Britannicos. In 1793, quando le Nizamat (governantia) del Nawab esseva etiam removite, illes remaneva solmente como pensionarios del Compania Britanni del Indie Oriental. In le 18e seculo, tote Rajputana esseva virtualmente subjuga per le Marathas. Le Secunde Guerra Anglo-Maratha distrahiva le Marathas inter 1807 e 1809, ma postea le domination Maratha de Rajputana reprendeva. In 1817, le Britannicos entrava in guerra contra le Pindaris, banditos que se refugiava in territorio Maratha, e isto rapidemente deveniva le Tertie Guerra Anglo-Maratha. Le governamento britannic offeriva su protection al reges Rajput contra le Pindaris e le Marathas. Al fin de 1818 tractatos simile esseva signate inter le altere estados Rajput e Britannia. Le governante Sindhia de Gwalior cedeva le districtos de Ajmer-Merwara al Britannicos, e le influentia Maratha in Rajasthan terminava. Le majoritate del principes Rajput remaneva fidel al Britannicos durante le Revolta de 1857, e poc cambios politic esseva facite in Rajputana usque al independentia de India in 1947. Le Agentia de Rajputana contineva plus de 20 estados principesque, le plus notabile essente Udaipur, Jaipur, Bikaner e Jodhpur. Post le cadita del Imperio Maratha, multe dynastias e statos Maratha deveniva vassallos in alliantia subsidiari con le Britannicos. Con le declino del Imperio Sikh, post le Prime Guerra Anglo-Sikh in 1846, sub le terminos del Tractato de Amritsar, le governamento britannic vendeva Kashmir a Maharaja Gulab Singh, e le stato principesque de Jammu e Kashmir, le secunde plus grande in India Britannic, esseva create per le dynastia Dogra. In le India oriental e nord-oriental, le statos hindu e buddhista de Cooch Behar, Twipra e Sikkim esseva annexcite per le Britannicos e transformate in statos principesque vassallos. Post le cadita del Imperio Vijayanagara, le statos Polygar emergeva in India meridional; illes resisteva invasiones e prosperava usque al Guerras Polygar, ubi illes esseva finalmente battite per le fortias del Compania Britanni del Indie Oriental. Circa le 18e seculo, le Regno de Nepal esseva formate per reges Rajput. === Exploration europee === In 1498, un flotta portugese sub Vasco da Gama discoperiva un nove via maritim ab Europa a India, lo que paveava le via pro commercio directe indo-european. Le Portugeses tosto installava postos commercial in Velha Goa, Damaon, le insula de Dio e Bombay. Le Portugeses instituiva le Inquisition de Goa, ubi nove convertitos indian esseva punite pro suspecte de heresia contra christianismo, e non-christianos esseva condemnate. Goa remaneva le principal territorio portugese usque a su annexion per India in 1961. Le sequentes a arrivar esseva le Hollandeses, con lor base principal in Ceylon. Illes stabiliva portos in Malabar. Totevia, lor expansion in India esseva interrumpite post lor disfacta in le Battalia de Colachel per le Regno de Travancore durante le Guerra Travancore-Hollandese. Le Hollandeses nunquam se recuperava de iste disfacta e non plus representava un grande menacia colonial pro India. Le conflictos interne inter regnos indian dava opportunitates al commercantes europee de establir gradualmente influentia politic e appropriar terras. Post le Hollandeses, le Britannicos — qui habeva installate se in le porto de Surat in le costa occidental in 1619 — e le Francese ambes fundava postos commercial in India. Ben que potentes europee continental controlava varie regiones costal del India meridional e oriental durante le seculo sequente, illes finalmente perdeva tote lor territorios in India al Britannicos, con le exception del postos francese de Pondichéry e Chandernagore, e le colonias portugese de Goa, Daman e Diu. === Governo del Compania del India Oriental in India === Le Compania Inglese del Indie Oriental esseva fundate in 1600. Illa ganiava un prime position in India con le instauration de un fabrica in Masulipatnam sur le costa oriental de India in 1611, e per un concessione de derectos del imperator mogol Jahangir pro establir un fabrica in Surat in 1612. In 1640, post haber recipite permission simile del regente de Vijayanagara plus al sud, un secunde fabrica esseva establite in Madras sur le costa sud-oriental. Le insuleto de Bom Bahia, in le hodierne Mumbai (Bombay), esseva un posto portugese non longe de Surat. Illo esseva presentate a Carlo II de Inglaterra como parte del dotte in su matrimonio con Catarina de Bragança. Carlo, a su vice, locava Bombay al Compania in 1668. Duo decennios plus tarde, le Compania establiva un posto commercial in le delta del fluvio Ganges. Durante iste periodo altere companias fundate per le Portugeses, Hollandeses, Francese e Danese similmente se expandiva in le subcontinente. Le victoria del Compania sub Robert Clive in le Battalia de Plassey in 1757, e un altere victoria in le Battalia de Buxar (in Bihar) in 1764, consolidava le potentia del Compania e obligava le imperator Shah Alam II a nominar la como diwan, o collectore de entratas, de Bengal, Bihar e Orissa. Assi le Compania deveniva de facto le governator de grande partes del basse planitie gangetic jam in 1773. Illa procedeva etiam gradualmente a expandir su dominios circum Bombay e Madras. Le Guerres Anglo-Mysore (1766–1799) e le Guerres Anglo-Maratha (1772–1818) la lassava in controlo de vaste territorios del India sud del fluvio Sutlej. Con le disfacta del Marathas, nulle potentia native plus representava un menacia pro le Compania. Le expansion del potentia del Compania prendeva principalmente duo formas. Le prime esseva le annexion directe de estados indian e le subsequente governantia directe del regiones subjacent, que in conjunto deveniva le India Britannic. Le regiones annexionate includeva le Provincias Nord-Occidental (comprenente Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur e le Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Regno Ahom 1828) e Sindh (1843). Punjab, le Provincia de Frontiera Nord-Occidental e Kashmir esseva annexionate post le Guerres Anglo-Sikh in 1849–1856 (tempore del marchese de Dalhousie como Governator General). Totevia, Kashmir esseva immediatemente vendite sub le Tractato de Amritsar (1850) al dynastia Dogra de Jammu, e assi deveniva un stato principesc. In 1854, Berar esseva annexionate, e duo annos plus tarde etiam le stato de Oudh Le secunde forma de affirmar potentia involveva tractatos in que reges indianos recognosceva le hegemonia del Compania in cambio de un limitate autonomia interne. Pois que le Compania operava sub restrictiones financiarie, illa deberea establir fundamenta politic pro su dominio.[353] Le plus importante de iste sustentos veniva del alliantias subsidiary con principes indianos.[353] In le comenciamento del seculo XIX, le territorios de iste principes representava duo tertios de India.[353] Quando un regente indian, capace de assecurar su territorio, voleva entrar in tal alliantia, le Compania lo acceptava como un methodo economic de governo indirecte, que non implicava ni le custos economic del administration directe, ni le custos politic de ganiar le supporto de subjectos estranios.[354] In cambio, le Compania assumeva le “defensa de iste alliados subordinate e los tractava con traditional respecto e signos de honor.”[354] Le alliantias subsidiary creava le Statos Principesc del maharajas hindu e del nawabs musulman. Prominente inter iste statos esseva: Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), le Statos del Collinas Cis-Sutlej (1815), le Agente de India Central (1819), Cutch e territorios Gaikwad de Gujarat (1819), Rajputana (1818),[355] e Bahawalpur (1833). ==== Systema de indentura indian ==== Le systema de indentura indian esseva un systema continuate de servitude contractuale, un forma de servitude per debito, per le qual 3,5 milliones de indianos esseva transportate al colonias del potentias europee pro fornir labor in le plantationes (principalmente de canna de saccharo). Illo comenciava con le fin del sclavitude in 1833 e continuava usque a 1920. Isto resultava in le formation de un grande diaspora indian que se disveloppava ab le Caribes usque al Oceano Pacific, e in le crescimento de vaste populationes indo-caribic e indo-african. == Periodo moderne tardive e historia contemporanee (1857 – 1947) == === Rebellion de 1857 e su consequentias === Le Rebellione Indian de 1857 esseva un rebellion su scala large de soldados employate per le Compania Britannic del Indias Oriental in India septentrional e central contra le dominio del Compania. Le scintilla que causava le motin esseva le introduction de nove cartuchos pro le rifle Enfield, que esseva insensibile al prohibitiones religiose local. Le principal mutinario esseva Mangal Pandey.[356] In addition, le discontento plus profunde respecto al taxation britannic, le division ethnic inter officiales britannic e lor tropas indian, e le annexiones de terras, habeva un rolo significative in le rebellion. In poc septimanas post le motin de Pandey, decenas de unitates del armata indian se univa a exercitos paisan in un rebellion generalisate. Le soldados rebelle esseva postea accompaniate per nobilitate indian, multe del qual habeva perdite titulos e dominios sub le Doctrina de Caducitate e senti que le Compania habeva interferite con le systema traditional de hereditage. Capites del rebelles como Nana Sahib e le Rani de Jhansi pertineva a iste gruppo.[357] Post le eruption del motin in Meerut, le rebelles rapidemente attingeva Delhi. Illes habeva etiam capturate vaste territorios del Provincias Nord-Occidental e de Awadh (Oudh). In Awadh, in particular, le rebellion assumeva le characteristicas de un revolta patriotic contra le presentia britannic.[358] Totevia, le Compania Britannic del Indias Oriental se mobilisava rapidemente con le assistentia de statos principesc amic, ma le britannicos necessitava quasi tote 1858 pro supprimmer le rebellion. A causa del facto que le rebelles esseva mal equipate e non habeva supporto o financiamiento exterior, illes esseva brutalmente subjogate.[359] Post isto, tote le poter esseva transferite del Compania Britannic del Indias Oriental al Corona Britannic, que comenciava a administrar le major parte de India como provincias. Le Corona controlava directemente le terras del Compania e habeva un influentia indirecte considerabile super le resto de India, que consisteva in statos principesc regite per familias royal local. Officialmente il habeva 565 statos principesc in 1947, ma solmente 21 habeva governamentos real, e solmente tres esseva grande (Mysore, Hyderabad e Kashmir). Illos esseva integrate in le nation independente inter 1947 e 1948.[360] === Raj Britannic (1858 – 1947) === Post 1857, le governo colonial fortificava e expandiva su infrastructura per medio del systema judicial, del proceduras legal e del statutos. Le Codice Penal Indian esseva create.[361] In le campo del education, Thomas Babington Macaulay habeva facite del instruction un prioritate pro le Raj in 1835 e succediva in implementar le uso del lingua anglese pro le inseniamento. Per 1890, circa 60.000 indianos habeva matriculate.[362] Le economia indian cresceva a circa 1% per anno inter 1880 e 1920, e le population cresceva equalmente a 1%. Totevia, a partir del decennio de 1910, le industria private indian comenciava a crescer significativemente. India construiva un systema modern de ferrovias in le fin del seculo XIX, que deveniva le quarte plus grande del mundo.[363] Historiatores ha essite dividite re le historia economic, con le schola nationalista affirmante que India se habeva pauperate a causa del dominio britannic.[364] In 1905, Lord Curzon divideva le grande provincia de Bengal in un parte occidental majormente hindu e un parte oriental denominate "Bengal Oriental e Assam", majormente musulman. Le objectivo britannic esseva declarate como un administration plus efficiente, ma le populo de Bengal se indignava contra lo que pareva un strategia de “dividir e dominar”. Isto marcava etiam le comenciamento del movimento anticolonial organisate. Quando le Partito Liberal in Britannia prendeva le poter in 1906, Curzon esseva removite. Bengal esseva reunificate in 1911. Le nove viceré Gilbert Minto e le nove secretario de stato pro India John Morley consultava con le capites del Congress super reformas politic. Le reformas Morley-Minto de 1909 prevideva le admission de indianos in le consilios executive provincial e etiam in le consilio executive del viceré. Le Consilio Legislative Imperial esseva allargate de 25 a 60 membros, e representation communal separate pro musulmanes esseva establite — un passo dramatic verso un governo plus representative e responsabile.[365] In ille periodo nasceva plure organisationes socio-religiose. Le musulmanes fundava in 1906 le All India Muslim League pro proteger le interesses del musulmanes aristocratic. Le Hindu Mahasabha cercava representar le interesses hindu. Le organisation hindu nationalista Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) esseva fundate in 1925–1926.[366] Le sikhs fundava le Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920.[367] Totevia, le plus grande e ancian partito politic, le Indian National Congress, fundate in 1885, tentava mantener distantia del movimentos socio-religiose e del politica de identitate.[368] ==== Renascentia indian ==== Le Renascentia Bengali refere al movimento de reform social, dominate per le hindus bengali, in le region de Bengal del subcontinente indian durante le seculo XIX e le initio del seculo XX, un periodo de domination britannic. Le historico Nitish Sengupta describe iste renascentia como habente comenciate con le reformator e humanitario Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), e finite con le prime laureato Nobel de Asia, Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[369] Iste florescentia de reformatores religiose e social, eruditos e scriptores es describite per le historico David Kopf como “un del periodos le plus creative in le historia de India.”[370] Durante iste periodo, Bengal esseva testimonio de un evigilantia intellectual que in certe maniera es comparabile al Renascentia europea. Iste movimento poneva in question le orthodoxias existente, specialmente in relation a feminas, matrimonio, le systema de dotte, le systema de castas e le religione. Un del plus ancian movimentos social que emergiva durante iste tempore esseva le Movimento del Juventute Bengali, que promoveva le rationalismo e le atheismo como denominatores commun de conducta civil inter le hindus instruite del castas superior.[371] Illo exerceva un rolo importante in reawakenar le mentos e le intellecto indiano a transverso del subcontinente. ==== Fames ==== Durante le periodo del Compania Britannic del India Oriental e del Corona Britannic, India experimentava alcun del plus mortal fames jam registrate. Iste fames, usualmente resultante de fallimentos de recolta e frequentemente exacerbate per le politicas del governamento colonial,[372] includeva: * le Grande Fame de 1876–1878, in que moriva inter 6,1 e 10,3 milliones de personas;[373] * le Grande Fame Bengali de 1770, con mortes estimate inter 1 e 10 milliones;[374][375] * le Fame Indian de 1899–1900, que causava le mortes de inter 1,25 e 10 milliones;[372] * e le Fame Bengali de 1943, que resultava in inter 2,1 e 3,8 milliones de mortes.[376] In ultra isto, le tertie pandemia de peste in le medio del seculo XIX occideva circa 10 milliones de personas in India.[377] Nonobstante le persistentia de morbos e fames, le population del subcontinente, que esseva de circa 200 milliones in 1750,[378] attingeva 389 milliones in 1941.[379] ==== Prime Guerra Mundial ==== Durante le Prime Guerra Mundial, plus que 800.000 indianos se voluntariava pro le armea, e plus que 400.000 pro rolos non-combattente, comparate con le reclutamento annual prebellic de solmente 15.000 homines.[380] Le armea indiana combatteva al Fronte Occidental in le Prime Battalia de Ypres, ma post un anno de servicio, le perdas e le maladias reduceva severemente lor fortias. Circa 700.000 indianos luctava contra le turcos in le campania de Mesopotamia. Truppe indiane esseva etiam inviate a Africa Oriental, Egypto, e Gallipoli.[381] Illos combatteva in le campania de Sinai e Palestina (Suez 1915, Romani 1916, Jerusalem 1917) e participava al Battalia de Megiddo e al avancio verso Damascus e Aleppo. In total, un million de soldados indianos serviva foras; 74.187 moriva[382] e 67.000 esseva vulnerate.[383] Le Porta de India in Delhi rememora le circa 90.000 soldados indianos cadite in le Prime Guerra Mundial e in le Guerras Afghan. ==== Secunde Guerra Mundial ==== India Britannic declarava officialmente guerra contra Germania Nazi in septembre 1939.[384] Le Raj Britannic, como parte del Nationes Alliate, inviava plus que duo e medio milliones de soldados voluntari pro combattere sub commando britannic contra le potentes del Asse. In addition, plure statos principes provideva large donationes pro supportar le campania alliate. India etiam provideva le base pro le operationes american in supporto de China in le theatro China–Burma–India. Indianos combatteva ubique in le mundo: in le theatro european contra Germania; in Africa del Nord contra Germania e Italia; contra le italianos in Africa Oriental; in le Medio Oriente contra le francese Vichy; in le region sudasiatic pro defender India contra le japoneses e pro combatter les in Burma. Illes etiam adjutava a liberar colonias britannic como Singapore e Hong Kong post le rendite del Japon in augusto 1945. Plus que 87.000 soldados del subcontinente moriva in le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Le Congresso National Indian denunciava Germania Nazi, ma non voleva combatter ni illo ni altere potentes usque a que India habeva su independentia. Le Congresso lanceava le Movimento Quit India in augusto 1942, refusante co-operar in qualcunque maniera con le governamento usque a que independentia esseva concedite. Le governamento arrestava immediatemente plus que 60.000 dirigentes national e local del Congresso. Le Liga Musulman rejectava le movimento Quit India e collaborava strictemente con le autoritates del Raj. Subhas Chandra Bose (tamben appellate Netaji) se separava del Congresso e tentava formar un alliantia militar con Germania o Japon pro obtener independentia. Le germanos assisteva Bose in le formation del Legion Indian;[385] tamen, esseva Japon que le adjutava a reorganisar le Armea National Indian (INA), post que le prime INA sub Mohan Singh esseva dissolvite. Le INA combatteva sub direction japonese, majormente in Burma.[386] Bose etiam capiteva le Governamento Provisional de India Libere (Azad Hind), un governamento in exilio basate in Singapore.[387][388] Per 1942, le vicin Burma esseva invadite per Japon, que ja habeva capturate le territorio indian del Insulas Andaman e Nicobar. Japon concedeva controlo nominal del insulas al Governamento Provisional de India Libere le 21 octobre 1943. In le mense sequente, le INA con auxilio japonese transiva in India e avantava usque a Kohima in Nagaland. Iste avancio in le continente del subcontinente indian attingeva su puncto plus lontan in territorio indian, ma retrocedeva post le Battalia de Kohima in junio e post illo de Imphal le 3 julio 1944. Le region de Bengal in India Britannic suffreva un fame devastante inter 1940–1943. Se estima que inter 2,1 e 3 milliones de personas moriva a causa del fame, frequentemente characterisate como “artificial”,[389] con le majoritate del fontes affirmante que le politicas colonial del guerra exacerbab le crisis.[390] === Movimento de independentia indian (1885 – 1947) === Le numeros de britannicos in India esseva reducite,[393] ma illes esseva capace de regir 52% del subcontinente indian directemente e de exercer un considerabile influentia super le statos principes que representava le altere 48% del area.[394] Un del eventos le plus importante del seculo XIX esseva le ascension del nationalismo indian,[395] que portava le indianos a recercar primo “autogoverno” e plus tarde “complete independentia”. Tamen, historicos es dividite super le causas de su ascension. Motivos probabile include un “conflicto de interesses inter le populo indian e le interesses britannic”,[395] “discriminationes racial”,[396] e “le revelation del passato de India”.[397] Le prime passo verso le autogoverno indian esseva le nomination de consilieros pro advisar le vice-rege britannic in 1861, e le prime indian esseva nominate in 1909. Consilios provincial con membros indian esseva etiam instaurate. Le participation del consilieros se allargava subsequente-mente in consilios legislative. Le britannicos construiva un grande Armea Indian Britannic, con tote le officiales senior britannic e multe del tropas ex minoritates como le Gurkhas de Nepal e le Sikh.[398] Le servicio civil esseva crescente-mente occupate per indigenas al nivellos inferior, con britannicos reservante le positiones superior.[399] Bal Gangadhar Tilak, un dirigente nationalista indian, declarava Swaraj (autogoverno) como le destino del nation. Su phrase populare “Swaraj es mi jure de nascentia, e io lo habera”[400] deveniva un fonte de inspiration. Tilak esseva supportate per nove dirigentes public como Bipin Chandra Pal e Lala Lajpat Rai, que habeva le mesme puncto de vista; illes advocava in particular le movimento Swadeshi, que consisteva in le boicottar de productos importate e le uso de productos fabricate in India;[401] le triumvirato esseva popularmente cognoscite como Lal Bal Pal. In 1907, le Congresso se divideva in duo factiones: le radicales, guidate per Tilak, advocava agitation civil e revolution directe pro abatter le Imperio Britannic e le abandono de tote cosas britannic. Le moderatos, guidate per dirigentes como Dadabhai Naoroji e Gopal Krishna Gokhale, in cambio voleva reformas intra le quadro del dominio britannic.[401] Le partition de Bengal in 1905 augmentava ulteriormente le movimento revolutionari pro independentia indian. Le privation de derectos electorales induceva alcunos a prender action violente. Le britannicos mesme adoptava un approcho de “carrota e baston” in responsa al demandas nationalista renovate. Le medios pro attinger iste mesuras esseva plus tarde consacrate in le Acto de Governamento de India de 1919, que introduceva le principio de un administration dual, o diarchia, in que legislatores electe indianos e officiales nominate britannicos compartiva le poter.[402] In 1919, le coronello Reginald Dyer ordinava a su tropas de aperir foco contra manifestantes pacific, includente feminas e infantes sin armas, resultante in le massacre de Jallianwala Bagh; iste evento portava al Movimento de Non-cooperation de 1920–1922. Le massacre esseva un episodio decisive verso le fin del dominio britannic in India.[403] Desde 1920, dirigentes como Mahatma Gandhi initiava movimentos de massa multo populare contra le Raj Britannic usante methodos in grande parte pacific. Le movimento de independentia guidate per Gandhi opposeva le dominio britannic per medios non-violente como non-cooperation, disobedientia civil e resistentia economic. Tamen, activitates revolutionari contra le dominio britannic occurreva per tote le subcontinente, e alcunos adoptava un approcho militante, como le Association Republican Hindustan, que tentava abatter le dominio britannic per lotta armate. Le Conferentia Muslim All India Azad se reuniva in Delhi in april 1940 pro exprimer su supporto a un India independente e unite.[404] Su membros includeva plure organisationes islamic in India, como etiam 1.400 delegatos musulman nationalista.[405][406][407] Le Liga Musulman All-India, favorabile al partition, cercava silentiar illes musulman nationalista que opposeva le division de India, sovente per “intimidation e coercition”.[406][407] Le assassinio del dirigente del Conferentia, Allah Bakhsh Soomro, facilitava ancora plus al Liga Musulman All-India le demanda pro le creation de un Pakistan.[407] ==== Post le Secunde Guerra Mundial (c. 1946–1947) ==== In januario 1946, plure mutinationes erumpeva in le servicios armate, comenciante con celle del servitores del RAF, frustrate per lor lente repatriation. Le mutinationes attingeva un puncto culminante con le mutination del Marina Indian Britannic in Bombay in februario 1946, sequite per alteres in Calcutta, Madras e Karachi. Illas esseva rapidemente supprimite. In le initio de 1946, nove electiones esseva proclamate, e candidatos del Congresso ganiava in octo del dece-un provincias. In le fin de 1946, le guberno laburista decideva terminar le dominio britannic de India, e in le initio de 1947 illes annunciava lor intention de transferer le poter non plus tarde que junio 1948 e de participar al formation de un guberno interimari. In ultra del aspiration al independentia, tensiones inter hindos e musulmanos se habeva etiam disveloppate durante annos. Le dirigente del Liga Musulman, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, proclamava le 16 augusto 1946 como le Die de Action Directe, con le objectivo declarate de demonstrar, pacificamente, le demanda pro un patria musulman in India Britannic. Isto resultava in le eruption del cyclo de violentia plus tarde appellate le Grande Massacre de Calcutta de augusto 1946. Le violentia communitari se diffundeva a Bihar, Noakhali in Bengal, Garhmukteshwar in le Provincias Unite, e plus tarde a Rawalpindi in martio 1947, ubi sikh e hindos esseva attaccate o expellite per musulmanos. == Independentia e partition (1947 – presente) == In augusto 1947, le Imperio Indian Britannic esseva dividite in le Union de India e le Dominio de Pakistan. In particular, le partition del Punjab e de Bengal conduceva a disordines inter hindos, musulmanos e sikhs in iste provincias, que se diffundeva a altere regiones vicin, lassante circa 500.000 mortos. Le policia e le unitates del armea esseva in grande parte ineffective. Le officiarios britannic habeva quitate, e le unitates comenciava tolerar, si non mesmo practicar, violentia contra lor inimicos religiose.[409][410][411] Iste periodo etiam testimoniava un del plus grande migrationes de massa in le historia moderne, con un total de circa 12 milliones de hindos, sikhs e musulmanos que se transferiva inter le nove create nationes de India e Pakistan (que ganiava independentia respectivemente le 15 e le 14 augusto 1947).[410] In 1971, Bangladesh, anteriormente Pakistan Oriental e Bengal Oriental, secedeva de Pakistan.[412] == Referentias == {{reflist}} === Fontes === * {{cite book|last1=Antonova|first1=K.A.|author-link1=Koka Antonova|first2=G.|last2=Bongard-Levin|author-link2=Grigory Bongard-Levin|first3=G.|last3=Kotovsky|title=История Индии|trans-title=History of India|year=1979|publisher=Progress|location=Moscow|language=ru}} * {{cite book|last=Arnold|first=David|year=1991|title=Famine: Social Crisis and Historical Change|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-15119-7}} * {{cite book|last1=Asher|first1=C.B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|year=2006|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC}} * {{cite book|last=Bandyopadhyay|first=Sekhar|year=2004|title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India|publisher=Orient Longman|isbn=978-81-250-2596-2}} * {{cite book|last=Bayly|first=Christopher Alan|author-link=Christopher Bayly|year=2000|orig-year=1996|title=Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57085-5}} * {{cite book|last1=Bose|first1=Sugata|author1-link=Sugata Bose|last2=Jalal|first2=Ayesha|author2-link=Ayesha Jalal|year=2003|title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy|edition=2nd|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-30787-2}} * {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Judith M.|author-link=Judith M. Brown|year=1994|title=Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59677250|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-19-873113-9|access-date=29 August 2017|archive-date=12 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111212082220/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59677250|url-status=dead}} * {{cite book|last=Bentley|first=Jerry H.|author-link=Jerry H. 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''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970'' (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles * Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2007), 890pp; since 1947 * James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (2000) [https://archive.org/details/raj00lawr online] * Khan, Yasmin. ''The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War'' (2015); also published as ''India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War'' [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199753490/excerpt India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War]. * Khan, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan'' (2n d ed. Yale UP 2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Great-Partition-Making-India-Pakistan/dp/030023032X/ excerpt] * Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC excerpt and text search] * [[R. C. 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''[https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00roth An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991]'' (1993) * [[Ram Sharan Sharma|Sharma, R.S.]], ''[[India's Ancient Past]]'', (Oxford University Press, 2005) * Sarkar, Sumit. ''Modern India, 1885–1947'' (2002) * {{cite book|last=Senior|first=R.C.|title=Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV.|year=2006|publisher=Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.|isbn=978-0-9709268-6-9}} * Singhal, D.P. ''A History of the Indian People'' (1983) * Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned * [[Spear, Percival]]. ''A History of India''. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990) [First published 1965] * Stein, Burton. ''A History of India'' (1998) * Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC excerpt and text search] * Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. 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''A New History of India'' (8th ed. 2008) [https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofindi0000wolp online 7th edition] === Historiographia === * {{cite book|last=Bannerjee|first=Gauranganath|year=1921|title=India as known to the ancient world|url=https://archive.org/stream/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up|location=London|publisher=Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press}} * {{cite journal|last1=Bayly|first1=C.A.|date=November 1985|title=State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years|url=https://archive.org/details/economic-history-review_1985-11_38_4/page/583|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=38|issue=4|pages=583–596|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x|jstor=2597191}} * Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", ''History Today'' 57#9 (2007) pp.&nbsp;34–. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915152404/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478 |date=15 September 2011 }} * {{cite book|last1=Elliot|first1=Henry Miers|first2=John|last2=Dowson|year=1867|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|title=The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period|publisher=London: Trübner and Co.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825184925/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|archive-date=25 August 2009}} * {{cite book|last=Kahn|first=Yasmin|chapter=Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War|editor1=Martin Gegner|editor2=Bart Ziino|title=The Heritage of War|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|pages=177–193}} * {{cite book|last=Jain|first=M.|title=The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts|chapter=4|publisher=[[Delhi]]: Ocean Books|year=2011}} * {{cite book|last=Lal|first=Vinay|title=The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India|year=2003}} * {{cite book|last=Palit|first=Chittabrata|title=Indian Historiography|year=2008}} * {{cite book|author-link=Arvind Sharma|title=Hinduism and Its Sense of History|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-566531-4|last=Sharma|first=Arvind}} * {{cite book|first=E.|last=Sreedharan|title=A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000|year=2004}} * {{cite book|last=Warder|first=A.K.|title=An introduction to Indian historiography|year=1972}} === Primari === * {{cite book|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India|date=1908–1931|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/}} Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901. {{Historia de Asia}} {{Traduction|en|History of India|1300194630}} [[Categoria:Historia de India|*]] r7yi2n297jtfugd4pfif64vqycua4g0 0 59859 698222 685367 2026-08-03T22:55:30Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698222 wikitext text/x-wiki La historia del insula de [[Taiwan (insula)|Taiwan]] retrocede decenas de millennios al plus ancian evidentia cognoscite de habitation human. Gentes ex [[China]] gradualmente entrava in contacto con Taiwan durante le dynastia Yuan (1271–1368), e homines [[Han (ethnia)|Han]] de China comenciava a establir se ibi ja al initio del seculo XVII. Le insula deveniva cognoscite in Occidente quando exploratores portugese lo discoperiva in le seculo XVI e lo nominava Formosa. Inter 1624 e 1662, le sud del insula esseva colonisate per le nederlandeses, con sede in Zeelandia in le actual Anping, Tainan, durante que le espanioles construeva un posto militar in le nord, que durava usque 1642, quando le fortalessas espaniol in Keelung esseva prendite per le nederlandeses. Iste colonisationes europee esseva sequite per un influxo de immigrantes Hoklo e Hakka ab [[Fujian]] e [[Guangdong]]. In 1662, Koxinga disfaceva le nederlandeses e stabiliva un base de operationes sur le insula. Su descendentes esseva vincite per le dynastia Qing in 1683, e lor territorio in Taiwan esseva annexate per le Qing. Post perder le Prime Guerra Sino-Japonese in 1895, Qing cedeva Taiwan e Penghu a [[Japon]]. Taiwan experimentava un crescimento industrial e deveniva un colonia japonese productive in le exportation de ris e saccharo. Durante le Secunde Guerra Sino-Japonese illo serviva como base pro le invasion de China, e plus tarde de [[Asia]] Sud-Est e del [[Oceano Pacific|Pacifico]] durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. In 1945, post le fin del hostilitates in le Secunde Guerra Mundial, le governamento nationalista del [[Taiwan|Republica de China]] (ROC), guidate per le Kuomintang (KMT), prendeva controlo de Taiwan. In 1949, post perder le controlo del continente chinese in le Guerra Civil Chinese, le governamento del ROC sub le KMT se retirava a Taiwan, ubi Chiang Kai-shek declarava le lege martial. Le KMT governava Taiwan (juncto con le insulas de Kinmen, Wuqiu e Matsu) como un stato de un sol partito durante quaranta annos usque al reformas democratic in le annos 1980. Le prime election presidential directe habeva loco in 1996. Durante le periodo postbellic, Taiwan experientiava rapide industrialisation e crescimento economic cognoscite como le "Miraculo de Taiwan", e deveniva un del "Quatro Tigres Asiatic". == Prehistoria == In le Tarde [[Pleistoceno]], le nivellos del mar esseva plus basse que al presente, exponente le fundo del Manica de Taiwan como un ponte terrestre. Un concentration de [[Fossile transitional|fossiles]] de [[Vertebrato|vertebratos]] ha essite trovate in le canal inter le Insulas Penghu e Taiwan, includente un mandibula partial designate Penghu 1, apparentemente pertinente a un specie previemente incognite del genere ''Homo'', datate inter 450,000 e 190,000 annos retro.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The first archaic ''Homo'' from Taiwan|given1=Chun-Hsiang|surname1=Chang|given2=Yousuke|surname2=Kaifu|given3=Masanaru|surname3=Takai|given4=Reiko T.|surname4=Kono|given5=Rainer|surname5=Grün|given6=Shuji|surname6=Matsu'ura|given7=Les|surname7=Kinsley|given8=Liang-Kong|surname8=Lin|journal=Nature Communications|volume=6|number=6037|year=2015|doi=10.1038/ncomms7037|pmid=25625212|pmc=4316746|page=6037|bibcode=2015NatCo...6.6037C}}</ref> Le plus ancian evidentia del presentia human moderne in Taiwan consiste in fragmentos e un dente trovate a Chouqu e Gangzilin, in le Districto Zuojhen, estimate haber inter 20,000 e 30,000 annos. Le plus ancian artefactos es instrumentos de petra schellate del cultura Paleolithic Changbin trovate in Changbin, Taitung, datate inter 15,000 e 5,000 annos retro. Le mesme cultura es trovate in sitos a Eluanbi al extremitate meridional de Taiwan, persistente usque a 5,000 annos retro. Analyses de spores e granos de pollene in le sedimento del Lago Sol e Luna suggere que tracias de agricultura de abattimento e incendios comenciava in le area 11,000 annos retro, e terminava 4,200 annos retro, quando abundante restos de cultivation de ris esseva trovate.<ref name="li_2011">{{cite book|author1={{lang|zh-tw|李壬癸}} [ [[Li Jen-kuei|Li, Paul Jen-kuei]] ]|script-title=zh:台灣南島民族的族群與遷徙|trans-title=The Ethnic Groups and Dispersal of the Austronesian in Taiwan|date=Jan 2011|publisher={{lang|zh-tw|前衛出版社}} [Avanguard Publishing House]|location=Taipei|isbn=978-957-801-660-6|pages=46, 48|edition=Revised|ref=li_2011|script-chapter=zh:1. 台灣土著民族的來源|trans-chapter=1. Origins of Taiwan Aborigines|script-quote=zh:根據張光直(1969)...9,000BC起...大量種植稻米的遺跡|trans-quote=[[Kwang-chih Chang|Chang, Kwang-chih]] (1969): ...traces of slash-and-burn agriculture since 9,000BC... remains of rice cultivation}}</ref> Al initio del Holoceno, 10,000 annos retro, le nivellos del mar cresceva, formante le Manica de Taiwan e isolante le insula del continente asiatic. In 2011, le [[skeleto]] del ''Homo de Liangdao'', datate a circa 8,000 annos retro, esseva trovate sur le Insula Liang.<ref name="Ko20142">{{cite journal|title=Early Austronesians: into and out of Taiwan|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-human-genetics_2014-03-06_94_3/page/426|given1=Albert Min-Shan|surname1=Ko|given2=Chung-Yu|surname2=Chen|given3=Qiaomei|surname3=Fu|given4=Frederick|surname4=Delfin|given5=Mingkun|surname5=Li|given6=Hung-Lin|surname6=Chiu|given7=Mark|surname7=Stoneking|given8=Ying-Chin|surname8=Ko|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=94|issue=3|pages=426–436|year=2014|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.02.003|pmid=24607387|pmc=3951936|quote=The Liangdao Man skeletal remains were discovered on the Liang Island of the Matsu archipelago in December 2011 and transported to the Matsu Folklore Museum. Matsu is located on the Min River estuary, 24 km from Fujian and 180 km northwest of Taiwan}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Resolving the ancestry of Austronesian-speaking populations|given1=Pedro A.|surname1=Soares|given2=Jean A.|surname2=Trejaut|given3=Teresa|surname3=Rito|given4=Bruno|surname4=Cavadas|given5=Catherine|surname5=Hill|given6=Ken Khong|surname6=Eng|given7=Maru|surname7=Mormina|given8=Andreia|surname8=Brandão|given9=Ross M.|surname9=Fraser|given10=Tse-Yi|surname10=Wang|given11=Jun-Hun|surname11=Loo|given12=Christopher|surname12=Snell|given13=Tsang-Ming|surname13=Ko|given14=António|surname14=Amorim|given15=Maria|surname15=Pala|given16=Vincent|surname16=Macaulay|given17=David|surname17=Bulbeck|given18=James F.|surname18=Wilson|given19=Leonor|surname19=Gusmão|given20=Luísa|surname20=Pereira|given21=Stephen|surname21=Oppenheimer|given22=Marie|surname22=Lin|given23=Martin B.|surname23=Richards|journal=Human Genetics|year=2016|volume=135|issue=3|pages=309–326|doi=10.1007/s00439-015-1620-z|pmid=26781090|pmc=4757630}}</ref> Le sol sepultura paleolithic que ha essite trovate in Taiwan esseva in Chenggong, in le sud-est, e data ab circa 4000 a.C.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Female craniometrics support the 'two‑layer model' of human dispersal in Eastern Eurasia|given1=Hirofumi|surname1=Matsumura|given2=Guangmao|surname2=Xie|given3=Lan Cuong|surname3=Nguyen|given4=Tsunehiko|surname4=Hanihara|given5=Zhen|surname5=Li|given6=Khanh Trung Kien|surname6=Nguyen6|given7=Xuan Tinh|surname7=Ho|given8=Thi Nga|surname8=Nguyen|given9=Shih‑Chiang|surname9=Huang|given10=Hsiao‑chun|surname10=Hung|journal=Scientific Reports|year=2021|volume=11|number=20830|page=20830|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-00295-6|pmid=34675295|pmc=8531373|bibcode=2021NatSR..1120830M|doi-access=free}} pp. 5–9.</ref> Circa 3000 a.C., le cultura neolithic Dapenkeng appareva subitemente e se diffundeva rapidemente circa le costa. Alcunes de iste populos plus tarde migrava ab Taiwan verso le insulas del Asia Sud-Oriental e trans le [[Oceano Pacific|Oceanos Pacific]] e [[Oceano Indian|Indian]]. Ligamines commercial con le [[archipelago]] [[Philippinas|philippin]] continuava ab le comencio del secunde millennio a.C. Le cultura Dapenkeng esseva succedite per un varietate de culturas per tote le insula, includente le Tahu e le Yingpu. == Contacto e installation chinese == === Prime registros de visitas possibile === Le historias chinese primitive refere a visitas a insulas oriental que alcun historicos identifica con Taiwan. Truppas del stato Wu Oriental del Tres Regnos es registrate como visitantes a un insula appellate ''Yizhou'' in le primavera de 230. Alcun intellectuales ha identificato iste insula como Taiwan, durante que alteres non lo face.<ref>http://www.strongwindpress.com/pdfs/HKFax/No_HK2013-41.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928040216/http://www.strongwindpress.com/pdfs/HKFax/No_HK2013-41.pdf|date=2015-09-28}} 夷洲问题再辨析 (PDF). [2015-09-27]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2015-09-28）}.</ref> Le ''Libro de Sui'' relata que le Imperator Yang del dynastia Sui (581-618) inviava tres expeditiones a un loco appellate "Liuqiu" al comenciamento del septime seculo. Plus tarde, le nomine ''Liuqiu'' (cujes characteres es pronunciate in japonese como "Ryukyu") se refereva al catena de insulas al nord-est de Taiwan, ma alcun studiosos crede que illo poteva referer a Taiwan in le periodo Sui.<ref name="tanaka20082">{{cite book|author=Tanaka Fumio 田中史生|chapter=Kodai no Amami Okinawa shotō to kokusai shakai|script-chapter=ja:古代の奄美・沖縄諸島と国際社会|editor=Ikeda Yoshifumi|title=Kodai chūsei no kyōkai ryōiki|script-title=ja:古代中世の境界領域|pages=49–70|year=2008}}</ref> Piscatores chinese se habeva establite sur le Insulas Penghu proxime a Taiwan in 1171. Ben que Penghu non face parte del insula de Taiwan, illo es actualmente governate como parte de Taiwan per le Republica de China. In 1171, banditos Bisheye, un populo taiwanese apparentate al Bisaya del [[Visayas]], disembarcava sur Penghu e piliava campos plantate per migrantes chinese. Le dynastia Song (960-1279) inviava soldatos contra illes, e ab ille tempore le patrulias de Song visitava regularmente Penghu in primavera e estate. Un official local, Wang Dayou, stationava truppas ibi pro impedir depredationes del Bisheye. === Dynastia Yuan === Durante le dynastia Yuan (1271–1368), le populo chinese del ethnia Han comenciava a visitar Taiwan. Le imperator de Yuan Kublai Khan inviava officiales al Regno Ryukyu in 1292 pro requirer su fidelitate, ma le officiales arrivava in Taiwan e lo confundeva con Ryukyu. Post que tres soldatos esseva occidite, le delegation se retirava immediatemente.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Lai|first1=Fu-shun|date=October 26, 2015|title=A factual review of Taiwan's history|url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2015/10/26/2003630930|access-date=April 24, 2024|website=Taipei Times}}</ref> Un altere expedition esseva inviate in 1297. Wang Dayuan visitava Taiwan in 1349 e provideva le prime description detaliate super Taiwan. Ille mentionava le presentia de ceramica ''Chuhou'' ex le moderne Lishui, lo que suggere que mercatores chinese habeva visitate le insula. === Dynastia Ming === Al comenciamento del 16te seculo, numerose piscatores, mercatores e piratas chinese visitava le parte sud-occidental del insula. Le chinese que negotiava in Asia Sud-Oriental comenciava etiam a passar per Taiwan sud-occidental e meridional. Alcunes de illes faceva commercio con le aborigines taiwanese. Al fin del 16te seculo, chinese ex Fujian se establiva in Taiwan sud-occidental. In 1593, officiales de Ming comenciava a emittar licentias pro commercia in Taiwan septentrional. Le commercio in Taiwan sud-occidental habeva solmente minor importantia usque post 1567, quando illo esseva usate como un loco foras del controlo de Ming pro circumvenir le interdiction del commercio sino-japonese. == Colonisation hollandese e espaniol (1624-1668) == === Contacto e establimento === Le nomine Formosa (福爾摩沙) date ab 1542, quando marineros portugese lo notava in lor mapas como Ilha Formosa (expression portugese pro "insula belle"). In 1582, le superviventes de un naufragio portugese passava 45 dies luctante contra [[malaria]] e le aborigines ante de retornar a [[Macao|Macau]]. Le Compania Hollandese del India Oriental (VOC) veniva in le area in cerca de un base commercial e militar in Asia. Battite per le portugese in le Batalia de Macau in 1622, illes tentava occupare Penghu, ma esseva repellite per le autoritates de Ming in 1624. Postea illes construeva le Fort Zeelandia sur le insula de Tayowan al costa sud-occidental. In le continente adjacente, illes construeva un minor forte, le Fort Provintia. === Pirateria === Le europeos laborava con e tamben luctava contra piratas chinese. Le pirata Li Dan mediava inter le fortias chinese del dynastia Ming e le hollandeses a Penghu, lo que duceva al relocation del hollandeses a Taiwan. In iste tempore, il deveniva commun pro le piratas chinese in le Manica de Taiwan vender garantias de protection. Quando le VOC discoperiva isto, illo etiam entrava in le negotio de protection; isto esseva un del prime impostos levate super le colonia. In julio 1626, le Consilio de Formosa ordinava a tote le homines chinese qui viveva o commerciava in Taiwan a obtener un licentia pro "distinguer le piratas del commerciantes e travaliatores". Iste permisso de residentia deveniva ultimemente un imposto per capite. Zheng Zhilong supplantava Li Dan como le plus influente pirata del region in 1625. Como Li Dan, ille anque laborava con le hollandeses, mesmo a vices piliava sub le bandiera hollandese. A su culmine, ille commandava un flotta de decenas de milles de homines, secundo le officiales de Fujian. Recognoscente su grande flotta de naves superior de stilo europee, le chineses demandava al hollandeses luctar contra Zheng. Le hollandeses consentiva, ma ageva troppo tarde, e Zheng piliava le citate de Xiamen. Considerante Zheng troppo potente, le autoritates chinese le accordava un titulo official e un rango imperial in 1628. Zheng deveniva le "Admiral Patruliante" responsabile pro nettar le costa de piratas, e eliminava su competitores. In le estate de 1633, un flotta hollandese e le pirata Liu Xiang realisava un attacco furtive e destrueva le flotta de Zheng. Le hollandeses se reconciliava con Zheng e ille arrangiava plus de commercio chinese in Taiwan. In 1637, Liu esseva vincite per Zheng. === Negotio japonese === Le japoneses habeva commerciate pro productos chinese in Taiwan ante que le hollandeses arrivava in 1624. In 1593, [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] tentava sin successo de compeller Taiwan in un relation tributari proque le insula mancava de un governamento unificate. In 1609, le [[Shogunato Tokugawa]] inviava un mission de exploration al insula. In 1609 e 1615, Tokugawa Ieyasu inviava expeditiones pro attaccar Penghu e Taiwan. Le general Shen de Wuyu esseva inviate a [[Keelung]] contra le invasores japanese e los fortiava a retirar se. In 1616, Murayama Tōan inviava 13 naves pro conquirer Taiwan. Le flotta esseva dispersate per un typhon. In 1625, Batavia ordinava al governator de Taiwan a impedir le japoneses de commerciar proque illes pagava plus pro le [[seta]]. Le hollandeses anque restringeva le commercio japanese con le dynastia Ming. Le perdita del commercio japanese rendeva le commercio in Taiwan multo minus lucrative. Post 1635, le shogun prohibiva le japoneses de ir a foras e eliminava le menacia japanese pro le Compania. Le VOC se expandeva in le previe mercatos japanese in le sud-est de Asia. === Formosa espaniol === In 1626, le Imperio Espaniol, considerante le presentia hollandese in Taiwan como un menacia a lor [[colonia]] in le [[Philippinas]], establiva un colonia in Santísima Trinidad sur le costa nord-est (hodie Keelung), construente le Forte San Salvador. Illes etiam construeva le Forte Santo Domingo in le nord-west (hodie Tamsui) in 1629, ma lo abandonava in 1638 a causa de conflictos con le population local. Le parve colonia esseva affligite per maladias, affrontava locales hostile, e recipeva pauc appoio de [[Manila]], qui considerava le fortalessa como un perdita de lor ressources. In augusto 1641, le hollandeses e lor alliatos native tentava de prender le fortalessa espaniol, ma abandonava le tentativa quando le commandante realisava que illes habeva insufficiente canones pro montar un assedio. In augusto 1642, un secunde invasion hollandese con un fortia plus grande e melio equipate succedeva a capturar le fortalessa. Le espanioles qui habeva dirigite le fortalessa se dispersava pro viver con le nativos o se retirava al Philippinas. === Colonisation hollandese === Un serie de actiones militar e movimentos diplomatic esseva interprendite in 1635 e 1636 per le Compania Hollandese del Indias Oriental (VOC) con le scopo de subjugar le villages aborigine hostile in le region del sud-west del insula. Ante le campania, le hollandeses habeva essite in Formosa durante dece-un annos, ma non controlava multo del insula ultra lor fortia principal a Tayouan (hodie Anping, Tainan). Le altere villages aborigine in le area conduceva numerose attaccos contra le hollandeses e lor alliatos. Post reciper renfortios del quartier general colonial a Batavia, le hollandeses lanceava un attacco in 1635 e poteva reprimer le opposition e apportar le area circum lo que es Tainan hodie totalmente sub lor controlo. Post vider que Mattau e Soulang, le plus potente villages in le area, esseva opprimite per le fortia hollandese de maniera superante, multe altere villages in le area circumjacente veniva al hollandeses pro cercar pace e render lor soveranitate. Assi, le hollandeses poteva dramaticamente expander le extension de lor controlo territorial in un breve tempore, e evitar le necessitate de plus de combattos. Le campania finiva in februario 1636, quando representantes de vinti-octo villages attendeva un ceremonia in Tayouan pro cimentar le soveranitate hollandese. Le VOC administrava le insula e su population predominantemente aborigine usque a 1662. Illes establiva un systema de impostos e scholas pro inseniar un scripto romanisate del linguas formosan e pro evangelisar le [[christianismo]]. === Installation chinese === Le VOC incoragiava le migration chinese a Taiwan e provideva un structura militar e administrative pro le immigration chinese. Illo faceva le reclamo pro un numero de beneficios economic al chineses e mesmo los pagava pro mover se a Taiwan. In 1625, le Compania comenciava a facer le reclamo pro Provintia como un sito de installation. Le anno sequente, le citate prendeva foco e tanto le personal chinese como le personal del Compania lo abandonava. In 1629, le nativos de Mattau e Soulang attaccava Sakam e chassava via le habitantes de Provintia. In 1632, le Compania incoragiava le chineses a plantar canna de sucro in Sakam. In le primavera de 1635, 300 obreros chinese arrivava. Le chineses initialmente cultivava riso ma perdeva interesse in le recolta in 1639 a causa del manco de accesso a aqua. Isto esseva addressate in le annos 1640 e le production de riso reprendite. Varie industrias surgeva, e in le annos 1640 le hollandeses comenciava a imponer impostos super illos, causante un poco de discontento. Post 1648, quasi tote le rendimento del Compania veniva del chineses. Le chineses esseva permittite de posseder proprietate in un area limitate. Le hollandeses tentava impedir le chineses de miscer se con le nativos. Le nativos commerciava carne e pelles in cambio de sal, ferro, e vestimentos del commerciantes chinese. In 1634, le hollandeses ordinava al chineses de vender pelles de cervo solmente al Compania. In 1636, le chassatores chinese entrava in terras previemente native, nettate per le hollandeses. Chassatores commercial reimplaciava le nativos, e in 1638 le futuro del population de cervos esseva in question. Restrictiones sur le chassa esseva implementate. In 1636, Favorolang, le plus grande village aborigine al nord de Mattau, occideva tres chineses e feriva plure alteres. De augusto a novembre, le Favorolangeses appareva presso le Forte Zeelandia e capturava un vascello de pisca chinese. Le anno sequente, le hollandeses e lor alliatos native vinceva Favorolang. Le expedition esseva pagate per le population chinese. Quando le negotiationes de pace falleva, le hollandeses culpava un gruppo de chineses a Favorolang. Le Favorolangeses continuava lor attaccos usque a 1638. In 1640, un incidente que causava le captura de un chef de Favorolang e le morte subsequente de tres chassatores hollandese presso Favorolang resultava in le prohibition de chassatores chinese del territorio de Favorolang. Le hollandeses culpava le chineses, e ordines esseva date pro restringer le residentia e le viage chinese. Nulle vascello chinese esseva permittite circum Taiwan a minus que illo portava un licentia. Un expedition esseva ordinate pro chassar via le chineses del terra e pro subjugar le nativos al nord. In novembre 1642, un expedition partiva verso le nord, occidente 19 nativos e 11 chineses. Un politica que prohibiva a ulle chinese de viver al nord de Mattau esseva implementate. Plus tarde, le chineses esseva permittite de conducer commercio in Favorolang con un permisso. Le 8 de septembre 1652, un agricola chinese, Guo Huaiyi, e un armea de paisanos attaccava Sakam. Le majoritate del hollandeses poteva trovar refugio, ma alteres esseva capturate e executate. Durante le duo dies sequente, nativos e hollandeses occideva circa 500 chineses. Le 11 de septembre, quatro o cinque mille rebelles chinese se affrontava con le soldatos del Compania e lor alliatos native. Le rebelles fugiva; circa 4.000 chineses esseva occidite. Le rebellion e su massacro subsequente destrueva le fortia de travalio rural. Ben que le recolta superviveva quasi intacte, il habeva un recolta sub le media in 1653. Totevia, milles de chineses migrava a Taiwan a causa del guerra in le continente e un recuperation modeste del agricultura occurreva. Le mesuras anti-chinese augmentava. Totevia, in terminos de preparationes militar, pauc esseva facite. In maio 1654, le Forte Zeelandia esseva affligite per locustas, un [[peste]], e un tremor de terra. === Fin del governamento hollandese === Zheng Chenggong, cognoscite in fontes hollandese como Koxinga, esseva le filio del famose pirata Zheng Zhilong e su sposa japonese Tagawa Matsu. Ille studiava al Academia Imperial in Nanjing. Quando Beijing cadeva in 1644 al rebelles, Chenggong e su sequitores declarava lor loyalitate al dynastia Ming e ille esseva dotate del titulo Guoxingye (Senior del nomine Imperial). Chenggong continuava le resistentia contra le Qing de Xiamen. In 1650, ille planava un major offensiva de Guangdong. Le Qing displicava un grande armea al area e Chenggong decideva transportar su armea trans le costa ma un tempesta impediva su movimentos. Le Qing lanceava un attacco de surprisa super Xiamen e le fortiava a retornar pro proteger lo. De 1656 a 1658, ille planava prender [[Nanjing]]. Chenggong incirculava Nanjing le 24 de augusto 1659. Le renfortios del Qing arrivava e rumpeva le armea de Chenggong, fortiante los a retirar se a Xiamen. In 1660, le Qing se embarcava in un politica de evacuation costal pro affamar Chenggong de su fonte de subsistentia. In 1655, le governator de Taiwan recipeva un littera de Chenggong que se refereva al chineses in Taiwan como su subjectos. Ille les commandava a cessar de commerciar con le espanioles. Chenggong se dirigeva directemente al chefes chinese in Taiwan plus tosto que al autoritates hollandese. Le 23 de martio 1661, le flotta de Zheng navigava de Kinmen con un flotta que portava circa 25.000 soldatos e marineros. Le flotta arrivava a Tayouan le 2 de april. Le fortias de Zheng vinceva 240 soldatos hollandese al Insula de Baxemboy in le Baia de Taiwan e disimbarcava al baia de Luermen. Tres naves hollandese attaccava le juncos chinese e destrueva plures usque le explosion de lor nave de guerra principal. Le naves restante esseva incapace de impedir Zheng de controlar le aquas circum Taiwan. Le 4 de april, le Forte Provintia se rendeva al fortias de Zheng. Post un assedio de nove menses, Chenggong capturava le fortia hollandese Zeelandia e establiva un base in Taiwan. Le hollandeses resisteva a Keelung usque 1668, quando illes se retirava de Taiwan completemente. == Regno de Tungning (1661-1683) == === Conquesta === Koxinga renominava Zeelandia a Anping e Provintia a Chikan. Le 29 de maio 1662, Chikan esseva renominate como "Capital Oriental de Ming" (Dongdu Mingjing). Plus tarde "Capital Oriental" (Dongdu) esseva renominate como Dongning, que significa "Pacification Oriental", per Zheng Jing, le filio de Koxinga. Un prefectura e duo contatos (Tianxing e Wannian) esseva establite in Taiwan. Koxinga moriva le 23 de junio 1662. Nationalistas chinese in le 20e seculo invocava Koxinga pro su patriotismo e loyalitate politic contra le Qing e le influentia occidental. === Recession a Taiwan === Le succession de Zheng Jing esseva contestate per Zheng Miao, le quinte filio de Zheng Chenggong. Zheng Jing arrivava in Taiwan in decembre 1662 e vinceva su inimicos. Le lucta interne causava que alcun sequitores transfugeva al Qing. In 1663, circa 3.985 officiales e officieros, 40.962 soldatos, 64.230 civiles, e 900 naves in [[Fujian]] habeva transfugite del territorio de Zheng. Pro combatter le declino del population, Zheng Jing promoveva le migration a Taiwan. Inter 1665 e 1669 un grande numero de Fujianeses se moveva a Taiwan. Circa 9.000 chineses esseva apportate a Taiwan per Zheng Jing. Le dynastia Qing promulgava un prohibition marin pro affamar le fortias de Zheng. In 1663, le scriptor Xia Lin attestava que le Zhengs mancava de provisiones e que le gente suffreva de immense difficultates. Le hollandeses attaccava le naves de Zheng in Xiamen ma falleva a prender le citate. Le hollandeses assisteva le Qing in le combattimento contra le flotta de Zheng in octobre 1663, resultante in le captura del bases de Zheng in Xiamen e Kinmen. Le fortias de Zheng restante fugiva verso le sud e evacuava completemente del costa continental in le primavera de 1664. Le fortias del Qing e del Hollandese tentava invader Taiwan duo vices in decembre 1664 e de novo in 1666, ma esseva affectate per conditiones meteorologic adverse. Le hollandeses continuava a attaccar le naves de Zheng occasionalmente ma esseva incapace de reprender le insula. Post que Zheng Jing esseva rejectate del continente, le Qing tentava solver le conflicto per negotiation. In 1669, le Qing offereva a Zheng autonomia significative in Taiwan si illes rasava lor capites in le stilo manchu. Zheng Jing declinava. In 1670 e 1673, le fortias de Zheng sequeva naves in lor via al continente. In 1671, le fortias de Zheng faceva un razzia al costa de [[Zhejiang]] e del Fujian. In 1674, Zheng Jing se jungeva al Revolta del Tres Feudatorios e recapturava Xiamen. Ille importava material de guerra e faceva un alliantia con Geng Jingzhong in Fujian. Illes se inimicava se non multo postea. Zheng capturava Quanzhou e Zhangzhou in 1674. Post que Geng e altere rebelles se rendeva al Qing in 1676 e 1677, le marea girava contra le fortias de Zheng. Quanzhou esseva perdite al Qing le 12 de martio 1677, e postea Zhangzhou e Haicheng le 5 de april. Le fortias de Zheng contra-attacava e reprendeva Haicheng in augusto. Le fortias naval de Zheng blocava Quanzhou e tentava reprender le citate in augusto 1678, ma illos esseva fortiate a retirar se quando le renfortios Qing arrivava. Le fortias de Zheng suffreva grave perditas in un battalia in januario 1679. Le 20 de martio 1680, le flotta del Qing, ducite per Wan Zhengse, vinceva le fortias naval de Zheng presso Quanzhou. Multe commandantes e soldatos de Zheng transfugiva al Qing. Xiamen esseva abandonate. Le 10 de april, le guerra de Zheng Jing super le continente arrivava a su fin. Zheng Jing moriva al initio de 1681. === Sinicisation === Zheng Jing jammais relinquiva le apparatas de governamento del Ming, lo que le permitteva de attrahir supporto de loyalistas del Ming. In Taiwan, le Sex Ministerios esseva establite, totevia le supervision de tote le affaires esseva date a chefes militar. Le familia e le officieros de Zheng remaneva al summitate del administration. Illes enactava programmas de disveloppamento agricultural e infrastructural. In 1666, le recolta de granos esseva plus que capace de sustener le population. Zheng etiam consiliava al commun gente de meliorar lor habitationes e de construer templos dedicate al [[Buddha]] e a deitates Fujianese local. Un Academia Imperial e un Sanctuario [[Confucianismo|Confucian]] esseva establite in 1665 e 1666, durante que examines regular del servicio civil esseva implementate. Zheng expediva professores a tribos aborigine pro provider los de provisiones e inseniar los le technicas de agricultura le plus avantiate. Scholas esseva create pro inseniar le lingua chinese al populos aborigine, e illes qui refusava esseva punite. Le expansion del colonias chinese veniva sovente al expensas del tribos aborigine, causante rebelliones durante le curso del regno de Zheng. In un campania, plure centos de membros del tribo Shalu in le moderne Taichung esseva occidite. Le population chinese in Taiwan plus que duplicava sub le regno de Zheng. Zheng disbandava le truppas e los converteva in colonias militar. Al initio de 1684, un anno post le fin del regno de Zheng, le areas sub cultivo in Taiwan habeva triplate in grandor depost le fin del era hollandese in 1660. Le flottas de mercatores de Zheng continuava a operar inter Japon e le paises de Asia Sud-est, colligente profito como un centro de commercio. Illes extraheva un imposto del commerciantes pro un passage secur trans le Manica de Taiwan. Taiwan sub le Zheng manteneva un monopolio super certe mercantias, como pelle de cervo e canna de sucro, que se vendeva a un alte precio in Japon. Taiwan sub le Zheng attingeva un diversification economic plus grande que le colonia hollandese orientate al profito e cultivava plus typos de grano, vegetales, fructos, e productos del mar. Al fin del regno de Zheng in 1683, le governamento extraheva plus de 30% plus de revenu annual in argento que sub le hollandeses in 1655. Le exportationes de sucro excedeva le cifras hollandese in 1658, durante que le production de [[pelle]] de [[cervo]] remaneva le mesme. === Shi Lang === Shi Lang duceva le conquesta del Qing super Taiwan sub le Zheng. Ille esseva originalmente un chef militar que laborava sub Zheng Zhilong, le patre de Zheng Chenggong. Ille habeva un dissension con Chenggong. Post haber escappate del prision per Chenggong, Shi Lang transfugiva al dynastia Qing e participava in un assalto succedite contra un fortia de Zheng. In 1658, Shi esseva facite Commandante Adjuncte de Tongan e continuava a participar in campanias contra le fortias de Zheng. Shi propagava informationes super le conflicto interne de Zheng inter Chenggong e su filio a Beijing. Le Qing establiva un fortia naval in Fujian in 1662 e appunctava Shi Lang como le commandante. Shi advocava pro actiones plus aggressive contra Zheng. Le 15 de maio 1663, Shi attaccava le flotta de Zheng e succedeva a capturar fortias de Zheng. Del 18 al 20 de novembre, le hollandeses luctava contra le fortias de Zheng dum Shi prendeva Xiamen. In 1664, Shi assemblava un flotta de 240 naves, e in conjunction con 16.500 truppas, chassava le fortias de Zheng restante verso le sud. Post le defection del commandante de Zheng Zhou Quanbin, Zheng Jing se retirava del restante fortia continental in le primavera de 1664. === Fin del governamento de Zheng === Shi Lang esseva instruite a arrangiar un mission de pace a Taiwan ma ille non credeva que Zheng Jing acceptarea le terminos. Ille avisava que si le Zhengs fortificava lor fortia, illes poserea un grave periculo. Shi detallava su planos pro invader Taiwan; ille argumentava que securisar Taiwan renderia le guarnitiones innecessari e reduce le expensas de defensa. In 1681, Li Guangdi recommendava Shi Lang pro esser le coordinador del fortia de invasion. Shi esseva re-appunctate como chef naval de Fujian le 10 de septembre 1681. Le plano de Shi esseva prender Penghu primo. Le Governator-General Yao Qisheng non concordava e proponeva un attacco con duo punctas in Tamsui e Penghu al mesme tempore. Shi pensava que le proposition non esseva realistic e requestava esser ponite in control total super le integre fortia de invasion. Le imperator Kangxi denegava le requesta. In Taiwan, le morte de Zheng Jing resultava in un colpo de stato. Zheng Keshuang assassinava su fratre Zheng Kezang. Tumulto politic, impostos pesante, un epidemia in le nord, un grande foco que causava le destruction de plus de mille casas, e suspicion de collusion con le Qing causava que plus de sequitores de Zheng transfugiva al Qing. Le commandante adjutante de Zheng, Liu Bingzhong, se rendeva con su naves e homines de Penghu. Le ordines del Imperator Kangxi pro invader Taiwan attingeva Yao Qisheng e Shi Lang le 6 de junio 1682. Le flotta de invasion incontrava ventos disfavorabile e esseva fortiate a retornar. Conflicto inter Yao e Shi conduceva al remotion de Yao in novembre. Le 18 de novembre 1682, Shi Lang esseva autorisate a assumer le rolo de commandante supreme e Yao esseva delegate a logisticas. Duo tentativas de navigar a Penghu in februario 1683 falleva a causa de un cambio in le ventos. Le flotta de Shi, de 238 naves e plus de 21.000 homines, navigava le 8 de julio 1683. Le die sequente, le flotta de Shi approchava parve insulas al nord-west de Penghu. Le fortias del Qing esseva incontrate per 200 naves de Zheng. Sequente un excambio de tiro de canon, le Qing esseva fortiate a retirar se con le fortias de Zheng in persecution. Le avante-guarda del Qing ducite per Lan Li provideva foco de copertura pro un retirada. Le latere de Zheng etiam suffreva perditas pesante, lo que rendeva Liu reluctante a persequer le fortias del Qing disordinate. Le 11 de julio, Shi regruppava su squadrons e requestava renfortios a Bazhao. Le 16 de julio, le renfortios arrivava. Shi divideva le fortia de attacco principal in octo squadrons de septe naves, con ille mesme ducente del medio. Duo flottas de 50 parve naves navigava in differente directiones como un diversion. Le naves restante serviva como reinfortiamento del retroguarda. Le battalia occurreva in le baia de Magong. Approximativemente 12.000 fortias de Zheng periva. Liu escappava a Taiwan, dum que le commandantes del guarnition se rendeva. Le Qing capturava Penghu le 18 de julio. Shi Lang arrivava in Taiwan le 5 de octobre 1683 pro supervisar le rendition. Zheng Keshuang e altere chefes rasava lor capite in le stilo manchu. Le uso del calendario del Ming in Taiwan esseva terminate. == Dynastia Qing (1683-1895) == === Annexation === Shi Lang remaneva in Taiwan pro 98 dies ante retornar a Fujian le 29 de decembre 1683. In Fujian, alcun officiales del governamento central advocava pro transportar tote le habitantes de Taiwan al continente e abandonar le insula. Un argumentava que defender Taiwan esseva impossibile e que un augmento del expensas de defensa esseva disfavorabile. Shi se opponeva a abandonar Taiwan, argumentante que isto lo lassarea aperte a altere inimicos. Ille assecurava que defender Taiwan solmente requirerea 10.000 homines e reduce le fortias de guarnition super le costa. Shi convinceva tote le participantes al conferentia de Fujian, con le exception de Subai, que il esseva in lor melior interesse a annexar Taiwan. Le 6 de martio 1684, le imperator Kangxi acceptava le proposition de Shi pro establir institutiones militar permanente in Penghu e Taiwan e autorisava le establimento del Prefectura de Taiwan, dividite in tres contatos, como un prefectura del Provincia de Fujian. === Administration de Taiwan === Le Qing initialmente prohibiva le habitantes del continente de mover se a Taiwan e re-inviava le majoritate del gente al continente, post que le population official de Taiwan esseva solmente 50.000. Un carentia de mano de obra compelleva le officiales local a sollicitar migrantes del continente malgrado le restrictiones. A vices mesmo naves de guerra transportava civiles a Taiwan. In 1711, le migrantes illegal amontava a decenas de milles cata anno. Individuos como Lin Qianguang, un nativo del Provincia de Fujian, entrava in Taiwan. Ille occupava un officio in Taiwan de 1687 a 1691 ma habeva vivite in Taiwan durante plure annos antea. Ille scribeva un del prime relatos del vita aborigine in Taiwan in 1685. Le prime regulation registrate super le systema de permission esseva facite in 1712, ma illo probabilemente existeva jam in 1684. Su scopo esseva reducer le pression del population super Taiwan. Le governamento credeva que Taiwan esseva incapace de supportar un plus grande population sin ducer a conflicto. Regulationes prohibiva le migrantes de apportar lor familias. Pro impedir le "non-desirabile" de entrar in Taiwan, le governamento recommendava permittente solmente a illes qui habeva proprietate o parentes in Taiwan de entrar. Un regulation pro iste effecto esseva implementate in 1730. Durante le 18e seculo, le regulationes super le migration remaneva largemente consistente. Regulationes initial se concentrava super le character del receptores del permission, durante que regulationes posterior reiterava mesuras como le patrulias e le punition. Le sol cambiamentos esseva al stato del familias. Familias esseva prohibite de entrar in Taiwan pro assecurar que le migrantes retornarea a lor familias. Le migrantes, predominantemente masculos, habeva pauc perspectivas e assi se maritava localmente. Le maritage de feminas aborigine esseva prohibite in 1737 super le base que illo interfereva in le vita aborigine e esseva usate como un medio pro reclamar terra aborigine. Familias de migrantes esseva permittite de entrar in Taiwan legalmente pro un periodo inter 1732 e 1740. In 1739, opposition al migrationes familiar clamava que vagabundos e "non-desirabile" profitava del systema. Familias esseva prohibite de novo de 1740 a 1746. In 1760, le passages familiar a Taiwan deveniva de novo legal pro un breve periodo. Initio in 1771, le restrictiones del Qing super le migration se relaxava quando illes realisava que le politicas non esseva applicabile. Mesmo durante periodos de migration legal, plus de individuos seligeva ingagiar servicios de ferry-boat illegal que tractar con le procedimientos official. Post le levamento del restrictiones super le passages familiar in 1760, solmente 277 personas requestava permissiones post un anno, le majoritate de illes essente empleatos del governamento. In comparation, intra un periodo de dece menses in 1758–1759, quasi 60.000 personas esseva arrestate pro passages illegal. In 1790, un bureau esseva create pro gerer le viage civil inter Taiwan e le continente, e le governamento del Qing cessava de interferer activemente in le migration. In 1875, tote le restrictiones pro entrar in Taiwan esseva abrogate. === Expansion del colonos (1684-1785) === De 1661 a 1796, le Qing restringeva le expansion de territorio in Taiwan. Taiwan esseva guarnite con 8.000 soldatos in portos clave e le administration civil esseva mantenite a un minimo. Tres prefecturas nominalmente coperiva le integre planas occidental, ma le administration effective coperiva un area plus parve. Un permission esseva requirite pro colonos a ir ultra le puncto medie del planas occidental. In 1715, le governator-general de Fujian-Zhejiang recommendava le reclamation de terra in Taiwan, ma le Imperator Kangxi esseva preoccupate que isto causarea instabilitate e conflictos. Sub le regno del Imperator Yongzheng (1722–1735), le Qing extendeva le controlo super le integre planas occidental pro melio controlar le colonos e mantener le securitate. Isto non esseva un politica de colonisation active ma un reflection de continue passages illegal e reclamation de terra. Post le revolta de Zhu Yigui in 1721, Lan Dingyuan, un consiliero de Lan Tingzhen, qui duceva fortias contra le rebellion, advocava pro le reclamation de terra pro fortificar le controlo del governamento super le colonos chinese e pro incorporar le aborigines sub lor administration. Sub le regno del Imperator Qianlong (1735–1796), le structura administrative de Taiwan remaneva largemente inalterate. Post le rebellion de Lin Shuangwen in 1786, Qianlong concordava que lassar terras fertile a aborigines improductive solmente attraheva colonos illegal. Le Qing faceva pauc pro administrar le aborigines e rarmente tentava imponer controlo super illes. Le aborigines esseva classificate in duo categorias: aborigines acculturate (shufan) e aborigines non-acculturate (shengfan). Pro le Qing, le shufan esseva aborigines qui pagava impostos e habeva adoptate le cultura chinese Han. Quando le Qing annexava Taiwan, il habeva 46 villages aborigine sub controlo governamental, probabilemente hereditate del regime de Zheng. In le periodo Yongzheng, 108 villages aborigine se submitteva como resultato de incitation del commandante regional, Lin Liang. Le shengfan qui pagava impostos ma non practicava le cultura chinese Han esseva appellate guihua shengfan (aborigines non-acculturate submittite). Le administration de Qianlong prohibiva incitar le aborigines a submitter se a causa del timor de conflicto. In le prime periodo de Qianlong, il habeva 299 villages aborigine nominate. Registros monstra 93 villages shufan e 61 villages guihua shengfan. Le numero de villages shufan remaneva stabile durante le integre periodo Qianlong. Duo sub-prefectos pro affaires aborigine esseva nominate pro gerer le affaires aborigine in 1766. Un a cargo del nord e le altere a cargo del sud. Frontieras esseva construite pro mantener le aborigines del montania foras del areas de colonisation. Le politica de marcar le frontieras de colonos e de segregar los del territorios aborigine deveniva politica official in 1722. Cinquanta-quatro stelas esseva usate pro marcar punctos crucial al longo del frontiera. Colonos esseva prohibite de cruciar in le territorio aborigine, ma le invasion per colonos continuava, e le frontieras esseva reconstruite in 1750, 1760, 1784, e 1790. Colonos esseva prohibite de maritar se con aborigines proque le matrimonio esseva un maniera de obtener terra. === Expansion administrative === Politicas de quarantena del Qing esseva mantenite in le prime 19e seculo, ma le attitudes verso le territorio aborigine cambiava. Officiales local repetitemente advocava pro le colonisation, specialmente in le casos de Gamalan e Shuishalian in le moderne Contato de Yilan in Taiwan nord-oriental. Le populo Kavalan habeva comenciate a pagar impostos jam in le periodo Kangxi (1661–1722), ma illes esseva aborigines non-acculturate. In 1787, un colono chinese nominate Wu Sha tentava colonisar Gamalan ma esseva vincite. Le anno sequente, le prefecto de Taiwan, Yang Tingli, esseva convincite a supportar Wu Sha. Yang recommendava le colonisation de Gamalan al governator de Fujian, ma le governator refusava. In 1797, un nove sub-prefecto de Tamsui supportava Wu in su effortios de colonisation malgrado le prohibition. Le successores de Wu esseva incapace de registrar lor terra in le registros del governamento. Officiales local non poteva lo recognoscer officialmente. In 1806, le flotta piratic de Cai Qian esseva in le vicinitate de Gamalan. Le prefecto de Taiwan, Yang, argumentava que abandonar Gamalan causarea problemas al frontiera. Plus tarde, un altere banda de piratas tentava occupar Gamalan. Yang recommendava establir administration e studios de terra in Gamalan. In 1809, le imperator ordinava que Gamalan esserea incorporate. Un decreto imperial pro le incorporation formal de Gamalan esseva emittite, e un sub-prefecto de Gamalan esseva appunctate. Al contrario de Gamalan, le debattos super Shuishalian (areas al sur del Flumine Zhuoshui e del Flumine Wu) resultava in su stato continue como un area prohibite. Sex villages aborigine occupava le plana e fertile area de bassino de Shuishalian. Le aborigines se habeva submittite jam in 1693, ma illes remaneva non-acculturate. In 1814, alcun colonos obteneva permissiones de reclamation per fabricar petitiones de location de terra. In 1816, truppas del governamento evictiva le colonos. Multe officiales recommendava aperturar Shuishalian inter 1823 e 1848, ma iste recommendationes esseva ignorate. === Expansion in reaction a crises (1875–1895) === In 1874, Japon invadeva le sud de Taiwan in lo que es cognoscite como le Incidente de Mudan. Durante sex menses, soldatos japonese occupava le sud de Taiwan usque le Qing pagava un indemnesation in excambio pro lor retiramento. Le commissario imperial pro Taiwan, Shen Baozhen, recommendava subjugar le aborigines e popular lor territorio con colonos chinese pro impedir le invasion japonese. Le administration de Taiwan esseva expandite e campanias contra le aborigines esseva lanceate. A partir de 1874, stratas de montania esseva construite e aborigines esseva portate a submission formal. In 1875, le interdiction de entrar in Taiwan esseva levate. In 1877, 21 directivas super le subjugation del aborigines e le apertura del montanias esseva emittite. Agencias pro recrutar colonos esseva establite. Le effortios pro promover le colonisation in Taiwan se exhauriva tosto postea. Le Guerra Sino-Francese erumpeva in 1883 e le franceses occupava Keelung in le nord de Taiwan in 1884. Le armea francese se retirava in 1885. Le effortios pro colonisar le territorio aborigine esseva renovate sub Liu Mingchuan, le commissario de defensa de Taiwan. In 1887, Taiwan deveniva su proprie provincia. Durante le commissariato de Liu, le capital de Taiwan esseva transferite al moderne Taichung. Taipei esseva disveloppate como un capital provisori e postea deveniva le capital permanente in 1893. Un arrolamento catastral esseva interprendite de junio 1886 a januario 1890, le qual incontrava opposition in le sud. Le receptas del reforma del imposto funciari non attingeva le expectationes. Le illumination electric, armamento moderne, un [[ferrovia]], lineas de cablo e telegrapho, un servicio local de naves a vapor, e machineria industrial esseva introducite a Taiwan. Un linea telegraphic de Tainan a Tamsui esseva construite in 1886–88 e un ferrovia connectente Keelung, Taipei, e Hsinchu esseva edificate. Iste effortios habeva resultatos mixte. Le linea telegraphic functionava solmente in eruptiones de un septimana debite a un difficile connexion terrestre, e le ferrovia requireva un revision complete, serviva a material rolante parve, e transportava pauc mercantias. Taiwan attraheva pauc obreros e pauc colonos veniva a Taiwan debite al aborigines e al climate ardue. Le governator Liu esseva criticate pro le costo alte e le pauc ganio del activitates de colonisation. Liu resignava in 1891 e le effortios de colonisation cessava. === Rebellion === In 1723, aborigines preter le plana costal central se rebellava. Truppas del sud de Taiwan esseva inviate pro reprimer iste revolta, sed in lor absentia, colonos Han in le contato de Fengshan se sublevava in revolta. Verso 1732, cinque gruppos ethnic differente esseva in revolta, sed le rebellion esseva vincite al fin del anno. Durante le periodo Qianlong (1735–1796), le 93 vicos de aborigines acculturate shufan nunquam se rebellava e plus que 200 vicos aborigine non-acculturate se submitteva. Durante le 200 annos de governamento Qing in Taiwan, le aborigines del planessas rarmente se rebellava contra le governamento e le aborigines del montanias esseva lassate a se mesme usque al ultime 20 annos del governamento Qing. Le majoritate del rebelliones esseva causate per colonos Han. In 1720, il habeva un tumulto in Taiwan debite al augmento del impostos. Illes se congregava circa Zhu Yigui e le supportava in un rebellion contra le Qing. Le chef Hakka Lin Junying del sud anque se jungeva al rebellion. In martio 1720, Zhu e Lin attaccava le contato de Taiwan. In minus de duo septimanas, le rebelles habeva vincite le fortias Qing trans Taiwan. Le troppas Hakka quitava Zhu pro sequer Lin verso le nord. Le Qing inviava un flotta sub le commando de Shi Shibian; le rebellion esseva vincite e Zhu esseva executate. In 1786, membros del societate Tiandihui esseva arrestate pro non haber facite pagamentos de impostos. Le Tiandihui irrumpeva in le prision e salvava lor membros. Quando truppas del Qing esseva inviate pro arrestar Lin Shuangwen, le chef del Tiandihui duceva su fortias pro vincer le truppas del Qing. Multe del soldatos del armea rebelle veniva de nove arrivatos de China continental qui non poteva trovar terra. Lin attaccava le contato de Changhua. In le initio de 1787, truppas del Qing sub Li Shiyao esseva inviate pro reprimer le rebellion. Lin tentava de obtener le supporto del populo Hakka, sed illes inviava lor troppas pro supportar le Qing. Malgrado le position ostensibilemente anti-Qing del Tiandihui, su membros esseva generalmente anti-governamental e non esseva motivate per interesses ethnic o national, resultante in discordia social. In 1788, truppas del Qing ducite per Fuk'anggan e Hailanqa esseva inviate a Taiwan e vinceva le rebellion; Lin esseva executate. === Invasiones === Verso 1831, le Compania Britannic del Indias Oriental decideva que illo non voleva plus commerciar con le chineses in lor conditiones e planava mesuras plus aggressive. Viste le valor strategic e commercial de Taiwan, il habeva suggestiones britannic in 1840 e 1841 de prender le insula. In 1841, durante le Prime Guerra del [[Opio]], le britannicos tentava de scalar le alturias circa le porto de Keelung tres vices ma falleva. Le nave de transporto britannic Nerbudda naufragava presso le Porto de Keelung a causa de un typhon. In octobre 1841, le HMS Nimrod navigava a Keelung pro cercar le superviventes del Nerbudda, sed post que Capitano Joseph Pearse discoperiva que illes esseva inviate al sud pro imprisionamento, ille ordinava le bombardamento del porto e destrueva 27 gruppos de canones ante retornar a Hong Kong. Le briga Ann tamben naufragava in martio 1842. Le commandantes de Taiwan, Dahonga e Yao Ying, presentava un reporto disingenerose al imperator, affirmante haber defendite contra un attacco ab le forte de Keelung. Le majoritate del superviventes — plus que 130 del Nerbudda e 54 del Ann — esseva executate in Tainan in augusto 1842. Le reporto false esseva plus tarde discoperite e le officiales in Taiwan punite. Le 12 de martio 1867, le barca american Rover naufragava al largo del costa de Taiwan meridional. Le capitano, su sposa, e alcun homines escappava. Le tribo Koaluts (Guizaijiao) del populo Paiwan los capturava e occideva. Duo tentativas de salvation falleva. Le Gendre, le Consul Statounitese, demandava que le Qing invia truppas pro adjutar le a negociar con le aborigines. Le 10 de septembre, le Commandante del Guarnition Liu Mingcheng duceva 500 truppas Qing a Taiwan meridional con Le Gendre. Le chef aborigine, Tanketok (Toketok), explicava que multo tempore retro le homines blanc veniva e quasi exterminava le tribo Koaluts e que lor ancestres transmitteva lor desiderio de vengeantia. Illes accordava que le aborigines del montania adjutarea le naufragatos. Il esseva postea discoperite que Tanketok non habeva controlo absolute super le tribos. In decembre 1871, un vascello Ryukyuan naufragava al punta sud-oriental de Taiwan e 54 marineros esseva occidite per aborigines. Le naufragio e le assassinato del marineros deveniva cognoscite como le incidente de Mudan, ben que illo non occurreva in Mudan (J. Botan), ma a Kuskus (Gaoshifo). Le Regno Ryukyu non demandava adjuta al officiales japonese super le naufragio. In loco de isto, su rege, Shō Tai, inviava un recompensa a officiales chinese in Fuzhou pro le retorno del 12 superviventes. Le incidente de Mudan non causava immediatamente ulle preoccupation in Japon; illo non esseva usque april 1874 que illo deveniva un preoccupation international. Le Armea Imperial Japonese comenciava a urge le governamento a invader Taiwan in 1872 con le incidente de Mudan como casus belli. Le rege de Ryukyu esseva detronate per Japon e preparationes pro un invasion de Taiwan esseva interprendite in le mesme anno. Le 17 de maio 1874, Saigō Jūdō duceva le fortia principal, 3.600 forte, a bordo de quatro naves de guerra. Illes invadeva territorio indigena in Taiwan meridional. Le 3 de junio, illes incendiava tote le villages que habeva essite occupate. Le 1 de julio, le nove chef del tribo Mudan e le chef de Kuskus se rendeva. Le japoneses se installava e establiva grande campos sin intention de retirar se, ma in augusto e septembre 600 soldatos cadeva malade. Le bilancio de mortos montava a 561. Negotiationes con China Qing comenciava le 10 de septembre. Le Potentias Occidental pressionava China pro non causar effusion de sanguine con Japon, proque illo impactarea negativemente le commercio costal. Le resultante Accordamento de Peking esseva signate le 30 de octobre. Japon ganiava le recognition de Ryukyu como su vassallo e un pagamento de indemnitate de 500.000 taels. Truppas japonese se retirava de Taiwan le 3 de decembre. Durante le Guerra Sino-Francese, le franceses invadeva Taiwan durante le Campania de Keelung in 1884. Le 5 de augusto 1884, Sébastien Lespès bombardava le porto de Keelung e destrueva le emplaciamentos de canones. Le die sequente, le franceses tentava prender Keelung, ma falleva a vincer le plus grande fortia chinese ducite per Liu Mingchuan e esseva fortiate a retirar se. Le 1 de octobre, Amédée Courbet disimbarcava con 2.250 fortias francese e vinceva un plus parve fortia chinese, capturante Keelung. Le effortios francese pro capturar Tamsui falleva. Le franceses bombardava Tamsui, destruente non solmente le fortias ma etiam edificios estranie. Circa 800 truppas francese disimbarcava al plagia de Shalin presso Tamsui, ma illos esseva repellitte per fortias chinese. Le franceses imponeva un blocada de Taiwan del 23 de octobre 1884 usque april 1885, ma le execution non esseva completemente effective. Naves francese circum le costa continental de China attaccava omne junco que illos poteva trovar e capturava su occupantes pro esser transportate a Keelung pro construer obras defensive. Totevia, pro cata junco que le franceses capturava, altere cinque juncos arrivava con provisiones a Takau e Anping. Le effecto immediate del blocada esseva un acute declino in le commercio legal e le rendita. A fin de januario 1885, le fortias chinese suffreva un grave derrota circum Keelung. Ben que le franceses capturava Keelung, illes esseva incapace de mover se ultra su perimetros. In martio, le franceses tentava prender Tamsui de novo e falleva. Al mar, le franceses bombardava Penghu le 28 de martio. Penghu se rendeva le 31 de martio. Un accordamento esseva attingite le 15 de april 1885 e un fin al hostilitates esseva annunciate. Le evacuation francese de Keelung esseva completate le 21 de junio 1885 e Penghu remaneva sub controlo chinese. === Fin del governamento del Qing === Como parte del accordamento pro perder le Guerra Sino-Japonese, le imperio Qing cedeva le insulas de Taiwan e Penghu a Japon le 17 de april 1895, secundo le terminos del Tractato de Shimonoseki. Le perdita de Taiwan devenirea un punto de concentration pro le movimento nationalista chinese in le annos subsequente. == Imperio japonese == Le acquisition de Taiwan per Japon esseva le resultato del "strategia meridional" del Prime Ministro Itō Hirobumi, adoptate durante le Prime Guerra Sino-Japonese in 1894–95. Itō e Mutsu Munemitsu, le ministro de affaires estranie, stipulava que Penghu e Taiwan debe esser cedite a Japon. Iste conditiones esseva satisfacite durante le signatura del Tractato de Shimonoseki le 17 de april 1895. Taiwan e Penghu esseva transferite a Japon le 2 de junio. Le periodo de regno japonese in Taiwan ha essite dividite in tres periodos secundo le politicas: suppression militar (1895–1915), dōka (同化): assimilation (1915–37), e kōminka (皇民化): japanisation (1937–45). Un politica separate pro le aborigines esseva implementate. Le question de assimilation, dōka (同化), esseva ligate al admonition "impartialitate e favor equal" (isshi dōjin) pro tote le subjectos imperial sub le Imperator de Japon. Conceptualmente, iste ideal colonial transmitteva le idea que le japoneses metropolitan (naichijin) impartiva lor cultura superior al insulanos subordinate (hontōjin), qui compartirea le beneficios commun. === Resistentia armate === Le autoritates colonial incontrava opposition violente in Taiwan. Cinque menses de guerra sustainite occurreva post le invasion de 1895, e attaccos partisane continuava usque 1902. Durante le prime duo annos, le autoritate colonial se basava principalmente super le fortia militar. Le 20 de maio, officiales del Qing recipeva le ordine de lassar lor postos. Un major disordine e destruction sequeva in le menses sequente. Fortias japonese disimbarcava al costa de Keelung le 29 de maio. Post le cadita de Taipei le 7 de junio, militias local e bandas partisane continuava le resistentia. In le sud, un parve fortia de Bandiera Nigre ducite per Liu Yongfu retardava le disimbarcamentos japonese. Le gentry taiwanese approchava Grande Britannia e postea Francia in un tentativa fallite de ganiar le stato de protectorato pro Taiwan, post que le Governator Tang Jingsong tentava ducer effortios de resistentia anti-japonese como le Republica de Formosa. Le Armea de Standard Verde e soldatos Yue de Guangxi se dedicava al sacchegio e pillage. Le elite gentry de Taipei inviava Koo Hsien-jung a Keelung pro invitar le fortias japonese in avantia a proceder a Taipei e restaurar le ordine. Le Republica, establite le 25 de maio, dispareva 12 dies plus tarde quando su chefes partiva pro le continente. Liu Yongfu formava un governamento temporari in Tainan ante de escappar quando le fortias japonese se approximava. === Resistentia non-violente === Medios de resistentia non-violente, como le Association Cultural Taiwanese (ACT) (Taiwanese Cultural Association, TCA), fundate per Chiang Wei-shui in 1921, continuava post que le majoritate del medios violente esseva exhauste. Chiang se jungeva al "Alliantia Chinese Unite" (Chinese United Alliance) fundate per Sun Yat-sen. Ille videva le populo taiwanese como nationales japonese de ethnicitate chinese Han e desirava positionar le ACT como un intermediario inter China e Japon. Le ACT etiam visava a establir le independentia pro Taiwan. Declarationes de auto-determination esseva possibile al epocha a causa del era Taishō Democracy (Democratia Taishō) relativemente progressive. "Taiwan es le Taiwan del populo de Taiwan" deveniva un position commun pro tote le gruppos anti-japonese. Le ACT habeva plus de 1.000 membros de diverse fundos de tote Taiwan, excepte in areas indigena. Le ACT promoveva le lingua chinese vernacular. In 1923, le ACT co-fundava le Taiwan People's News (Novas del Populo de Taiwan), que esseva publicate in Tokyo e postea inviate a Taiwan. Illo esseva subjecte a censura, e septe o octo editiones esseva prohibite. Chiang e alteres applicava pro installar un parlamento pro Taiwan que esseva considerate illegal. Le ACT se divideva in 1927 pro formar le Nove ACT e le Partito Popular Taiwanese (Taiwanese People's Party, TPP), que ambes Chiang e Lin lassava pro. Le Nove ACT plus tarde deveniva un filio del Partito Communista Taiwanese (Taiwanese Communist Party) e le sol organisation que advocava le independentia taiwanese. Le TPP presentava themas tal como le traffico de opio japonese, le tractamento inhuman del populo Seediq, e revelava le uso de gas venenose per le autoritate colonial. In februario 1931, le TPP esseva terminate. Chiang moriva le 23 de augusto. === Movimento de Assimilation === In 1914, Itagaki Taisuke duceva brevemente un movimento de assimilation in Taiwan como responsa a appellos de influente portavoces taiwanese. In decembre 1914, Itagaki inaugurava formalmente le Taiwan Dōkakai, un societate de assimilation. Intra un septimana, plus de 3.000 taiwaneses e 45 residentes japonese se jungeva al societate. Post que Itagaki partiva plus tarde in ille mense, le chefes del societate esseva arrestate e su membros taiwanese detenite o molestate. In januario 1915, le Taiwan Dōkakai esseva disbandate. Le politica colonial japonese cercava a segregar strictemente le population japonese e taiwanese usque 1922. Studentes taiwanese qui se moveva a Japon pro lor studios poteva associar se plus liberemente con le japoneses e adoptava le manieras japonese plus prontemente que lor equivalentes in le insula. Totevia, le assimilation complete esseva rar. Un tentativa de japanisar completemente le populo taiwanese esseva facite durante le periodo kōminka (1937–45). Le rationamento esseva que solmente como subjectos completemente assimilate poterea le habitantes de Taiwan commitir se plenmente al guerra e al aspirationes national de Japon. Le movimento kōminka esseva generalmente sin successo, e pauc taiwaneses deveniva "ver japonese" a causa del curte periodo de tempore e del grande population. In terminos de acculturation sub circumstantias controlate, illo pote esser considerate relativemente effective. === Japanisation === Post le guerra a grande scala con China in 1937, le projecto imperial de Japanisation (kōminka) esseva implementate pro assecurar que le taiwaneses remanerea subjectos del Imperator Japonese in loco de supportar un victoria chinese. Le objectivo esseva assecurar que le populo taiwanese non disvelopparea un senso de identitate national. Ben que le objectivo declarate esseva de assimilar le taiwaneses, in practica le processo segregava le japoneses in lor areas discrete, malgrado le cooptation de chefes taiwanese. Le organisation esseva responsabile pro augmentar le propaganda de guerra, le campanias de donation, e le regimentation del vita taiwanese. Como parte del politicas, le lingua chinese in jornales e in education esseva removite. Le historia de China e Taiwan esseva erasate del curriculum. Le uso del lingua chinese esseva disincuragite. Totevia, mesmo alcun membros de familias modello de "lingua national" de menages taiwanese ben educate falleva a apprender le japonese a un nivello conversational. Un campania de cambio de nomine esseva lanciate in 1940 pro reimplaciar nomines chinese con nomines japonese. Septe pro cento del taiwaneses habeva facite isto al fin del guerra. Characteristicas del cultura taiwanese considerate "non-japonese" o non-desirabile esseva prohibite o disincuragite. Le taiwaneses esseva incoragiate a precar a sanctuarios Shinto. Alicun officiales removeva idolos e artefactos religiose de locos de culto native. === Industrialisation === Sub le governamento colonial, Taiwan esseva introducite a un systema unificate de pesos e mesuras, un banca centralisate, facilitates de education pro augmento de mano de obra qualificate, associationes de agricultores, e altere institutiones. Systemas de transporto e communicationes, assi como facilitates pro le viage inter Japon e Taiwan, esseva disveloppate. Le construction de facilitates de irrigation a grande scala e centrales electric sequeva. Le disveloppamento agricultural esseva le objectivo del projectos colonial, e le scopo esseva que Taiwan providera a Japon alimentos e materias prime. Fertilisantes e facilitates de production esseva importate de Japon. Industrias textile e de papiro esseva disveloppate presso le fin del regno japonese pro le autosufficientia. Tote le grande e moderne interprisas esseva possedite per le japoneses. Le systema [[Ferrovia|ferroviari]] de Taiwan connectente le sud e le nord e le portos de Kīrun e Takao esseva completate pro facilitar le transporto e le expedition de materias prime e productos agricultural. Le exportationes augmentava quatro vices. Cinquanta-cinque pro cento del terra agricultural esseva coperite per systemas de irrigation supportate per digas. Le production de alimentos augmentava quatro vices e le production de canna de sucro augmentava 15 vices inter 1895 e 1925. Taiwan deveniva un major cophino de alimentos serviente le economia de Japon. Un systema de assistentia medical esseva establite. Le duration de vita medie pro un residente taiwanese esseva 60 annos in 1945. === Secunde Guerra Mundial === Quando Japon se embarcava in un guerra a grande scala con China in 1937, illo comenciava a expander le capacitate industrial de Taiwan pro fabricar material de guerra. Le Flotta Imperial Japonese operava intensmente foras de Taiwan. Le "Gruppo de Colpo del Sud" esseva basate foras del Universitate Imperial de Taihoku. Taiwan esseva usate como un plattaforma de lanceamento pro le invasion de [[Guangdong]] a fin de 1938 e pro le occupation de [[Hainan]] in februario 1939. Un centro conjuncte de planification e logistica esseva establite in Taiwan pro assister le avanzo de Japon verso le sud post le bombardamento de [[Pearl Harbor]]. Taiwan serviva como un base pro attaccos naval e aeree japonese super Luzon usque le reddition del Philippinas in maio 1942. Illo serviva como un area de retaguarda pro attaccos super [[Myanmar]]. Quando le guerra girava contra Japon in 1943, Taiwan suffreva a causa de attaccos submarin Alliate contra le navigation japonese. In le secunde parte de 1944, Taiwan esseva bombardate in incursiones aeree statounitese. Initio in julio 1937, taiwaneses comenciava a jocar un rolo super le campo de battalia, initialmente in positiones non-combattente. Le populo taiwanese non esseva recrutate pro le combattimento usque tarde in le guerra. In 1942, le Systema Special de Voluntarios esseva implementate, permittente mesmo al aborigines de esser recrutate como parte del Voluntarios Takasago. Le discrimination racial esseva commun malgrado occasiones rar de cameraderia. Post le reddition de Japon, le ex-soldatos japonese taiwanese esseva abandonate per Japon e nulle transporto de retorno a Taiwan o Japon esseva providite. Multe de illes affrontava difficultates in le continente chinese, Taiwan, e Japon. Feminas aborigine serviva personal militar japonese in le region montaniose de Taiwan. Illes esseva primo recrutate como travaliatores de nettoyage e lavanderia pro soldatos, postea illes esseva coercite a provider sexo. Illes esseva violente in gruppo e serviva como feminas de conforto in le horas del vespera. Feminas chinese Han de familias de basse rendita esseva etiam parte del systema de feminas de conforto. Alicunes esseva pressionate a illo per rationes financial, durante que alteres esseva vendite per lor familias. Totevia, alcun feminas de familias benestante etiam finiva como feminas de conforto. Plus que le medietate esseva minores, con alcun tanto juvene como 14 annos. Multe pauc feminas qui esseva inviate al extero comprehendeva le ver objectivo de lor viage. Alicun del feminas credeva que illes servirea como infirmeras. Feminas taiwanese esseva dicite a provider servicios sexual al militar japonese "in le nomine del patriotismo al pais". In 1940, bordellos esseva installate in Taiwan pro servir le masculos japonese. === Fin del regno japonese === In 1942, post que le Statos Unite entrava in le guerra contra Japon e al latere de China, le governamento chinese sub le Kuomintang renunciava a tote le tractatos signate con Japon e faceva del retorno de Taiwan a China un del objectivos de guerra. In le Declaration de Cairo de 1943, le Potentias Alliate declarava le retorno de Taiwan (includente le Pescadores) al Republica de China (ROC). Le Declaration de Cairo nunquam esseva signate e non es legalmente obligatori. In 1945, Japon se rendeva con le signatura del instrumento de reddition e terminava su regno in Taiwan. Le territorio esseva ponite sub le administration del ROC in 1945 per le Administration de Relevation e Rehabilitation del Nationes Unite (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration). Fortias japonese in China e Taiwan se rendeva a Chiang Kai-shek e le 25 de octobre 1945, le Governator-General Rikichi Andō transmitteva le administration de Taiwan e Penghu a Chen Yi. Le 26 de octobre, le governamento del Republica de China declarava que Taiwan habeva devenite un provincia de China, totevia le Potentias Alliate non recognosceva iste declaration unilateral. De accordo con le dispositiones del Articulo 2 del Tractato de Pace de San Francisco, le japoneses formalmente renunciava le soveranitate territorial del insulas de Taiwan e Penghu. Le Republica de China (ROC) e Japon signava le Tractato de Taipei le 28 de april 1952, que alcun personas considera esser supporto legal pro le revendication del ROC super Taiwan como territorio de jure. Le tractato declara que tote le tractatos, conventiones, e accordos inter China e Japon pre-datante le 9 de decembre 1941 esseva nulle e vacue. Isto es supportate per decisiones del corte japonese, tal como in 1956, declarante que Taiwan e le insulas Penghu veniva a appartiner al ROC al data que le Tractato de Taipei entrava in vigor. Le position official del Governamento de Japon es que Japon non exprimiva in le Tractato de Taipei que Taiwan e Penghu pertine al ROC, que le Tractato de Taipei non poteva facer ulle disposition que es in violation del renunciation de Japon de Taiwan e Penghu in le Tractato de Pace de San Francisco, e que le stato de Taiwan e Penghu remane a esser determinate per le Potentias Alliate in le futuro. Le Declaration de Cairo esseva considerate dispassate per [[Winston Churchill]] in 1952, qui negava que Taiwan esseva sub soveranitate chinese o que le Nationalistas Chinese representava China, e que illes solmente occupava Taiwan militarmente. Illo non esseva recognoscite per Anthony Eden in 1955, qui diceva que il habeva un differentia de opinion super a qual autoritate chinese transmittter lo. In 1954 e 1960, le Statos Unite negava que le question del soveranitate super Taiwan e le insulas Penghu habeva essite resolvite, ben que illo acceptava que illos esseva sub controlo del ROC, le exercitio de autoritate chinese super Taiwan, e que le ROC esseva le governamento legal de China. == Republica de China (ab 1945) == === Taiwan sub Lege Martial === Le ROC establiva le Governamento Provincial de Taiwan in septembre 1945 e proclamava le 25 de octobre 1945, le die in que le japoneses se rendeva, "Die de Retrocession de Taiwan". Inter le reddition japonese de Taiwan in 1945 e le 25 de april 1946, le fortias del ROC repatriava 90% del japoneses vivente in Taiwan a Japon. Durante le periodo immediate postbello, le administration de Kuomintang (KMT) in Taiwan esseva repressive e corrupte comparate al regno japonese precedente, lo que conduceva a discontento local. Violentia anti-continental erumpeva le 28 de februario 1947. Durante le repression subsequente per le administration de KMT, in lo que deveniva cognoscite como le [[Incidente del 28 de Februario]], decenas de milles de personas esseva occidite o arrestate, e le incidente deveniva un thema tabu. Essente controlate per le Republica de China, Taiwan hereditava le pronunciamento international del governamento de ROC. Del annos 1930 in avante, le Guerra Civil Chinese esseva in curso in le continente chinese inter le governamento de ROC de Chiang Kai-shek e le Partito Communista Chinese ducite per [[Mao Zedong]]. Quando le Communistas ganiava controlo complete del continente chinese in 1949, duo milliones de refugiatos, predominantemente del governamento Nationalista, del militar, e del communitate de affaires, fugiva a Taiwan. Le 1 de octobre 1949, le Republica Popular de China (RPC) esseva fundate in le continente chinese per le communistas victoriose; plure menses antea, Chiang Kai-shek habeva establite un capital provisori del ROC in Taipei e moveva su governamento basate in [[Nanjing]] illac post fugir de Chengdu. Sub le regno nationalista, le habitantes del continente dominava le governamento e le servicios civil. === Reformas Democratic === Post que Chiang Kai-shek moriva in april 1975, ille esseva succedite al presidentia per Yen Chia-kan, durante que su filio, Chiang Ching-kuo, succedeva al direction del Kuomintang e deveniva presidente in 1978. Chiang Ching-kuo recognosceva que ganiar supporto estranie pro assecurar le securitate futur del ROC requireva reforma. Su administration videva un gradual relassamento del controlo politic, un transition verso le democratia, e movimentos verso le Taiwanisation del regime. Opponentes del Nationalistas non plus esseva prohibite de tener reuniones o publicar jornales. Ben que le partitos politic de opposition esseva ancora illegal, quando le Partito Democratic Progressive (Democratic Progressive Party) esseva establite como le prime partito de opposition in 1986, le Presidente Chiang decideva contra le dissolution del gruppo o le persecution de su chefes. Su candidatos officialmente curreva in electiones como independentes in le movimento Tangwai. In le sequente anno, Chiang terminava le lege martial e permitteva visitas familiar al continente chinese. Chiang seligeva Lee Teng-hui pro esser su vice-presidente. Le movimento sequeva altere reformas que dava plus de poter al cives nascite in Taiwan e calmava le sentimentos anti-KMT. === Periodo democratic === Le election presidential de 2000 marcava le fin del regno del Kuomintang (KMT). Le candidato del DPP, Chen Shui-bian, vinceva un cursa a tres vias. In le election presidential in maio 2008, le candidato del KMT, Ma Ying-jeou vinceva le candidato del DPP, Frank Hsieh. In le electiones combinate in januario 2016, le candidato de opposition pro presidente, Tsai Ing-wen, del DPP, vinceva con 56% del voto, e le DPP de opposition esseva catapultate a un majoritate absolute in le parlamento. Le election marcava le prime vice que un partito non-KMT ganiava un majoritate in le legislatura.<ref>[https://www.uscc.gov/research/taiwan-opposition-party-wins-presidency-and-legislative-majority-historic-elections Taiwan Opposition Party Wins Presidency and Legislative Majority in Historic Elections]</ref> In januario 2024, William Lai Ching-te del Partito Democratic Progressive (DPP) al poter vinceva le electiones presidential de Taiwan.{{Traduction|en|History of Taiwan}} == Referentias == <references /> [[Categoria:Asia]] [[Categoria:Historia de Taiwan]] [[Categoria:Taiwan]] [[Categoria:Republica de China]] ggne0lelveuqqhyp5d4t26zyvcikavc 0 59979 698213 685563 2026-08-03T22:42:07Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698213 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Aquatic food web.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Un rete trophic de [[aqua dulce]]. Le flechas blau monstra un [[catena trophic]] complete ([[alga]]s → [[daphnia]] → [[Dorosoma cepedianum|alosa de petreria american]] → [[Micropterus nigricans|perca a grande bucca]] → [[Ardea herodias|grande hairon blau]]).]] Un '''rete trophic''' es le interconnexion natural de [[Catena trophic|catenas trophic]] e un representation graphic del relationes de “qui mangia qui” in un [[communitate ecologic]]. Le position in le rete trophic, le [[nivello trophic]], es usate in [[ecologia]] pro classificar organismos de maniera general como [[autotropho]]s o [[heterotropho]]s. Iste classification non es binari; alcun organismos (como le [[Planta carnivore|plantas carnivore]]) occupa le rolo de [[mixotropho]]s, i.e., autotrophos que etiam obtene materia organic de fontes non atmospheric. Le ligamines in un rete trophic illustra le vias de [[alimentation]], como quando heterotrophos obtene materia organic per nutrir se de autotrophos e altere heterotrophos. Le rete trophic es un illustration simplificate del varie methodos de alimentation que connecte un ecosystema in un systema unificate de intercambio. Il ha differente typos de interactiones inter consumitor e ressource que pote divider se approximativemente in [[Herbivoro|herbivoria]], [[Carnivoro|carnivoria]], [[Necrophago|necrophagia]] (le consumption de cadaveres) e [[Parasito|parasitismo]]. Parte del materia organic consumite per heterotrophos, como le [[sucro]]s, forni energia. Autotrophos e heterotrophos existe in omne dimensiones, ab microscopic usque a multe tonnas de peso — ab [[cyanobacterio]]s usque al [[Sequoiadendron giganteum|sequoia gigante]], e ab [[virus]] e [[Bdellovibrio]] usque al [[Balaenoptera musculus|balena blau]]. [[Charles Elton]] inaugurava le conceptos de cyclos trophic, de catenas trophic e de dimension trophic in su libro classic de 1927, {{Lingua|en|Animal Ecology}}; le “cyclo trophic” de Elton esseva reimplaciate per le termino “rete trophic” in un texto ecologic subsequente. Elton organisava le [[specie]]s in gruppos functional, le quales formava le base pro le articulo classic e fundamental de [[Raymond Lindeman]] in 1942 sur le dynamica trophic. Lindeman sublineava le rolo importante del [[decompositor]]es in un systema de classification trophic. Le notion de un rete trophic trova un base historic in le scriptos de [[Charles Darwin]] e in su terminologia, includente expressiones como “banco intricate” ({{Lingua|en|entangled bank}}), “rete del vita”, “rete de relationes complexe”, e, in referentia al actiones de decomposition del [[Verme de terra|vermes de terra]], ille parlava del “movimento continue del particulas del terra”. Ancora antea, in 1768, [[John Bruckner]] describeva le natura como “un sol rete continue del vita”. Le retes trophic es representationes limitate del ecosystemas real, pois que illes necessarimente aggrega multe species in [[Specie trophic|species trophic]], que es gruppos functional de species con le mesme predatores e preda in un rete trophic. Ecologos usa iste simplificationes in modellos quantitative (o mathematic) del dynamica de systemas trophic o de consumitor-ressource. Per medio de iste modellos, illes pote mesurar e testar patronos generalisate in le structura de retes trophic real. Ecologos ha identificate proprietates non aleatori in le structura [[Topologia de rete|topologic]] de retes trophic. Le exemplos publicate que es usate in le [[metaanalyse]] es de qualitate variabile e ha omissiones. Nonobstante, le numero de studios [[Recerca empiric|empiric]] sur retes de communitate es in augmento, e le tractamento mathematic de retes trophic per medio del [[theoria de retes]] ha identificate patronos commun a totes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=J.E. |last2=Briand |first2=F. |last3=Newman |first3=C.M. |title=Community Food Webs: Data and Theory |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-83784-5|date=1990 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg, New York |isbn=9783642837869|page=308|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-83784-5}} {{en}}</ref> Le [[Lege de potentia|leges de scala]], per exemplo, previde un relation inter le topologia del ligamines predator-preda in un rete trophic e le numero de species presente in le ecosystema.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Briand |first1=F. |last2=Cohen |first2=J.E. |title=Community food webs have scale-invariant structure |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1984-01-19_307_5948/page/264 |journal=Nature |date=19 January 1984 |volume=307 |issue=5948 |pages=264–267|doi=10.1038/307264a0 |bibcode=1984Natur.307..264B |s2cid=4319708}} {{en}}</ref> {{Refer}} {{Traduction|en|Food web|1314682294}} [[Categoria:Ecologia]] 9x5ylz4qmgd66p40mzcbdxqkdtjoc9b 0 60055 698202 694614 2026-08-03T22:32:39Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 20 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698202 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Historia del Regno Unite}} Le '''historia del Regno Unite''' comencia in 1707 con le [[Tractato de Union]] e le [[Actos de Union 1707]]. Le nucleo del [[Regno Unite]] como stato unificate emergeva con le union politic del regnos de [[Regno de Anglaterra|Anglaterra]] e [[Regno de Scotia|Scotia]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=Nove Acto de Union fortificarea le RU, dice Fabricant |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-23919439 |access-date=1 septembre 2013}}</ref> in un nove stato unitari nominate [[Regno de Grande Britannia|Grande Britannia]].{{Efn|Le terminos ''Un Regno'', ''Regno Unite'' e ''Regno Unite de Grande Britannia'' esseva usate como descriptiones in le Tractato de Union. Totevia, le nomine real del nove stato esseva ''Grande Britannia''. Le nomine ''Grande Britannia'' (alora a vices scribite ''Great Brittaine'') esseva usate pro le prime vice per Jacobo VI/I in octobre 1604, qui indicava que in avante ille e su successores serea vidite como Reges de Grande Britannia, non Reges de Anglaterra e Scotia. Totevia le nomine non esseva applicate a un nove ''stato''; Anglaterra e Scotia continuava a esser governate independentemente. Su validitate como nomine del Corona es etiam questionate, viste que le monarchas continuava a usar ordinales separate (p. ex., Jacobo VI/I, Jacobo VII/II) in Anglaterra e Scotia. Pro evitar confusion le historicos generalmente evita usar le termino ''Rege de Grande Britannia'' usque 1707 e in vice pro adaptar se al uso de ordinales appella le monarchas reges o reginas de Anglaterra e Scotia. Ordinales separate esseva abandonate quando le duo statos se univa in accordo con le Actos de Union, con le monarchas subsequente usante ordinales clarmente basate super le historia anglese e non scotese. Un exemplo es Regina [[Elisabeth II del Regno Unite]], qui es referite como essente "le Secunde" mesmo si jammais habeva un Elisabeth I de Scotia o Grande Britannia.}} De iste nove stato, le historico [[Simon Schama]] diceva: {{Cita|Lo que comenciava como un fusion hostil finirea in un partenariato complete in le plus potente entitate in function del mundo... illo esseva un del transformationes le plus stupende in le [[historia europee]].<ref>{{Cite episode |title=Britannia Incorporate |series=A History of Britain |series-link=Simon Schama's A History of Britain |network=[[BBC One]] |number=10 |minutes=3 |credits=[[Simon Schama]] (presentator) |air-date=22 maio 2001}}</ref>}} Le prime decennios esseva marcate per [[Rebelliones jacobite]] que terminava con le defaite pro le causa Stuart al [[Battalia de Culloden]] in 1746. In 1763, le [[Grande Britannia in le Guerra de Septe Annos|victoria in le Guerra de Septe Annos]] duceva al crescimento del [[Prime Imperio Britannic]]. Con le defaite per le Statos Unite, Francia e Espania in le [[Guerra de Independentia American]], Grande Britannia perdeva su 13 colonias american e re-edificava un [[Secunde Imperio Britannic]] basate in Asia e Africa. Como resultato, le [[cultura britannic]], e su influentia technological, politic, constitutional e linguistic, deveniva mundial. Politicamente le evento central esseva le [[Revolution Francese]] e su consequente periodo napoleonic de 1793 a 1815, que le elites britannic videva como un menacia profunde, e laborava energeticemente pro formar multiple coalitiones que finalmente disfaceva Napoleon in 1815. Le [[Actos de Union 1800]] addeva le [[Regno de Irlanda]] pro crear le [[Regno Unite de Grande Britannia e Irlanda]]. Le [[Partito Tory (Regno Unite)|Tories]], qui arrivava al poter in 1783, remaneva in poter usque 1830. Fortias de reforma aperiva decennios de reforma politic que allargava le suffragio, e aperiva le economia a libere commercio. Le chefes politic prominente del seculo 19 includeva [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Palmerston]], [[Disraeli]], [[Gladstone]], e [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Salisbury]]. Culturalmente, le [[Era Victorian]] esseva un tempore de prosperitate e virtutes dominante del classe medie quando Britannia dominava le economia mundial e [[Pax Britannica|manteneva un seculo generalmente pacific]] de 1815 a 1914. Le [[Prime Guerra Mundial]], con Britannia in alliantia con Francia, Russia e le Statos Unite, esseva un guerra total furiose ma ultimemente successose contra Germania. Le resultante [[Societate de Nationes]] esseva un projecto favorite in le [[Britannia interbellic]]. In 1922, 26 contatos de Irlanda secedeva pro devenir le [[State Libere Irlandese]]; un die plus tarde, [[Irlanda del Nord]] secedeva del State Libere e retornava al Regno Unite. In 1927, le Regno Unite cambiava su titulo formal a ''Regno Unite de Grande Britannia e Irlanda del Nord,''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 martio 2022 |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ |website=www.cia.gov |accessdate=2025-11-13 |archivedate=2021-01-09 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ }}</ref> usualmente abbreviate a ''[[Terminologia del Insulas Britannic|Britannia]]'', ''Regno Unite'' o ''RU''. Ben que le Imperio remaneva forte, como etiam le [[London Stock Exchange|mercato financiari de London]], le base industrial britannic comenciava a remaner detra Germania e le Statos Unite. Sentimentos pro le pace esseva si forte que le nation supportava le appaciamento de Germania de [[Hitler]] in le annos 1930, usque le invasion nazista de [[Polonia]] in 1939 initiava le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. In le Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Union Sovietic e le Statos Unite jungeva se al RU como [[Alliatos del Secunde Guerra Mundial|le principal potentias Alliate]]. Post le guerra, Britannia non esseva plus un superpotentia militar o economic, como vidite in le [[Crisi de Suez]] de 1956. Britannia concedeva independentia a quasi tote su possessiones. Le nove statos tipicamente jungeva se al [[Commonwealth de Nationes]]. Le annos del postguerra videva grande difficultates, mitigate aliquanto per adjuta financiari a grande scala del Statos Unite. Le prosperitate retornava in le annos 1950. Intertanto, de 1945 a 1950, le [[Partito Laborista (RU)|Partito Laborista]] edificava un stato de benesser social, nationalisava multe industrias, e creava le [[National Health Service|Servicio National de Sanitate]]. Le RU prendeva un position firme contra le expansion [[Communista]] post 1945, jocate un rolo major in le [[Guerra Frigide]] e le formation del [[NATO]] como un alliantia militar anti-sovietic con Germania Occidental, Francia, le Statos Unite, Italia, Canada e paises minor. Le RU ha essite un membro principal del [[Nationes Unite]] desde su fundation, como etiam de altere organisationes international. In le annos 1990, le [[neoliberalismo]] duceva al privatisation de industrias nationalisate e deregulation significative de affaires commercial. Le stato de London como un centro financiari mundial cresceva. Desde le annos 1990, grande movimentos de [[Devolution in le Regno Unite|devolution in Irlanda del Nord, Scotia e Galles]] ha decentralisate le decision-facer politic. Britannia ha movite se retro e avante in su relationes economic con Europa Occidental. Illo jungeva se al [[Communitate Economic Europee]] in 1973, debilitante assi le ligamines economic con su Commonwealth. Totevia, le [[Brexit|referendum Brexit]] in 2016 obligava le RU a lassar le [[Union Europee]], lo que illo faceva in 2020. == Seculo 18 == {{AP|Britannia del Epocha Moderne Prime|Era Georgian}} === Nascentia del Union === {{AP|Tractato de Union|Actos de Union 1707}} {{Vide anque|Union del Coronas|Historia del formation del Regno Unite}} [[File:Articles of Union between England and Scotland 28 Jan 1707.png|thumb|"Articulos de Union con Scotia", 1707]] Le [[Regno de Grande Britannia]] nasceva le 1 de maio 1707, como resultato del [[union politic]] del [[Regno de Anglaterra]] (que includeva [[Galles]]) e le [[Regno de Scotia]] sub le [[Tractato de Union]]. Isto combinava le duo regnos in un singule regno e fundeva le duo parlamentos in un singule [[parlamento de Grande Britannia]]. [[Anna, Regina de Grande Britannia|Regina Anna]] deveniva le prime monarcha del nove Grande Britannia. Ben que nunc un singule regno, certe institutiones de Scotia e Anglaterra remaneva separate, como le [[Derecto scotese|derecto scotese]] e le [[Derecto anglese|derecto anglese]]; e le [[Presbyterian]] [[Ecclesia de Scotia]] e le [[Anglican]] [[Ecclesia de Anglaterra]]. Anglaterra e Scotia continuava cata un a haber lor proprie systema de education. Intertanto, le [[Guerra del Succession Espaniol]] contra Francia esseva in curso. Illo oscillava retro e avante usque un governamento plus pacific veniva al poter in London e le tractatos de [[Pace de Utrecht|Utrecht]] e [[Tractato de Rastatt|Rastadt]] poneva fin al guerra. Le historico [[G. M. Trevelyan]] argumenta: {{Cita|Ille [[Tractato de Utrecht|Tractato [de Utrecht]]], que introduceva le periodo stabile e characteristic del Civilisation del Decimo-Octave Seculo, marcava le fin del periculo a Europa ab le ancian monarchia francese, e illo marcava un cambio de non minus de significantia pro le mundo in general,—le suprematia maritime, commercial e financiari de Grande Britannia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trevelyan |first=G.M. |title=A shortened history of England |date=1942 |page=363 |author-link=G. M. Trevelyan}}</ref>}} === Reges Hanoverian === {{Main|Casa de Hanover}} [[File:George I Oval.jpg|thumb|George I in 1714, per Godfrey Kneller]] Le linea Stuart moriva con Anna in 1714, ben que un faction obstinate con supporto francese supportava le pretendentes. Le Elector de Hanover deveniva rege como [[George I de Grande Britannia|George I]]. Ille prestava plus attention a Hanover e se circumfereva de Germanos, faciente de ille un rege impopular.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Gorman |first=Frank |date=1986 |title=The Recent Historiography of the Hanoverian Regime |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1986-12_29_4/page/1005 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=1005–1020|doi=10.1017/S0018246X00019178 |s2cid=159984575 }}</ref> Ille, totevia, augmentava le armea e creava un systema politic plus stabile in Britannia e adjutava a apportar le pace a Europa del nord.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbs |first=G.C. |title=George I (1660–1727) |date=2004 |work=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography}}; {{Cite book |last=Hatton |first=Ragnhild M. |title=George I |date=2001 |author-link=Ragnhild Hatton}}</ref> Factiones jacobite que cercava un restauration Stuart remaneva forte; illos instigava [[Rebellion jacobite de 1715|un revolta in 1715–1716]]. Le filio de [[James II de Anglaterra|Jacobo II]] planava invader Anglaterra, ma ante que ille poteva facer lo, [[John Erskine, Earl of Mar (1675–1732)|John Erskine, Conte de Mar]], lanceava un invasion ab Scotia, que esseva facilemente disfacite.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oates |first=Jonathan D. |date=2004 |title=Jacobitism and Popular Disturbances in Northern England, 1714–1719 |journal=Northern History |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=111–128 |doi=10.1179/007817204790180871}}</ref> [[George II de Grande Britannia|George II]] meliorava le stabilitate del systema constitutional, con un governamento ducite per [[Robert Walpole]] durante le periodo 1730–42.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Black |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian) |date=February 2003 |title=Georges I & II |journal=History Today |volume=53 |issue=2}}</ref> Ille edificava le [[Prime Imperio Britannic]], fortificante le colonias in le Caribe e America del Nord. In coalition con le potentia ascendente Prussia, le Regno Unite disfaceva Francia in le [[Guerra de Septe Annos]], e ganiava controlo total de Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Andrew C. |title=George II: King and Elector |date=2011}}</ref> [[George III]] jammais visitava Hanover, e parlava anglese como su prime lingua. Injuriate per le Americanos como un tyranno e le instigator del Guerra American de Independentia, ille esseva frequentemente folle post 1788, e su filio plus ancian serviva como regente.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |title=George III: America's Last King |date=2006 |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)}}</ref> Ille esseva le ultime rege a dominar le governamento e le politica, e su longe regno es notabile pro perder le prime Imperio Britannic in le [[Guerra Revolutionari American]] (1783).<ref>Vide {{Cite journal |last=Black |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian) |date=Fall 1996 |title=Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence? |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1811/30022 |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=74 |issue=299 |pages=145–154 |jstor=44225322|hdl=1811/30022 }} (discurso video de 90 min. date al Ohio State in 2006)</ref> Le regno esseva notabile pro le construction de un secunde imperio basate in India, Asia e Africa, le initios del [[Revolution Industrial]] que faceva de Britannia un potentia economic, e le lucta de vita e de morte con le Franceses, in le [[Gueras Revolutionari Francese]], que terminava inconclusivmente con un breve tregua, e le epic [[Gueras Napoleonic]], que terminava con le defaite decisive de [[Napoleon]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=J. Steven |title=The Reign of George III, 1760–1815 |date=1960 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0198217138 |edition=1st}}</ref> ===South Sea Bubble=== Entreprenditores extendeva le extension de lor negocios circa le globo. Le [[South Sea Bubble]] esseva un enterprise commercial que explodeva in scandal. Le South Sea Company esseva un compania de actiones in London. Su objectivo ostensible esseva de conceder monopolios commercial in America del Sud; ma su scopo actual esseva de renegoziar previe prestamos governamental a alte interesse, ascendentes a £31 milliones, per medio de [[manipulation de mercato]] e speculation. Illa colligiva fundos quatro vices in 1720 per emetter actiones, que esseva comprate per circa 8 000 investitores. Le precio del action continuava a augmentar, de £130 per action a £1 000, con insiders que faceva enorme profitos theoretic. Le Bubble collabava de un die al altere, ruinante le speculatores. Investigationes monstrava que corruptiones habeva attingite locos elevate—even al rege. [[Robert Walpole]] lo terminava con dannos politic e economic minimal.<ref>{{Harvp|Hoppit|2000|pages=334–338}}; {{Cite journal |last=Hoppit |first=Julian |title=The Myths of the South Sea Bubble |date=December 1962 |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume=12 |pages=141–165 |doi=10.1017/S0080440102000051 |jstor=3679343 |issue=1|s2cid=162577865 }}</ref> ===Robert Walpole=== Robert Walpole es ora generalmente considerate como le prime Prime Minister, ab 1721–42. Le termino esseva applicate a ille tanto per amicos como per adversarios ja in 1727. Le historico Clayton Roberts summariza su nove functiones: {{Cita|Ille monopolizava le consilios del Re, ille superintendite de vicino le administration, ille controlava sin pietate le patronato, e ille conduceva le predominante partido in Parlamento.<ref>Quoted in {{Cite ODNB |last=Taylor |first=Stephen |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/28601 |title=Walpole, Robert, first earl of Orford (1676–1745) |date=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/28601 |edition=online |access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> Walpole esseva un maestro del uso effective del patronato, como etiam esseva su duo discipulos que le succedeva como prime ministro, [[Henry Pelham]] e le fratre de Pelham, le [[Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle|Duque de Newcastle]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Browning |first=Reed |title=Duke of Newcastle |date=1975 |pages=254–260}}</ref>}} === Moralismo e hypocrisia === [[File:Four Times of the Day - Morning - Hogarth.jpg|thumb|[[London del seculo 18|London del seculo 18]] per [[William Hogarth]]]] Le '''hypocrisia''' deveniva un thema major in le [[Historia politic del Regno Unite|historia politic]] al initio del [[Seculo 18|seculo 18]]. Le [[Acto de Toleration 1688|Acto de Toleration 1688]] permitteva le derectos pro [[Minoritate religiose|minoritates religiose]], ma le [[Nonconformista (Protestantismo)|Nonconformistas]] protestante esseva ancora '''deprivate de derectos importante''', tal como le derecto a tener un [[Officio (tenentia)|officio]]. Nonconformistas qui voleva tener un officio prendeva ostentosemente le [[Anglicanismo|Anglican]] [[Sacramento christian|sacramento]] un vice per anno pro evitar le restrictiones. [[Alte Ecclesia|Anglicanistas del Alte Ecclesia]] esseva indignate, e dislegeva le "[[conformitate occasional|conformitate occasional]]" con le '''[[Acto de Conformitate Occasional 1711|Acto de Conformitate Occasional 1711]]''' .<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Clyve |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-0206.2011.00276.x |title='Too Wild to Succeed': The Occasional Conformity Bills and the Attempts by the House of Lords to Outlaw the Tack in the Reign of Anne |date=2011 |journal=Parliamentary History |volume=30 |pages=414–427 |issue=3|doi=10.1111/j.1750-0206.2011.00276.x |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Usante [[Sermon|sermones]], [[Discurso|discursos]], e [[Pamphletto|guerras de pamphletos]], le [[Alte Ecclesia|homines del Alte Ecclesia]] e le Nonconformistas attaccava lor opponentes como '''insincere e hypocrite''', assi como '''periculosemente zelose'''. Le historico [[Mark Knights|Mark Knights]] argumenta que per su ferocitate, le debatto poterea haber ducite a un discurso politic plus temperate e minus hyper-cargate. Le "conformitate occasional" esseva restaurate per le [[Whig|Whigs]] quando illes retornava al poter in 1719.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knights |first=Mark |date=2005 |title=Occasional conformity and the representation of dissent: hypocrisy, sincerity, moderation and zeal |journal=Parliamentary History |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–57|doi=10.1111/j.1750-0206.2005.tb00401.x }}</ref> Le famose "[[Le Fabula del Apes|Le Fabula del Apes]]" del autor anglese [[Bernard Mandeville|Bernard Mandeville]] explorava le natura del hypocrisia in le societate europee contemporanee. Ille argumentava que le effortios de '''[[Entrepreneur|entrepreneurs egoista]]''' es le base del societate commercial e industrial emergente, un linea de pensamento que influentiava [[Adam Smith|Adam Smith]] e le [[Utilitarismo|Utilitarianismo]] del [[Seculo 19|seculo 19]]. Un tension surgeva inter iste duo approches re le poter relative de [[Norma social|normas]] e [[Interesse personal|interesses]], le relation inter motivos e [[Conducta human|conducta]], e le variabilitate historic de [[Cultura human|culturas human]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luban |first=Daniel |date=2015 |title=Bernard Mandeville as Moralist and Materialist |journal=History of European Ideas |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=831–857|doi=10.1080/01916599.2015.1010777 |s2cid=145179618 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:beb92369-f940-4053-935e-0e2eaf50936a }}</ref> Ab circa 1750 a 1850, le '''[[Faction politic Whig (Britannic)|aristocrates Whig]]''' in Anglaterra se vantava de lor benevolentia special pro le [[Gente commun|gente commun]]. Illes clamava esser guidante le initiativas de [[Reforma politic|reforma]] pro prevenir le discontento que causava instabilitate e [[Revolution|revolution]] trans [[Europa Continental|Europa continental]]. Totevia le criticos [[Partito Tory (Britannic)|Tory]] e [[Radicalismo (historic)|radical]] accusava le Whigs de '''hypocrisia'''—allegante que illes deliberatemente usava le slogans de reforma e [[Democratia|democratia]] pro '''propeller se in le poter'''. Le historico [[L.G. Mitchell|L.G. Mitchell]] defende le Whigs, signalante que gratias a illes, le [[Radicalismo (historic)|radicales]] sempre habeva amicos al centro del [[Elite (scientia social)|elite]], e assi non se sentiva tanto marginalisate como in le major parte de Europa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=L.G. |date=1999 |title=The Whigs, the People, and Reform |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=85 |pages=25–41}}</ref> Intertanto, un fluxo de observatores del Continente commentava super le [[Cultura politic|cultura politic]] britannic. Observatores liberal e radical notava le '''servilitate del classes inferior''', le obsession de tote le mundo con [[Rango social|rango]] e [[Titulo de nobilitate|titulo]], le extravagantia del [[Aristocratia|aristocratia]], e un '''hypocrisia pervasive''' que se extendeva a areas como le [[Reforma social|reforma social]]. Il non habeva tanto de visitatores conservative. Illes laudava le [[Stabilitate|stabilitate]] del societate anglese, su [[Constitution ancian|constitution ancian]], e reverentia pro le passato; illes ignorava le effectos negative del [[Industrialisation|industrialisation]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Langford |first=Paul |title=Proceedings of the British Academy |date=1999 |isbn=0197262015 |volume=85 |pages=101–119 |chapter=The English as Reformers: Foreign Visitors' Impressions, 1750–1850 |publisher=British Academy |chapter-url=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/3836/100p101.pdf}}</ref> Historicos ha explorate [[Crimine|crimines]] e [[Vitio|vitios]] del classes superior de Anglaterra, specialmente '''[[Duello|duello]], [[Suicidio|suicidio]], [[Adulterio|adulterio]] e [[Joco (activitate)|joco]]'''. Illos esseva tolerante per le mesme tribunales que executava milles de povre homines pro offensas minor. Nulle [[Aristocrate|aristocrate]] esseva punite pro occider alicuno in un duello. Totevia le [[Pressa popular|pressa popular]] emergente se specialisava in '''histories sensationalistic''' re le vitios del classe superior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Andrew |first=Donna T. |date=2014 |title=Cultural Skirmishes in 18th Century England: The Attack on Aristocratic Vice |journal=History Compass |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=664–671|doi=10.1111/hic3.12183 }}</ref> === Guerra e financia === [[File:Battle of Blenheim.jpg|thumb|John Churchill, Duce de Marlborough accepta le rendition francese al Battalia de Blenheim, 1704.]] Desde 1700 a 1850, Britannia esseva involvite in 137 gueras o rebelliones. Illo manteneva un Marina Regal relativemente grande e costose, insimul con un micre armata permanente. Quando le necessitate pro soldatos surgeva, illo ingagiava mercenarios o financiava alliatos qui campava armatas. Le costos crescente del guera fortiava un cambio in le fontes de financia governamental, del revenues ab proprietates agricultural regal e impostos e taxas special a reliantia super taxas de doana e accisa; e, post 1790, un impuesto super le rendimento. Laborante con bancheros in le citate de London, le governamento levava prestos durante le tempore de guerra e los repagava in tempore de pace. Le augmento in taxas amontava a 20% del rendimento national, ma le sector private beneficiava del augmento in le crescimento economic. Le demanda pro provisiones de guerra stimiava le sector industrial, particularmente provisiones naval, munitiones e textiles, lo que dava a Britannia un avantagio in le commercio international durante le annos de postguerra.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kozub |first=Robert M. |date=Fall 2003 |title=Evolution of Taxation in England, 1700–1850: A Period of War and Industrialization |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-european-economic-history_fall-2003_32_2/page/363 |journal=Journal of European Economic History |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=363–388}}; {{Cite book |last=Brewer |author-link=John Brewer (historian) |first=John |title=The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783 |date=1990}}; {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Paul |title=The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers |date=1989 |pages=80–84}}</ref> Le Revolution Francese polarisava le opinion politic britannic in le annos 1790, con conservativos indignate al occision del rege, le expulsion del nobiles, e le Regime del Terror. Britannia esseva in guera contra Francia quasi continuamente de 1793 usque le defeita final de Napoleon in 1815. Conservativos castigava le opinion radical in Britannia como "Jacobin" (in referentia al chefes del Terror), admonestante que le radicalismo menaciava un revolto social. Le Sentimento Anti-Jacobin, ben exprimite per Edmund Burke e multe scriptores popular esseva le plus forte inter le proprietarios terrenal e classes superior.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=2006 |editor-last=Fremont-Barnes |editor-first=Gregory |volume=1 |pages=41–42}}</ref> === Imperio Britannic === {{Main|Imperio Britannic}} [[File:Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey.jpg|thumb|[[Lord Clive|Lord Clive]] incontrante con [[Mir Jafar|Mir Jafar]] post le [[Battalia de Plassey|Battalia de Plassey]], per [[Francis Hayman|Francis Hayman]] (c. 1762)]] Le [[Guerra de Septe Annos|Guerra de Septe Annos]], que comenciava in 1756, esseva le prime declarate a un scala global, combattite in [[Europa|Europa]], [[India|India]], [[America del Nord|America del Nord]], le [[Caraibe|Caraibe]], le [[Philippinas|Philippinas]] e [[Costa african|Africa costal]]. [[Britannia|Britannia]] esseva le grande [[Victor|victor]] proque illo allargava su [[Imperio|imperio]] al [[Expensa|expensa]] de [[Francia|Francia]] e alteres. [[Francia|Francia]] perdeva su [[Rolo|rolo]] como [[Potentia colonial|potentia colonial]] in [[America del Nord|America del Nord]]. Illo cedeva [[Nove Francia|Nove Francia]] a Britannia, [[Espania|Espania]] cedeva [[Florida|Florida]]. In [[India|India]], le [[Gueras Carnatic#Tertie Guerra Carnatic (1757–1763)|Guerra Carnatic]] habeva lassate [[Francia|Francia]] ancora in [[Controlo|controlo]] de su [[India francese|micre enclaves]] ma con [[Restriction militar|restrictiones militar]] e un [[Obligation|obligation]] de supportar statos cliente britannic, in [[Effecto|effecto]] lassante le [[Futuro de India|futuro de India]] a Britannia. [[Grande Britannia in le Guerra de Septe Annos|Le victoria britannic super Francia]] in le [[Guerra de Septe Annos|Guerra de Septe Annos]] lassava Britannia como le '''[[Potentia colonial dominante del mundo|potentia colonial dominante del mundo]]'''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jasanoff |first=Maya |title=Edge of Empire: Lives, Culture, and Conquest in the East, 1750–1850 |date=2006 |isbn=978-1-40-007546-1 |page=21 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |author-link=Maya Jasanoff |orig-date=2005}}</ref> ==== Revolution American ==== [[File:Surrender of General Burgoyne.jpg|thumb|General britannic [[John Burgoyne|John Burgoyne]] monstrate rendente se a [[Saratoga]] (1777), pictura ''[[Rendition del General Burgoyne]]'' per [[John Trumbull|John Trumbull]], 1822]] Durante le annos 1760 e annos 1770, relationes inter le [[Dece-Tres Colonias]] e [[Britannia|Britannia]] deveniva tense, primarimente a causa de ira contra le tentativas del Parlamento de [[Impuesto|imponer taxas]] al [[Colonistas american|colonistas american]] sin lor consentimento.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |url=https://archive.org/details/empire00nial |title=Empire, The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-46-502328-8 |pages=73 |publisher=Basic Books |author-link=Niall Ferguson |url-access=registration}}</ref> Le [[Americano|Americanos]] preparava lor grande [[Milicia|militias]], ma habeva penuria de [[Pulvere de canon|pulvere de canon]] e [[Artilleria|artilleria]]. Le [[Britannico|Britannicos]] assumeva que illes poterea facilemente [[Suprime|supprimer]] le [[Resistentia|resistentia]] [[Patriota|Patriota]]. In 1775 le [[Guerra Revolutionari American|Guerra Revolutionari American]] comenciava. In 1776 le [[Patriota|Patriotas]] [[Expulsa|expulsava]] [[Official royal|officiales royal]] e [[Declaration de Independentia del Statos Unite|declarava le independentia del Statos Unite de America]]. Post [[Captura|capturar]] un [[Armea de invasion|armada de invasion]] britannic in 1777, le [[Nove nation|nove nation]] formava un [[Alliantia|alliantia]] con [[Francia|Francia]], [[Equalisa|equalisante]] le [[Balance militar|balance militar]] e [[Balance naval|naval]] e ponente [[Britannia|Britannia]] a [[Risco|risco]] de [[Invasion|invasion]] ab [[Francia|Francia]]. Le [[Armea britannic|armada britannic]] controlava solmente un [[Mano|mano]] de [[Citate costal|citate costal]] in le [[Statos Unite|Statos Unite]]. 1780–81 esseva un [[Puncto basse|puncto basse]] pro [[Britannia|Britannia]]. [[Taxa|Taxas]] e [[Deficit|deficitos]] esseva alte, [[Corruption governamental|corruption governamental]] esseva [[Pervasive|pervasive]], e le [[Guerra in America|guerra in America]] entrava in su sexte anno sin [[Fin in vista|fin in vista]]. Le [[Revoltas Gordon|Revoltas Gordon]] erumpeva in [[London|London]] durante le [[Primavera|primavera]] de 1780, in [[Responsa|responsa]] a [[Concession|concessiones]] augmentate a [[Catholico|Catholicos]] per le [[Parlamento|Parlamento]]. In octobre 1781 [[Lord Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] [[Rendition|rendeva]] su [[Armea|armada]] a [[Asedio de Yorktown|Yorktown, Virginia]]. Le [[Tractato de Paris (1783)|Tractato de Paris]] esseva signate in 1783, [[Formalmente|formalmente]] [[Termina|terminante]] le guerra e [[Recognition|recognoscente]] le [[Independentia|independentia]] del [[Statos Unite|Statos Unite]]. Le [[Termino de pace|terminos de pace]] esseva [[Generose|generose]] pro le [[Nove nation|nove nation]], que [[London|London]] sperava, correctemente, que illo devenirea un [[Partner de commercio|partner de commercio]] major.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |title=Crisis of Empire: Britain and America in the Eighteenth Century |date=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-44-110445-8 |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)}}</ref> Le perdita del [[Dece-Tres Colonias|Dece-Tres Colonias]], al epoca le plus populose de [[Britannia|Britannia]], marcava le transition inter le "[[Prime Imperio Britannic|prime]]" e "[[Secunde Imperio Britannic|secunde]]" imperios<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Low |first1=Alaine |title=[[Le Historia de Oxford del Imperio Britannic|Le Historia de Oxford del Imperio Britannic]] |last2=Louis |first2=Wm Roger |date=1998 |editor-last=Canny |editor-first=Nicholas |editor-link=Nicholas Canny |volume=1. The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century |pages=92 |author-link2=Wm. Roger Louis}}</ref>, in le qual [[Britannia|Britannia]] cambia su attention a [[Asia|Asia]], le [[Pacifico|Pacifico]] e plus tarde [[Africa|Africa]]. ''[[Le Richesse del Nationes|Le Richesse del Nationes]]'' de [[Adam Smith|Adam Smith]], publicate in 1776, argumentava que le [[Colonia|colonias]] esseva redundant, e que le commercio libere deberea reemplaciar le politicas mercantilista del prime periodo de [[Expansion colonial|expansion colonial]]. Le crescimento del commercio inter le [[Statos Unite|Statos Unite]] novemente independente e [[Britannia|Britannia]] post 1783<ref>{{Cite book |last=James |first=Lawrence |title=The Rise and Fall of the British Empire |date=2001 |isbn=978-1-46-684213-7 |pages=119 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing |orig-date=1994}}</ref> confirmava le vista de Smith que le controlo politic non esseva necessari pro le successo economic. Durante su prime 100 annos de operation, le [[Compania Britannic del Indias Oriental|Compania del Indias Oriental]] habeva essite dedicate al commercio, non al construction de un imperio in [[India|India]]. Le interesse del [[Compania|Compania]] vira a territorio durante le [[Seculo 18|seculo 18]] quando le [[Imperio Mughal|Imperio Mughal]] declinava in potentia e le Compania luctava con su contraparte [[Compania Francese del Indias Oriental|Compania Francese del Indias Oriental]] durante le [[Gueras Carnatic|Gueras Carnatic]] del annos 1740 e 1750. Le [[Britannicos|Britannicos]], ducite per [[Robert Clive|Robert Clive]], disfaceva le [[Francese|Franceses]] e lor alliatos [[Indian|indian]] in le [[Battalia de Plassey|Battalia de Plassey]], lassante le Compania in controlo de [[Bengal|Bengal]] e un major potentia militar e politic in India. Illo gradualmente augmentava le dimension del territorios sub su controlo, regente directe o indirecte via regulatores de marionette local sub le menacia del [[Armea Indian|Armea Indian]], 80% del qual esseva componite de [[Sepoy|sepoys]] native indian. [[File:Cookroutes.png|thumb|Viages del explorator [[James Cook|James Cook]]]] Le 22 de augusto 1770, [[James Cook|Cook]] discopriva le [[Costa oriental de Australia|costa oriental de Australia]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knibbs |first=G. H. |title=Official year book of the Commonwealth of Australia |date=1908 |publisher=[[Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics]] |page=52 |author-link=George Handley Knibbs}}</ref> durante un [[Prime viage de James Cook|viage scientific]] al [[Pacifico del Sud|Pacifico del Sud]]. In 1778, [[Joseph Banks|Joseph Banks]], botanico de Cook super le viage, presentava evidentia al governamento super le convenientia de [[Botany Bay|Botany Bay]] pro le stabilimento de un colonisation penal, e in 1787 le [[Prime invio de convictos a Australia|prime invio de convictos]] poneva se in vela, arrivante in 1788. == 1800 a 1837 == {{Main|Regno Unite de Grande Britannia e Irlanda}} {{Further|Epocha Georgian|Regentia Britannic|Epocha Victorian|Imperio Britannic|Historia del societate britannic#Societate Georgian}} === Union con Irlanda === {{Main|Acto de Union 1800|Problema irlandese in le politica britannic}} {{Image frame |width=220 |border=no |content=[[File:Flags of the Union Jack.svg|220px]] |caption=Le [[Bandiera del Regno Unite|Bandiera del Regno Unite]] es basate super le bandieras de [[Bandiera de Anglaterra|Anglaterra]], [[Bandiera de Scotia|Scotia]] e le [[Saltiera|saltiera]] del [[Ordine de Sancte Patricio|Ordine de Sancte Patricio]] (non le [[Bandiera de Irlanda|bandiera de Irlanda]]).}} Le 1 de januario 1801, le [[Grande Britannia]] e [[Irlanda]] se univa pro formar le [[Regno Unite de Grande Britannia e Irlanda]]. Le union legislative de [[Grande Britannia]] e [[Irlanda]] esseva effectuate per le [[Acto de Union 1800]], creante le "[[Regno Unite de Grande Britannia e Irlanda]]". Le acto esseva passate in tanto le [[Parlamento de Grande Britannia]] como le [[Parlamento de Irlanda]], dominate per le [[Ascendentia Protestante]] e mancante de representation del population catholic. Majoritates substantial esseva obtenite, e isto esseva assistite per subornation in le forma del awardamento de [[Pairato]] e [[Systema de honores britannic]] a opponentes pro ganiar lor votos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Alan J. |title=The Irish Constitutional Tradition |page=28}}</ref> Sub le terminos del fusion, le [[Parlamentos separate de Grande Britannia]] e [[Irlanda]] esseva abolite, e reemplaciate per un [[Parlamento del Regno Unite]] unite. [[Irlanda]] assi deveniva un parte integral del [[Regno Unite]], inviante circa 100 [[Membros del Parlamento]] al [[Camera del Communes]] a [[Westminster]] e 28 pares representante irlandese al [[Camera del Lords]], eligite per le pares irlandese mesme, excepte que pares catholic non esseva permitite a prender lor sedes in le [[Lords]]. Parte del compensation pro le [[Catholicos irlandese]] esseva le concession del [[Emancipation catholic]], que habeva essite resistite ferocemente per le [[Parlamento irlandese]] totalmente-Anglican. Totevia, isto esseva blocate per le [[Re George III]], qui argumentava que emancipar le [[Catholicos roman]] violarea su [[Juramento de Coronation]]. Le hierarchia [[catholic roman]] habeva endorsate le [[Union]]. Totevia le decision de bloccar le [[Emancipation Catholic]] fatalmente subminava le appello del [[Union]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Acts of Union: The causes, contexts, and consequences of the Act of Union |date=2001 |publisher=Four Courts Press |editor-last=Keogh |editor-first=Dáire |editor-last2=Whelan |editor-first2=Kevin}}</ref> === Guerras Napoleonic === {{Main|Regno Unite in le Guerras Napoleonic}} [[File:Trafalgar-Auguste Mayer.jpg|thumb|Le [[Vapor de su Majestate|Vapor de Su Majestate]] britannic {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|6}} tira al [[Vascel de vice-admiral|vascel de vice-admiral]] francese {{ship|Vascel francese|Bucentaure|1803|2}} (completemente dismastate) durante le [[Battalia de Trafalgar|Battalia de Trafalgar]]. Le ''Bucentaure'' anque lucta contra {{HMS|Victory}} (detra illo) e {{HMS|Temeraire|1798|6}} (latere sinistre del pictura). De facto, HMS ''Sandwich'' jammais combatteva a Trafalgar; un [[Error|error]] de [[Auguste Mayer|Auguste Mayer]], le [[Pictor|pictor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Auguste Mayer's picture as described by the official website of the Musée national de la Marine (in French) |url=http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526163947/http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |archive-date=26 May 2010}}</ref>]] Al [[Initio|initio]] del [[Seculo 19|seculo 19]], [[Britannia|Britannia]] esseva [[Defia|defiate]] de novo per [[Francia|Francia]] sub [[Napoleon|Napoleon]], in un [[Lucta|lucta]] que, [[A differentia de gueras previe|a differentia de gueras previe]], [[Representa|representava]] un [[Concurso de ideologias|concurso de ideologias]] inter le duo [[Nation|nationes]]: le [[Monarchia constitutional|monarchia constitutional]] de [[Grande Britannia|Grande Britannia]] contra le [[Principio liberal|principios liberal]] del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]] [[Ostensibilemente|ostensibilemente]] [[Defende|defendite]] per le [[Imperio Napoleonic|imperio Napoleonic]].{{Sfnp|James|2001|page=152}} Il esseva non solmente le [[Position de Britannia super le scena mundial|position de Britannia super le scena mundial]] que esseva [[Menacia|menaciate]]: [[Napoleon|Napoleon]] [[Menacia|menaciava]] [[Invasion|invasion]] de [[Britannia|Britannia]], e con illo, un [[Fato|fato]] [[Similar|similar]] al [[Pais|paises]] de [[Europa continental|Europa continental]] que su [[Armea|armatas]] habeva [[Invaide|invaite]]. Durante le [[Guerra del Secunde Coalition|Guerra del Secunde Coalition]], [[Britannia|Britannia]] [[Occupava|occupava]] le [[Major parte|major parte]] del [[Colonia francese e hollandese|colonias francese e hollandese]], ma le [[Maladia tropical|maladias tropical]] [[Reclama|reclamava]] le [[Vita|vitas]] de plus de 40.000 [[Truppa|truppas]]. Quando le [[Tractato de Amiens|Tractato de Amiens]] [[Crea|creava]] un [[Pausa|pausa]], [[Britannia|Britannia]] esseva [[Fortia|fortiate]] a [[Retorna|retornar]] le [[Major parte|major parte]] del [[Colonia|colonias]]. In maio 1803, [[Guerra|guerra]] esseva [[Declara|declarate]] de novo. Le [[Plan|planos]] de [[Napoleon|Napoleon]] de [[Invaide|invader]] [[Britannia|Britannia]] [[Falia|faliava]] a causa del [[Inferioritate|inferioritate]] de su [[Marina|marina]], e in 1805, le [[Flotta de Nelson|flotta de Nelson]] [[Decisivemente|decisivemente]] [[Defaite|disfaceva]] le [[Francese|Franceses]] e [[Espaniol|Espanioles]] a [[Battalia de Trafalgar|Trafalgar]], que esseva le [[Ultime action naval significative|ultime action naval significative]] del [[Gueras Napoleonic|Gueras Napoleonic]]. In 1806, [[Napoleon|Napoleon]] [[Emitte|emitteva]] le [[Serie de Decretos de Berlin|serie de Decretos de Berlin]], que [[Pone in effecto|poneva in effecto]] le [[Systema Continental|Systema Continental]]. Iste [[Politica|politica]] [[Intende|intendite]] a [[Debilita|debilitar]] le [[Economia de exportation britannic|economia de exportation britannic]] [[Clausa|claudente]] le [[Territorio|territorio]] [[Controlate per Francia|controlate per Francia]] a su [[Commercio|commercio]]. [[Napoleon|Napoleon]] [[Spera|sperava]] que [[Isola|isolante]] [[Britannia|Britannia]] del [[Continente|Continente]] [[Finiva|finirea]] su [[Dominantia economic|dominantia economic]]. Illo jammais [[Successo|succedeva]] in su [[Objectivo|objectivo]]. Il habeva alcun [[Danno|danno]] a [[Britannia|Britannia]], ma su [[Controlo del oceanos|controlo del oceanos]] [[Adjuta|adjutava]] a [[Meliora|meliorar]] le [[Danno|danno]]. [[Etiam plus|Etiam plus]] [[Danno|danno]] esseva [[Facer|facite]] al [[Economia|economias]] de [[Francia|Francia]] e su [[Alliato|alliatos]], que [[Perde|perdeva]] un [[Partner de commercio utile|partner de commercio utile]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grab |first=Alexander |title=Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe |date=2003 |pages=29–33}}</ref> [[Governamento|Governamentos]] [[Irritate|irritate]] [[Gania|ganiava]] un [[Incentivo|incentivo]] a [[Ignora|ignorar]] le [[Systema Continental|Systema Continental]], lo que duceva al [[Debilita|debilitation]] del [[Coalition de Napoleon|coalition de Napoleon]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crouzet |first=François |date=1964 |title=Wars, blockade, and economic change in Europe, 1792–1815 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-history_1964-12_24_4/page/567 |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700061271 |jstor=2115762|s2cid=154922418 }}</ref> [[Britannia|Britannia]] [[Possede|possedeva]] le [[Capacitate industrial le plus grande|capacitate industrial le plus grande]] in [[Europa|Europa]], e su [[Maestria del mares|maestria del mares]] [[Permitte|permitteva]] a illo a [[Edifica|edificar]] [[Fortia economic|fortia economic]] trans [[Commercio|commercio]] a su [[Possession|possessiones]] de su [[Nove Imperio|nove Imperio]] [[Rapidemente|rapidemente]] [[Expande|expandente]]. Le [[Suprematia naval de Britannia|suprematia naval de Britannia]] [[Significa|significava]] que [[Francia|Francia]] jammais poterea [[Frui|fruer]] del [[Pace|pace]] [[Necessari|necessari]] a [[Consolida|consolidar]] su [[Controlo|controlo]] super [[Europa|Europa]], e illo poterea [[Menacia|menaciar]] ni le [[Insulas domestic|insulas domestic]] ni le [[Colonia britannic principal|colonias britannic principal]]. [[File:Charge of the French Cuirassiers at Waterloo.jpg|thumb|Le [[Carga|carga]] del [[Cuirassier|Cuirassiers]] [[Francese|francese]] al [[Battalia de Waterloo|Battalia de Waterloo]] contra un [[Quadrato de infanteria|quadrato de infanteria]] britannic]] Le [[Revolto Dos de Mayo|Revolto Dos de Mayo]] [[Permitte|permitteva]] a [[Britannia|Britannia]] a [[Gania|ganiar]] un [[Capite de ponte|capite de ponte]] super le [[Continente|Continente]]. Le [[Duce de Wellington|Duce de Wellington]] e su [[Armea|armada]] de [[Britannico|Britannicos]] e [[Portugese|Portugeses]] [[Expulsa|expulsava]] le [[Francese|Franceses]] foras de [[Espania|Espania]] e al [[Initio de 1814|initio de 1814]], como [[Napoleon|Napoleon]] esseva [[Propella|propellate]] [[Retro|retro]] in le [[Est|est]] per le [[Prussiano|Prussianos]], [[Austriano|Austrianos]], e [[Russo|Russos]], [[Wellington|Wellington]] [[Invade|invadeva]] [[Francia del sud|Francia del sud]]. Post le [[Rendition de Napoleon|rendition de Napoleon]] e [[Exilio|exilio]] al [[Insula de Elba|insulo de Elba]], le [[Pace|pace]] pareva haber [[Retorna|retornate]], ma quando ille [[Escapa|escapava]] [[Retro|retro]] in [[Francia|Francia]] in 1815, le [[Britannicos|Britannicos]] e lor [[Alliato|alliatos]] debeva [[Lucta|luctar]] contra ille de novo. Le [[Armea de Wellington|armatas de Wellington]] e [[von Blücher|von Blücher]] [[Defaite|disfaceva]] [[Napoleon|Napoleon]] un vice pro tote a [[Battalia de Waterloo|Waterloo]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muir |first=Rory |title=Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807–1815 |date=1996 |publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> ==== Financiamento del guerra ==== Un elemento clave in le successo britannic esseva su capacitate a mobilisar ressources industrial e financiari e applicar los a defeitar Francia. Con un population de 16 milliones, Britannia esseva a pena le medietate del dimension de Francia con 30 milliones. In terminos de soldatos, le avantagio numeric francese esseva compensate per subsidios britannic que pagava pro un grande proportion del soldatos austriac e russo, culminante a circa 450.000 in 1813.<ref>{{Harvp|Kennedy|1989|page=128–129}}.</ref> Le plus importante, le rendimento national britannic remaneva forte e le sector de affares ben organisate canalisava productos a lo que le militar necessitava. Le systema de contrabanda de productos finite in le continente subminava effortios francese a ruinar le economia britannic per taliar foras mercatos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schroeder |first=Paul W. |title=The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 |date=1994 |pages=305–310}}</ref> Le budget britannic in 1814 attingeva £66 milliones, includente £10 milliones pro le Marina, £40 milliones pro le Armea, £10 milliones pro le Alliatos, e £38 milliones como interesse super le debita national. Le debita national volava a £679 milliones, plus que le duple del PIB. Illo esseva supportate per centenas de milles de investitores e contribuentes, malgrado le taxas super terra plus alte e un nove impuesto super le rendimento. Le costo del guerra attingeva £830 milliones. Per contrasto, le systema financiari francese esseva inadequate e Napoleon debeva fiar se in parte super requisitiones ab terras conquirite.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halevy |first=Elie |title=A History of the English People in 1815 |date=1924 |volume=2 |pages=205–206, 215–228}}; {{Citation |last=Knight |first=Roger |title=Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisation of Victory, 1793–1815 |date=2013}}; {{Harvp|Watson|1960|pages=374–377, 406–407, 463–471}}.</ref> ==== Guerra de 1812 con le Statos Unite ==== [[File:Signing of Treaty of Ghent (1814).jpg|thumb|left|[[Signatura|Signatura]] del [[Tractato de Gand|Tractato de Gand]] (decembre 1814) con le [[Diplomate statunitense|diplomates statunitense]]]] Simultaneemente con le [[Gueras Napoleonic]], disputas commercial e le impressamento britannic de [[Marineros american]] duceva al [[Guerra de 1812]]. Isto esseva le "[[Secunde Guerra de Independentia (Statos Unite)|Secunde Guerra de Independentia]]" pro le [[Americano]], ben que illo jammais esseva super effortios britannic a conquirer le ex-colonias, ma le conquesta del [[Colonias canadian]] per le [[Americano]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peterson |first=Charles Jacobs |title=The Military Heroes of the War of 1812: With a Narrative of the War |date=1852 |author-link=Charles Jacobs Peterson}}</ref> Le [[Britannicos]] poterea devotar pauc ressources al conflicto usque le cader de [[Napoleon]] in 1814. [[Frigatas american]] infligeva defeitas al [[Marina britannic]], que habeva penuria de personal a causa del conflicto in Europa. Un effortio de guerra accelerate produceva alcun successos tal como le [[Incendio de Washington]], ma multe voces influente tal como le [[Duce de Wellington]] argumentava que un victoria directe super le [[Statos Unite]] esseva impossibile.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |title=The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon |date=2009 |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)}} is one of the few major British studies</ref> Le pace esseva accordate al [[Fin de 1814]], ma [[Andrew Jackson]], inconsciente de isto, ganiava un grande victoria super le [[Britannicos]] al [[Battalia de Nove Orleans]] in januario 1815. Le ratification del [[Tractato de Gand]] terminava le guerra in [[Februario]] 1815. Le major resultato esseva le defeita permanente del alliatos indian que le [[Britannicos]] habeva contate super. Le [[Frontiera Statos Unite-Canada]] esseva demilitarisate per ambe paises, e le commercio pacific retornava, ben que le preoccupationes de un conquesta american de Canada persisteva. === Repression de postguerra per elites terrenal reationari === Le [[Epocha de postguerra]] esseva un tempore de depression economic, mal recoltas, inflation crescente, e alte disoccupation inter le [[Soldatos retornante]]. Como le [[Industrialisation]] progrediva, [[Britannia]] esseva plus urban e minus rural, e le potentia cambiava secundo illo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Briggs |first=Asa |title=The Age of Improvement, 1783–1867 |date=1959 |author-link=Asa Briggs}}</ref> Le direction Tory dominante, basate in le sector rural declinante, esseva timorose, reationari e repressive. Le [[Tories]] timeva le emergentia de radicales conspirante a emular le [[Revolution Francese]] metuente. In realitate le elemento radical violente esseva micre e debile; il habeva micre conspirationes involvente homines con pauc sequitores e securitate negligente; illos esseva rapidamente supprimite.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Eric J. |title=Britain Before the Reform Act: Politics and Society 1815–1832 |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-13-481603-3 |edition=2nd |pages=1–27 |publisher=Routledge |author-link=Eric J. Evans}}</ref> Technicas de repression includeva le [[Suspension del Habeas Corpus]] in 1817 (permittente al governamento a retener suspectos sin causa o judicio). Le [[Actos de Ammussellamento de Sidmouth]] de 1817 ammussellava fortemente le jornales de opposition; le reformatores commutava a pamphlettos e vendeva 50.000 per septimana. In reaction al [[Massacre de Peterloo]] de 1819, le [[Governamento de Liverpool]] passava le "[[Sex Actos]]" in 1819. Illos prohibiva exercitios e drills militar; facilitava mandatos pro le cerca de armas; outlagava meetinges public de plus de 50 personas; imponeva penas pesante super publicationes blaspheme e seditiose; imponente un acto de bollo de quatro penny super multe pamphlettos pro reducer le fluxo super critica. Le offenders poterea esser severmente punite includente exilio a [[Australia]]. Le leges esseva designate a discoragiar creatores de problemas e a reassurar conservativos; illos non esseva usate frequentemente. Per le fin del annos 1820, insimul con un recuperation economic, multe de iste leges repressive esseva repelite.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ziegler |first=Philip |title=Addington |date=1965 |page=350}}</ref> === Monarchas debile === [[George IV]] esseva un regulatore debile como [[Regente (governmento)|regente]] (1811–1820) e [[Rege|rege]] (1820–1830). Ille permitteva que su ministros prender le carga total del affaires governamental, jocante un rolo multo minor que [[George III]]. Le principio ora deveniva stabilite que le rege accepta como [[Prime Ministro|prime ministro]] le persona qui gania un majoritate in le [[Camera del Communes|Camera del Communes]], sia que le rege lo favore personalmente. Su governamentos, con pauc adjuta del rege, presideva super victoria in le [[Gueras Napoleonic|Gueras Napoleonic]], negotiate le arrangiamento de pace, e tentava tractar con le malaise social e economic que sequeva.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baker |first=Kenneth |date=2005 |title=George IV: a Sketch |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-today_2005-10_55_10/page/30 |journal=History Today |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=30–36}}</ref> Su fratre [[William IV]] regnava 1830–37, ma esseva pauc involvite in le politica. Su regno videva reformas: le [[Lege de povres|lege de povres]] esseva actualisate, le [[Travalio infantil|travalio infantil]] restringite, le [[Acto de Abolition de Sclavitute 1833|sclavitute abolite]] in quasi omne le [[Imperio Britannic|Imperio Britannic]], e, le plus importante, le [[Acto de Reforma 1832|Acto de Reforma de 1832]] refabricava le [[Systema electoral britannic|systema electoral britannic]].<ref>[[Brock, Michael|Brock, Michael]] (2004) "William IV (1765–1837)", ''[[Dictionario National de Biographia de Oxford|Dictionario National de Biographia de Oxford]]'', (2004) {{doi|10.1093/ref:odnb/29451}}</ref> === Affaires estranier === Il habeva nulle guerras major usque le [[Guerra de Crimea|Guerra de Crimea]] de 1853–56.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |title=A Military History of Britain: From 1775 to the Present |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-27-599039-8 |pages=74–77 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)}}</ref> Durante que [[Prussia|Prussia]], [[Austria|Austria]], e [[Russia|Russia]], como monarchias absolute, tentava a supprimer le [[Liberalismo|liberalismo]] ubique ubi illo poterea occurrer, le [[Britannicos|Britannicos]] accordava se con nove ideas. [[Britannia|Britannia]] interveniva in [[Portugal|Portugal]] in 1826 pro defender un [[Governamento constitutional|governamento constitutional]] ibi e recognoscente le [[Independentia|independentia]] del [[Colonia american de Espania|colonias american de Espania]] in 1824.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=William W. |title=British policy and the independence of Latin America, 1804–1828 |date=1951 |publisher=Archon Books |isbn=978-0-208-00351-5 |ol=22086116M |author-link=William Kaufmann}}</ref> Mercantes e financieros britannic, e plus tarde constructores de ferrovia, jocava roles major in le [[Economia|economias]] del [[Nation latin-american|nationes latin-american]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History |date=2005 |isbn=9781851094363 |editor-last=Kaufman |editor-first=Will |pages=465–468 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |ol=8969943M |editor-last2=Macpherson |editor-first2=Heidi Slettedahl}}</ref> Le [[Britannicos|Britannicos]] interveniva in 1827 al latere del [[Greco|Grecos]], qui habeva [[Guerra de Independentia Grec|guerra de independentia]] contra le [[Imperio Ottoman|Imperio Ottoman]] desde 1821. === Reformas Whig del annos 1830 === Le [[Partito Whig (Britannic)|Partito Whig]] recuperava su fortia e unitate per supportar reformas moral, specialmente del systema electoral, le [[Abolition de sclavitute|abolition de sclavitute]] e emancipation del [[Catholicos|Catholicos]]. Le [[Emancipation catholic|Emancipation catholic]] esseva securisate in le [[Acto de Relevation Catholic Roman 1829|Acto de Relevation Catholic Roman de 1829]], que removeva le restrictiones le plus substantial super [[Catholicos roman|Catholicos roman]] in [[Britannia|Britannia]].{{Sfnp|Woodward|1962|pages=325–330}} Le [[Whig|Whigs]] deveniva campiones de reforma parlamentari. Illes faceva [[Charles Grey, 2nde Conte Grey|Lord Grey]] prime ministro 1830–34, e le [[Acto de Reforma 1832|Acto de Reforma de 1832]] deveniva lor mesura de signatura. Illo allargava le franchisa levitermente e finiva le systema de burgos putride e de sacco (ubi le electiones esseva controlate per familias potente), e dava sedes a nove centros industrial. Le [[Aristocratia|Aristocratia]] continuava a dominar le governamento, le Armea e [[Marina Regal|Marina Regal]], e alta societate.{{Sfnp|Woodward|1962|pages=325–330}} Post que le investigationes parlamentari demonstrava le horrores del travalio infantil, reformas limitate esseva passate in 1833. Le [[Chartismo|Chartismo]] emergeva post que le [[Acto de Reforma 1832|Acto de Reforma 1832]] faliava a dar le voto al classe obrer. Activistas denunciava le "tradition" e le "sacrificio" de lor interesses per le "mal conducto" del governamento. In 1838, le [[Chartista|Chartistas]] emitteva le [[Carta del Populo|Carta del Populo]] demandante le suffragio de homines, districtos electoral de dimension equal, voto per schedas, pagamento del Membros del Parlamento (assi que homines povre poterea servir), Parlamentos annual, e abolition del requisitos de proprietate. Le [[Chartista|Chartistas]] esseva incapabile a fortiar debatto constitutional serie. Historicos vide le [[Chartismo|Chartismo]] como un continuation del lucta contra corruption del seculo 18 e un nove stadio in le demandas de democratia in un societate industrial.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chase |first=Malcolm |title=Chartism: A New History |date=2007}}</ref> In 1832, le [[Parlamento|Parlamento]] aboliva le sclavitute in le [[Imperio|Imperio]] con le [[Acto de Abolition de Sclavitute 1833|Acto de Abolition de Sclavitute de 1833]]. Le governamento comprava le sclavos pro £20.000.000, e liberava le sclavos, specialmente illos in le [[Insula de sucro caribe|insulas de sucro caribe]].{{Sfnp|Woodward|1962|pages=354–357}} == Epocha Victorian == {{Main|Epocha Victorian}} [[File:Queen Victoria by Bassano.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Regina Victoria|Regina Victoria]] (1837–1901)]] [[Regina Victoria]] ascendeva le throno in 1837, al etate de 18. Su longe regno usque 1901 videva Britannia attinger le zenith de su potentia economic e politic. Novas technologias excitante tal como naves de vapor, ferrovias, photographia, e telegraphos appareva, faciente le mundo plus accelerate. Britannia remaneva principalmente inactive in le politica continental, e illo non esseva affectate per le unda de revolutiones in 1848. Le [[Epocha Victorian]] videva le corporation del secunde Imperio Britannic. Le epocha esseva precedite per le Epocha Georgian e succedite per le Epocha Edwardian. Historicos como Bernard Porter ha characterisate le epoca medie-Victorian (1850–1870) como le "Annate auree" de Britannia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Bernard |title=Britannia's Burden: The Political Evolution of Modern Britain 1851–1890 |date=1994 |chapter=Chapter 3 |author-link=Bernard Porter}}</ref> Il habeva pace e prosperitate, como le rendimento national per persona cresceva per mediate. Multe del prosperitate esseva debite al industrialisation crescente, specialmente in textiles e machineria, assi como al rete mondial de commercio e ingenieria que produceva profitos pro mercantes britannic e expertos ab omne le mundo. Il habeva pace foras, e pace social a domo. Reformas in conditiones industrial esseva fixate per le Parlamento. Le Acto de Minas e Fossas de 1842 baniva le employo de pueras e pueros sub dece annos de etate de travaliar subterraneo in fossas de carbon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Lionel |title=The Erosion of Childhood: Childhood in Britain, 1860–1918 |date=1991 |isbn=041500165X |page=11 |publisher=Routledge |ol=1886570M}}</ref> Le movimento Chartista culminava como un movimento democratic inter le classe obrer in 1848; su chefes moveva a altere persecutiones, tal como sindicatos e societates cooperative. Le classe obrer ignorava agitatores estranier como Karl Marx in lor medio, e junveva se in celebrar le nove prosperitate. Empleatores typiceamente esseva paternalistic, e generalmente recognosceva le sindicatos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=F. M. L. |title=Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 |date=1988 |pages=211–214 |author-link=Francis Thompson (historian)}}</ref> Companias provideva a lor employatos servitios de benesser variante ab habitation, scholas e ecclesias, a bibliothecas, banos, e gymnasios. Reformatores de classe medie faceva lor melior pro assister le classes obrer a aspirar a normas de classe medie de "respectabilitate." [[File:Holl (after Frith) The Railway Station colorized.jpg|thumb|[[William Powell Frith|Depiction de Frith]] del [[Station de ferrovia de Paddington|station de ferrovia de Paddington]] in [[London|London]]]] Taxas esseva multo basse, e restrictiones governamental esseva minimal. Il habeva ancora areas problemic, tal como revoltas, specialmente illos motivate per anti-Catholicismo. Le societate esseva ancora regulate per le aristocratia e le gentry, que controlava le alte officios governamental, ambe cameras del Parlamento, le ecclesia, e le militar. Devenir un homine de affares ric non esseva si prestige como hereditar un titulo e posseder un dominio terrenal. Le litteratura faceva ben, ma le arte belle languideva como le [[Grande Exhibition]] de 1851 monstrava le maestria industrial de [[Britannia]] plus tosto que su sculptura, pictura o musica. Le systema educational esseva mediocre.<ref>{{Harvp|Porter|1994|loc=chs. 1–3}}; {{Harvp|Hoppen|2000|loc=ch 1 to 3, 9–11}}.</ref> Historico [[Llewellyn Woodward]] ha concludite:{{Sfnp|Woodward|1962|page=629}} {{Cita|Pro ocio o travalio, pro obtener o spender, [[Anglaterra]] esseva un melior pais in 1879 que in 1815. Le scalas esseva minus pondate contra le debile, contra feminas e pueros, e contra le pauperes. Il habeva major movimento, e minus del fatalismo de un epocha anterior. Le conscientia public esseva plus instruite, e le contento de libertate esseva allargate a includer alco plus que libertate ab constraint politic.... Totevia [[Anglaterra]] in 1871 non esseva de ulle modo un paradiso terrenal. Le habitation e conditiones de vita del classe obrer in citate e pais esseva ancora un disgratia a un epocha de abundantia.}} Secundo le historicos [[David Brandon]] e [[Alan Brooke]], le [[Historia de transporto ferroviari in Grande Britannia 1830–1922]] portava in existentia nostre mundo moderne: {{Cita|Excellent in le movimento in massa de carbon, illos provideva le combustibile pro le furnos de industria e pro le caminos domestic. Milliones de personas esseva capace a viagiar qui habeva a pena jammais viagiate ante. Ferrovias permitteva que posta, jornales, periodicos e litteratura bon mercato esseva distribuite facilmente, rapidamente e bon mercato, permittente un dissemination multo plus ample e rapide de ideas e information. Illos habeva un impacto significative super meliorar le dieta. Illos employava enorme quantitates de labor tanto directemente como indirectemente. Illos adjutava [[Britannia]] a devenir le 'Officina del Mundo' per reducer le costos de transporto non solmente de materias crude sed de mercantias finite, grande quantitates del quales esseva exportate. Le corporationes global de hodie originava con le grande companias de ferrovia de responsabilitate limitate. Per le tertie quarto del seculo dece-novem, il habeva a pena ulle persona vivente in [[Britannia]] cui vita habeva non essite alterate in ulle modo per le advento del ferrovias. Ferrovias contribuiva al transformation de [[Britannia]] de un societate rural a un predominantemente urban.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brandon |first1=David L. |title=The Railway Haters: Opposition To Railways, From the 19th to 21st Centuries |last2=Brooke |first2=Alan |date=2019 |publisher=Pen & Sword Transport |isbn=9781526700216 |page=10 |ol=39630610M}}</ref>}} === Politica estranier === {{AP|Historia del relationes estranier del Regno Unite}} [[File:Kemna Lokomotiven.jpg|thumb|[[Multe compania europee|Multe companias europee]], tal como le [[Productor de machina de vapor|productor de machinas de vapor]] [[Kemna Bau|J. Kemna]], se [[Modella|modellava]] super le [[Industria anglese|industria anglese]].]] Le Grande Exhibition de London de 1851 demonstrava clarmente le dominantia de Britannia in ingenieria e industria; illo durava usque le ascension del Statos Unite e Germania in le annos 1890. Usante le instrumentos imperial de commercio libere e investimento financiari,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Semmel |first=Bernard |title=The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism |date=1970 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Chapter 1 |author-link=Bernard Semmel}}</ref> illo exerceva major influentia super multe paises foras de [[Europa]], specialmente in [[America Latin]] e [[Asia]]. Assi Britannia habeva tanto un Imperio formal basate super le regulation britannic como un Imperio informal basate super le libra britannic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McLean |first=David |author-link=David McLean (historian) |date=1976 |title=Finance and 'Informal Empire' before the First World War |url=https://archive.org/details/economic-history-review_1976-05_29_2/page/291 |journal=Economic History Review |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=291–305 |doi=10.2307/2594316 |jstor=2594316}}</ref> In 1867, Britannia univa le major parte de su colonias nord-american como [[Canada]], dante le autogovernamento. Britannia gereva le politica estranier e defensa. Le secunde medietate del seculo 19 videva un expansion major del imperio colonial de Britannia in Asia e Africa assi como le Pacifico. In le "Cursa pro Africa", le vanto esseva haber le Union Jack volante de "Cairo a Citate del Capo." Britannia defendeva su imperio con le marina dominante del mundo, e un micre armea professional. Illo esseva le sol potentia in Europa a haber nulle conscription.<ref>Marshall, P. J., ed., ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire'' (1996). [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521432115 online]</ref> Le ascension del Imperio German post 1871 poneva un nove defia, proque illo menaciava a prender le placia de Britannia como le potentia industrial principal del mundo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A. J. P. |title=Le Lucta pro Maestria in Europa: 1848–1918 |date=1953 |isbn=978-0-19-881270-8 |chapter=Bismark's Aliances, 1879–82 |publisher=Clarendon Press |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor}}</ref> === Irlanda e Autogovernamento === {{AP|Problema irlandese in le politica britannic|Grande Carestia (Irlanda)}} [[File: Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg|thumb|190px|''[[Emigrantes Exi Irlanda|Emigrantes Exi Irlanda]]'' [[Depingente|depingente]] le [[Emigration|emigration]] a [[Statos Unite|America]] [[Sequente|sequente]] le [[Grande Carestia (Irlanda)|Grande Carestia]] in [[Irlanda|Irlanda]]]] Parte del accordo que duceva al [[Actos de Union 1800]] stipulava que le [[Lege Penal in Irlanda|Lege Penal in Irlanda]] esseva a esser repelite e emancipation catholic concedite. Totevia, le [[Re George III]] blocava le emancipation. Un campania sub [[Daniel O'Connell]] duceva al concession del [[Emancipation Catholic]] in 1829, permittente le [[Catholico|Catholicos]] a sede in le [[Parlamento|Parlamento]]. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hexter |first=Jack H. |date=1936 |title=The Protestant revival and the Catholic question in England, 1778–1829 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-history_1936-09_8_3/page/297 |journal=Journal of Modern History |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=297–319 |doi=10.1086/468452 |jstor=1881538|s2cid=153924065 }}</ref> Quando le [[Peste de patata]] batteva [[Irlanda]] in 1846, multe del population rural esseva lassate sin alimento. Le effortios de relevio esseva inadequate e centenas de milles morieva in le [[Grande Carestia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woodham-Smith |first=Cecil |title=The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849 |date=1962}}; {{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=John |title=Atlas of the Great Irish Famine |date=2012 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Milliones plus migrava a [[Anglaterra]], o a [[America del Nord]]. In le [[Annos 1870]] un nove movimento nationalista moderate esseva formate. Como le [[Partito Parlamentari Irlandese]], illo deveniva un factor major in le [[Parlamento]] sub [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. [[Projecto de lege de autogovernamento]] introducite per le [[Prime Ministro Liberal]] [[Gladstone]] faliava a passar, e scindeva le [[Liberal]]. Un minoritate unionista significative opponeva le [[Autogovernamento]], timente que un [[Regulation Catholic-Nationalista]] in [[Dublin]] discriminarea contra illes e faceria mal a lor [[Industria]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Alvin |title=Ireland 1798–1998: politics and war |date=1999 |author-link=Alvin Jackson (historian)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guinnane |first1=Timothy W. |last2=Miller |first2=Ronald I. |date=1997 |title=The Limits to Land Reform: The Land Acts in Ireland, 1870–1909 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/Guinnane_Miller_Limits_to_Land_Reform_EDCC1997.pdf|journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=591–612 |doi=10.1086/452292 |hdl=10419/160647 |s2cid=17477539 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117223641/https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/Guinnane_Miller_Limits_to_Land_Reform_EDCC1997.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2015}}</ref> == Initio del seculo 20 (1901–1918) == [[File:Arthur Mees Flags of A Free Empire 1910 Cornell CUL PJM 1167 01 (Reddit source).jpg|thumb|Durante le [[Seculo 19|seculo 19]] e le [[Initio del seculo 20|initio del seculo 20]], le [[Regno Unite de Grande Britannia e Irlanda|Regno Unite]] esseva un [[Superpotentia|superpotentia]].]] Le [[Partito Liberal]] esseva in potentia ab 1906 a 1915, quando illo formava un [[Coalition de tempore de guerra]]. Illo passava le reformas de benesser que creava un [[Stato de benesser britannic basic]]. Illo debilitava le potentia de veto del Lords, blocava le suffragio de feminas. In 1914 illo apparentemente "solveva" le problema de Autogovernamento Irlandese, ma quando le [[Guerra]] erumpeva le solution esseva mittite in pausa. [[H. H. Asquith]] esseva [[Prime Ministro Liberal]] inter 1908 e 1916, sequite per [[David Lloyd George]], 1916–1922. Ben que Asquith esseva le chef del Partito, le [[Liberal dominante]] esseva [[Lloyd George]]. Asquith esseva opprimite per le rolo de prime ministro de coalition in tempore de guerra, e Lloyd George le reemplaciava como le [[Prime Ministro de Coalition]] in 1916, ma Asquith remaneva chef del Partito Liberal. Le duo luctava pro annos super controlo del partito, malmente debilitante lo in le processo.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Michael |last=Fry |title=Political Change in Britain, August 1914 to December 1916: Lloyd George Replaces Asquith: The Issues Underlying the Drama |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1988-09_31_3/page/609 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=31 |issue=3 |date=1988 |pages=609–627|doi=10.1017/S0018246X00023517 |s2cid=153441235 }}</ref> [[Historico]] [[Martin Pugh (historian)|Martin Pugh]] in ''[[The Oxford Companion to British History]]'' argumenta que [[Lloyd George]]: {{Cita|Faceva un plus grande impacto super le [[Vita public britannic]] que ulte altere chef del seculo 20, gratias a su introduction ante le guerra del systema de benesser social de [[Britannia]] (specialmente assecurantia medical, assecurantia de disoccupation, e pensiones pagate per taxas super alte rendimentos e super le terra). Ille jocava un rolo ducente in ganiar le [[Prime Guerra Mundial]], redesignante le mapa de Europa al conferentia de pace, e partitionante [[Irlanda]].<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Martin Pugh (historian) |first=Martin |last=Pugh |title=Lloyd George, David, 1st Earl Lloyd-George |work=The Oxford Companion to British History |date=2015 |isbn=9780199677832 |editor-last=Cannon |editor-first= John |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PM9xCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA565 565] |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-first2= Robert |editor-last2=Crowcroft}}</ref>}} === Epocha Edwardian 1901–1914 === {{Main|Epocha Edwardian}} [[File:BCLM-Mary Macarthur 7b.jpg|thumb|[[Mary Macarthur|Mary Macarthur]] [[Addressa|addressante]] le [[Multitude|multitudes]] durante le [[Greve del productores de catena|greve del productores de catena]], [[Cradley Heath|Cradley Heath]], 1910]] [[Regina Victoria]] morieva in 1901 e su filio [[Edward VII]] deveniva rege, inaugurante le [[Epocha Edwardian]], que esseva characterisate per displayes ostentatose de ricchessa in contrasto al [[Epocha Victorian sombre]]. Con le advento del seculo 20, cosas tal como [[Imagine in motion]], [[Automobile]], e [[Aeroplano]] veniva in uso. Le nove seculo esseva characterisate per un sentimento de optimismo. Le reformas social del seculo passate continuava con le [[Partito Laborista (RU)]] esser formate in 1900. [[Edward]] morieva in 1910, succedite per [[George V]], qui regnava 1910–1936. Libere de scandalo, laboriose e popular, [[George V]] esseva le [[Monarcha britannic]] qui, con [[Regina Mary]], stabiliva le patrono moderne de conducta pro le reialitate britannic, basate super valores e virtutes de classe medie.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Matthew |first=H.C.G. |title=George V (1865–1936) |date=2004 |edition=January 2008 online |series=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |author-link=Colin Matthew}}</ref> Le epocha esseva prospero ma le crisos politic escalava foras de controlo. [[George Dangerfield]] (1935) identificava le "morte estranie de Anglaterra Liberal" como le multiples crisos que batteva in 1910–1914 con serie instabilitate social e politic nascente del [[Crisi irlandese]], agitation de labor, le movimentos de suffragio de feminas, e luctas partisan e constitutional in [[Parlamento]]. A un puncto illo etiam pareva que le [[Armea]] poterea refusar ordines tractante con [[Irlanda del Nord]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dangerfield |first=George |title=[[Le Morte Estranie de Anglaterra Liberal|The Strange Death of Liberal England]] |date=1935 |author-link=George Dangerfield}}</ref> Nulle solution appareva, quando le eruption inexpectate del [[Grande Guerra]] in 1914 poneva le problemas domestic in pausa. [[Ross McKibbin]] argumenta que le [[Systema de partito politic del Epocha Edwardian]] esseva in delicate balance al [[Vigilia del guerra]]. Le [[Liberal|Liberales]] esseva in potentia con un alliantia progressive de [[Labor]] e, interrupte e reincipiente, Nationalistas [[Irlandese]]. Le coalition esseva committite a commercio libere (in contrasto al altas tarifas que le [[Conservativo]] cercava), negotiation collective libere pro le [[Syndicato|syndicatos]], un politica social active que forgiava le [[Stato de benesser|stato de benesser]], e reforma constitutional a reducer le potentia del [[Camera del Lords]]. Le coalition mancava de un plan de longe termino, proque illo esseva accumulate insimul. Le base sociologic esseva religion non-Anglican e ethnicitate non-anglese plus tosto que le conflicto de classe emergente accentuate per [[Labor]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKibbin |first=Ross |title=Parties and People: England, 1914–1951 |ol=25257744M |isbn=9780199605170 |date=2010 |publisher=OUP Oxford |author-link=Ross McKibbin}}</ref> === Prime Guerra Mundial === {{Main|Ingresso britannic in le Prime Guerra Mundial|Historia del Regno Unite durante le Prime Guerra Mundial}} In [[Augusto 1914]], [[Britannia]] declarava [[Guerra]] a [[Germania]] e [[Austria]]. Le rationes del [[Cabinet]] se concentrava super un [[Commitimento a Francia]] e evitamento de scinder le [[Partito Liberal]]. Le [[Top Liberal|Top Liberales]], ducite per le [[Prime Ministro]] [[H. H. Asquith]] e le [[Secretario Estranier]] [[Edward Grey, 1me Viceconte Grey de Fallodon]], menaciava a resignar si le [[Cabinet]] refusava a supportar [[Francia]]. Isto scindeva le [[Partito]] e significava le perdita de controlo del governamento a un coalition o opposition [[Unionista]] (id es, [[Conservativo]]). Totevia, le grande elemento anti-guerra inter [[Liberales]], con [[David Lloyd George]] como [[Porta-parola]], supportarea le [[Guerra]] pro honorar le [[Tractato de London (1839)]] que garantiva le [[Neutralitate belgian]]. Assi [[Belgica]] plus tosto que [[Francia]] esseva le ration public donate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Stephen J. |title=Aspects of British Political History 1914–1995 |date=2005 |isbn=9781134790401 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LKGFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]–22|publisher=Routledge }}; {{Cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Bentley B. |date=1985 |title=Pacifist to interventionist: David Lloyd George in 1911 and 1914. Was Belgium an issue? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1985-12_28_4/page/863 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=863–885 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X00005100 |jstor=2639325 |s2cid=159564885}}; {{Cite book |last=Steiner |first=Zara S. |title=Britain and the origins of the First World War |date=1977 |pages=235–237}}</ref> [[File:The Scrap of Paper - Enlist Today.jpg|thumb|"The Scrap of Paper – Enlist Today", un [[Poster de propaganda britannic de 1914|poster de propaganda britannic de 1914]] que accentua le [[Contempto german pro le Tractato de London (1839)|contempto german]] pro le tractato que garantiva le neutralitate belgian, considerate como un mermente "papiro scrappate" que [[Germania]] ignorarea.]] [[Francia]] habeva intrate pro supportar [[Russia]], que a su vice habeva intrate pro supportar [[Serbia]]. [[Britannia]] deveniva parte del [[Triplice Entente]] con [[Francia]] e [[Russia]], que luctava contra le [[Potentias Central]] de [[Germania]], [[Austria]] e le [[Imperio Ottoman]]. Le [[Fronte Occidental]] cambiava in un terreno de occision in le qual milliones morieva ma nulle armea faceva un grande avance. Le principal contribution britannic esseva financiari—prestos e subventiones adjutava [[Russia]], [[Italia]] e alliatos plus micre a affordar le guerra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Siegel |first=Jennifer L. |title=For Peace and Money: French and British Finance in the Service of Tsars and Commissars |date=2014 |isbn=9780199387816 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nc6iBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7]|publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> Le impasso requireva extensive supplimento de homines e munition. Per 1916, le voluntariato cadeva foras, le governo imponeva conscription (ma non in [[Irlanda]]) a mantener le fortia del armea britannic. Con su initio lente e mobilisation de ressources, Asquith habeva provate inadequate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Owen |first=David |title=The Hidden Perspective: The Military Conversations 1906–1914 |date=2014 |isbn=9781908323675 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k1crDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT78 115]–116 |publisher=Haus |quote=by modern diagnostic standards, Asquith became an alcoholic while Prime Minister. |author-link=David Owen}}</ref> Asquith esseva reemplaciate in decembre 1916 con le plus effective David Lloyd George. Ille habeva forte supporto ab unionista e considerabile appoio de labor, assi como un majoritate de su partito liberal. Lloyd George respondeva al demandas de un governamento plus decisive per mitter sur pede un micre cabinet de guerra, un secretariato de cabinet sub Maurice Hankey, e un secretariato de consilieros private in "Le Suburb del Jardin".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth O. |date=2017 |title=7 December 1916: Asquith, Lloyd George and the Crisis of Liberalism |journal=Parliamentary History |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=361–371 |doi=10.1111/1750-0206.12318}}</ref> Le [[Opinion Nationalista Irlandese]] esseva dividite: alcun serviva in le [[Armea Britannic]], ma le [[Fraternitate Republican Irlandese]] plottava un [[Revolution del Pascha]] in 1916. Illo rapidamente faliava, ma le [[Repression brutal]] que sequeva tornava ille elemento contra [[Britannia]], como faceva le [[Plan fallite de introducer conscription in Irlanda in 1917]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Munck |first=Ronald |date=1986 |title=Rethinking Irish Nationalism: The Republican Dimension |journal=Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism |volume=14 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u7gjAQAAIAAJ 31–48]}}</ref> Le nation mobilisava su population, industria, financia, imperio e diplomatia, in liga con Francia e le Statos Unite, a defeitar le Potentia Central.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beckett |first=Ian F. W. |title=The Great War: 1914–1918 |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |isbn=978-1-40-581252-8 |edition=2nd}}; {{Cite book |last=Beckett |first=Ian F. W. |title=The Home Front, 1914–1918: How Britain Survived the Great War |date=2006 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-90-336581-6}}; {{Harvp|Marwick|1965}}</ref> Le Armea Britannic habeva jammais essite un grande empleator, con le armea regular stante a 250.000 al initio del guerra.<ref name="Tibus">[http://users.tibus.com/the-great-war/figures.htm The Great War] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109083130/http://users.tibus.com/the-great-war/figures.htm |date=9 November 2005 }} in figures.</ref> Per 1918, il habeva circa cinque milliones in le armea e le Fortia Aeree Regal emergente, esseva circa le mesme dimension del armea ante le guerra. Le economia cresceva 14% ab 1914 a 1918 malgrado le absentia de si multe homines in le servitios; per contrasto le economia german retreciva 27%. Le guerra videva un declinamento de consumption civil, con un major reallocation a munition. Le quota del governamento del PIB volava ab 8% in 1913 a 38% in 1918. Britannia usava reserva financiari e prestava ab le Statos Unite.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=David |title=With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918 |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-67-406226-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=06KYLGALKNEC&pg=PA370 370]|publisher=Harvard University Press }}; {{Harvp|Stevenson|2011|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=06KYLGALKNEC&pg=PA370 370]}}; {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |title=The Pity of War |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-71-399246-5 |page=249 |publisher=Penguin Press |author-link=Niall Ferguson}}</ref> [[File:The Battle of the Somme, July-november 1916 Q1608.jpg|thumb|Fusilieros Regal (Regimento de Citate de London) in novembre 1916]] Le [[Marina Regal]] dominava le [[Mar]], defeitar le [[Flotta german plus micre]]. Le [[Strategia naval de Germania]] cambiava progressivemente verso le uso de [[U-barca]] a attaccar retro, malgrado le risco de triggerar guerra con le [[Statos Unite]] potente e neutral usque tunc. In 1915, un [[U-barca]], sin admonition, torpedinava le [[Liner de passager britannic|Lusitania]], necante plus de 1000 [[Civil]], includente 100 [[Americano]]. Protestos per le [[Presidente Woodrow Wilson]] fortiava [[Berlin]] a abandonar le [[Guerra de submarino sin restriction]]. Planante un [[Offensiva de primavera]] in 1918, [[Germania]] resumeva le infundamento de omne nave mercante, etiam si illos volava le [[Bandiera american]]. Le [[Statos Unite]] intrava le [[Guerra]] al latere del [[Alliato]], e provideva le [[Moneta e supplimento]] necessari a sustener le effortio del [[Alliato]]. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Halpern |first=Paul |title=A Naval History of World War I |date=2012 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-0870212666 |ol=1414849M |author-link=Paul Halpern}}</ref> Le [[Britannicos]], [[Francese]], [[Australiano]], e [[Japonese]] saisiva le [[Colonia de Germania]]. [[Britannia]] luctava contra le [[Imperio Ottoman]], suffrente defeitas in le [[Campania de Gallipoli]] e in [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Iraq]]). Le [[Germanos]] tentava a ganiar in [[Primavera 1918]] ante que le [[Americano]] arriva. Illos faliava, esseva opprimite per [[Augusto]] e acceptava un [[Armistitio]] le 11 de [[Novembre 1918]], que ammontava a un [[Rendition]].<ref>{{Sfnp|Stevenson|2011|page=249–252, 534–544}}</ref> Le societate [[britannic]] e governamento esseva radicalmente transformate per le appellos repetite pro fortia de travalio, employo de feminas, dramatic augmento in production industrial e munition, controlo de precios e rationamento, e le patriotismo emotional large e profunde dedicate a ganiar le guerra. Le Parlamento prendeva un sede retro, como nove departimentos, bureaus, committees e operationes esseva create, expertos consultate, e le Ordines in Consilio del prime ministro reemplaciava le processo legislative lente. Etiam post que le pace arrivava, le nove dimension e dynamismo habeva permanentemente transformate le governamento [[britannic]]. Le societate britannic e governamento esseva radicalmente transformate per le appellos repetite pro fortia de travalio, employo de feminas, dramatic augmento in production industrial e munition, controlo de precios e rationamento, e le patriotismo emotional large e profunde dedicate a ganiar le guerra. Le Parlamento prendeva un sede retro, como nove departimentos, bureaus, committees e operationes esseva create, expertos consultate, e le Ordines in Consilio del prime ministro reemplaciava le processo legislative lente. Etiam post que le pace arrivava, le nove dimension e dynamismo habeva permanentemente transformate le governamento britannic.{{Sfnp|Mowat|1955|pages=13–14}} Attitudes e ideal victorian que habeva continuate in le seculo 20, cambiava durante le [[Prime Guerra Mundial]]. Le tres milliones de victimas esseva cognoscite como le "Generation Perdite", e lassava le societate scarificate. Le generation perdite sentiva que su sacrificio esseva pauc reguardate in [[Britannia]], con poemas como ''[[Blighters]]'' de Siegfried Sassoon criticante le jingoismo mal informate del fronte domestic. Le generation perdite esseva inerte politic, e jammais habeva su chantia a facer un cambio generational in potentia politic. Le homines juvene qui gubernava [[Britannia]] in 1914 esseva le mesme homines vetule qui gubernava [[Britannia]] in 1939.<ref>{{Harvp|Mowat|1955|pages=9, 201, 216, 25}}; {{Cite journal |last=Winter |first=Jay M. |author-link=Jay Winter |date=1977 |title=Britain's 'Lost Generation' of the First World War |journal=Population Studies |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=449–466 |doi=10.1080/00324728.1977.10412760 |jstor=2173368 |pmid=11630506 |postscript=none}} covers the statistical history of military service and death.</ref> === Arrangement de postguerra === Le guerra habeva essite ganiate per [[Britannia]] e su alliatos, ma a un terribile costo human e financiari, creante un sentimento que guerras debeva jammais esser luctate de novo. Le Liga de Nationes esseva fundate con le idea que nationes poterea resolver lor differentias pacificamente, ma iste speras esseva non complite. Le dur arrangiamento de pace imponite super [[Germania]] lassarea illo amarisate e cercante vindicta. Al Conferentia de Pace de Paris de 1919, Lloyd George, Presidente American Woodrow Wilson e premier Francese Georges Clemenceau faceva omne le major decisiones. Illos scindeva le territorios del perditores pro formar nove nationes in [[Europa]], e divideva le colonias german e possessiones ottoman foras [[Turchia]]. Illos imponeva lo que appareva a esser pesante reparationes financiari. Illos humiliava [[Germania]] per fortiava lo a declarar su culpa pro initiar le guerra, un politica que causava profunde ressentiment in [[Germania]] e adjutava a alimentar le Nazismo. [[Britannia]] ganiava le colonia german de Tanganyika e parte de Togoland in [[Africa]], durante que su dominios adjungeva altere colonias. [[Britannia]] ganiava mandatos del Liga de Nationes super [[Palestina]], que habeva essite partialmente promittite como un patria pro colonos judee, e [[Iraq]]. [[Egypto]], que habeva essite un protectorato britannic desde 1882, deveniva independent in 1922.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharp |first=Alan |title=The Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking after the First World War, 1919–1923 |date=2008 |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=9781137611390 |edition=2nd |ol=27841480M |orig-date=1991}}</ref> === Independentia e partition irlandese === {{Main|Projecto de lege de Autogovernamento Irlandese|Partition de Irlanda|Declaration de Independentia Irlandese|Guerra de Independentia Irlandese}} In 1912 le [[Camera del Communes]] passava un nove projecto de lege de [[Autogovernamento]]. Sub le [[Acto de Parlamento de 1911]], le [[Camera del Lords]] retineva le potentia a retardar legislation usque duo annos, assi illo esseva actate como le [[Acto de Governamento de Irlanda de 1914]], ma suspendite pro le duration del guerra. Guerra civil menaciava quando le [[Unionistas Protestante de Irlanda del Nord]] refusava a esser ponite sub controlo Catholic-Nationalista. Unitates semi-militar esseva formate preste a luctar—le [[Voluntarios de Ulster]] opponente al Acto e lor contrapartes Nationalista, le [[Voluntarios Irlandese]] supportante le Acto. Le eruption del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]] poneva le crisi in pausa. Un disorganisate [[Revolution del Pascha]] in 1916 esseva brutalmente suppremite per le [[Britannicos]], lo que habeva le effecto de galvanisar le demandas Nationalista de independentia. Le [[Prime Ministro Lloyd George]] faliava a introducer le Autogovernamento in 1918 e in le [[Election General]] [[Sinn Féin]] ganiava un majoritate de sedes irlandese. Su Membros del Parlamento refusava a prender lor sedes a [[Westminster]], in loco seligente a sede in le [[Prime Dáil]] parlamento in [[Dublin]]. Un declaration de independentia esseva ratificate per [[Dáil Éireann]], le parlamento del Republica auto-declarate in januario 1919. Un [[Guerra Anglo-Irlandese]] esseva luctate inter fortias de Corona e le [[Armea Republican Irlandese]] inter januario 1919 e junio 1921. Le guerra terminava con le [[Tractato Anglo-Irlandese]] de decembre 1921 que stabiliva le [[Stato Libere Irlandese]].<ref>{{Cite book |editor-first=Joost |editor-last=Augusteign |title=The Irish Revolution, 1913–1923 |publisher=Basingstoke |date=2002}}</ref> Sex contatos nord, predominantemente Protestante deveniva [[Irlanda del Nord]] e ha remanite parte del [[Regno Unite]] desde tunc, malgrado demandas del minoritate Catholic a unir se con le [[Republica de Irlanda]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Thomas |last=Henessy |title=A History of Northern Ireland, 1920–1996 |date=1998}}</ref> [[Britannia]] adoptava officialmente le nomine "Regno Unite de Grande Britannia e Irlanda del Nord" per le [[Acto de Titulos Regal e Parlamentari de 1927]]. == Epocha interbellic 1918–1939 == {{Main|Britannia Interbellic}} [[File:British_Empire_1921.png|thumb|[[Imperio Britannic|Imperio Britannic]] a su [[Alte|altia]] in 1921]] Historico [[Arthur Marwick]] vide un radical transformation del societate britannic resultante del [[Grande Guerra]], que scopava via multe attitudes vetule e adduceva un societate plus equalitari. Ille vide le famose pessimismo litterari del annos 1920 como misse foras, argumentante que il habeva major consequentias positive de longe termino del guerra al societate britannic. Ille puncta a un autoconscientia energisate inter travaliatores que rapidemente construiva le [[Partito Laborista]], le advento de suffragio partial de feminas, e un acceleration de reforma social e controlo statal del economia. Ille vide un declinamento de deferentia verso le aristocratia e autoritate stabilite in general, e le debilitation inter juventute de restrictiones traditional super comportamento moral individual. Le chaperone fundeva via; droguistas de village vendeva contraceptivos. [[Marwick]] dice que le distinctiones de classe ammolliva, le cohesion national augmentava, e le societate britannic deveniva plus equal.{{Sfnp|Marwick|1965}} === Cultura popular === Como le occasion, alphabetisation, ricchessa, facilitate de viage, e un allargate senso de communitate cresceva in [[Britannia]] ab le fin del seculo 19 in avante, il habeva plus tempore e interesse in activitates de occasion de omne sortas, al parte de omne classes.<ref name="Peter J. Beck 2008">{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Peter J. |title=Leisure and Sport in Britain |date=2008 |work=A Companion to Early Twentieth-Century Britain |editor-last=Wrigley |editor-first=Chris |pages=453–469}}</ref> Le vacation annual deveniva commun. Touristas gregeva a centros de villagiatura litoral; [[Blackpool]] hospitava 7 milliones de visitatores per anno in le annos 1930.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walton |first=John K. |title=The English Seaside Resort. A Social History 1750–1914 |date=1983}}</ref> Le occasion organisate esseva primarimente un activitate mascule, con feminas de classe medie permittite al margines. Il habeva differentias de classe con clubs de classe superior, e bars de classe de travaliator e classe medie.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haydon |first=Peter |title=The English Pub: a History |date=1994}}</ref> Le biber pesante declinava; il habeva plus competitiones que attraheva pesante apostamento. Le participation in sportes e omne sortas de activitates de occasion augmentava pro le anglese medie, e su interesse in sportes de spectator augmentava dramaticamente. Per le annos 1920 le cinema e radio attraheva omne classes, etates e generes in numeros multo grande, con feminas juvene prendente le direction.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walton |first=John K. |title=Leisure in Britain, 1780–1939 |date=1983}}</ref> Homines de classe de travaliator portante cappas platte e mangente pisces e chips esseva tumultuose spectatores de football. Illos cantava insimul al music hall, fantasiava lor columbas, apostava super le cursa de cavallos, e prendeva le familia a [[Blackpool]] in estate. Le realisation de cartoon de iste stilo de vita ''[[Andy Capp]]'' comenciava in 1957. Activistas politic plangeva que le occasion de classe de travaliator diverteva homines foras de agitation revolutionari.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Peter J. |title=Leisure and Sport in Britain |date=2008 |work=A Companion to Early Twentieth-Century Britain |editor-last=Wrigley |editor-first=Chris |page=457}}</ref> ==== Cinema e radio ==== [[file:Hitchcock, Alfred 02.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Director de film Alfred Hitchcock|Director de film Alfred Hitchcock]], 1955]] Le [[Industria de film britannic|industria de film britannic]] emergeva in le [[Annos 1890|annos 1890]] quando le [[Cinema|cinemas]] in general rompeva trans in le [[Mundo occidental|mundo occidental]], e construiva pesantemente super le forte reputation del theatro legitime de [[London|London]] pro actores, directores e productores.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Jeffrey |title=Age of the Dream Palace: Cinema & Society in Britain 1930–1939 |date=1990}}</ref> Le problema esseva que le [[Mercato american|mercato american]] esseva tanto plus grande e plus ric. Illo compra le top talento, specialmente quando [[Hollywood|Hollywood]] veniva al avante in le [[Annos 1920|annos 1920]] e produceva plus de 80 pro cento del output total del mundo. Effortios a luctar retro esseva futile—le governamento mitteva un [[Quota pro film facite britannic|quota pro filmes facite britannic]], ma illo faliava. [[Hollywood|Hollywood]] in ultra dominava le lucrative mercatos [[Canada|Canadian]] e [[Australia|Australian]]. [[Bollywood|Bollywood]] (basate in [[Bombay|Bombay]]) dominava le immense mercato [[India|indian]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walsh |first=Michael |date=1997 |title=Fighting the American Invasion with Cricket, Roses, and Marmalade for Breakfast |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_velvet-light-trap_fall-1997_40/page/3 |journal=The Velvet Light Trap |volume=40 |pages=3–17}}</ref> Le plus prominente directores remanente in [[London|London]] esseva [[Alexander Korda|Alexander Korda]], un [[Hungaro expatriate|hungaro expatriate]], e [[Alfred Hitchcock|Alfred Hitchcock]]. Il habeva un revival de creativitate in le [[Epocha 1933–1945|epocha 1933–1945]], specialmente con le arrivo de filmfabricatores e actores judee fugiente le [[Nazismo|nazis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gough-Yates |first=Kevin |date=1992 |title=Jews and Exiles in British cinema |journal=The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=517–541|doi=10.1093/leobaeck/37.1.517 }}; {{Cite book |last=Hochscherf |first=Tobias |title=The Continental Connection: German-Speaking Émigrés and British Cinema, 1927–45 |date=2011}}</ref> Intertanto, palatios gigantes esseva construite pro le immense audientias que voleva vider filmes de [[Hollywood|Hollywood]]. In [[Liverpool|Liverpool]] 40 pro cento del population assisteva a un del 69 [[Cinema|cinemas]] un vice per septimana; 25 pro cento duo vices. Traditionalistas murmura super le invasion cultural american, ma le permanente impacto esseva minor.<ref>{{Sfnp|Mowat|1955|pp=246–250}}</ref> In [[Radio|radio]], le [[Audientia britannic|audientias britannic]] habeva [[Nulle election|nulle election]] [[Foras|foras]] del [[Programmating de alta classe del BBC|programmating de alta classe del BBC]], un [[Agentia governamental|agentia governamental]] que habeva un [[Monopolio super transmission|monopolio super transmission]]. [[John Reith, 1me Baron Reith|John Reith]], un [[Ingeniero intensemente moralista|ingeniero intensemente moralista]], esseva in [[Controlo plen|plen controlo]]. Su [[Objectivo|objectivo]] esseva a [[Transmite|transmitter]], "Omne que es melior in omne departamento de cognoscentia human, effortio e successo.... Le preservation de un tono moral alte es obvie de paramount importantia."{{Sfnp|Mowat|1955|p=242}} ==== Sportes ==== {{Main|Sport in le Regno Unite}} Le Britannicos monstrava un plus profunde interesse in sportes, e in plus grande varietate, que ulte rival. Illos donavan le placia de orgolio a problemas moral tal como sportivitate e joco juste.<ref name="Peter J. Beck 2008" /> [[Football]] provava altemente attractive al classes de travaliator urban, que introduceva le tumultuose spectator al mundo de sport. Nove jocos deveniva popular quasi nocte al matino, includente golf, tennis de prato, cyclismo e hockey. Feminas esseva multo plus probabile a intrar iste sportes que le ancian stabilite. Le aristocratia e gentry con terra, con lor ferreo controlo super derectos de terra, dominava chasse, tiro, pisca e cursa de cavallos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birley |first=Derek |title=Land of Sport and Glory: Sport and British society, 1887–1910 |date=1995 |author-link=Derek Birley}}; {{Cite book |last=Birley |first=Derek |title=Playing the Game: Sport and British Society, 1914–1945 |date=1995 |author-link=Derek Birley}}</ref> Cricket reflecteva le Spirito Imperial trans le Imperio (excepte [[Golf|Canada]]). Partitas de Test comenciava per le annos 1870; le plus famose es illos inter [[Australia]] e [[Anglaterra]] pro Le Ashes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birley |first=Derek |title=A Social History of English Cricket |date=1999 |author-link=Derek Birley}}</ref> ==== Leger ==== Como le alphabetisation e tempore de occasion expandeva post 1900, le leger deveniva un passatempore popular. Nove additiones al fiction de adulto duplava durante le annos 1920, attingente 2800 nove libros per anno per 1935. Bibliothecas triplava lor stock, e videva pesante demanda pro nove fiction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cottle |first=Basil |author-link=Basil Cottle |date=1978 |title=Popular Reading And Our Public Libraries: The Abjured Prescription |journal=Library Review |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=222–227 |doi=10.1108/eb012677}}</ref> Un innovation dramatic esseva le libro de papiro inexpensives, pioneerate per Allen Lane a Penguin Books in 1935. Le prime titulos includeva romanos per Ernest Hemingway e Agatha Christie. Illos esseva vendite bon mercato (usualmente sex denarios) in un large varietate de magazines inexpensives tal como Woolworth's. Penguin punctava a un audientia de classe medie educate “medio-sugno”. Illo evitava le imagine de mercato verso basso de libros de papiro american. Le linea signalava auto-melioration cultural e education politic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joicey |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Joicey |date=1993 |title=A Paperback Guide to Progress: Penguin Books 1935–c. 1951 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_20th-century-british-history_1993_4_1/page/25 |journal=Twentieth Century British History |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=25–56 |doi=10.1093/tcbh/4.1.25}}</ref> Totevia le annos de guerra causava un penuria de personal pro editores e magazines de libro, e un severe penuria de papiro rationate, pejorate per le incursion aeree super Paternoster Square in 1940 que ardeva 5 milliones de libros in magazines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McAleer |first=Joseph |title=Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain: 1914–1950 |date=1992}}</ref> Fiction romantic esseva specialmente popular, con Mills & Boon le editor ducente.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McAleer |first=Joseph |title=Passion's fortune: the story of Mills & Boon |date=1999}}</ref> Incontros romantic esseva incorporate in un principio de puritate sexual que demonstrava non solmente conservatismo social, ma etiam como le heroina poterea controlar lor autonomia personal.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Humble |first=Nicola |title=The Feminine Middlebrow Novel, 1920s to 1950s: Class, Domesticity, and Bohemianism |date=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Light |first=Alison |title=Forever England: Femininity, Literature and Conservatism Between the Wars |date=1991 |author-link=Alison Light}}</ref> Magazines de aventura deveniva ben popular, specialmente illos publicate per DC Thomson; le editor mitteva observatores trans le pais a parlamentar a pueros e apprender lo que illos voleva leger re. Le linea de historia in magazines e cinema que plus appellava a pueros esseva le glamorose heroismo de soldatos britannic luctante guerras que esseva excitante e juste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Ernest Sackville |title=Boys Will Be Boys: The Story of Sweeney Todd, Deadwood Dick, Sexton Blake, Billy Bunter, Dick Barton et al. |date=1975 |edition=3rd |author-link=E.S. Turner}}</ref> === Politica e economia del annos 1920 === ==== Expansion del stato de benesser ==== Duo major programmas que permanenteamente expandeva le stato de benesser passava in 1919 e 1920 con surprendentemente pauc debato, etiam como le [[Conservatives]] dominava le [[Parlamento]]. Le Acto de Habitation, Planification de Citates, &c. de 1919 mitteva sur pede un systema de habitation governamental que sequeva le promissas de campania de 1918 de "domos apte pro heroes". Iste "Acto Addison", nominate post le [[Prime Ministro de Sanitate]], [[Christopher Addison]], requireva autoritates local a sondar lor necessitates de habitation e comenciar a construer domos pro reemplaciar le bassos quartieros. Le Tresoreria subsidiate le poc loyeres. In [[Anglaterra]] e [[Pais de Galles]] 214.000 domos esseva construite, e le [[Ministerio de Sanitate]] deveniva largemente un ministerio de habitation. <ref>{{Sfnp|Mowat|1955|pp=43–46}}</ref> Le [[Acto de Assecurantia de Disoccupation de 1920]] passava a un tempore de multo pauc disoccupation. Illo mitteva sur pede le systema de dole que provideva 39 septimanas de beneficios de disoccupation a practicamente le population de travaliatores civil integre, excepte servitio domestic, travaliatores de ferma, e servitores civil. Fundate in parte per hebdomadari contributiones de ambi empleatores e empleatos, illo provideva pagamentos hebdomadari de 15s pro homines disoccupate e 12s pro feminas disoccupate. Historico [[C. L. Mowat]] clama iste duo leges "socialismo per le porta retro", e nota como surprendentite le politicos esseva quando le costos al Tresoreria volava durante le alte disoccupation de 1921. <ref>{{Sfnp|Mowat|1955|pp=43–46}}</ref> === Controlo Conservative === Le [[ministerio Lloyd George]] cadeva a parte in 1922. [[Stanley Baldwin]], como chef del [[Partito Conservative (1923–1937)]] e como [[Prime Ministro (in 1923–1924, 1924–1929 e 1935–1937)]], dominava le politica britannic. <ref>{{Cite ODNB |last=Ball |first=Stuart |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30550 |title=Baldwin, Stanley, first Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (1867–1947) |date=2004 |edition=January 2011 online |series=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/30550}}</ref> Su mixtura de forte reformas social e governamento constante provava un potente combination de election, con le resultato que le [[Conservativos]] gubernava [[Britannia]] o per illes mesme o como componente ducente del [[Governamento National (Regno Unite)]]. Ille esseva le ultime chef del partito a ganiar plus de 50% del voto (in le [[Election general del Regno Unite de 1931]]). Le strategia politic de Baldwin esseva a polariser le electorato tal que le votatores seligerea inter le [[Conservativos]] al dextre e le [[Partito Laborista]] al sinistra, expellente le [[Liberales]] in le medio. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Andrew J. |date=July 2005 |title=Stanley Baldwin, Heresthetics and the Realignment of British Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-political-science_2005-07_35_3/page/429 |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=429–463 |doi=10.1017/S0007123405000244 |jstor=4092239}}</ref> Le polarisation faceva placia e durante que le [[Liberales]] remaneva active sub [[Lloyd George]], illos ganiava pauc sedes e esseva un minor factor usque illos juniva un coalition con le [[Conservativos]] in 2010. Le reputation de Baldwin volava in le annos 1920 e 1930, ma crassava post 1945 como ille esseva culpate pro le politicas de appaciamento verso Germania, e como le admiratores de [[Churchill]] faceva de ille le icone Conservative. Desde le [[Annos 1970]] le reputation de Baldwin ha recuperate alquanto. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williamson |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Williamson (historian) |date=March 2004 |title=Baldwin's Reputation: Politics and History, 1937–1967 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=127–168 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X03003546 |jstor=4091548|s2cid=145455237 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/467/1/467.pdf }}</ref> [[Labor]] ganiava le [[Election de 1923]], ma in 1924 [[Baldwin]] e le [[Conservativos]] retornava con un large majoritate. [[McKibbin]] trova que le cultura politic del periodo interbellic esseva construite circum un classe medie anti-socialista, supportate per le chef [[Conservatives]], specialmente [[Baldwin]]. <ref>{{Harvp|McKibbin|2010}}.</ref> === Economia === Le taxas montava sharpemente durante le guerra e jammais retornava a lor vetule nivellos. Un homine ric pagava 8% de su rendita in taxas ante le guerra, e circa un tertio postea. Multo del moneta iva pro le dole, le hebdomadari beneficios de disoccupation. Circa 5% del rendita national omne anno esseva transferite ab le ricco al pauperes. [[A. J. P. Taylor]] argumenta que le major parte del gente "esseva joiante un plus ric vita que ulte previemente cognoscite in le historia del mundo: plus longe vacationes, plus curte horas, plus alte salarios real." <ref>{{Sfnp|Taylor|1965|p=176, 317}}</ref> Le economia britannic esseva mediocre in le annos 1920, con sharp declinamentos e alte disoccupation in industria pesante e carbon, specialmente in [[Scotia]] e [[Pais de Galles]]. Le exportationes de carbon e aciero cadeva in medio per 1939 e le communitate de negotio esseva lente a adoptar le nove principios de travalio e gerentia veniente del [[Statos Unite]], tal como [[Fordismo]], credito de consumidor, eliminar le capacitate surplus, plus structurate gerentia, e usar plus grande economias de scala. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garside |first1=W.R. |last2=Greaves |first2=J.I. |date=1997 |title=Rationalisation and Britain's industrial Malaise: The interwar years revisited |journal=Journal of European Economic History |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=37–68}}</ref> Pro plus de un seculo, le industria de navigation habeva dominava le commercio mundial, ma illo remaneva in le inactivitate malgrado varie effortios de stimulo per le governamento. Con le multo sharp declinamento in commercio mundial post 1929, su condition deveniva critic. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greaves |first=Julian |date=2007 |title=Managing decline: The political economy of British shipping in the 1930s |journal=Journal of Transport History |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=57–130 |doi=10.7227/tjth.28.1.5 |s2cid=154926556}}</ref> [[Chancellor del Exchequer Winston Churchill|Chancellor del Exchequer [[Winston Churchill]]]] poneva [[Britannia]] retro super le standard de auro in 1925, lo que multe economistas culpa pro le mediocre performance del economia. <ref name=Solomou&Vartis>{{Cite journal |last1=Solomou |first1=Solomos |last2=Vartis |first2=Dimitris |date=September 2005 |title=Effective Exchange Rates in Britain, 1920–1930 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-history_2005-09_65_3/page/850 |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=65 |issue=3 |jstor=3875020 |pages=850–859|doi=10.1017/S0022050705000318 |s2cid=154005849 }}</ref> Alteres puncta a un varietate de factores, includente le effectos inflationari del Guerra Mundial e chocs del latere de supplemento causate per horas de travalio reducite post le guerra. <ref name=Solomou&Vartis/> Per le fin del annos 1920, le performance economic habeva stabilisate, ma le situation general esseva deludente, proque [[Britannia]] habeva cadite retro le [[Statos Unite]] como le ducende potentia industrial. Il etiam remaneva un forte division economic inter le nord e sud de [[Anglaterra]] durante iste periodo, con le sud de [[Anglaterra]] e le Midlands assez prosperose per le Annos Tredice, durante que partes de [[Pais de Galles]] del sud e le nord industrial de [[Anglaterra]] deveniva cognoscite como "areas affligite" a causa de particularmente alte rates de disoccupation e poveritate. Malgrado isto, le standard de viver continuava a meliorar como le consilios local construiva nove casas a laciar a familias rehabilisate ab bassos quartieros desactualisate, con facilitates usque a data includente toilettes interne, cameras de banio e illumination electric ora esser includite in le nove proprietates. Le sector private joiva un boom de construction de casas durante le annos 1930. <ref name="Unstead">{{Cite book |last=Unstead |first=R.J. |title=A Century of Change: 1837–Today |author-link=R. J. Unstead}}</ref> ==== Labor ==== Durante le [[Guerra|guerra]], le [[Syndicato in le Regno Unite|syndicatos]] esseva [[Encourage|encourageate]] e lor [[Membresia|membresia]] [[Cresce|cresceva]] ab 4.1 milliones in 1914 a 6.5 milliones in 1918. Illos [[Puncto de maximo|punctava al maximo]] a 8.3 milliones in 1920 ante [[Relapsa|relapsar]] a 5.4 milliones in 1923.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=B.R. |title=Abstract of British Historical Statistics |date=1962 |page=68}}; {{Cite book |last=Pugh |first=Martin |title=[[Speak for Britain!: A New History of the Labour Party]] |date=2011 |pages=100–127}}</ref> Carbon esseva un male industria; le melior suturas esseva esser exhauste, montante le costo. Le demanda cadeva como le oleo comenciava a reemplaciar le carbon pro combustibile. Le greve general de 1926 esseva un nation-large walkout de novem dies de 1.3 milliones de ferroviarios, travaliatores de transporto, imprimitores, travaliatores de dock, travaliatores de ferro e aciero supportante le 1.2 milliones de minatores de carbon qui habeva essite blocate foras per le proprietarios. Le minatores habeva rejectate le demandas del proprietarios pro plus longe horas e paga reducite in le facie de precios cadente.<ref>{{Sfnp|Medlicott|1976|pages=223–230}}</ref> Le Governamento Conservative habeva provide un subsidio de novem menses in 1925, ma illo non esseva satis a tornar circum un male industria. Pro supportar le minatores, le [[Congresso de Syndicatos|TUC]], un organisation umbella de omne syndicatos, appellava foras certe syndicatos critic. Le spera esseva que le governamento intervenirea a reorganisar e rationalisar le industria, e montar le subsidio. Le Governamento Conservative habeva accumulate suppliess e le servitios essential continuava con voluntarios de classe medie. Omne tres major partidos opponeva le greve. Le chef del [[Partito Laborista]] non approbava e timeva que illo tinturarea le partito con le imagine de radicalismo, proque le [[Comintern]] in Moscova habeva mittite instructiones pro Communistas a promover aggressivemente le greve. Le greve general ipse esseva largemente non-violente, ma le blocada foras del minatores continuava e il habeva violentia in Scotia. Illo esseva le sol greve general in historia britannic, proque le chef del TUC tal como [[Ernest Bevin]] considerava lo un error. Le major parte del historicos tracta lo como un singular evento con pauc consequentias de longe termino, ma Martin Pugh dice que illo accelerava le movimento de votatores de classe de travaliator al Partito Laborista, lo que duceva a futur ganios.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reid |first1=Alastair |last2=Tolliday |first2=Steven |date=1977 |title=Review: The General Strike, 1926 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1977-12_20_4/page/1001 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=1001–1012 |jstor=2638422}}; {{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Pugh (author) |date=2006 |title=The General Strike |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-today_2006-05_56_5/page/40 |journal=History Today |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=40–47}}</ref> Le [[Acto de Disputa de Commercio e Syndicatos 1927]] faceva le greves general illegal e terminava le automatic pagamento de membros del union al Partito Laborista. Iste acto esseva largemente repelite in 1946. Le industria de carbon usava le carbon plus accessibile e, como le costos montava, le output cadeva ab 2567 milliones de tonnas in 1924 a 183 milliones in 1945.<ref>{{Sfnp|Mitchell|1962|pages=116–117}}</ref> Le Governamento Laborista nationalisava le minas in 1947. === Grande Depression === {{Main|Grande Depression in le Regno Unite}} Le [[Grande Depression|Grande Depression]] [[Origina|originava]] in le [[Statos Unite|Statos Unite]] in [[Fin 1929|fin 1929]] e [[Rapidemente|rapidemente]] [[Spargi|spargeva]] al [[Mundo|mundo]]. [[Britannia|Britannia]] habeva [[Jammais|jammais]] [[Experientia|experientiate]] le [[Boom|boom]] que habeva [[Characterisa|characterisate]] le [[Statos Unite|Statos Unite]], [[Germania|Germania]], [[Canada|Canada]] e [[Australia|Australia]] in le [[Annos 1920|annos 1920]], assi su [[Ruptura|ruptura]] [[Appare|appareva]] [[Minus severe|minus severe]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richardson |first=H. W. |date=1969 |title=The Economic Significance of the Depression in Britain |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-contemporary-history_1969_4_4/page/5 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=3–19 |doi=10.1177/002200946900400401 |jstor=259833 |s2cid=162292590}}</ref> Le [[Commercio mundial de Britannia|commercio mundial de Britannia]] [[Cade|cadeva]] in [[Medie|medio]] (1929–1933), le [[Output de industria pesante|output de industria pesante]] [[Cade|cadeva]] per un [[Tertie|tertio]], le [[Profito de employo|profitos de employo]] [[Plunge|plungeva]] in [[Quasi omne sector|quasi omne sectores]]. Al [[Profunditate|profunditate]] in [[Estate 1932|estate 1932]], le [[Numero de disoccupate registrate|registrate disoccupatos]] [[Numera|numerava]] 3.5 milliones, e [[Multo plus|multo plus]] habeva solmente [[Employo de tempore partial|employo de tempore partial]]. [[Experto|Expertos]] [[Tenta|tentava]] a [[Remane|remaner]] [[Optimista|optimista]]. [[John Maynard Keynes|John Maynard Keynes]], qui non habeva [[Predice|predicite]] le [[Cadita|cadita]], [[Dice|diceva]], "Il essera [[Nulle consequente directe serie in London|nulle serios directes consequentias in London]]. Nos [[Trova|trova]] le [[Regardo avante decidemente encourageante|regardo avante decidemente encourageante]]."<ref>{{Cite book |first=Richard |last=Overy |title=The Twilight Years: The Paradox of Britain Between the Wars |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=9781101498347 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IQSfaaan1qUC&pg=PT96 96] |author-link=Richard Overy}}</ref> Al [[Sinistre|sinistra]] [[Figura|figuras]] tal como [[Sidney Webb, 1me Baron Passfield|Sidney]] e [[Beatrice Webb|Beatrice Webb]], [[J. A. Hobson|J. A. Hobson]], e [[G. D. H. Cole|G. D. H. Cole]] [[Repete|repeteva]] le [[Admonition|admonitiones]] que illos habeva [[Face|facite]] pro [[Annos|annos]] super le [[Morte imminente de capitalismo|imminente morte de capitalismo]], solmente [[Ora|ora]] multo plus de [[Gente|gente]] [[Paga|pagava]] [[Attention|attention]].{{Sfnp|Overy|2010|loc=ch. 2}} [[Comencia|Comenciante]] in 1935 le [[Club de Libro Sinistre|Club de Libro Sinistre]] [[Provide|provideva]] un [[Nove admonition omne mense|nove admonition omne mense]], e [[Construi|construiva]] le [[Credibilitate de socialismo de typo Sovietic como un alternativa|credibilitate de socialismo de typo Sovietic como un alternativa]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Samuels |first=Stuart |date=1966 |title=The Left Book Club |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1966_1_2/page/65 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=65–86 |doi=10.1177/002200946600100204 |jstor=259923 |s2cid=159342335}}</ref> [[Particularmente|Particularmente]] le plus [[Dure|dur]] [[Batte|batite]] per le [[Problema economic|problemas economic]] esseva le [[Nord de Anglaterra|nord de Anglaterra]], [[Scotia|Scotia]], [[Irlanda del Nord|Irlanda del Nord]] e [[Pais de Galles|Pais de Galles]]; le [[Disoccupation|disoccupation]] [[Attinge|attingeva]] 70% in [[Alcun area|algun areas]] al [[Initio del annos 1930|initio del annos 1930]] (con plus de 3 milliones de [[Foras de travalio a nivello national|foras de travalio a nivello national]]) e [[Multe familia|multe familias]] [[Depende|dependeva]] [[Totalmente|totalmente]] super le [[Dole|dole]]. In 1936, per le [[Qual tempore|qual tempore]] le [[Disoccupation|disoccupation]] esseva [[Plus basso|plus basse]], 200 [[Homine disoccupate|homines disoccupate]] [[Face|faceva]] un [[Marcha altemente publicisa|altemente publicisate marcha]] ab [[Jarrow|Jarrow]] a [[London|London]] in un [[Tentation a monstra le plight del paupere industrial|tentativa a monstrar le plight del pauperes industrial]]. Ben que [[Multo|multo]] [[Romanticisa|romanticisate]] per le [[Sinistre|Sinistra]], le [[Cruciada de Jarrow|Cruciada de Jarrow]] [[Marca|marcava]] un [[Scission profunde in le Partito Laborista|profunde scission in le Partito Laborista]] e [[Resulta|resultava]] in [[Nulle action governamental|nulle action governamental]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perry |first=Matt |date=2002 |title=The Jarrow Crusade's Return: The 'New Labour Party' of Jarrow and Ellen Wilkinson, M.P. |journal=Northern History |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=265–278 |doi=10.1179/007817202790180576}}</ref> Le [[Disoccupation|Disoccupation]] [[Remane|remaneva]] [[Alte|alte]] usque le [[Guerra|guerra]] [[Absorbe|absorbeva]] [[Omne le cercator de travalio|omne le cercatores de travalio]]. Le [[Libro de George Orwell|libro de [[George Orwell]] ]] ''[[Le Via a Wigan Pier|The Road to Wigan Pier]]'' [[Dona|dona]] un [[Vista general triste del duritate del tempore|triste vista general del duritates del tempore]]. === Appaciamento === {{AP|Accordo de Munich}} [[File:MunichAgreement.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Prime Ministro Britannic [[Neville Chamberlain]], atterrante aal [[Aerodromo de Heston]] le 30 de [[Septembre 1938|septembre 1938]] post su incontro con Hitler a [[Munich]]. In su mano ille tene le [[accordo de pace inter Britannia e Germania]].]] Vive memorias del horrores e mortes del Guerra Mundial faceva Britannia e su chefes fortemente inclinate a pacifismo in le epocha interbellic. Le defia veniva ab dictatores, primo Benito Mussolini de Italia, postea Adolf Hitler de un multo plus potente Germania Nazi. Le Liga de Nationes provava deludente a su supportatores; illo esseva incapace a resolver ulte del minacias ponite per le dictatores. Le politica britannic esseva a "appaciar" illes in le speras que illos essererea satiate. Per 1938 il esseva clar que le guerra esseva menaciante, e que Germania habeva le plus potente militar del mundo. Le final acto de appaciamento veniva quando Britannia e Francia sacrificava Tchecoslovachia al demandas de Hitler al Accordo de Munich de 1938.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faber |first=David |title=Munich, 1938: Appeasement and World War II |date=2010 |author-link=David Faber (politician)}}</ref> In loco de satiation Hitler menaciava Polonia, e al fin le Prime Ministro Neville Chamberlain cadeva le appaciamento e stava ferme in promittente a defender Polonia. Hitler totevia copava un tractamento con Joseph Stalin a divider Europa Oriental; quando Germania invadeva Polonia in septembre 1939, Britannia e Francia declarava guerra; le Commonwealth Britannic sequeva le direction de London.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=Donald Cameron |title=How War Came: Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938–39 |date=1990}}; {{Cite journal |first=Patrick |last=Finney |title=The romance of decline: The historiography of appeasement and British national identity |journal=Electronic Journal of International History |volume=1 |date=2000 |url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/3385/1/Journal_of_International_History_2000-06_Finney.pdf}}</ref> == Secunde Guerra Mundial (1939–1945) == {{Main|Fronte domo britannic durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial|Chronologia del fronte domo del Regno Unite durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial|Historia militar del Regno Unite durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial}} [[File:Chamberlain-war-declaration.ogg|thumb|Prime Ministro [[Neville Chamberlain]] annunciante le initio del guerra super [[Germania Nazi]].]] [[File:Princess Elizabeth Visiting Airborne Troops, May 1944 H38619.jpg|thumb|left|Le [[Principessa Elizabeth]] reguardante parachutistas cadente durante un visita a fortias aeroportate in Anglaterra in le cursa a [[D-Day]], 1944. Stante juxta illa es [[Brigadier James Hill (British Army officer)|Brigadier James "Speedy" Hill]], commandante del 3tie Brigada de Parachute.]] Le [[Rege]] declarava guerra super [[Germania Nazi]] in [[Septembre 1939]], post le [[Invasion german de Polonia]]. Durante le silentiose periodo de "Guerra Phoney", le [[Britannicos]] mitteva a [[Francia]] le plus altemente mechanisate armea in le mundo; insimul con [[Francia]] illes habeva plus tanks que [[Germania]], ma minus planos de guerra. Le stupefacente victoria german in Primavera 1940 esseva debite totalmente a "superior doctrina de combatto. Realistic trainamento, imaginative direction de campo de battalia, e sin par initiativa ab generales usque a sergentes."<ref>{{Cite book |first=Ralph M. |last=Hitchens |title=Review ... |date=January 2014 |volume=78 |issue=1 |page=406 |url=https://www.smh-hq.org/jmh/jmhvols/781.html}} (reviewing {{Cite book |first=David|last= Edgerton |author-link= David Edgerton (historian) |title= Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources, and Experts in the Second World War |date=2011 |publisher= Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-0-7139-9918-1}})</ref> Le [[Britannicos]] con le plus tenue del margines rescateva lor armea principal de [[Dunkirk]] (assi como multe soldatos francese), lassante omne lor equipamento e suppliess de guerra retro. [[Winston Churchill]] veniva al potentia, promittente a luctar le [[Germanos]] al mesme fin. Le [[Germanos]] menaciava un invasion—lo que le [[Royal Navy]] esseva preparate a repeller. Primo le [[Germanos]] tentava atinger suprematia aeree ma esseva vincite per le [[Royal Air Force]] in le [[Battalia de Britannia]] in fin estate 1940. [[Japon]] declarava guerra in [[Decembre 1941]], e rapidemente saisiva [[Hong Kong]], [[Malaya]], [[Singapore]], e [[Burma]], e menaciava [[Australia]] e [[India]]. [[Britannia]] formava un alliantia con le [[Union Sovietic]] (comenciante in 1941) e multo proxime ligamines al [[Statos Unite]] (comenciante in 1940). Le guerra esseva multo costose. Illo esseva pagate per alte taxas, per vender foras de proprietates, e per acceptar grande amontas de [[Lend-Lease]] del [[S.U.]] e [[Canada]]. Le [[S.U.]] donava $30 milliardos in munitiiones; [[Canada]] etiam donava adjuta. (Le adjuta american e canadian non habeva a esser repagate, ma il habeva etiam american prestos que esseva repagate.)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hughes |first=J. R. T. |date=1958 |title=Financing the British War Effort |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-history_1958-06_18_2/page/193 |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=193–199 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700077718 |jstor=2115103 |s2cid=154148525}}</ref> Le total mobilisation de [[Britannia]] durante iste periodo provava a esser successose in vincer le guerra, per mantener forte supporto ab opinion public. Le guerra esseva un "guerra del gente" que allargava aspirationes democratic e produceva promissas de un stato de benesser postguerra.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Mark |last=Donnelly |title=Britain in the Second World War |date=1999}}; {{Cite book |first=Angus |last=Calder |title=The People's War: Britain, 1939–1945 |date=1969 |author-link=Angus Calder}}</ref> Le [[media]] clamava lo un "guerra del gente"—un termino que pigliava super e significava le popular demanda pro planification e un expandite stato de benesser.<ref>{{Sfnp|Calder|1969}}</ref> Le [[Familia Royal]] jocava major rolos symbolic in le guerra. Illos refusava a lassar [[London]] durante le [[Blitz]] e esseva infatigabile in visitar truppas, factorias de munition, dockyards, e hospitales trans le pais. Omne classes social appreciate como le [[Royales]] partiva le speras, timores e duritates del gente.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Alfred F. |last=Havighurst |title=Britain in Transition: The Twentieth Century |date=1962 |chapter=Chapter 9 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |ol=4728126M |isbn= 0226319687}}</ref> === Mobilisation de feminas === [[File:The Auxiliary Territorial Service in the Second World War H9047.jpg|thumb|Feminas del [[Auxiliary Territorial Service]] in [[York|York]].]] Historicos credito [[Britannia]] con un multo successose record de mobilisar le fronte domo pro le effortio de guerra, in terminos de mobilisar le plus grande proportion de travaliatores potential, maximisar output, assignar le correcte habilitates al correcte labor, e mantener le morale e le spirito del gente.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robin |last=Havers |title=The Second World War: Europe, 1939–1943 |date=2002 |volume=4 |page=75}}</ref> Multo de iste successo esseva debite al systematic planate mobilisation de feminas, como travaliatores, soldatos e sponsas, coercite post [[Decembre 1941]] per [[Conscription]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hancock |author-link=Keith Hancock (historian) |first1=W. K. |last2=Gowing |author-link2=Margaret Gowing |first2=M. M. |title=British War Economy |date=1949}}</ref> Feminas supportava le effortio de guerra, e faceva le rationamento de benes de consumidor un successo. In algun manieras le governamento super-respondeva, evacuante troppo multe pueros in le prime dies del guerra, clauder cinemas como frivole postea reaperir illos quando le necessitate pro divertimento bon mercato deveniva clar. [[British pet massacre]] pro salvar un poco de spatio sur navigation de alimento de animales de compania, solmente a discoperir un urgente necessitate a retener rattos e muses sub controlo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marwick |first=Arthur |title=Britain in the Century of Total War: Peace and Social Change, 1900–1967 |date=1968 |isbn=978-0-37-000386-3 |page=258 |publisher=Bodley Head |author-link=Arthur Marwick}}</ref> Le [[Britannicos]] fideva successosemente super voluntarismo. Le production de munitiones montava dramaticamente, e le qualitate remaneva alte. Le production de alimento esseva emphasate, in grande parte a liberar le navigation pro munitiones. Fermeros augmentava le area sub cultivation ab 12,000,000 a 18,000,000 acres (ab circa 50,000 a 75,000 km²), e le fortia de travalio de ferma esseva expandite per un quinto, gratias specialmente al [[Women's Land Army]].<ref>{{Sfnp|Calder|1969|pp=276–283, 411–430}}</ref> === Stato de benesser === {{Main|Reporto Beveridge}} Le successо del governamento in provider nove servitios, tal como hospitales e disjunos escolar, assi como le spirito equalitari, contribuueva a diffundite supporto pro un allargate stato de benesser. Illo esseva supportate per le [[Governamento de coalition]] e omne major partidos. Le conditiones de benesser, specialmente concernente alimento, meliorava durante le guerra como le governamento imponeva rationamento e subsidiate precios de alimento. Le conditiones pro habitation, totevia, pejorava con le bombardamento, e le vestimento esseva in curte de supplimento. Le [[Equalitate]] augmentava dramaticamente, como le renditas declinava sharpemente pro le [[Ricco]] e pro travaliatores de collar blanc, como lor taxas volava, durante que le travaliatores de collar blau beneficiava ab rationamento e controlo de precios.<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Sidney Pollard |first=Sidney |last=Pollard |title=The Development of the British Economy 1914–1950 |date=1962 |pages=339–348}}</ref> Le gente demandava un expansion del stato de benesser como un recompensa al gente pro lor sacrificios de tempore de guerra.<ref>{{Cite book |first=F. M. |last=Leventhal |title=Twentieth-Century Britain: an Encyclopedia |date=1995 |pages=74–75, 830}}</ref> Le objectivo esseva operationalisate in un famose reporto per [[William Beveridge]]. Illo recommendava que varie servitios de mantenentia de rendita que habeva crescite pecetta desde 1911 esserea systematisate e facite universal. Le beneficios de disoccupation e beneficios de maladia esseva a esser universal. Il esserea nove beneficios pro maternitate. Le systema de pension de etate vetule esserea revisate e expandite, e requireva que un persona retirava. Un plen-scala [[Servitio National de Sanitate]] providera libere cura medical pro tote le mundo. Omne le major partidos endossava le principios e illos esseva largemente ponite in effecto quando le [[Pace]] retornava.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Brian |last=Abel-Smith |author-link=Brian Abel-Smith |title=The Beveridge report: Its origins and outcomes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-social-security-review_1992_45_1-2/page/n6 |journal=International Social Security Review |date=1992 |volume=45 |issue=1–2 |pages=5–16 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.1992.tb00900.x}}</ref> == Postguerra == [[File:Ve Day Celebrations in London, England, UK, 8 May 1945 D24587.jpg|thumb|Gente colligeva in Whitehall pro audir le discurso de victoria de Winston Churchill e celebrar Victoria in Europa, 8 de Maio 1945.]] Britannia habeva vincite le guerra, ma illo perdeva India in 1947 e quasi omne le resto del Imperio per le annos 1960. Illo debatteva su rolo in affaires mundial e junegva le Nationes Unite in 1945, NATO in 1949, e deveniva un proxime alliato del Statos Unite. Prosperitate retornava in le annos 1950, e London remaneva un centro mundial de financia e cultura, ma le nation non esseva plus un major potentia mundial.<ref>{{Harvp|Clarke|2004|loc=chapters 7, 8}}.</ref> In 1973, post un longe debatto e initial rejection, illo junegva le Mercato Commun. === Austeritate, 1945–1950 === Le fin del guerra videva un victoria catastrophic pro Clement Attlee e le Partito Laborista. Illos esseva eligite sur un manifesto de plus grande justitia social con politicas de ala sinistre tal como le creation de un Servitio National de Sanitate, plus habitation de consilio e nationalisation de plure major industrias. Britannia faceva un severe crisi financiari, e respondeva per reducer su responsabilitates international e per partir le duritates de un "etate de austeritate".<ref>{{Cite book |first= David |last=Kynaston |author-link=David Kynaston |title=Austerity Britain, 1945–1951 |date=2008 |chapter=Chapter 4}}</ref> Grande prestos del Statos Unite e Donos del Plan Marshall adjutava a reconstruer e modernisar su infrastructura e practicas de negotio. Rationamento e conscription traheva super ben in le annos de post-guerra, e le pais suffreva un del pejor hibernos in registro.<ref>{{Cite book |author-link= Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska |first= Ina |last= Zweiniger-Bargielowska |title=Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls, and Consumption, 1939–1955 |date=2002}}</ref> Totevia, le morale esseva boostate per eventos tal como le maritage de Principessa Elizabeth in 1947 e le Festival de Britannia in 1951.{{Sfnp|Havighurst|1962|loc=ch. 10}} ==== Nationalisation ==== Chef del Partito Laborista decideva a ager rapidemente pro mantener le momentum del catastrophic victoria electoral de 1945. Illos comenciava con le Banca de Anglaterra, aviation civil, carbon, e Cable & Wireless. Postea veniva ferrovia, canales, transporto de strata e trucking, electricitate, e gas. Finalmente veniva ferro e aciero. In total, circa un quinto del economia esseva nationalisate. Le Partito Laborista lassava su planos a nationalisar terras de ferma. Le procedura usate esseva disveloppate per Herbert Morrison, qui como Lord Presidente del Consilio presideva le Committee super le Socialisation de Industrias.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} Ille sequeva le modello jam usate a establir corporationes public tal como le BBC (1927). In excambio pro partes, le proprietarios del companias esseva donate bonos del governamento pagante basse taxas de interesse, e le governamento prendeva plen proprietate de cata affligite compania, consolidante lo in un monopolio national. Le gestion remaneva le mesme, ma illos esseva nunc effectivemente servitores civil travaliante pro le governamento.<ref name="Sked, Cook and Beer">{{Cite book |last1=Sked |first1=Alan |title=Post-War Britain: A Political History |last2=Cook |first2=Chris |date=1979 |pages=31–34 |author-link=Alan Sked}}; {{Cite book |first=Samuel H. |last=Beer |author-link=Samuel Beer |title=British Politics in the Collectivist Age |date=1965 |pages=188–216}}</ref> Il non habeva moneta pro modernisation, ben que le Plan Marshall, operate separatemente per planatores american, fortiava multe negotios britannic a adoptar moderne technicas managerial. Socialistas dur esseva dissapunctate, como le industrias nationalisate pareva identic al veteran corporationes private, e le planification national esseva facite virtualmente impossibile per le constrictiones financiari del governamento. Travaliatores habeva longe essite motivate a supportar Labor per reportos de mal tractamento de travaliatores per le gestion. Le gerentes esseva le mesme personas como ante, con multo le mesme poter super le placia de travalio. Il non habeva controlo de travaliatores de industria. Le syndicatos resisteva le effortios del governamento a fixar salarios. Per le tempore del electiones general in 1950 e 1951, Labor rarmente discuteva le nationalisation de industria. In loco de illo, il esseva le Conservatores qui decriava le inefficientia e mal gestion, e promitteva a reverter le subpreno de aciero e trucking.<ref name="Sked, Cook and Beer" /> === Prosperitate del annos de post-guerra === Como le pais capitava in le annos 1950, le reconstruction continuava e immigrantes del Imperio Britannic remanente, le majoritate le Caribe e subcontinente indian, esseva invitate a adjutar a reconstruer. Britannia perdeva su placia como un superpotentia e non poteva plus mantener su imperio. Isto duceva al decolonisation, e a un retrahentia ab quasi omne su colonias per 1970. Eventos tal como le Crisi de Suez monstrava que le status del RU habeva cadite. Le annos 1950 e 60 esseva totevia prosperose, e videva modernisation del RU, con le construction de su prime motorways pro exemplo, e durante le annos 1960 un cultural movimento comenciava que expandeva trans le mundo. Le Disoccupation esseva basse, nove disveloppamentos de habitation private e de consilio prendeva placia, e le numero de proprietates de slum diminueva. Le periodo de post-guerra testimoniava un dramatic augmento in le standard de viver,<ref>{{Harvp|Addison|Jones|2005}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sandbrook |first=Dominic |title=State of Emergency: The Way We Were: Britain, 1970–1974 |date=26 May 2011 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=9780241956915 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=skdI0R6pApcC&q=dominic+sandbrook+housing+conditions&pg=PT60 60] |author-link=Dominic Sandbrook}}</ref> como characterisate per un augmento in le salarios real medie ab 1950 a 1965. <ref>{{Cite book |title=Tabloid Tales: Global Debates Over Media Standards |editor-last=Sparks |editor-first=Colin |editor-last2=Tulloch |editor-first2=John}}</ref> Le septimana de travalio official esseva reducite e reductiones in le taxa de rendita esseva facite.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Swinging Realism': The Strange Case of To Sir, With Love and Up the Junction |url=http://www.brunel.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/111284/Dave-Ellis,-Swinging-Realism-The-Strange-Case-of-To-Sir,-With-Love-and-Up-the-Junction.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203014202/http://www.brunel.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/111284/Dave-Ellis,-Swinging-Realism-The-Strange-Case-of-To-Sir,-With-Love-and-Up-the-Junction.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=10 February 2013 |accessdate=14 November 2025 |archivedate=3 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203014202/http://www.brunel.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/111284/Dave-Ellis,-Swinging-Realism-The-Strange-Case-of-To-Sir,-With-Love-and-Up-the-Junction.pdf }}</ref> Illes in occupationes semi-habile e sin habile traditionalmente mal pagate videva un marcate melioramento in lor salarios e standardes de viver. Como summate per R. J. Unstead, Opportunitates in vita, si non equal, esseva distribuite multo plus juste que plus unquam antea e le ganator de salario septimanal, in particular, habeva ganiate standardes de viver que haberea essite quasi incredibile in le annos trenta.<ref name="Unstead" /> Inter 1955-67, le ganimentos medie de travaliatores pagate septimanalmente augmentava per 96% e illos de travaliatores salariate per 95%, durante que le precios montava per circa 45%,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patmore |first=John Allan |title=Land and Leisure in England & Wales |date=1971 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=9780838610244 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oqxnp9DexawC&q=wales+consumer+spending+1965&pg=PA19 19]}}</ref> permittente le gente a affordar plus benes de consumidor. Inter 1964-68, le percentage de menages con un set de television montava ab 81% a 86%, un machina de lavar ab 54% a 63%, un refrigerator ab 35% a 55%, un carro ab 38% a 49%, un telephono ab 22% a 28%, e incalfactor central ab 13% a 23%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=paying for the social services |url=https://digital.library.lse.ac.uk/Documents/Detail/paying-for-the-social-services-1969/109549 |website=LSE Digital Library}}</ref> Le montante affluentia esseva subtendite per plen disoccupation. Le Crescimento economic remaneva a circa 3%. Le Rationes de alimento esseva levate in 1954, durante que le controllos de compra de hire esseva relaxate. Multe del classes de travalio esseva potente a participar in le mercato de consumidor pro le prime vice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hollow |first=Matthew |date=2011 |title='The Age of Affluence': Council Estates and Consumer Society |url=https://www.academia.edu/1763989 |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=279–296|doi=10.1177/1469540514521083 |scid=147269870 }}</ref> Como notate per Harriet Wilson, Le ricchessa national ha crescite considerabilemente, e ben que le distribution de isto inter le classes social ha remanite substantialmente del mesme proportiones, illo ha significate un considerabile augmento in le standard de viver de omne classes. Illo es estimate que in Britannia al volta del seculo le ganimentos medie in industria sufficeva mermente a satisfacer le necessitates essential de un familia de duo pueros, hodie le ganimentos medie permitte le ganator de salario industrial a spender un tertio de su rendita super altere cosas que necessitates basic.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Socially Deprived Families in Britain |date=1971 |editor-last=Holman |editor-first=Robert |editor-link=Robert Holman |edition=reprinted |orig-date=1970}}</ref> Le significative augmentos de salario real in le annos 1950 e 1960 contribueva a un rapide augmento in le consumerismo de classe de travalio, con le spensa de consumidor britannic montante per 45% inter 1952 e 1964.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lucassen |first=Jan |title=Global Labour History: A State of the Art}}</ref> Le Derecto a beneficios esseva meliorate. In 1955, 96% de laboratores manual esseva derectate a duo septimanas de vacantia con paga, comparate con 61% in 1951. Per le fin del annos 1950, Britannia habeva devenite un del paises plus affluente del mundo, e per le prime Sixta, le majoritate de Britannicos joiva un nivello de prosperitate previe cognoscite solmente a un parve minoritate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hill |first=C. P. |title=British Economic and Social History 1700–1964}}</ref> Pro le juvene e sin ligamines, il habeva, pro le prime vice in decennios, moneta de reserva pro otio, vestimento, e luxos. In 1959, le magazine ''Queen'' declarava que "Britannia ha lanceate in un etate de luxo sin par de viver." Prime Ministro Harold Macmillan clamava que "le luxos del ric ha devenite le necessitates del povre." Le Nivellos de rendita disposable montava constantemente,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wales – History |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/ |website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> con le potentia de spensa del familia medie montante per 50% inter 1951 e 1979, e per le fin del Septanta, 6 ex 10 familias possedeva un carro.<ref>Yesterday's Britain: The Illustrated Story of How We Lived, Worked and Played in this Century, published by Reader's Digest</ref> Como notate per Martin Pugh, Le gestion economic keynesian permitteva le travaliatores britannic a joi un etate auree de plen disoccupation que, combinate con un plus relaxate attitude verso le matres travaliante, duceva al distribution del familia de duo-renditas. Le Inflation esseva circa 4 per cento, le salarios monetari montava ab un media de £8 un septimana in 1951 a £15 un septimana per 1961, le proprietate de domo spargeva ab 35 per cento in 1939 a 47 per cento per 1966, e le relaxation de controllos de credito boostava le demanda pro benes de consumer.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pugh |first=Matin |title=Speak for Britain! A New History of the Labour Party |date=2011 |publisher=Random House |location=London |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8cIz32iH7BQC&pg=PA315 115]–116 |author-link=Martin Pugh (historian)}}</ref> Como notate per John Burnett, Lo que esseva equalmente frapante esseva que le proprietate de benes de consumidor habeva spargite usque le scala social e le lacuna inter travaliatores professional e manual habeva considerabilemente stricite. Un studio de un area de slum in Leeds (debite a demolition) trovava 74% del menages habeva un television, 41% un vacuo, e 38% un machina de lavar. In un altere area de slum, St Mary's in Oldham (ubi in 1970 pauc del casas habeva bagnos fixate o un supplimento de aqua calide e medie partiva tolettas exterior), 67% del casas esseva comfortabilemente mobiliates e un altere 24% mobiliates luxuosemente, con smart moderne mobilia, profunde catenina de pila, e decorationes. Le Provision de amenitates de menage meliorava constantemente durante le secunde medietate del seculo vintesime. Ab 1971 a 1983, le menages habente le uso sol de un bagno fixate o imbue montava ab 88% a 97%, e illes con un WC interne ab 87% a 97%. Le Menages con incalfactor central quasi dupplava, ab 34% a 64%. Per 1983, 94% de omne menages habeva un refrigerator, 81% un television de color, 80% un machina de lavar, 57% un congelator profunde, e 28% un siccatore de tumble.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burnett |first=John |title=A Social History of Housing 1815–1985 |author-link=John Burnett (historian)}}</ref><ref>Glen O'Hara, "Hot and Cold Water in the Home" in ''The Politics of Water in Post-War Britain'' (2017): 183–214.</ref> Inter 1950 e 1970, totevia, Britannia esseva supervenite per majoritate de paises del Mercato Commun Europee in terminos de telephonos, refrigeratores, televisiones, carros, e machinas de lavar per 100 del population (ben que Britannia remaneva alte in terminos de bagnos e lavatorios). Ben que le standard de viver britannic esseva augmentante, le standard de viver in altere paises augmentava plus rapidemente.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lapping |first=Brian |title=The Labour Government 1964–1970 |author-link=Brian Lapping}}</ref> Secundo un studio de 1968 per Anthony Sampson, travaliatores britannic: In dece annos, ab haber un multo plus alte standard de viver que le continente, illos ha glissate justo retro. Prendente le rendita national per capite (un metro brute), le Britannicos per 1967 habeva fundite a octave placia inter paises OECD, con un rendita annual de $1,910 comparate con $2,010 pro Germania, $2,060 pro Francia e $2,480 pro Switza: e le position cadente de Britannia jam monstra se in le plus basse proportion de nove carros e nove casas (ben que ancora ducente con setes de TV e machinas de lavar).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sampson |first=Anthony |title=The New Europeans: A guide to the workings, institutions and character of contemporary Western Europe |date=1971 |author-link=Anthony Sampson |orig-date=1968}}</ref> In 1950, le standard de viver esseva plus alte que in omne pais EEC a parte Belgica. Illo esseva 50% plus alte que Germania West, e duo vices plus alte que Italia. In 1976, le salarios del RU esseva inter le plus basse in Europa Occidental, essente medietate de taxas de Germania West e duo tertios de taxas italian.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tracy |first=Noel |title=The Origins of the Social Democratic Party |date=1983 |page=29}}</ref> In addition, durante que le opportunitates educational pro gente de classe de travalio habeva allargate significativemente desde le fin del guerra, un numero de paises disveloppate veniva a supervencer Britannia in alcun indicadores educational. Per le prime annos 1980, circa 80% a 90% de lassatores de schola in Francia e Germania West recipeva trainamento vocational, comparate con 40% in le RU. Per le medio annos 1980, super 80% de pupillos in le S.U. e Germania West e super 90% in Japon remaneva in education usque a 18, comparate con 33% de pupillos britannic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDowall |first=David |title=Britain in Close-Up |date=2008}}</ref> In 1987, solmente 35% de 16- a 18-annos-vetules esseva in education o trainamento a tempore plen, comparate con 80% in le S.U., 77% in Japon, 69% in Francia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sampson |first=Anthony |title=The Essential Anatomy of Britain: Democracy in Crisis |date=1993 |author-link=Anthony Sampson}}</ref> Il remaneva lacunas inter travaliatores manual e non-manual in areas tal como beneficios e salarios. In 1978 mascule travaliatores manual a tempore plen de etate 21 e super medianava un brute salario septimanal de £80, durante que le equivalente pro mascule travaliatores de collar blanc stava a £100.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Labour and Inequality: A Fabian Study of Labour in Power, 1974–79 |date=1980 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=0435831062 |editor-last=Bosanquet |editor-first=Nick |editor-link=Nick Bosanquet |edition=1st |editor-last2=Townsend |editor-first2=Peter |editor-link2=Peter Townsend (sociologist)}}</ref> === Imperio a Commonwealth === [[File:British Decolonisation in Africa.png|thumb|Decolonisation britannic in Africa]] Le controlo de Britannia super su Imperio laxava durante le periodo interguerra. Nationalismo fortificava in altere partes del imperio, particularmente in India e in Egypto. Inter 1867 e 1910, le RU habeva donate Australia, Canada, e Nove Zelanda "Dominion" status (quasi complete autonomia intra le Imperio). Illos deveniva membros de carta del British Commonwealth de Nationes (cognoscite como le Commonwealth de Nationes desde 1949), un informal ma stricte association que succedeva le Imperio Britannic. Comenciante con le independentia de India e Pakistan in 1947, le restante del Imperio Britannic esseva quasi completemente dismantellate. Hodie, le majoritate del ancian colonias de Britannia appartine al Commonwealth, quasi omnes de illos como membros independente. Il ha, totevia, 13 ancian colonia britannic, includente Bermuda, Gibraltar, le Insulas Falkland, e alteres, que ha eligite a continuar le regula per London e es cognoscite como Territorios de Ultra Mar Britannic. === Ab le Inquietudes al Accordo de Belfast === {{AP|The Troubles}} [[File:Larne RIR mural.jpg|thumb|Un mural in Ulster supportante pro le Royal Irish Regiment]] In le annos 1960, le Prime Ministro unionista moderate de Irlanda del Nord Terence O'Neill tentava a reformar le systema e dar un plus grande voce al Catholicos qui formava 40% del population de Irlanda del Nord. Su objectivos esseva bloccate per militante Protestantes ducite per le Rev. Ian Paisley.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mulholland |first=Marc |title=Northern Ireland at the Crossroads: Ulster Unionism in the O'Neill Years, 1960–9 |date=2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0333760758 |ol=28300000M}}</ref> Le montante pressione ab nationalistas pro reforma e ab unionistas pro resister reforma duceva al apparentia del movimento de derectos civil sub figuras como John Hume, Austin Currie e alteres. Le Confrontationes escalava foras de controlo como le Armea apenava contener le Armea Republican Irlandese Provisional (IRA) e le Ulster Defence Association. Le Chef britannicos temeva que lor retrahentia dareva un "Scenario de Die del Judicio", con grande diffundite conflicto communal, sequite per le exodo de massa de centenas de milles de refugiatos. London claudeva le parlamento de Irlanda del Nord e comenciava le regula directe. Per le annos 1990, le falia del campania IRA a ganiar supporto public de massa o attinger su scopo de un retrahentia britannic duceva a negociationes que in 1998 produceva le "Accordo del Bon Venerdi". Illo ganiava popular supporto e largemente finiva le Inquietudes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dixon |first=Paul |title=Northern Ireland: The Politics of War and Peace |date=2008 |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=9780230507791 |ol=9684682M}}; {{Cite book |last=Farrington |first=Christopher |title=Ulster Unionism and the Peace Process in Northern Ireland |date=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=1403992851 |ol=3423454M}}</ref> === Le economia in le fin del seculo 20 === {{AP|History of the United Kingdom (1945–present)}} Post le relative prosperitate del annos 1950 e 1960, le RU experientiava conflicto industrial e stagflation trans le annos 1970 sequente un global crisi economic; Labor habeva retornate al governamento in 1964 sub Harold Wilson pro finir 13 annos de regula conservator. Le Conservatores esseva restaurate al governamento in 1970 sub Edward Heath, qui faliava a halt le declino economic del pais e esseva expellite in 1974 como Labor retornava al potentia sub Harold Wilson. Le crisi economic approfundava sequente le retorno de Wilson e le cosas faceva pauc melior sub su successor James Callaghan. Un stricte modernisation de su economia comenciava sub le controversiate chef conservator Margaret Thatcher sequente su election como prime ministro in 1979, que videva un tempore de record disoccupation como deindustrialisation videva le fin de multo del manufacturante industrias del pais, ma etiam un tempore de boom economic como le mercato de stock deveniva liberalisate e le industrias possedite per stato esseva privatisate. Su augmento a poter esseva vidite como le fin symbolic del tempore in le qual le economia britannic habeva devenite le "homine malade" de Europa occidental.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baten |first=Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107507180 |page=29}}</ref> Le Inflation etiam cadeva durante iste periodo e le potentia de syndicato esseva reducite. [[File:Miners strike rally London 1984.jpg|right|thumb|Rally de sciopero de mineros in London, 1984]] Totevia le sciopero de mineros de 1984–1985 prefigurava le fin del majoritate del minamento de carbon del RU. Le Exploitation de gas e oleo del Mar del Nord apportava in substantial taxas e renditas de exportation a adjutar le nove boom economic. Isto esseva etiam le tempore que le IRA prendeva le problema de Irlanda del Nord a Grande Britannia, mantenente un prolongate campania de bombardamento sur le continente britannic. Post le boom economic del annos 1980 un breve ma severe recession occurreva inter 1990 e 1992 sequente le chaos economic de Mercoledi Nigre sub le governamento de John Major, qui habeva succedite Margaret Thatcher in 1990. Totevia le resto del annos 1990 videva le initio de un periodo de continue crescimento economic que durava super 16 annos. Illo esseva expandite sub le assi-clamate governamento de Nove Labor de Tony Blair sequente su catastrophic victoria electoral in 1997. Le Partito Laborista rejuvenate abandonava su commitmento a politicas includente disarmamento nuclear e nationalisation de industrias clave, e nulle reversal del reformas de syndicato ducite per Thatcher. Illo emphasava un appello al votator plus ben educate.<ref>Ben Clift, and Jim Tomlinson, "Credible Keynesianism? New Labour macroeconomic policy and the political economy of coarse tuning." ''British journal of political science'' 37.1 (2007): 47–69 [https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/654/1/WRAP_Clift_credible_keynesianism.pdf online].</ref> Ab 1964 usque a 1996, le rendita per capite habeva dupplate, durante que le proprietate de varie benes de menage habeva significativamente augmentate. Per 1996, duo-tertios de menages possedeva carros, 82% habeva incalfactor central, le majoritate de gente possedeva un VCR, e un in cinque casas habeva un computer de domo.<ref>{{Cite book |title=What Needs To Change: New Visions For Britain |date= 1996 |editor-first=Giles |editor-last=Radice}}</ref> In 1971, 9% de menages habeva nulle accesso a un imbue o bagno, comparate con solmente 1% in 1990; largemente debite a demolition o modernisation de proprietates plus vetule que mancava tal facilititates. In 1971, solmente 35% habeva incalfactor central, durante que 78% joiva iste amenitate in 1990. Per 1990, 93% de menages habeva television de color, 87% habeva telephonos, 86% habeva machinas de lavar, 80% habeva congelatores profunde, 57% habeva registratores de video, e 47% habeva fornos de hyperunda. Le derecto a vacantias habeva etiam devenite plus generose. In 1990, novem ex dece travaliatores manual a tempore plen esseva derectate a plus de quatro septimanas de pagate vacantia un anno, durante que viginti annos previe solmente duo-tertios habeva essite permittite tres septimanas o plus.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Anthony |last=Sampson |title=The Essential Anatomy of Britain: Democracy in Crisis|date=1993}}</ref> Le periodo de post-guerra etiam testimoniava significative melioramentos in conditiones de habitation. In 1960, 14% de menages britannic habeva nulle toletta interne, durante que in 1967 22% de omne casas habeva nulle basic supplimento de aqua calide. Per le annos 1990, le majoritate de casas habeva iste amenitates insimul con incalfactor central.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}} Ab 1996–1997 a 2006–2007, le real median rendita de menage augmentava per 20% durante que le real medie renditas de menage augmentava per 23%. Il ha etiam essite un cambiamento verso un economia basate super servitios in le annos sequente le fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, con 11% de gente de travalio employate in manufactura in 2006, comparate con 25% in 1971. === Mercato Commun (EEC), postea UE, membership === {{Main|Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities|1973 enlargement of the European Communities}} Le desiro de Britannia a junger le Mercato Commun (como le Communitate Economic Europee esseva cognoscite in Britannia) esseva primo exprimite in julio 1961 per le governamento Macmillan. Illo esseva vetate in 1963 per le Presidente Frances Charles de Gaulle.<ref>John Newhouse, ''De Gaulle and the Anglo-Saxons'' (1970), p. 226.</ref> Post initialmente hesitar super le problema, le Governamento Labor de Harold Wilson deponeva le secunde application del RU (in maio 1967) a junger le Communitate. Como le prime, totevia, illo esseva vetate per de Gaulle.<ref>Andrew Moravcsik, "De Gaulle Between Grain and Grandeur: The Political Economy of French EC Policy, 1958–1970 (Part 2)." ''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 2#3 (2000): 4–68. [http://www.princeton.edu/~amoravcs/library/grandeur2.pdf online]</ref> In 1973, con de Gaulle ite, le Prime Ministro Conservator Heath negociava terminos pro admission e Britannia finalmente junegva le Communitate. In opposition le Partito Laborista esseva profundemente dividite, ben que su Chef, Harold Wilson, remaneva in favor. In le Election General de 1974 le manifesto del Partito Laborista includeva un promissa a renegociar terminos pro le membership de Britannia e postea tener un referendum super si remaner in le EC sur le nove terminos. Isto esseva un procedura constitutional sin precedente in le historia britannic. In le subsequente campania de referendum, plus tosto que le normal britannic tradition de "responsibilitate collective", sub le qual le governamento prende un position de politica que omne membros de cabinetto es requirite a supportar publicamente, le membros del Governamento (e le opposition Conservator) esseva libere a presentar lor opiniones sur necun latere del question. Un referendum esseva debitemente tenite sur 5 de Junio 1975, e le proposition a continuar membership esseva passate con un substantial majoritate.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/6/newsid_2499000/2499297.stm 1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum] BBC On This Day</ref> Le Acto Europee Single (SEA) esseva le prime major revision del Tractato de Roma de 1957. In 1987, le governamento Conservator sub Margaret Thatcher enactava lo in le lege del RU.<ref name="closer">{{Cite news |title=Ever closer union? The UK and Europe |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2001/uk_and_europe/1979_1990.stm}}</ref> Le Tractato de Maastricht transformava le Communitate Europee in le Union Europee. In 1992, le governamento Conservator sub John Major ratificava lo, contra le opposition de su rebellos de retrobanco de Maastricht.<ref name=closer/> Le Tractato de Lisbon introduceva multe cambios al tractatos del Union. Le Cambios prominente includeva plus voto de majoritate qualificate in le Consilio del Union Europee, augmentate involvemento del Parlamento Europee in le processo legislative per extendite codiscosion con le Consilio del Ministros, eliminar le systema de pilastros e le creation de un Presidente del Consilio Europee con un termino de duo e medie annos e un Alte Representante del Union pro Affaires Externe e Politica de Securitate pro presentar un unite position super politicas del UE. Le Tractato de Lisbon faceva le carta de derectos human del Union, le Carta de Derectos Fundamental, legalmente ligante. Le Tractato de Lisbon duceva a un augmento in le peso de voto del RU in le Consilio del Union Europee ab 8.4% a 12.4%. In julio 2008, le governamento Labor sub Gordon Brown approbava le tractato e le Regina ratificava lo.<ref>{{Cite news |title=UK ratifies the EU Lisbon Treaty |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7511281.stm}}</ref> === Devolutions pro Scotia e Galles === {{Main|Scottish devolution|Welsh devolution}} Super 11 de Septembre 1997, le 700te anniversario del victoria scotese super le anglese al Battalia de Stirling Bridge, un referendum esseva tenite super establir un devolvite Parlamento Scotese. Isto resultava in un "si" voto overwhelming a establir le parlamento e a dar lo limitate poteres de variar taxas. Un septimana plus tarde, un referendum in Galles super establir un Assemblea Gallese esseva etiam approbate ma con un multo stricte majoritate. Le prime electiones esseva tenite, e iste corpora comenciava a operar in 1999. Le Creation de iste corporas ha allargate le differentias inter le paises del Regno Unite, specialmente in areas como curas de sanitate.<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7586147.stm 'Huge contrasts' in devolved NHS] BBC News, 28 August 2008</ref><ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7149423.stm NHS now four different systems] BBC 2 January 2008</ref> Illo ha etiam apportate al fronte le assi-clamate question de West Lothian que es un planger que le devolution pro Scotia e Galles ma non Anglaterra ha create un situation ubi MP scotese e gallese in le Parlamento del RU pote, in principio, votar super materias interne affectante Anglaterra sol durante que MP anglese ha nulle dicto in materias similar affectante Scotia e Galles. ==Seculo 21== ===Guerra in Afghanistan e Irak=== [[File:Army Air Corps Lynx linking up with RAF regiment vehicle patrol. MOD 45142954.jpg|thumb|Fortias britannic al sud del [[Aeroporto International de Bassora|Aeroporto International Basra]], [[Irak]], novembre 2003]] In le [[Election general del Regno Unite de 2001|Election General de 2001]], le Partito Travalista (Labour Party) ganiava un secunde victoria successive, ben que le participation electoral cadeva al nivello le plus basse depost 80 annos.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2001-06-08 |title=Turnout 'at 80-year low' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/news/vote2001/hi/english/newsid_1376000/1376575.stm |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> Le [[Attentatos del 11 de septembre 2001|attentatos del 11 de septembre]] in le SUA duceva le Presidente [[George W. Bush]] a lancear le [[Guerra contra le terrorismo]], comenciante con le [[Invasion de Afghanistan de 2001|invasion de Afghanistan]] adjutate per truppas britannic in octobre 2001. Postea, con le foco del SUA cambiante a Irak, Tony Blair convinceva le Membros del Parlamento (MPs) travalista e conservator a votar in favor de supportar le [[Invasion de Irak de 2003]], in despecto de enorme marchas anti-guerra in London e Glasgow. Quaranta-sex mille truppas britannic, un tertio del fortia total del fortias terrestre del Armea, esseva displicate pro assister con le invasion e le fortias britannic esseva responsabile pro le securitate in le sud de Irak. Tote le fortias britannic esseva retirate in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Andrew Mumford |title=The Counter-Insurgency Myth: The British experience of irregular warfare |date=2012-08-06 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136649387 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rNE8AjCnd-wC&pg=PT171 171]}}</ref> Le Prime Ministro del Partito Travalista, [[Tony Blair]], ganiava le [[Election general del Regno Unite de 2005|election general britannic de 2005]] e un tertie termino consecutive.<ref>Andrew Geddes and Jonathan Tonge, ''Britain decides: the UK general election 2005'' (2005)</ref> Le 7 de julio 2005, [[Attentatos de London del 7 de julio 2005|un serie de quatro attentatos suicide con bombas]] colpava London, occidente 52 pendulares insimul con le quatro bombas, e ferinte centenas. ===Crisi economic de 2008=== Post le [[Grande Recession]], le economia se contraheva. Le annuncio in 2008 que le economia habeva contractite pro le prime vice depost 1992, terminava 16 annos de crescimento continue. Causas includeva un fin al credito facile, reduction in consumption e depreciation substantial del libra (que cadeva 25% contra le euro inter januario 2008 e januario 2009),<ref>[http://www.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory FXHistory: historical currency exchange rates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720101840/http://oanda.com/convert/fxhistory |date=20 July 2006 }} From €1 => £0.73650 to €1 => 0.9690</ref> ducente a augmentate costos de importation, notabilemente de petroleo. Le 8 de octobre 2008, le [[Governamento britannic]] annunciava un [[Pacchetto de salvamento bancari in le Regno Unite de 2008|pacchetto de salvamento bancari]] de circa £500 milliardos<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 March 2009 |title=Gordon Brown should say 'sorry' |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/gordon-brown/4961897/Gordon-Brown-should-say-sorry-over-economy-minister-says.html |access-date=9 March 2009}}{{Dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{Cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> ($850 milliardos al epocha). Le plano comprehendeva tres partes: £200 milliardos a esser rendite disponibile al bancas in le Special Liquidity Scheme del [[Banca de Anglaterra]]; le Governamento augmentava le capitalisation de mercato del bancas, con un initial £25 milliardos; e le Governamento garantieva tote le prestos eligibile inter bancas britannic usque a circa £250 milliardos. Con le Regno Unite saliente del recession in le quarte trimestre de 2009—terminante sex trimestres consecutive de declino economic—le Banca de Anglaterra decideva contra un [[Quantitative easing|allegerimento quantitative]] additional.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-02-04 |title=Bank of England's time-out for quantitative easing plan |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8496830.stm |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> ===Independentia scotese=== Post le [[Election al Parlamento Scotese de 2007]], le pro-independentia [[Partito National Scotese]] (SNP) ganiava lor prime victoria. Illes formava un [[governamento de minoritate]] con planos de tener un referendum ante 2011 pro cercar un mandato "pro negociar con le Governo del Regno Unite pro attinger le [[independentia pro Scotia]]."<ref>[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/08/13103747/10 Choosing Scotland's Future: A National Conversation: Independence and Responsibility in the Modern World, Annex B Draft Referendum (Scotland) Bill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208053443/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/08/13103747/10 |date=8 February 2015 }} The Scottish Government, Publications</ref> Partitos unionista respondeva per establir le [[Commission Calman]] pro examinar un [[Devolution|devolution]] additional de poteres.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-12-06 |title=MSPs back devolution review body |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7129899.stm |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> Respondente al conclusiones del revista, le governamento del RU publicava un libro blanc in 2009, super nove poteres que esserea transferite al [[Governamento Scotese]], notabilemente super como illo pote levar taxas.<ref name="BBC25Nov09NewPowersAfterCalman">{{Cite news |date=25 November 2009 |title=New Holyrood powers planned after Calman review |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/8377028.stm |url-status=live |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125052202/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/8377028.stm |archive-date=25 November 2009}}</ref> Iste propositiones formarea ultimemente le base del [[Acto de Scotia de 2012]]. [[File:Scottish independence rally 2018 Largs.jpg|thumb|Marcha pro-independentia in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotia]] in maio 2018]] Le [[Election al Parlamento Scotese de 2011|election de 2011]] videva un victoria decisive pro le SNP que esseva capace a formar un governamento de majoritate intendente a realisar un referendum super le independentia.<ref>{{Citation |last=A. Black |title=Scottish election: SNP profile |date=18 May 2011 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-13315752 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520031327/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-13315752 |archive-date=20 May 2011 |url-status=live}}.</ref> Le Prime Ministro David Cameron garantieva que le governamento del RU non interponerrea ulle obstaculos legal o politic in le via de tal referendum.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carrell |first=Severin |date=2011-05-07 |title=Scottish independence: Cameron gives green light to referendum |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2011/may/08/cameron-green-light-scottish-referendum |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=The Observer |language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> Le 18 de septembre 2014, [[Referendum super le independentia scotese de 2014|un referendum esseva tenite in Scotia]] super le question de si lassar le RU. Le tres partitos politic de toto le RU—Labour, Conservative e Liberal Democrates—faceva campania insimul como parte del campania [[Better Together (campania)|Better Together]] durante que le pro-independentia Partito National Scotese esseva le fortia principal in le campania [[Yes Scotland]]. Dies ante le voto, con le sondages de opinion claudente, le tres chefes del partito Better Together publicava [[Commission Smith|'Le Voto']], un promissa de plus de poteres pro Scotia in caso de un voto No. Le referendum resultava in Scotia votante 55% a 45% pro remaner parte del RU. Le [[Prime Ministro de Scotia]] [[Alex Salmond]] resignava, succedite per [[Nicola Sturgeon]]. Advocante pro [[Referendum super le independentia scotese de 2014#Referendum future proponite|un secunde referendum]], illa ducerrea le SNP al victoria in le electiones [[Election al Parlamento Scotese de 2016|2016]] e [[Election al Parlamento Scotese de 2021|2021]]. ===Governamento de coalition de 2010=== Le [[Election general del Regno Unite de 2010|election general de 2010]] resultava in le prime [[parlamento sin majoritate absolute]] depost 1974, con le Partito Conservative ganiante le plus grande numero de sedes, ma non attingente le 326 requirite pro un majoritate. Le Conservatores e [[Liberal Democrats (RU)|Liberal Democrates]] accordava de formar le prime [[Coalition Cameron–Clegg|governamento de coalition]] pro le RU depost le Secunde Guerra Mundial, con [[David Cameron]] deveniente Prime Ministro e [[Nick Clegg]] Vice-Prime Ministro.<ref>Nicholas Allen and John Bartle, eds. ''Britain at the Polls 2010'' (2010) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1849208468 excerpt and text search]</ref> [[Royal Air Force|Aeroplanos militar britannic]] participava in le [[Intervention militar de 2011 in Libya|intervention]] mandatate per le ONU in le [[Guerra civil libyc de 2011]], effectuate 3,000 [[sortita]]s aeree contra fortias leal al dictator [[Muammar Gaddafi]].<ref>[http://www.raf.mod.uk/news/Libya-OpELLAMY.cfm RAF.mod.uk – Operation Ellamy] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029010050/http://www.raf.mod.uk/news/Libya-OpELLAMY.cfm |date=29 October 2011 }}. Retrieved 20 October 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-10-28 |title=UK military starting Libya return |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15502414 |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> 2011 vide Anglaterra suffrer [[Tumultos in Anglaterra de 2011|tumultos sin precedente]] in su major citates in augusto, occidente cinque e causante £200m de damnos.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Insurance Industry welcomes Prime Minister's Compensation Scheme announcement and pledges help to make the scheme work |url=http://www.abi.org.uk/Media/Releases/2011/08/UK__Insurance_Industry_welcomes_Prime_Ministers_Compensation_Scheme_announcement_and_pledges_help_to_make_the_scheme_work_.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301213043/http://www.abi.org.uk/Media/Releases/2011/08/UK__Insurance_Industry_welcomes_Prime_Ministers_Compensation_Scheme_announcement_and_pledges_help_to_make_the_scheme_work_.aspx |archive-date=1 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2011 |publisher=Association of British Insurers |accessdate=14 November 2025 |archivedate=1 March 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301213043/http://www.abi.org.uk/Media/Releases/2011/08/UK__Insurance_Industry_welcomes_Prime_Ministers_Compensation_Scheme_announcement_and_pledges_help_to_make_the_scheme_work_.aspx }}</ref> In octobre 2011, le [[Meeting del Chefes de Governo del Commonwealth de 2011|prime ministros]] del [[Regno del Commonwealth]] votava pro conceder equalitate de genere in le [[Succession al throno britannic#Linea actual de succession|succession regal]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2011 |title=Royal succession gender equality approved by Commonwealth |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/oct/28/royal-succession-gender-equality-approved |website=The Guardian}}</ref> Le emendamento terminava le ban super le monarcha sposante un catholic.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ncronline.org/news/global/commonwealth-lift-law-banning-monarchs-marrying-catholics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031160015/http://ncronline.org/news/global/commonwealth-lift-law-banning-monarchs-marrying-catholics |date=31 October 2011 |website=[[National Catholic Reporter]] |archive-date=31 October 2011 |title=British monarchs can soon marry Catholics |accessdate=14 November 2025 |archivedate=31 October 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031160015/http://ncronline.org/news/global/commonwealth-lift-law-banning-monarchs-marrying-catholics }}</ref> ===Election de 2015=== Le [[Election general del Regno Unite de 2015|election de 2015]] esseva tenite le 7 de maio con sondages prediciente un parlamento sin majoritate absolute. Le resultato surprendente esseva un nette victoria per le Partito Conservative: con 37% del voto popular, illes ganiava un stricte majoritate in parlamento con 331 del 650 sedes. Le altere resultato le plus significative esseva le [[Partito National Scotese]] ganiante tote excepte tres del 59 sedes in Scotia. Isto esseva a causa de un augmento in supporto post le referendum de independentia de 2014, e le membros del partito SNP habeva quadruplate a plus de 100,000, significante que 1 de cata 50 del population de Scotia esseva un membro.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 March 2015 |title=SNP boost as membership soars past 100k mark |work=Glasgow Herald |publisher=Newsquest |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/politics/scottish-politics/snp-boost-as-membership-soars-past-100k-mark.1427009904 |access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref> Labour suffreva su pejor disfatta depost 1987, prendente solmente 31% del votos e perdente 40 de su 41 sedes in Scotia. Le [[Liberal Democrats (RU)|Liberal Democrates]] perdeva 49 de lor 57 sedes, essente punite pro lor decision de formar un coalition con le conservatores. Le [[UK Independence Party]] (UKIP), colligente votatores contra le UE e le immigration sin controlo, assecurava 13%, ma ganiava solmente un sede.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-05-07 |title=Election results: Conservatives win majority |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2015-32633099 |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Cameron habeva un mandato pro su politicas de austeritate pro reducer le dimension del governamento, e un defia in tractar con Scotia.<ref>Adam Taylor, "4 ways the British elections have changed everything", [https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/05/08/4-ways-the-british-elections-have-changed-everything/?hpid=z1 ''Washington Post'' 8 May 2015]</ref> Similmente le Partito Verde videva un augmento in supporto ma reteneva justo su un sede. ===Referendum super le membresia del UE de 2016=== {{Main|Referendum super le membresia del Regno Unite in le Union Europee de 2016|Britain Stronger in Europe|Vote Leave|Brexit}} [[File:Birmingham Bin-Brexit rally for the Conservative Party conference, September 30, 2018 10.jpg|thumb|Un demonstration pro-UE in Birmingham in septembre 2018]] In februario 2016, le Prime Ministro Cameron annunciava que un referendum super le membresia del RU in le Union Europee esserea tenite le 23 de junio 2016, post annos de campania per [[euroscepticos]]. Campanias per partitos supportante e "Remaner" ([[Britain Stronger in Europe]]) e "Lassar" ([[Vote Leave]]) se focalisava super preoccupationes concernente le commercio e le [[Mercato Unic Europee|mercato unic europee]], securitate, migration e soveranitate. Le resultato del referendum esseva in favor del pais lassante le UE con 52% del votatores volente lassar.<ref name="NYTEUBrexit">{{Cite news |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=23 June 2016 |title=Britain Votes to Leave E.U., Stunning the World |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/britain-brexit-european-union-referendum.html |access-date=24 June 2016 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Cameron resignava, con [[Theresa May]] succedente le como Prime Ministro. Le RU remaneva un membro del UE, ma invocava le Articulo 50 del [[Tractato de Lisbona]] in martio 2017. Isto initiava negotiationes super un accordo de retirada, ante un exito del UE ([[Brexit]]) intendite pro martio 2019 ma plus tarde extendite,<ref name="BBCEUBrexit">{{Cite news |date=24 June 2016 |title=EU Brexit referendum: UK 'must not delay leaving' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-36618317 |access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> a comenciamento de 2020.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Mark|last1=Landler|first2=Stephen|last2=Castle|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4?ocid=spartanntp|title=Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: 'Brexit Will Happen'|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York City|via=[[MSN]]|date=12 December 2019|access-date=12 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213060550/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4%3Focid%3Dspartanntp|archive-date=13 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Durante le referendum de 2016, [[Boris Johnson]] deveniva un principal proponente de [[Vote Leave]].<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/21/eu-debate-boris-johnson-vs-sadiq-khan-in-final-bbc-showdown-with "EU debate: Boris Johnson says Brexit will be 'Britain's independence day' as Ruth Davidson attacks 'lies' of Leave campaign in front of 6,000-strong Wembley audience" ''The Telegraph'' 21 June 2016]</ref> In 2019, Johnson esseva Prime Ministro e fortiava pro un exito le 31 de octobre 2019. Le opponentes advertiva de tumulto. Le commentor [[Jonathan Freedland]] argumentava in estate 2019 que Britannia esseva, "in le grip de un populismo que calca le normas e restrictiones del democratia liberal, que contempla un acto collective de auto-damno sin precedente, que se prepara pro disruption, penurias, mesmo disordine civil incognoscite in tempore de pace. Isto non es le consequentia de un guerra inevitabile o un disastro natural impreviste, ma es totalmente del proprie creation del pais."<ref>Jonathan Freedland, "Fools Rush Out", ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' 66#14 (26 September 2019), pp. 30–35, quoting p 35.</ref> ===Pandemia de COVID-19=== {{Main|Historia del pandemia de COVID-19 in le Regno Unite}} COVID esseva confirmate de propagar in le RU al fin de januario 2020<ref name="Ball31Jan2020">{{Cite news |last1=Ball |first1=Tom |last2=Wace |first2=Charlotte |date=31 January 2020 |title=Hunt for contacts of coronavirus-stricken pair in York |work=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/healthcare/article/hunt-for-contacts-of-coronavirus-stricken-pair-in-york-dh363qf8k |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204105559/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/hunt-for-contacts-of-coronavirus-stricken-pair-in-york-dh363qf8k |archive-date=4 February 2020 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref> con le prime mortes confirmate in martio.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-03-07 |title=Coronavirus: Man in 80s is second person to die of virus in UK |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-51771815 |access-date=2021-10-15}}</ref> Le pais esseva initialmente lente in le implementation de restrictiones.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Yong |first=Ed |date=16 March 2020 |title=The U.K.'s Coronavirus 'Herd Immunity' Debacle |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/03/coronavirus-pandemic-herd-immunity-uk-boris-johnson/608065/ |access-date=5 July 2021 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-05-26 |title=Coronavirus: Sports events in March 'caused increased suffering and death' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-52797002 |access-date=2021-10-15}}</ref> Analyse epidemiologic subsequente monstrava que plus de 1000 lineages de SARS-CoV-2 entrava le RU a comenciamento de 2020 ab viagiatores international, le majoritate ab [[Pandemia de COVID-19 in Europa|epidemias alterubi in Europa]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=du Plessis |first1=Louis |last2=McCrone |first2=John T. |last3=Zarebski |first3=Alexander E. |last4=Hill |first4=Verity |last5=Ruis |first5=Christopher |last6=Gutierrez |first6=Bernardo |last7=Raghwani |first7=Jayna |last8=Ashworth |first8=Jordan |last9=Colquhoun |first9=Rachel |last10=Connor |first10=Thomas R. |last11=Faria |first11=Nuno R. |date=2021-02-12 |title=Establishment and lineage dynamics of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in the UK |url=https://archive.org/details/science_2021-02-12_371_6530/page/708 |journal=Science |volume=371 |issue=6530 |pages=708–712 |bibcode=2021Sci...371..708D |doi=10.1126/science.abf2946 |pmc=7877493 |pmid=33419936}}</ref> Un reclusion legalmente obligatori esseva introducite le 23 de martio.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=23 March 2020 |title=Boris Johnson orders three-week lockdown of UK to tackle coronavirus spread |url=https://www.itv.com/news/2020-03-23/boris-johnson-downing-street-coronavirus-update/ |access-date=23 March 2020 |website=ITV News}}</ref> Restrictiones esseva alleviate in le fin del primavera.<ref name="gov20200510">{{Cite web |title=PM address to the nation on coronavirus: 10 May 2020 |date=10 May 2020 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-address-to-the-nation-on-coronavirus-10-may-2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2020 |title=Queues form as doors open for retail return |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-53210774 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> Le epidemia del RU a comenciamento de 2020 esseva un del plus grande e plus mortal mundialmente.<ref name=":2" /> [[File:Leicester coronavirus stay at home sign, Oxford street.jpg|thumb|Signo incoragiante le publico a [[Ordine de reclusion|restar a casa]] e evitar viages non essential in [[Leicester]], januario 2021]] Per le autumno, casos esseva de nove in augmento.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Covid updates: UK records highest daily Covid deaths since 1 July |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-54336494 |access-date=2 October 2020 |website=BBC News |language=en-gb}}</ref> Isto duceva al creation de nove regulationes insimul con reclusiones local, in locationes geographic plus specific que le quatro nationes del RU.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |date=18 September 2020 |title=Covid: New restrictions in North West, Midlands, and West Yorkshire |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-54194804 |access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=22 September 2020 |title=Pubs in England to close at 10pm amid Covid spread |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-54242634 |access-date=25 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-09-21 |title=Covid: Ban on meeting in houses extended across Scotland |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-54159291 |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Reclusiones occurreva in Galles, Anglaterra e Irlanda del Nord plus tarde in ille saison.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 October 2020 |title=Schools to close and tight new hospitality rules in Northern Ireland |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-54533643 |access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 October 2020 |title=Covid: Wales to go into 'firebreak' lockdown from Friday |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-54598136 |access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-10-31 |title=Covid-19: PM announces four-week England lockdown |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-54763956 |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="nervtag">{{Cite web |last=New and Emerging Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory Group |date=18 December 2020 |title=NERVTAG meeting on SARS-CoV-2 variant under investigation: VUI-202012/01 |url=https://khub.net/documents/135939561/338928724/SARS-CoV-2+variant+under+investigation%2C+meeting+minutes.pdf/962e866b-161f-2fd5-1030-32b6ab467896?t=1608470511452}}</ref> Post le levamento del restrictiones, un nove variante se propagava rapidemente trans le RU.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Kraemer |first1=Moritz U. G. |last2=Hill |first2=Verity |last3=Ruis |first3=Christopher |last4=Dellicour |first4=Simon |last5=Bajaj |first5=Sumali |last6=McCrone |first6=John T. |last7=Baele |first7=Guy |last8=Parag |first8=Kris V. |last9=Battle |first9=Anya Lindström |last10=Gutierrez |first10=Bernardo |last11=Jackson |first11=Ben |last12=Colquhoun |first12=Rachel |last13=O'Toole |first13=Aine |last14=Klein |first14=Brennan |last15=Vespignani |first15=Alessandro |date=2021-08-20 |title=Spatiotemporal invasion dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.1.7 emergence |url=https://archive.org/details/science_2021-08-20_373_6557/page/889 |journal=Science |volume=373 |issue=6557 |pages=889–895 |bibcode=2021Sci...373..889K |doi=10.1126/science.abj0113 |pmc=9269003 |pmid=34301854 |last16=Volz |first16=Erik |last17=Faria |first17=Nuno |last18=Aanensen |first18=David |last19=Loman |first19=Nicholas |last20=du Plessis |first20=Louis |last21=Cauchemez |first21=Simon |last22=Rambaut |first22=Andrew |last23=Scarpino |first23=Samuel |last24=Pybus |first24=Oliver |s2cid=236209853}}</ref> Le NHS habeva suffrite un tension sever per le fin de decembre.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 January 2021 |title=Covid: 'Nail-biting' weeks ahead for NHS, hospitals in England warn |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55505722 |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=Denis |date=27 December 2020 |title=Hospitals in England told to free up all possible beds for surging Covid cases |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/dec/27/hospitals-in-england-told-to-free-up-all-possible-beds-for-surging-covid-cases |access-date=1 January 2021 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 December 2020 |title=Covid rule-breakers 'have blood on their hands' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55479018 |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref> Isto duceva a un striction del restrictiones.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 January 2021 |title=Covid in Scotland: Scots ordered to stay at home in new lockdown |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-55531069 |access-date=4 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 January 2021 |title=Covid: New lockdown for England amid 'hardest weeks' |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-55538937 |access-date=4 January 2021}}</ref> Le prime vaccino esseva approbate e comenciava su dissemination in le RU in decembre 2020.<ref name="bbc1vax2">{{Cite news |date=3 December 2020 |title=Covid: First batch of vaccines arrives in the UK |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55181665 |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=8 December 2020 |title=Covid-19 vaccine: First person receives Pfizer jab in UK |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-55227325 |access-date=8 December 2020}}</ref> 15 milliones de doses de vaccino habeva essite date a predominantemente illes le plus vulnerabile per le medio de februario.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 February 2021 |title=Covid: Vaccine given to 15 million in UK as PM hails 'extraordinary feat' |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-56062976 |access-date=14 February 2021}}</ref> 6 menses plus tarde plus de 75% del adultos in le RU esseva totalmente vaccinate contra COVID.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 August 2021 |title=Covid-19: More than 75% of UK adults now double-jabbed |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-58162318 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> Restrictiones comenciava a esser alleviate del fin de februario e quasi tote habeva finite in Britannia per augusto.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-02-23 |title=What's the roadmap for lifting lockdown? – BBC News |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/explainers-52530518 |access-date=2021-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223083856/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/explainers-52530518 |archive-date=23 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-07-19 |title=19 July: England Covid restrictions ease as PM urges caution |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-57882029 |access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 August 2021 |title=Covid: Pubs busy as most rules end in Wales |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-58086808 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2021 |title=Covid in Scotland: 'Right moment' to lift restrictions, says Sturgeon |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-58136277 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> Le vaccination in massa continuava a mantener mortes e hospitalisationes a nivellos multo plus basse que in undas anterior.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-07-05 |title=Covid: Most rules set to end in England, says PM |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-57725523 |access-date=2021-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-02 |title='We are a petri dish': world watches UK's race between vaccine and virus |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/02/we-are-a-petri-dish-world-watches-uks-race-between-vaccine-and-virus |access-date=2021-10-15 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> ===Crises governamental e Ministerio Sunak (2022–2024)=== {{Main|Prime Ministeriato de Boris Johnson|Prime Ministeriato de Liz Truss}} In 2022, le governamento del RU affrontava multiple crises. Le scandalo [[Partygate]], que implicava violationes de regulas de reclusion per officiales governamental, duceva a multas, includente pro le Prime Ministro [[Boris Johnson]] e [[Rishi Sunak]]. Johnson affrontava appellos a resignar, e post le [[Scandalo Chris Pincher]], ille dimitteva in julio 2022. [[Liz Truss]] succedeva Johnson ma su governamento tosto incontrava turbation. Su [[Mini-budget del Regno Unite de septembre 2022|mini-budget de septembre]] provocava instabilitate de mercato, ducente al dismissal de [[Kwasi Kwarteng]] e le resignation de Truss in octobre. Rishi Sunak deveniva le prime Prime Ministro [[Britannic asiatic|asiatic]] le 25 de octobre 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jeremy Hunt Replaces Kwasi Kwarteng As Chancellor In Day Of Government Chaos |url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/article/jeremy-hunt-replaces-kwasi-kwarteng-as-chancellor-in-day-of-government-chaos |work=Politics Home |date=14 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Liz Truss resignation: The full statement |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/uk-pm-liz-truss-resigns-2022-10-20/ |work=Reuters |date=20 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Desouza |first=Danielle |date=2024-07-08 |title='Monumental': British Indians reflect on Rishi Sunak as UK's first Asian PM |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/rishi-sunak-conservative-london-prime-minister-indian-b2575080.html |work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> Su prime ministeriato videva evalutationes de approbation historicamente basse pro le Partito Conservative, pollante consistentemente sub le Partito Travalista sub le nove chef [[Keir Starmer]], vidite como un moderate comparate a su predecessor socialista [[Jeremy Corbyn]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is the Labour Party moderate or extreme? |url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/trackers/is-the-labour-party-moderate-or-extreme |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=yougov.co.uk |language=en-gb}}</ref> Le Conservatores perdeva votos a [[Reform UK]], un partito populista de derecta stricte super immigration, contribuente a lor pejor performance electoral in historia. ===Governamento Travalista (2024–presente)=== Le 4 de julio 2024, le Partito Travalista (Labour Party) ganiava un victoria in [[Election general del Regno Unite de 2024|election general]] post 14 annos de governamento Conservative, significante que le chef del Partito Travalista [[Keir Starmer]] deveniva le nove prime ministro de Britannia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Who is Keir Starmer, the Labour leader favored to win Britain's July 4 election? |url=https://apnews.com/article/uk-labour-leader-keir-starmer-profile-dc40877586d32b903e4ecdb7e397f803 |work=AP News |date=27 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref> Post le [[Accoltellamento de Southport de 2024|accoltellamento mortal de tres juvene feminas in Southport]], misinformation se propagava falsemente accusante le perpetrator de esser un musulman, provocante le [[Tumultos del Regno Unite de 2024]] como un contrariamento contra [[Immigration al Regno Unite|le immigration al RU]] in general, specialmente de paises islamic. == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} {{Historia de Europa per pais}} [[Categoria:Historia de Regno Unite]] a5pnd052ykei7vcyceg3rainue909g1 0 60066 698258 692413 2026-08-03T23:46:24Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698258 wikitext text/x-wiki Le territorio hodie cognoscite como [[Anglaterra]] esseva habitate plus de {{formatnum:800000}} annos retro, como le discoperta de utensiles de petra e de vestigios de passos a [[Happisburgh]] in Norfolk ha indicate.<ref name=alexburg>{{cite news|last=Sample|first=Ian|language=en|title=First humans arrived in Britain 250,000 years earlier than thought|trans-title=Le prime humanos arrivava in Britannia 250.000 annos plus tosto que pensate|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jul/07/first-humans-britain-stone-tools|access-date=29 January 2014|newspaper= The Guardian|date= 7 July 2010|postscript=none}}; {{cite news|last=Wade|first=Nicholas|language=en|title=Clues of Britain’s First Humans|trans-title=Indicios del prime humanos in Britannia|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/science/08flint.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/science/08flint.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|access-date=22 December 2011|newspaper=The New York Times|date=7 July 2010|postscript=none}}; [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26025763 "Le plus ancian vestigios de passos foras de Africa discoperite in Norfolk"]. (2014). BBC News. Recuperate le 7 februario 2014.</ref> Le plus ancian evidentia de humanos moderne in [[Europa]] del nord-west, un [[maxilla]] discoperite in Devon a [[Kents Cavern]] in 1927, esseva re-datate in 2011 a inter {{formatnum:41000}} e {{formatnum:44000}} annos de etate.<ref>{{cite web|language=en|title=Jawbone is earliest evidence of modern humans in NW Europe|trans-title=Maxilla es le plus ancian evidentia de humanos moderne in NW Europa|date=2 November 2011 |url=https://earthsky.org/human-world/jawbone-is-earliest-evidence-of-modern-humans-in-europe/|access-date=2025-12-31}}</ref> Le habitation human continue in Anglaterra data de circa {{formatnum|13000}} annos retro (le [[cultura de Creswell]]), al fin del ultime periodo del [[Pleistoceno|Era Glacial]]. Le region ha numerose restos del [[Mesolithico]], [[Neolithico]] e [[Etate del bronzo]], como [[Stonehenge]] e [[Avebury]]. In le [[Etate del ferro]], tote Britannia al sud del [[Firth of Forth]] esseva habitate per le populos [[Celtas|celtic]] cognoscite como le [[britannos]], includente alcun tribos [[Belgas|belgic]] (p.ex. le [[Atrebates]], le [[Catuvellauni]], le [[Trinovantes]], etc.) in le sud-est. In AD 43 comenciava le [[conquesta roman de Britannia]]; le [[Roma antique|romanos]] manteneva le controlo de lor provincia Britannia usque al initio del [[seculo 5]]. {{Revision|articulo (post iste puncto)}} Le [[fin del governamento roman in Britannia]] facilitava le [[Colonisation anglo-saxon de Britannia]], que le historicos sovente considera como le origine de Anglaterra e del [[Populo anglese]]. Le [[Anglo-Saxones]], un collection de varie [[Populos germanic]], establiva plure regnos que deveniva le potentias principal in le Anglaterra contemporanee e partes del sud de [[Scotia]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/saxons.shtml Le Anglo-Saxones], BBC – Historia</ref> Illes introduceva le lingua [[Anglese Antique]], que in grande parte displaciava le previe [[Brittonic Commun|lingua britannic]]. Le Anglo-Saxones guerrevava contra states successional britannic in Britannia occidental e in le ''[[Hen Ogledd]]'' (Vetule Nord; le partes britannic-parlante de Britannia septentrional), e etiam inter si. Attaccos per [[Vikingos]] deveniva frequente post circa AD 800, e le [[Norse|Nordicos]] se stabiliva in grande partes del territorio que es hodie Anglaterra. Durante iste periodo, plure reges tentava unir le varie regnos anglo-saxonic, un effortio que resultava in le emergentia del [[Regno de Anglaterra]] in le 10e seculo. In 1066, un [[Conquesta normanne de Anglaterra|expedition normanne invadiva e conquistava Anglaterra]]. Le [[Casa de Normandia|dynastia normanne]], establite per [[Guillaume le Conquistator]], regiva Anglaterra per plus que medie seculo ante le periodo de crise de succession cognoscite como [[le Anarchia]] (1135–1154). Post le Anarchia, Anglaterra cadeva sub le governamento del [[Casa de Plantagenet]], un dynastia que plus tarde hereditava revendicationes al [[Regno de Francia]]. Durante iste periodo, le [[Magna Carta]] esseva signate e le Parlamento deveniva establite. Le antisemitismo cresceva enormemente, e in 1290, Anglaterra deveniva le prime pais a [[Edicto de Expulsion|expeller permanentemente le judeos]].{{sfn|Roth|1964|p=90}}<ref>{{cite book |first1=Colin |last1=Richmond |author1-link=Colin Richmond |editor1-last=Kushner |editor1-first=Tony |title=Le Hereditage Judee in Historia Britannic |date=1992 |publisher=Frank Cass |isbn=0-7146-3464-6 |pages=42–59 |chapter=Anglitate e Judaismo Medieval Anglese}}</ref>{{rp|44–45}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Skinner |first1=Patricia |editor1-last=Skinner |editor1-first=Patricia |title=Judeos in Britannia Medieval |date=2003 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |isbn=0-85115-931-1 |pages=1–11 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>{{rp|1}}{{sfn|Huscroft|2006|p=12}} Un crise de succession in Francia conduceva al [[Guerra de Cento Annos]] (1337–1453), un serie de conflictos inter le populos de ambe nationes. Post le Guerras de Cento Annos, Anglaterra se trovava implicate in su proprie guerras de succession inter le descendentes del cinque filios de [[Eduardo III de Anglaterra]]. Le [[Guerras del Rosas]] eruptava in 1455 e opponeva le descendentes del secunde filio (per un linea feminine) [[Lionel de Antwerp, Duce de Clarence|Lionel de Antwerp]], cognoscite como le [[Casa de York]], contra le [[Casa de Lancaster]], que descendeva del tertie filio [[John de Gaunt]] e su filio Henrico IV, qui habeva deponite su cousin [[Ricardo II de Anglaterra|Ricardo II]] (le sol superviente filio del primogenito de Eduardo III, [[Eduardo le Prince Nigre]]) in 1399. In 1485, le guerra terminava quando le lancastrian [[Henrico VII de Anglaterra|Henrico Tudor]] emergeva victoriose in le [[Battalia de Bosworth Field]] e se maritava con le senior descendente feminin de York, [[Elisabeth de York]], uniente [[Casa de Tudor|le duo casas]]. Sub le Tudores e plus tarde le [[Dynastia Stuart]], Anglaterra deveniva un potentia colonial. Durante le regno del Stuarts, le [[Guerra Civil Anglese]] habeva loco inter le Parlamentarios e le Royalistas, resultante in le [[Execution de Carlo I|execution]] de [[Carlo I de Anglaterra|Re Carlo I]] (1649) e le establishmento de un serie de governamentos republicane—prime, un republica parlamentar cognoscite como le [[Communitate de Anglaterra]] (1649–1653), postea un dictatura militar sub [[Oliver Cromwell]] cognoscite como [[le Protectorato]] (1653–1659). Le Stuarts retornava al throno restaurate in 1660, ben que continuante questiones super religion e potestate resultava in le deposition de un altere rege Stuart, [[Jacobo II de Anglaterra|Jacobo II]], durante le [[Revolution Gloriose]] (1688). Anglaterra, que habeva integrate Cambria in le 16e seculo sub [[Henrico VIII]], se univa con Scotia in 1707 pro formar un nove stato sovereign appellate [[Regno de Grande Britannia|Grande Britannia]].<ref>[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/uniting.htm Unir le regno?] nationalarchives.gov.uk, accessite le 2 July 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/scotlandshistory/unioncrownsparliaments/unionofparliaments/index.asp Le Union del Parlaments 1707] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120102060414/http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/scotlandshistory/unioncrownsparliaments/unionofparliaments/index.asp |date=2 January 2012 }} [[Learning and Teaching Scotland]], accessite le 2 July 2011</ref><ref>Union con Anglaterra Acto 1707, Articulo II</ref> Post le [[Revolution Industrial]], que comenciava in Anglaterra, Grande Britannia governava un colonial [[Imperio Britannic|Imperio]], le plus grande in historia registrate. Post un processo de [[decolonisation]] in le 20e seculo, principalemente causate per le debilitamento del potentia britannic in le duo guerras mundial, quasi tote le territorios ultramar del imperio deveniva paises independente. ==Prehistoria== {{AP|Britannia Prehistoric}} ===Etate de Petro=== {{AP|Insulas Britannic Neolithic}} [[File:Stonehenge Closeup.jpg|thumb|[[Stonehenge]], erigite in plure phases ab c.3000–2500 aEC]] Le periodo ab le prime habitation de Britannia usque al [[Ultime Maximo Glacial]] es cognoscite como le Vetule Etate de Petro, o era [[Paleolithic|paleolithic]]. Evidentias archeologic indica que le territorio que devenirea Anglaterra esseva colonisate per humanos multo ante le resto del Insulas Britannic, a causa de su clima plus hospital inter e durante le varie [[Periodo glacial|periodos glacial]] del distant passato. Iste prime evidentias, ab Happisburgh in Norfolk, include le plus ancian artefactos de hominidos trovate in Britannia, e indica datas de plus que 800.000 annos [[Before Present|RCYBP]].<ref name="alexburg"/> Iste prime habitantes esseva [[cazator-collectores]]. Bassos nivellos de mar significava que Britannia esseva connectite al continente durante multo de iste prime periodo historic, e temperaturas variant super dezenas de milles de annos significava que illo non sempre esseva habitabile.<ref name="Francis Pryor 2003">Francis Pryor, ''Britannia BC'', 2003.</ref> [[File:Silbury 1.jpg|thumb|[[Colle Silbury]], c. 2400 aEC]] Anglaterra ha essite continuemente habitabile desde le fin del ultime Etate Glacial circa 9000 aEC, le comenciamento del Etate de Petro Medie, o era [[Mesolithic|mesolithic]]. Le crescentia del nivello del mar separava Britannia del continente pro le ultime vice circa 6500 aEC. Le population a ille tempore, como in le resto del mundo, consisteva exclusivemente de [[humanos anatomicamente moderne]], e le evidentia suggere que lor societates deveniva progressivemente plus complexe e que illes manipulava lor ambiente e lor predas in nove manieras, possibilmente per combustion selectiv del silvas, alora omnipresente, pro crear claritates ubi manadas pote reunir e esser huntate. Le caccia esseva principalmente facite con armas projectile simple como le [[javelin|javelin]] e possibilmente le [[sling (weapon)|funda]]. Le [[arc e flecha]] esseva cognoscite in Europa Occidental desde al minus 9000 aEC. Le clima continuava a calidar e le population probabilemente cresceva.<ref>V Gaffney, S Fitch and D Smith 2009, ''Europe's Lost World: The Rediscovery of Doggerland''.</ref> Le Nove Etate de Petro, o era [[Insulas Britannic Neolithic|neolithic]], comenciava con le introduction del agricultura, ultimemente ab le Medio Oriente, circa 4000 aEC. Un studio de 2019 trovava que le [[Agricultores Europee Precoce|agricultores neolithic del Insulas Britannic]] habeva entrate in le region per un [[Migration human pre-modern|migration de massa]] circa 4100 aEC. Illes esseva intimemente relationate al populos neolithic del Iberia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brace |first1=Selina |last2=Diekmann |first2=Yoan |display-authors=1 |date=15 April 2019 |title=Genomas ancian indica substitution de population in le Neolithic Precoce de Britannia |journal=[[Ecologia e Evolution de Natura]] |publisher=[[Recerca de Natura]] |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=765–771|doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9 |pmid=30988490 |pmc=6520225 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..765B }}</ref> Le gente comenciava a viver un stilo de vita plus stabile. Monumental tumbas collective esseva construite pro le mortos in forma de cairns a camera e tumulos longe. Verso le fin de iste periodo, altere typos de alliniamentos de petra monumental comenciava a apparer, como [[Stonehenge]]; lor alliniamentos cosmic monstra un preoccupation con le celo e planetas. Le technologia de silice produceva un numero de pecias altamente artistic, assi como purmente practic. Plus extensive claration de silva esseva facite pro campos e pasturas. Le [[Track Sweet]] in le [[Nivellos de Somerset]] es un del plus ancian [[Strata de ligno|vias de ligno]] cognoscite in Europa Septentrional e inter le plus ancian stratas in le mundo, datate per [[dendrochronologia]] al hiberno de 3807–3806 aEC; on pensa que illo esseva primarimente un structura religiose.<ref name="Francis Pryor 2003"/> Evidentias archeologic de [[North Yorkshire]] indica que sal esseva producite ibi durante le Neolithic.<ref>{{Cite web|date=31 March 2021|title=Como un nove discoperimento archeologic in Yorkshire pote re-scriber le prehistoria britannic|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/yorkshire-salt-archaeology-neolithic-britain-b1824440.html|access-date=19 April 2021|website=The Independent|language=en}}</ref> ===Prehistoria Tardive=== {{Main article|Cultura del Vaso Campaniforme|Etate del bronzo Britannic|Etate del ferro Britannic}} ====Etate del bronzo==== [[File:Bush Barrow.jpg|thumb|Artefactos de [[Bush Barrow]] a Stonehenge. [[Cultura de Wessex]], initio del [[Etate del bronzo]], {{circa|1900 aEC}}]] Le [[Etate del bronzo]] comenciava circa 2500 aEC con le apparentia de objectos de bronzo. Isto coincide con le apparientia del characteristic [[Cultura del Vaso Campaniforme]], sequente migration de nove populos ab le continente. Secundo Olalde et al. (2018), post 2500 aEC le population neolithic de Britannia esseva in grande parte reimplaciate per iste nove population del Vaso Campaniforme, que esseva geneticamente relationate al [[Cultura del Ceramica Cordate]] de Europa central e oriental e al [[Cultura Yamnaya]] del [[Steppa Pontic-Caspic]] de Europa oriental.<ref>Olalde et al. (2018), [https://www.nature.com/articles/nature25738 ''Le phenomene del Vaso Campaniforme e le transformation genomic de Europa nord-occidental''], Natura</ref><ref>The Guardian, [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/feb/21/arrival-of-beaker-folk-changed-britain-forever-ancient-dna-study-shows ''Le arrivata del populo del Vaso Campaniforme cambiava Britannia pro sempre, como monstra un studio de DNA ancian'']</ref> Ben que le migration de istes populos Campaniforme debe haber essite accompaniate per un cambio linguistic, le linguas celtic esseva probabilemente introducite per migrationes celtic posterior.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-43115485 | title=Britannos ancian 'reimplaciate' per nove arrivantes| work=BBC News| date=21 February 2018| last1=Rincon| first1=Paul}}</ref> Le Etate del bronzo videva un transition del emphase del communal al individual, e le ascension de elites sempre plus potente, cuje poter veniva de lor habilitate como cazatores e guerreros e de lor controlo del fluxo de recursos precios pro manipular stanne e cupro in objectos de bronzo de alte stato como espadas e hachas. Le asentamento deveniva plus permanente e intensive. Verso le fin del Etate del bronzo, multe exemplos de artefactos metallic de altissime qualitate comenciava a esser deponite in rivos, presumibilemente pro motivos ritual e forsan reflectente un cambio progressive del emphase ab le celo al terra, pois que un population crescente exerceva pression crescente super le terra. Anglaterra deveniva in grande parte integrate in le [[Etate del bronzo atlantic|systema de commercio atlantic]], que creava un continuum cultural super un grande parte de Europa Occidental.<ref name="ReferenceA">Francis Pryor, ''Britannia BC'', 2003</ref> Es possibile que le [[Linguas celtic]] se disveloppava o se diffundeva in Anglaterra como parte de iste systema; al fin del Etate del ferro il ha multe evidentia que illos esseva parlate trans tote Anglaterra e le partes occidental de Britannia.<ref>Barry Cunliffe, ''Le Celtas Ancian'', 1997</ref> ====Etate del ferro==== [[File:Maiden Castle, Dorchester..jpg|thumb|Vista del rampas del fortification de colle ([[Maiden Castle, Dorset|Maiden Castle]]) (450 aEC), como illos appare hodie]] [[File:London - British Museum - 2453.jpg|thumb|left|Le [[Scuto de Battersea]] (detalio), 350 aEC.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1857-0715-1 |title=Le Scuto de Battersea |website=Museo Britannic}}</ref>|255x255px]] Le [[Etate de ferro]] es convenibilemente considerate como comenciante circa 800 aEC. A iste tempore, le [[Populo Britannic|britannos]] o britannos celtic esseva establite in Anglaterra. Le populo celtic del Anglaterra precoce formava le majoritate del population, juxta altere minor gruppos ethnic in Britannia. Post alcun tempore, le [[celtic]]os se distingueva in multiple gruppos ethnic distincte tales como galleses, cornicos e britannos, ma illes remaneva unite per lingua, religiones e cultura. Illes parlava le lingua britannic, un lingua celtic que es le ancestre del moderne linguas britannic. Le systema de commercio atlantic habeva a iste tempore essentia-mente collabite, ben que Anglaterra manteneva contactos trans le canal con Francia, pois que le [[Cultura Hallstatt]] deveniva diffuse trans le pais. Su continuitate suggere que illo non esseva accompaniate per un movimento substantial de population; criticamente, solmente un sepultura Hallstatt es cognoscite ab Britannia, e mesmo ibi le evidentia es inconclusive. In general, le sepulturas diffunde quasi totalmente ab Anglaterra, e le mortos esseva eliminate in maniera archeologicamente invisibile: [[excarnation]] es un possibilitate largemente citate. Le [[fortes de colle]] esseva cognoscite desde le Etate del bronzo tardive, ma un numero enorme esseva construite durante 600–400 aEC, specialmente in le sud; post circa 400 aEC nove fortes esseva rarmente construite, e multe cessava de esser habitate regularmente, durante que alcun fortes deveniva plus e plus intensivemente occupate, suggerente un grado de centralisation regional. [[File:The Great Torc - Snettisham Hoard - geograph.org.uk - 2395380.jpg|thumb|Torques de auro ex [[Tresor de Snettisham|Snettisham]], 70 aEC|220x220px]] Circa iste tempore, le plus ancian mention de Britannia appare in le annales historic. Le prime mention historic del region veniva del [[Periplo Massaliote]], un manual de navigation pro mercantes, que se pensa data del 6e seculo aEC, e [[Pytheas]] de [[Massilia]] scribeva super su viaggio de discoperta a le insula circa 325 aEC. Ambe de iste textos es ora perdite; ben que citate per scriptores ulterior, non satis del contento survivi pro influentiar significativamente le interpretation archeologic. {{Cita|''Britannia, on nos dice, es habitate per tribos que es autochthon e preserva in lor manieras de viver le maniera ancian de vita. Illes usa carros, per exemplo, in lor guerras, mesmo como le tradition nos dice que le vetule heroes grec lo faceva in le Guerra de Troia.''| [[Diodoro Siculo]], ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'', 60–30 aEC.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/5B*.html|title=Le Bibliotheca Historic de Diodorus Siculus|chapter=Libro 5, capitulo 24}}</ref>}} Le contactos con le continente esseva minus intense que in le Etate del bronzo, ma ancora significative. Mercantias continuava a passar a Anglaterra, con un possibile hiatus circa 350–150 aEC. Il habeva alcun invasiones armate per gruppos migratori celtic. Duo invasiones es cognoscite. Circa 300 aEC, un gruppo del tribo gallic [[Parisii (Gaul)|Parisii]] apparentemente prendeva controlo de East Yorkshire, establiente le altamente distinctive [[Cultura de Arras]]. E ab circa 150–100 aEC, gruppos de Belgae comenciava a controlar partes significative del Sud. [[File:Bronze coins of Cunobelin 1 to 42 CE.jpg|thumb|Monetas de bronzo de [[Cunobelin]], appellate "Rege del britannos" per [[Suetonio]]. 1–42 EC.|220x220px]] Iste invasiones formava movimientos de poc numerose personas que se establiva como un elite guerriere super systemas indigene existente, plus tosto que replaciar los. Le invasion belga esseva multo plus grande que le colonisation parisian, ma le continuitate del stilo ceramic monstra que le population native remaneva in loco. Totevia, illo esseva accompaniate per alterationes socio-economic significative. Le installationes proto-urban, o mesmo urban, cognoscite como [[oppida]], comenciava a eclipsar le vetule fortes de colle, e un elite, cuje position se basa super lor habilitate martial e lor capacitate de manipular recursos, re-appare multo plus distinctemente.<ref>Barry Cunliffe, ''Communitates del Etate del ferro in Britannia'', 2005</ref> In 55 e 54 aEC, [[Julio Caesar]], como parte de [[Guerra Gallic|su campanias in Gallia]], [[Invasiones de Julio Caesar in Britannia|invadeva Britannia]] e pretendeva haber ganate un numero de victorias, ma ille non penetrava plus longe que Hertfordshire e non poteva establir un provincia. Totevia, su invasiones marca un puncto de inflexion in le historia britannic. Le controlo del commercio, del fluxo de recursos e del objectos de prestigio deveniva sempre plus importante pro le elites del Britannia del Sud; Roma deveniva gradualmente le plus grande actor in tote lor tractos, como fornitore de ricchessa e patronato. Retrospectivemente, un invasion complete e un annexation esseva inevitabile.<ref>Guy de la Bedoyere, ''Britannia Roman: Un Nove Historia'', 2010</ref> ==Britannia Roman== {{main|Britannia Roman}} [[File:The Great Bath in Bath (UK).jpg|thumb|Restos del thermas roman in [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Bath]], Anglaterra.]] [[File:Hadrian's Wall west of Housesteads 3.jpg|thumb|Restos del [[Muro de Hadrian]]]] Post le expeditiones de Caesar, le Romanos initiava un tentativa seriose e continuate pro [[Conquesta roman de Britannia|conquerer Britannia]] in 43 EC, a le requesta del Imperator [[Claudius]]. Illes atterrava in Kent con quattro legiones e disfacia duo exercitos guidate per le reges del tribo [[Catuvellauni]], [[Caratacus]] e [[Togodumnus]], in battalias al Medway e al Thames. Togodumnus esseva occidite, e Caratacus fugiva a Cambria (Wales). Le forza roman, guidate per [[Aulus Plautius]], expectava que Claudius veniva pro ducer le marcha final verso le capital del Catuvellauni a [[Camulodunum]] (moderne [[Colchester]]), ante que ille retornava a Roma pro su triumpho. Le Catuvellauni exerceva influentia super le major parte del angulo sud-oriental de Anglaterra; dece-un reges local se rendeva, plure regnos cliente esseva establite, e le resto deveniva un provincia roman con Camulodunum como capital.<ref>Henry Freeman, ''Roman Britain: A History From Beginning to End'' (2016).</ref> Durante le quatro annos sequente, le territorio esseva consolidate e le futuro imperator [[Vespasian]] duceva un campania in le Sudwest, ubi ille subjuga duo tribos adicional. Per 54 EC, le fronte esseva extendite al fluvios Severn e Trent, e campanias esseva in execution pro subjugar le Nord de Anglaterra e Cambria. Ma in 60 EC, sub le guida del regina-guerriera [[Boudicca]], le tribos se rebellava contra le Romanos. Al comenciamento, le rebelles habeva grande successo. Illes incendiava Camulodunum, [[Londinium]] e [[Verulamium]] (hodie Colchester, London e St. Albans). Existe certe evidentia archeologic que le mesme occurreva in Winchester. Le Secunde Legione [[Legio II Augusta|Augusta]], stationate a [[Exeter]], refusava mover se per timor de un revolta inter le locales. Le governator de Londinium, [[Suetonius Paulinus]], evacuava le citate ante que le rebelles lo sacciava e incendiava; le foco esseva tanto intense que un strato de 10 pollices de argilla rubie fundite remane 15 pedes sub le stratas de London.<ref>{{cite book |title=Making Europe: The Story of the West, Volume I to 1790 |date=2013 |page=162}}</ref> In le fin, on diceva que le rebelles habeva occidite 70,000 Romanos e sympathisatores roman. Paulinus colligiva lo que restava del exercito roman. In le [[Revolta de Boudicca|battalia decisive]], 10,000 Romanos affrontava quasi 100,000 guerreros alicubi lungo le linea de [[Via Watling|Watling Street]], al termino del qual Boudicca esseva completemente disfacia. On diceva que 80,000 rebelles esseva occidite, ma solo 400 Romanos. Durante le 20 annos sequente, le frontieras se expandiva ligeiramente, ma le governator Agricola incorporeva in le provincia le ultime focos de independentia in Cambria e le Anglaterra del Nord. Ille conduceva etiam un campania in Scotia, que esseva retractate per le Imperator Domitian. Le frontiera se formava gradualmente lungo le via [[Stanegate]] in le Nord de Anglaterra, e esseva solidificate per le construction del [[Muro de Hadrian]] in 138 EC, nonobstante excursion temporanee in Scotia. Le Romanos e lor cultura remaneva al controlo durante 350 annos. [[Roman sites in Great Britain|Tracias de lor presentia]] es ubiquitous trans Anglaterra. ==Preriodo anglosaxone== {{AP|Historia del Anglaterra anglosaxon}} ===Migrationes anglosaxone=== {{AP|Britannia sub-roman}} [[File:2004 sutton hoo 01.JPG|thumb|Elmo anglosaxon del sepultura naval de [[Sutton Hoo]], 625 AD (replica)]] Post le disintegration del domination roman in Britannia a partir del medio del quarte seculo, le Anglia hodierne esseva progressivemente colonisate per gruppos [[Germanic peoples|germanic]]. Collocativamente appellate le [[Anglo-Saxons|anglosaxones]], istes includeva le [[Angles (tribe)|angles]], [[Saxons|saxones]], [[Jutes|iutos]] e [[Frisians|frisones]]. Le [[Battle of Deorham|Battalia de Deorham]] esseva decisive in stabilir domination anglosaxone in 577.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hamerow, Helena |url=http://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/wessex.html |title=Le origines de Wessex |publisher=University of Oxford |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702185330/https://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/wessex.html |archive-date=2 July 2012 |accessdate=16 November 2025 |archivedate=2 July 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702185330/https://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/wessex.html }}</ref> Mercenarios saxon existeva in Britannia ja ante le periodo roman tardive, ma le influxo principal del population probabilemente occurreva post le quinte seculo. Le natura precise de iste invasiones non es totalmente cognoscite; on dubita del legitimitate del chronicas historic a causa del paucitate de repertes archeologic. Le ''De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae'' de [[Gildas]], componite in le seculo VI, indica que quando le exercito roman abandonavit le Insula Britannia in le seculo IV, le britannos indigene esseva invadite per le [[Picts|pictos]] (lor vicinos al nord, hodie Scotia) e le [[Scoti|scotos]] (hodie Irlanda). Le britannos invitava le [[Saxons|saxones]] al insula pro repeller los, ma post haber vincite le scotos e pictos, le saxones se rebellava contra le britannos. [[File:Britain peoples circa 600.svg|thumb|Regnos e tribos in [[Britannia in the Middle Ages|Britannia]], c. AD 600]] [[File:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|left|Le epopea ''[[Beowulf]]'', situate in Scandinavia del seculo VI, componite c. 700–1000 AD.|239x239px]] Sette regnos es tradicionalmente identificate como establite per iste migrantes. Tres esseva gruppate in le sud-est: [[Sussex]], [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] e [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]]. Le Midlands esseva dominate per le regnos de [[Mercia]] e [[Kingdom of East Anglia|East Anglia]]. Al nord se trovava [[Kingdom of Northumbria|Northumbria]], que unificava duo regnos plus ancian: [[Bernicia]] e [[Deira]]. Altere regnos plus parve pare haber existite etiam, tal como [[Kingdom of Lindsey|Lindsey]] (in lo que es ora Lincolnshire) e le [[Hwicce]] in le sud-west. Eventualmente, le regnos esseva dominate successivemente: * Northumbria e Mercia in le seculo VII, * Mercia in le seculo VIII, * Wessex in le seculo IX. Northumbria expandiva su controlo verso le nord in Scotia e verso le west in Galles. Illo etiam subjugava Mercia, cuje prime potente rege, [[Penda of Mercia|Penda]], esseva occidite per [[Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswy]] in 655. Le potentia de Northumbria comenciava a declinar post 685 con le morte de su rege [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria|Aegfrith]] in un battalia contra le pictos. Le potentia mercian attingeva su apice sub [[Offa of Mercia|Offa]], qui a partir de 785 habeva influentia super la major parte del Anglia anglosaxone. Post le morte de Offa in 796, le suprematia de Wessex esseva stabilite sub [[Egbert of Wessex|Egbert]], qui expandiva su controlo verso le west in [[Cornwall]] ante de vincer le mercians al [[Battle of Ellendun|Battalia de Ellendun]] in 825. Quatro annos plus tarde, ille recipeva submission e tributo del rege northumbrian [[Eanred of Northumbria|Eanred]].<ref>Stenton, Frank. "Anglo-Saxon England". OUP, 1971</ref> Proque si pauc fontes contemporanee existe, le eventos del quinto e sexte seculos es difficile de establir con precision. Assi, le natura del settlementos anglosaxone es un subjecto de discussion inter historicos, archeologos e linguistas. Le interpretation traditional — que le anglosaxones expelleva le romano-britannos del actual Inglaterra — esseva reevalutate verso le fin del seculo XX. Un suggestion es que le invasores esseva minor in numero, proveniente de un classe de guerreros del elite, que gradualmente acculturava le population native.<ref>Francis Pryor, ''Britain AD'', 2004.</ref><ref>Ward-Perkins, Bryan. "Why did the Anglo-Saxons not become more British?." The English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): page 523.</ref><ref>Higham, Nicholas J. and Ryan, Martin J. ''The Anglo-Saxon World'' (Yale University Press, 2013).</ref> Un vista emergente es que le scala del settlemento anglosaxon variava per regiones in Anglia, e que dunque illo non pote esser describite per un sol modelo uniformemente. Migration de massa e desplazamento demografic pare esser plus applicabile al areas central del settlemento, tal como East Anglia e Lincolnshire,<ref>Stefan Burmeister, ''Archaeology and Migration'' (2000): " ... immigration in the nucleus of the Anglo-Saxon settlement does not seem aptly described in terms of the 'elite-dominance' model. To all appearances, the settlement was carried out by small, agriculture-oriented kinship groups. This process corresponds more closely to a classic settler model. The absence of early evidence of a socially demarcated elite underscores the supposition that such an elite did not play a substantial role. Rich burials such as are well known from Denmark have no counterparts in England until the 6th century. At best, the elite-dominance model might apply in the peripheral areas of the settlement territory, where an immigration predominantly {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} men and the existence of hybrid cultural forms might support it."</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Dark|first=Ken R.|title=Large-scale population movements into and from Britain south of Hadrian's Wall in the fourth to sixth centuries AD|year=2003|url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/GCMS/RMS-2003-03_K._R._Dark,_Large-scale_population_movements_into_and_from_Britan_south_of_Hadrian's_Wall_in_the_fourth_to_sixth_centuries_AD.pdf}} </ref> mediante que in areas plus periferic al nord-west, probablemente multo del population native remaneva in loco durante que le nove arrivantes assumeva le positiones del elite.<ref name="Härke, Heinrich 2011">Härke, Heinrich. "Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis." ''Medieval Archaeology'' 55.1 (2011): 1–28</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kortlandt|first=Frederik|title=Relative Chronology|year=2018|url=https://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art320e.pdf}} </ref> In un studio del nomines de placias in le nord-est de Anglaterra e le sud de Scotia, Bethany Fox concluse que le migrantes anglian se installava in grande numeros in valles fluvial, tal como illos del Tyne e del Tweed, durante que le britannos del regiones collinose moins fertile se acculturava gradualmente per un periodo plus longe. Fox interpreta le processo per le qual le idioma anglese veniva a dominar iste region como: "un synthese del modellos de migration de massa e de predominio del elite".<ref>{{cite web|last=Fox |first=Bethany |title=The P-Celtic Place Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland |website=The Heroic Age |date=2007 |url=http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html}} </ref> === Marcas genetic del migrationes anglo-saxon === {{vide anque|Genetic evidence of Anglo-Saxon migration in Britain}} [[File:Sutton Hoo Schliesse 1 7 Jhd.JPG|thumb|Claviera de spalla ab [[Sutton Hoo]], 625 AD]] Le tests genetic ha essite usate pro cercar evidentia de immigration su grande scala de [[Germanic peoples|populos germanic]] in Anglaterra. [[#Weale|Weale ''et al.'' (2002)]] trovava que le datos de DNA-Y anglese monstra signales de un immigration massive [[Anglo-Saxon|anglo-saxon]] ab le continente europee, affectante 50%–100% del piscina genetic masculine in le Anglaterra central. Isto esseva basate super le similitudo inter le DNA colligite in parve citates anglese e illo trovate in [[Frisia|Friesland]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Y Chromosome Evidence for Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration|url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/19/7/1008/1068561}} </ref> Un studio de 2003 con exemplos proveniente de citates plus grande trovava un grande variation in le quantitate de ancestressa continental “germanic” in varietate de partes de Anglaterra.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=C. |last1=Capelli |first2=N. |last2=Redhead |first3=J.K. |last3=Abernethy |first4=F. |last4=Gatrix |first5=J.F. |last5=Wilson |first6=T. |last6=Moen |first7=T. |last7=Hervig |first8=M. |last8=Richards |first9=M.P.H. |last9=Stumpf |first10=P.A. |last10=Underhill |first11=P. |last11=Bradshaw |first12=A. |last12=Shaha |first13=M.G. |last13=Thomas |first14=N. |last14=Bradman |first15=D.B. |last15=Goldstein |year=2003 |title=A Y chromosome census of the British Isles |journal=Current Biology |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=979–984 |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00373-7 |pmid=12781138 |bibcode=2003CBio...13..979C |s2cid=526263 |url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/10690515/A_Y_chromosome_census_of_the_British_Isles.pdf |access-date=3 September 2020 |archive-date=8 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210708152834/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/10690515/A_Y_chromosome_census_of_the_British_Isles.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In iste studio, tal marcatores typicamente variava inter 20% e 45% in le sud de Anglaterra, con East Anglia, le East Midlands e Yorkshire con plus de 50%. Le frequentias genetic nord-german e danese esseva indistinguibile, lo que impediava le possibilitate de distinguer inter le influentia genetic del populationes fonte anglo-saxon e le influxo plus tarde, e melio documentate, del Vikingos danese.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles|url=https://www.csueastbay.edu/museum/files/docs/exhibit/dna/dna-chrom-isles.pdf}} </ref> Le valor medie del contribution continental germanic in iste studio esseva calculate a 54 pro cento.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Härke|first1=Heinrich|last2=Thomas|first2=Mark G|last3=Stumpf|first3=Michael P H|title=Integration versus apartheid in post-Roman Britain: A response to Pattison|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23135029}} </ref> In responsa a argumentos sicut illos de [[Stephen Oppenheimer]]<ref name="oppenheimer">Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006). The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story: Constable and Robinson, London. {{ISBN|978-1-84529-158-7}}.</ref> e [[Bryan Sykes]], secundo le quales le similitudo inter le DNA anglese e le DNA germanic continental poterea haber originate ab migrationes prehistorice plus ancian, le investigadores ha comenciate a usar datos colligite ex sepulturas ancian pro determinar le nivello del contribution anglo-saxon al actual piscina genetic anglese. Duo studias publicate in 2016, basate super datos colligite ex skeletones trovate in sepulturas del etate de ferro, del periodo roman e del periodo anglo-saxon in Cambridgeshire e Yorkshire, concludeva que le ancestressa del population moderne anglese contine grande contributiones ab migrantes anglo-saxon e ab natives romano-britannic.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon genomes from East England reveal British migration history|year=2016 |doi=10.1038/ncomms10408 |last1=Schiffels |first1=Stephan |last2=Haak |first2=Wolfgang |last3=Paajanen |first3=Pirita |last4=Llamas |first4=Bastien |last5=Popescu |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Loe |first6=Louise |last7=Clarke |first7=Rachel |last8=Lyons |first8=Alice |last9=Mortimer |first9=Richard |last10=Sayer |first10=Duncan |last11=Tyler-Smith |first11=Chris |last12=Cooper |first12=Alan |last13=Durbin |first13=Richard |journal=Nature Communications |volume=7 |article-number=10408 |pmid=26783965 |pmc=4735688 |bibcode=2016NatCo...710408S |s2cid=14795869 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martiniano |first1=Rui |last2=Caffell |first2=Anwen |last3=Holst |first3=Malin |author-link3=Malin Holst |last4=Hunter-Mann |first4=Kurt |last5=Montgomery |first5=Janet |last6=Müldner |first6=Gundula |last7=McLaughlin |first7=Russell L. |last8=Teasdale |first8=Matthew D. |last9=Van Rheenen |first9=Wouter |last10=Veldink |first10=Jan H. |last11=Van Den Berg |first11=Leonard H. |last12=Hardiman |first12=Orla |last13=Carroll |first13=Maureen |last14=Roskams |first14=Steve |last15=Oxley |first15=John |year=2016 |title=Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons |journal=Nature Communications |volume=7 |article-number=10326 |bibcode=2016NatCo...710326M |doi=10.1038/ncomms10326 |pmc=4735653 |pmid=26783717 |s2cid=13817552 |last16=Morgan |first16=Colleen |last17=Thomas |first17=Mark G. |last18=Barnes |first18=Ian |last19=McDonnell |first19=Christine |last20=Collins |first20=Matthew J. |last21=Bradley |first21=Daniel G.}}</ref> ===Heptarchia e Christianisation=== {{AP|Northumbria|Mercia|Offa de Mercia|Heptarchia|Mission gregorian|Christianitate anglosaxon}} [[File:Ruthwell Cross Christ on south side.jpg|thumb|left|Le [[Crucifixo de Ruthwell|Crucifixo de Ruthwell]], seculo 8 d.C.|202x202px]] [[File:LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg|thumb|Folio 27r ex le [[Evangelios de Lindisfarne|Evangelios de Lindisfarne]], circa 720 d.C.]] Le christianisation de Anglosaxonia in Anglaterra comenciava circa le anno 600 d.C., influentiate per le [[Christianitate celtic|christianitate celtic]] ab le nordwest e per le [[Ecclesia catholic roman|ecclesia catholic roman]] ab le sudest. [[Augustine de Canterbury|Augustine de Canterbury]], le prime [[Archiepiscopo de Canterbury|archiepiscopo de Canterbury]], assumeva le officio in 597. In 601 ille baptisava le prime rege anglosaxon christian, [[Æthelberht de Kent|Æthelberht de Kent]]. Le ultime rege anglosaxon [[Paganismo anglosaxon|pagan]], [[Penda de Mercia|Penda de Mercia]], moriva in 655. Le ultime rege [[Jutes|jute]] pagan, [[Arwald|Arwald]] del [[Insula de Wight|Insula de Wight]], esseva occidite in 686. Le [[Mission anglosaxon|mission anglosaxon]] in le continente se expandiva in le seculo 8, resultante in le christianisation quasi complete del [[Imperio franc|Imperio franc]] circa 800. Durante le seculos 7 e 8, le poter fluctuava inter le regnos major. [[Beda|Beda]] registra Æthelberht de Kent como dominante al fin del seculo 6, sed le poter se deslocava verso le nord al regno de Northumbria, formate per le unification de [[Bernicia|Bernicia]] e [[Deira|Deira]]. [[Edwin de Northumbria|Edwin de Northumbria]] probabilemente habeva predominio super un grande parte de Britannia, ben que le partialitate northumbrian de Beda debe esser considerata. A causa de crises de succession, le hegemonia northumbrian non esseva constante, e [[Mercia|Mercia]] remaneva un regno multo potente, specialmente sub Penda. Duo derrotas terminava le dominantia northumbrian: le [[Battalia del Trent|battalia del Trent]] in 679 contra Mercia, e [[Nechtanesmere|Nechtanesmere]] in 685 contra le [[Pictos|Pictos]].<ref>Frank Merry Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'' (1971).</ref> Le assi-appellate “[[Suprematia mercian|suprematia mercian]]” dominava le seculo 8, ben que non de maniera continue. [[Æthelbald de Mercia|Aethelbald de Mercia]] e [[Offa de Mercia|Offa de Mercia]], le duo reges le plus potente, attingeva alte prestigio; realmente, Offa esseva considerate superregente del Britannia meridional per [[Carlomagno|Carlomagno]]. Su poter es illustrate per le facto que ille convocava le ressources pro construer le [[Dyke de Offa|Dyke de Offa]]. Tamen, un [[Wessex|Wessex]] in ascension e le opposition de regnos minor limitava le poter mercian, e al comenciamento del seculo 9, le “suprematia mercian” esseva finite. Iste periodo ha essite designate como le [[Heptarchia|heptarchia]], ben que iste termino non es plus usate in le academias moderne. Le termino nasceva proque le septe regnos de [[Northumbria|Northumbria]], [[Mercia|Mercia]], [[Kent|Kent]], [[Regno de Anglia Oriental|Anglia Oriental]], [[Essex|Essex]], [[Sussex|Sussex]] e [[Wessex|Wessex]] esseva le principal entidades politic del Britannia meridional. Altere regnos plus micre anque habeva importantia politic durante iste periodo: [[Hwicce|Hwicce]], [[Magonsaete|Magonsaete]], [[Lindsey|Lindsey]] e [[Anglia Central|Anglia Central]].<ref>Peter Hayes Sawyer, ''From Roman Britain to Norman England'' (Routledge, 2002).</ref> ===Defia viking e le ascension de Wessex=== {{AP|Danelaw|Era viking|Alfredo le Grande}} [[File:England 878.svg|thumb|Anglaterra in 878]] Le prime annota de un disembarco de [[Vikingos|vikingos]] occurreva in 787 in le comitato de [[Dorset|Dorset]], sur le costa sud-occidental.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rees|first=Rosemary|title=The Vikings|url=https://archive.org/details/vikings0000rees|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=978-1-4034-0100-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/vikings0000rees/page/45 45]}}</ref> Le prime grande attacco in Britannia esseva in 793 al monasterio de [[Lindisfarne|Lindisfarne]], como registrate in le ''[[Chronica anglosaxon|Chronica Anglosaxon]]''. Tamen, a iste tempore, le vikingos quasi certemente esseva ja ben implantate in [[Orkney|Orkney]] e [[Shetland|Shetland]], e multe incursiones non registrate probabilemente occurreva ante isto. Le registros monstra que le prime attacco viking super [[Iona|Iona]] occurreva in 794. Le arrival del vikingos (specialmente le armata danese appellate le [[Grande Armata Pagan|Grande Armata Pagan]]) alterava fortemente le geographia politic e social de Britannia e Irlanda. In 867 le regno de [[Northumbria|Northumbria]] cadeva al Daneses; [[Regno de Anglia Oriental|Anglia Oriental]] cadeva in 869. Ben que [[Wessex|Wessex]] succedeva contener les vikingos per le victoria a [[Battalia de Ashdown|Ashdown]] in 871, un secunde armata invasor sbarchava, lassante le Saxones in defension. Al mesme tempore, [[Æthelred I de Wessex|Æthelred]], rege de Wessex, moriva e esseva succedite per su fratre juvene, [[Alfredo le Grande|Alfredo]]. Alfredo esseva immediatemente confrontate con le necessitate de defender Wessex contra le Daneses. Ille passava le prime cinque annos de su regno pagando le invasores. In 878, le fortias de Alfredo esseva surprendite e disperse a Chippenham.<ref>Albany F. Major, ''Early wars of Wessex'' (Hildreth Press, 2008).</ref> [[File:The Alfred Jewel.jpg|thumb|Le [[Joya de Alfredo|Joya de Alfredo]], fin del seculo 9|234x234px]] Esseva solmente ora, con le independentia de Wessex pendent sol per un filo, que Alfredo emergeva como un grande rege. In maio 878 ille conduceva un armata que batteva le Daneses a [[Battalia de Edington|Edington]]. Le victoria esseva tanto complete que le duce danese, [[Guthrum|Guthrum]], esseva obligate a acceptar le baptismo christian e receder de [[Mercia|Mercia]]. Alfredo alora comenciava fortificar Wessex, construente un nove marina de 60 naves. Su successos dava annos de pace a Wessex e Mercia e meliorava le economia devastate.<ref>Richard P. Ables, ''Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England'' (1998).</ref> Le successos de Alfredo esseva continuate per su filio [[Eduardo le Vetere|Eduardo le Vetere]], cuje victorias decisive contra le Daneses in Anglia Oriental in 910 e 911 esseva sequite per un destruction total del Daneses a Tempsford in 917. Isto permitteva a Eduardo incorporar Mercia totalmente in su regno e adder Anglia Oriental a su conquestas. Eduardo reforciava su limites septentrional contra le regno danese de [[Northumbria|Northumbria]]. Su rapide expansion resultava in homage a Wessex per le regnos restante, incluse [[Gwynedd|Gwynedd]] in Wallia e [[Scotia|Scotia]]. Su dominantia esseva ancora plus fortificate per su filio [[Æthelstan|Æthelstan]], qui allargava le regno verso le nord, conquistante le [[Regno de Eboracum|Regno de Eboracum (York)]] in 927 e conducente un invasion terrestre e naval de [[Scotia|Scotia]]. Ille esseva le prime a usar le titulo “Rege del Anglese”. Le independentia de Anglaterra esseva mantenite per su successores. Solmente in 978, con le accession de [[Æthelred le Nonpreparate|Æthelred le Nonpreparate]], le menacia danese retornava. Duo reges danese potente, [[Harald Dente-Blau|Harald Dente-Blau]] e su filio [[Sweyn Barbaforcate|Sweyn Barbaforcate]], lanceava devastante invasion. Le Anglosaxones esseva completemente battite a [[Battalia de Maldon|Maldon]] in 991. Plus attaccos danese sequeva, e lor victorias esseva frequente. Æthelred perdeva le controle super su nobiles e deveniva sempre plus desesperate. Su solution esseva pagar tributos—le [[Danegeld|danegeld]]—pro impedir attaccos. Iste pagos gravemente debilitava le economia.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 569175|title = The Collection of Danegeld and Heregeld in the Reigns of Aethelred II and Cnut|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1984-10_99_393/page/n10|journal = The English Historical Review|volume = 99|issue = 393|pages = 721–738|last1 = Lawson|first1 = M. K.|year = 1984|doi = 10.1093/ehr/XCIX.CCCXCIII.721}}</ref> [[Æthelred le Nonpreparate|Æthelred]] formava un alliance con [[Normandia|Normandia]] in 1001 per matrimonio con le filia del duce, [[Emma de Normandia|Emma]]. Tamen ille committeva un grave error: in 1002 ille ordinava le massacre de tote le Daneses in Anglaterra. In responsa, Sweyn initiava un decennio de attaccos devastante. Le nord de Anglaterra, con un population danese considerabile, prendeva le latere de Sweyn. Per 1013, [[Londres|Londres]], [[Oxford|Oxford]] e [[Winchester|Winchester]] habeva cadite. Æthelred fugiva a Normandia e Sweyn prendeva le corona. Sweyn moriva subitamente in 1014, e Æthelred retornava, ma ora confrontate per le successor de Sweyn, [[Cnut le Grande|Cnut le Grande]]. Æthelred moriva in 1016, e Cnut rapidemente batteva le Saxones restante, occidente [[Edmund Lancesider|Edmund Lancesider]] e proclamante se rege de Anglaterra.<ref>Thames Cussans, ''Kings and Queens of the British Isles'' (The Times Books, 2002), pp.32–35.</ref> ===Unification de Anglaterra=== {{main|Æthelstan|Edgar de Anglaterra}} [[File:Athelstan (cropped).jpg|thumb|Frontispicio del ''[[Vita de Sancte Cuthbert|Vita de Sancte Cuthbert]]'' de [[Beda|Beda]], monstrante le Rege Æthelstan presentante un exemplar del libro al sancte mesme. circa 930|280x280px]] [[Alfredo de Wessex|Alfredo de Wessex]] moriva in 899 e esseva succedite per su filio [[Eduardo le Vetere|Eduardo le Vetere]]. Eduardo, e su cognato [[Æthelred, Senior de Mercia|Æthelred]] de Mercia (lo que remaneva de illo), comenciava un programma de expansion, construente fortificationes e citates secundo le modello de Alfredo. A la morte de Æthelred, su marita (e soror de Eduardo), [[Æthelflæd|Æthelflæd]], regnava como “Domina de Mercia” e continuava le expansion. Il pare que Eduardo habeva su filio [[Æthelstan|Æthelstan]] educato al corte mercian. A la morte de Eduardo, Æthelstan succedeva al regno mercian e, post un periodo de incertezza, etiam al regno de Wessex. Æthelstan continuava le expansion initiate per su patre e su tante, e esseva le prime rege a attinger un governantia directe super lo que nos hodie recognosce como Anglaterra. Le titulos attribuite a ille in [[Chartas anglosaxon|chartas anglosaxon]] e super monedas suggere mesmo un dominantia plus ample. Su expansion excitava rancor inter le altere regnos britanni, e ille batteva un armata combinate scotese-viking al [[Battalia de Brunanburh|Battalia de Brunanburh]]. Tamen, le unification de Anglaterra non esseva ancora un certitude. Sub le successores de Æthelstan, [[Edmund I|Edmund]] e [[Eadred de Anglaterra|Eadred]], le reges anglese perdeva e recuperava Northumbria repetitemente. Nonobstante isto, [[Edgar de Anglaterra|Edgar]], qui regnava super le mesme territorio que Æthelstan, consolidava le regno, e Anglaterra remaneva unite depost. ===England sub le Daneses e le Conquesta Normanne=== {{main|Ethelred le Non Preste|Canuto le Grande|Eiríkr Hákonarson|Conquesta normanne de Anglaterra}} Il habeva renovate attaccos scandinave contra Anglaterra al fin del decimo seculo. [[Æthelred le Non Preste|Æthelred le Non Preste]] regnava un longe tempore, ma finalmente perdeva su regno a [[Sweyn I de Danmark|Sweyn de Danmark]], ben que ille lo recuperava post le morte de iste ultime. Totevia, le filio de Æthelred, [[Edmund II Lato-de-Ferro|Edmund II Lato-de-Ferro]], moriva pauco tempore plus tarde, permittente a [[Canuto le Grande|Canuto]], le filio de Sweyn, de devenir rege de Anglaterra. Sub su dominio, le regno deveniva le centro de governamento pro le [[Imperio del Mar del Nord|imperio del Mar del Nord]] que includeva Danmark e Norvegia. Canuto esseva succedite per su filios, ma in 1042 le dynastia native esseva restaurate con le accession de [[Edward le Confessor|Edward le Confessor]]. Le incapacitate de Edward de producer un herede causava un furiose conflito super le succession a su morte in 1066. Su luctas pro le poter contra [[Godwin, Conte de Wessex|Godwin, Conte de Wessex]], le pretensiones del successores scandinave de Canuto, e le ambities del [[Normandos|Normandos]] que Edward habeva introducite in le politica anglese pro reforzar su proprie position, faceva que omnes competiva pro le controlo durante le regno de Edward. [[File:Hexateuch king.jpg|thumb|Rege anglo-saxon con su [[Witan|Witan]]. Scena biblical in le [[Hexateucho Anglese Antique|Hexateucho Anglese Antique]] (11e seculo)]] [[Harold Godwinson|Harold Godwinson]] deveniva rege, probabilemente nominate per Edward sur su lecto de morte e confirmate per le [[Witan|Witan]]. Ma [[Guillaume de Normandia|Guillaume de Normandia]], [[Harald Hardråde|Harald Hardråde]] (assistite per le fratre alienate de Harold Godwin, [[Tostig Godwinson|Tostig Godwinson]]) e [[Sweyn II de Danmark|Sweyn II de Danmark]] tote affirmava pretendentes al throno. De longe le plus forte pretension hereditari esseva illo de [[Edgar le Ætheling|Edgar le Ætheling]], ma a causa de su juventute e apparente manco de supporteres potente, ille non giocava un grande rolo in le luctas de 1066, ben que ille esseva facite rege pro un breve periodo per le Witan post le morte de Harold Godwinson. In septembre 1066, [[Harald III de Norvegia|Harald III de Norvegia]] e [[Conte Tostig|Conte Tostig]] [[Harald III Hardrada#Invasion de Anglaterra|debarcava in le Anglaterra del Nord]] con un forza de circa 15.000 homines e 300 [[longship|longnaves]]. [[Harold Godwinson|Harold Godwinson]] superava le invasores e occideva Harald III de Norvegia e Tostig al [[Batalia de Stamford Bridge|Batalia de Stamford Bridge]]. Le 28 septembre 1066, [[Guillaume de Normandia|Guillaume de Normandia]] [[Conquesta Normanne#Invasion Normanne|invasava Anglaterra]] in un campania appellate le [[Conquesta Normanne|Conquesta Normanne]]. Post marchar ab [[Yorkshire|Yorkshire]], le extenuate exercito de Harold esseva superate e Harold esseva occidite al [[Batalia de Hastings|Batalia de Hastings]] le 14 octobre. Ulteriore opposition a Guillaume in favor de [[Edgar le Ætheling|Edgar le Ætheling]] tosto collabava, e Guillaume esseva coronate rege le Die de Natal 1066. Durante cinque annos, ille affrontava un serie de rebelliones in varie partes de Anglaterra e un invasion danese a medie corde, ma ille los subjugava e stabiliva un regime durabile. ==Anglaterra Normanne== {{vide anque|Anglaterra Normanne|le scribitor|Godfrey Webb|Anglaterra in le Alte Medio Epocha|Governamento in Anglaterra Normanne e Angevin}} [[File:Odo bayeux tapestry.png|thumb|Representation del [[Batalia de Hastings]] (1066) sur le [[Tapisserie de Bayeux]]]] Le [[Conquesta normanne de Anglaterra|Conquesta Normanne]] conduceva a un cambiamento profunde in le historia del stato anglese. Guillaume ordinava le compilation del [[Libro de Domesday]], un inquesta del integre population e de lor terras e proprietates pro fin fiscal, que revela que intra 20 annos post le conquesta, le classe dirigente anglese esseva quasi totalmente dispossessate e replaciate per possessores normannos, qui monopolizava tote le altos cargos in le governamento e in le Ecclesia. Guillaume e su nobiles parlava e teneva corte in [[Francese Normanne]], sia in Normandia sia in Anglaterra. Le uso del [[Lingua anglo-normanne]] per le aristocratia durava pro seculos e lassava un marca indelebile in le desenvolvimento del anglese moderne. Post esser coronate, le Die de Natal 1066, Guillaume immediatemente comenciava a consolidar su poter. Per 1067, ille se trovava de facie a revoltas de omne lateres e passava quatro annos a reprimer los. Ille imponite pois su superioritate super Scotia e Galles, fortiante los a recognoscer le como lor senior.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/british-and-irish-history-biographies/william-i-conqueror|title=William I|author=John Cannon|website=encyclopedia.com|access-date=27 March 2024}}</ref> Le crescimento economic e le finantias del stato esseva augmentate per le [[Historia del Judeos in Anglaterra (1066–1290)|initio del colonisation judeic in Londres]].{{sfn|Roth|1964|p=4}} Le anglese [[Medio Epocha]] esseva characterisate per [[guerra civil]], guerras international, insurrection occasional, e largi intrigamento politic inter le elite aristocratic e monarchic. Anglaterra esseva plus que auto-sufficiente in cereales, productos lacte, carne bovin e de oves. Su economia international se basava super le [[Lana#Historia|commercio del lana]], in le qual lana del [[sheepwalk|caminos pastoral]] del nord de Anglaterra esseva exportate al citates textile de [[Flandria|Flandria]], ubi illo esseva convertite in pannos. Le politica exterior medieval esseva tanto formate per le relationes con le industria textil flandrese como per aventuras dynastic in le Francia occidental. Un industria textil anglese esseva establite in le 15e seculo, forniende le base pro le rapide [[accumulation de capital]] anglese. [[File:Tower of London (8081574351).jpg|thumb|Le [[Torre Blanche (Torre de Londres)|Torre Blanche]] del [[Torre de Londres]], construite in 1078]] [[Henrico I de Anglaterra|Henrico I]], le quarte filio de [[Guillaume I le Conquistator|Guillaume I le Conquistator]], succedeva a su fratre plus vetule [[Guillaume II de Anglaterra|Guillaume II]] como [[Rege de Anglaterra]] in 1100. Henrico esseva etiam cognoscite como “Henrico Beauclerc” proque ille recipeva un education formal, a differentia de su fratre plus vetule e [[herede apparent|herede apparent]] [[Guillaume II de Anglaterra|Guillaume]], qui recipeva solmente un formation practic pro devenir rege. Henrico laborava durmente pro reformar e stabilisar le pais e attenuar le differentias inter le societates anglo-saxone e [[Anglo-Normandos|anglo-normanne]]. Le perdita de su filio, [[Guillaume Adelin]], in le naufragio del ''[[Nave Blanche]]'' in novembre 1120, debilitava su reformas. Iste problema de succession projectava un longe umbra super le historia anglese. Henrico I habeva requirite que le barones principal, ecclesiasticos e officiales in Normandia e Anglaterra prendeva un juramento de acceptar [[Empressa Matilda|Matilda]] (equalmente cognoscite como Empressa Maud, filia de Henrico I) como su herede. Anglaterra esseva multo minus enthusiastic de acceptar un extranea — e un femina — como lor governante. Existe alcun provas que Henrico ipse esseva incerte re su sperantias e re le juramento de facer Matilda su herede. Probabilemente Henrico sperava que Matilda haberea un filio e cederia como Regina Matre. Post le morte de Henrico, le barones normannos e angleses ignorava le pretension de Matilda al throno, e assi, per un serie de decisiones, [[Stephan I de Anglaterra|Stephan]], le nephte favorite de Henrico, esseva acceptate per multe in Anglaterra e Normandia como lor nove rege. [[File:Durham MMB 02 Cathedral.jpg|thumb|[[Cathedral de Durham|Cathedral de Durham]]. Le cathedral normanne esseva construite 1093–1133]] Le 22 decembre 1135, Stephan esseva unctite rege con supporto implicite per le ecclesia e le nation. Matilda e su proprie filio attendeva in Francia usque illa accendeva le guerra civil ab 1139 usque 1153, cognoscite como [[le Anarchia|le Anarchia]]. In le autumno de 1139, illa invadeva Anglaterra con su demi-fratre illegitimate [[Roberto, 1e Conte de Gloucester|Roberto de Gloucester]]. Su marito, [[Geoffroy Plantagenet, Conte de Anjou|Geoffroy V de Anjou]], conquistava Normandia ma non transversava le canal pro adjutar su sposa. Durante iste ruptura del autoritate central, nobiles construiva [[castellos adulterin|castellos adulterin]] (i.e. castellos erigite sin permission governamental), que esseva detestate per le paisanos, qui esseva fortiate a construir e mantener los. Stephan esseva capturate e su governamento cadeva. Matilda esseva proclamate regina, ma tosto illa entrava in conflicto con su subditos e esseva expellite de Londres. Le guerra continuava usque 1148, quando Matilda retornava a Francia. Stephan regnava sin opposition usque su morte in 1154, ben que su tenuta del throno esseva precarie. Appena ille recuperava su poter, ille comenciava a demolir le castellos adulterin, ma retineva alcunos, lo que lo poneva in opposition con su herede. Su regno contestate, [[le Anarchia|guerra civil]] e le illegalitate causava un major transference de poter verso le [[feudal|feudal]] [[barones|barones]]. In tentar de placar incursiones scotese e gallese, ille cedeva large tractos de terra. ==Anglaterra sub le Plantagenetas== {{AP|Casa de Plantagenet}} ===Le prime Angevinos=== {{AP|Reges angevins de Anglaterra}} [[File:Richard1TombFntrvd.jpg|thumb|Tumba de Ricardo I de Anglaterra e Isabella de Angoulême]] [[Empressa Matilda|Empressa Matilda]] e le filio de [[Geoffroy Plantagenet, Conte de Anjou|Geoffroy]], Henrico, reprendeva le invasion; ille ja esseva Conte de Anjou, Duce de Normandia e Duce de Aquitania quando ille debarcava in Anglaterra. Quando le filio e herede apparent de Stephan, [[Eustace IV, Conte de Boulogne|Eustace]], moriva in 1153, Stephan concludeva un accordo con Henrico de [[Comté de Anjou|Anjou]] (qui deveniva [[Henrico II de Anglaterra|Henrico II]]) pro succeder a Stephan e garantir pace inter illes. Le union esseva retrospectivemente appellate le [[Imperio angevin|imperio angevin]]. Henrico II destruiva le castellos adulterin restante e expandiva su poter per varie medios e a differente grados in Irlanda, Scotia, Galles, Flandria, Nantes, Britannia, Quercy, Tolosa, Bourges e Auvergne.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2020-03/special-b-_angevin_empire_special_subjec_2019-20.pdf |title=THE 'ANGEVIN EMPIRE', 1150s–1230s |year=2019 |pages=1–2}}</ref> Le regno de Henrico II representa un retorno del poter del baronato verso le stato monarchic in Anglaterra; illo videva etiam un redistribution similar del poter legislative ab le Ecclesia verso le stato monarchic. Iste periodo prefigurava etiam un legislation proprie constituite e un cambio radical longe ab le [[feudalismo]]. Durante su regno, nove aristocratias [[Anglo-Angevin|anglo-angevin]] e [[Anglo-Aquitanian|anglo-aquitan]] se disveloppava, ben que non al mesme grado que le [[Anglo-Normandos|anglo-normanne]] habeva facite, e le nobiles normanne interagiva con lor pares francese.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1133&context=honors|title=Feudal Strength!: Henry II and the struggle for royal control in England|author=Jordan Paul Carr|year=2007|journal=Senior Honors Theses & Projects|volume=134|publisher=Eastern Michigan University|access-date=18 March 2024}}</ref> Le successor de Henrico, [[Ricardo I de Anglaterra|Ricardo I]] “Cor Leon” (equalmente cognoscite como “le rege absente”), esseva preoccupate con guerras exterior, participava in le [[Tertie Crusada]], esseva capturate durante su retorno e pledava fidelitate al [[Sacro Imperio Roman|Sacro Imperio Roman]] como parte de su rescate,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-I-king-of-England/Imprisonment|title=Imprisonment of Richard I|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=18 March 2024}}</ref> e defendeva su territorios francese contra Philip II de Francia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gillingham |first=John |title=The Angevin Empire |date=1984 |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-6249-X |edition=1st |location=London}}</ref> Su successor, su fratre plus juvene [[Johannes, Rege de Anglaterra|Johannes]], perdeva multe de illos territorios, includente Normandia, post le disastrose [[Batalia de Bouvines]] in 1214,<ref>* {{cite book|last=France |first=John |chapter=The Battle of Bouvines 27 July 1214 |title=The Medieval Way of War: Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach |editor-first=Gregory I. |editor-last=Halfond|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tTjWBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA251 |year=2015|pages=251–271 |location=Farnham, Surrey|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=978-1-4724-1958-3 }}</ref> malgrado haber facite le [[Regno de Anglaterra|Regno de Anglaterra]] un vassallo pagante tributo al [[Sancta Sede]] in 1212,<ref name="pope innocent iii na">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08013a.htm|title=Pope Innocent III|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|access-date=18 March 2024}}</ref> stato in le qual illo remaneva usque al 14e seculo quando le Regno rejectava le senioritate del Sancta Sede e restabiliva su soberanitate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medievalchurch.org.uk/pdf/e-books/patterson/church-of-england_patterson.pdf|title=A HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND|author=Rev. M. W. Patterson|publisher=Longmans, Green and Co.|year=1929|access-date=18 March 2024}}</ref> Le prime pogromos anti-semitic occurreva in le vestigios del crusadas de Ricardo, in 1189–90, in York e altere locos. In York, 150 judeos moriva.{{sfn|Maier|2022}} Desde 1212, Johannes habeva un politica constante de mantener relationes proxime con le Papa, lo que explica parcialmente como ille persuadeva le Papa de rejectar le legitimitate del [[Magna Carta]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.concordatwatch.eu/the-pope-cancels-the-magna-carta-1215--t41481|title=The Pope cancels the Magna Carta (1215)|publisher=Concordat Watch|access-date=18 March 2024}}</ref> ===Magna Carta=== {{AP|Magna Carta}} [[File:Magna Carta (British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106).jpg|thumb|Un del solmente quatro [[copia exemplificate|copias exemplificate]] supervivente del texto de 1215, ''Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106'', proprietate del [[Bibliotheca Britannic|Bibliotheca Britannic]]]] [[File:Dover Castle from the north.jpg|thumb|[[Castello de Dover|Castello de Dover]], seculos 12–13]] Durante su regno, un combination de taxas plus alte, guerras infructuose e conflicto con le Papa rendeva Rege Johannes impopular inter su barones. In 1215, alcunos del plus importante barones se rebellava contra ille. Ille incontrava lor leaders, insimul con lor alliantios francese e scotese, a [[Runnymede|Runnymede]], proxime a Londres, le 15 junio 1215, pro sigillar le Grande Charte ([[Magna Carta]] in [[Latino]]), que imponeva limites legal super le poter personal del rege. Ma appena le hostilitates cessava, Johannes recipeva approbation del Papa pro rumper su parola, proque ille l’habeva date sub coercition. Isto provocava le [[Prime Guerra del Barones|Prime Guerra del Barones]] e un invasion francese per [[Ludovico VIII de Francia|Principe Ludovico de Francia]], invitate per un majoritate del barones anglese pro replaciar Johannes como rege in Londres in maio 1216. Johannes viagiava per le pais pro opponer se al fortias rebelle, dirigente, inter altere operationes, un assedio de duo menses del [[Castello de Rochester|Castello de Rochester]] detente per rebelles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Magna-Carta|title=Magna Carta|author=Doris Mary Stenton|website=Encyclopedia Brittanica|access-date=8 November 2023}}</ref> ===Henrico III=== {{main|Henrico III de Anglaterra}} Le filio de Johannes, [[Henrico III de Anglaterra|Henrico III]], habeva solmente 9 annos quando ille deveniva rege (1216–1272). Ille passava multe de su regno luctante contra le barones super le Magna Carta<ref>{{cite web|title=Bibliotheca del Congresso: Magna Carta: Musa e Mentor|website=[[Bibliotheca del Congresso]] |date=6 November 2014 |url=[https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/magna-carta-muse-and-mentor/confirmation-by-kings-and-parliament.html|access-date=17](https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/magna-carta-muse-and-mentor/confirmation-by-kings-and-parliament.html|access-date=17) August 2021}}</ref> e super le derectos regial, e finalmente esseva obligate a convocar le prime "[[Parlamento de Anglaterra|parlamento]]" in 1264. Ille esseva etiam infructuose in le continente, ubi ille tentava restablir le controlo anglese super [[Normandia]], [[Contate de Anjou|Anjou]] e [[Aquitania]].<ref name="Carpenter 2004 310">{{Cite book |last=Carpenter |first=David A. |title=The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284 |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-014824-4 |location=London |page=310}}</ref><ref>{{cite ODNB |url=[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/12950](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/12950) |title=Henrico III (1207–1272) |publication-date=September 2010 |year=2004 |last=Ridgeway |first=Huw W. |access-date=17 August 2013 |archive-url=[https://archive.today/20130818075022/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/12950](https://archive.today/20130818075022/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/12950) |archive-date=18 August 2013 |mode=cs2 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12950 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Su regno esseva punctuate per multe rebellion e guerras civil, frequentemente provocate per incompetentia e mal administration in le governamento e per le perception que Henrico se basava troppo super cortesanos francese (e assi limitava le influentia del nobilitate anglese). Un de iste rebellion — guidate per un cortesano discontente, [[Simon de Montfort, 6te Conte de Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] — esseva notabile per su assemblage de un del plus antique precursores del [[Parlamento del Regno Unite|Parlamento]]. In addition al luctar in le [[Secunde Guerra del Barones]], Henrico III menava guerra contra Ludovico IX e esseva disfiate durante le [[Guerra de Saintonge]], ma Ludovico non profitava de su victoria, respectante le derectos de su adversario.<ref name="Carpenter 2004 310"/> Le politicas de Henrico III verso le Judéos comenciava con un relative tolerantia, ma deveniva gradualemente plus restrictive. In 1253 le [[Statuto del Judaismo]] reforciava le segregation physic e requireva le uso obligatori (antea solo theoretic) de insignias blanc e quadrate.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hillaby |first1=Joe |title=The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History |last2=Hillaby |first2=Caroline |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-23027-816-5 |location=Basingstoke |page=104}}</ref> Henrico III alsi supportava un accusation de infanticidio in Lincoln, ordinante que un Judéo Copin esseva executate e que 91 Judéos esseva arrestates pro processo; 18 esseva occidite. Fobias superstitiose popular esseva alimentate, e le hostilitate theologic catholic combinate con le abusos baronal del arrangiamentos de prestito, resultava in le facto que le supportatores de [[Simon de Montfort, 6te Conte de Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] attaccava communitates judee in lor [[Secunde Guerra del Barones|revolution]]. Iste hostilitate, violentia e controvertia formava le contro-fundamento al mesuras sempre plus oppressive que sequeva sub Eduardo I.<ref name="Hillaby 2013 104–107"/> ===Seculo 14=== {{main| Eduardo I de Anglaterra| Eduardo II de Anglaterra | Eduardo III de Anglaterra| Ricardo II de Anglaterra }} [[File:Mob Quad from Chapel Tower.jpg|thumb|Le [[Mob Quad]] de [[Merton College, Oxford|Merton College]], [[Universitate de Oxford]], 13te–14te seculo]] Le regno de [[Eduardo I de Anglaterra|Eduardo I]] (regnavit 1272–1307) esseva multo plus succedite. Eduardo promulgava numerose leis que fortificava le poter de su governamento, e ille convocava le prime [[Parlamentos de Anglaterra]] officialmente autorisate (como su [[Parlamento-Modelo]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/edward/#:~:text=Model%20Parliament&text=The%20next%20time%20the%20burgesses,(almost)%20all%20future%20Parliaments.|title=Cambios](https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/edward/#:~:text=Model%20Parliament&text=The%20next%20time%20the%20burgesses,%28almost%29%20all%20future%20Parliaments.|title=Cambios) sub Eduardo I |website=parliament.uk|access-date=27 March 2024}}</ref> Ille [[Conquesto de Galles per Eduardo I|conquireva Galles]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Morris |first=John E. |title= The Welsh Wars of Edward I. a Contribution to Mediaeval Military History, Based on Original Documents |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1901 |oclc= 562375464 }}</ref> e tentava usar un disputa de succession pro obtener controlo del [[Regno de Scotia]], ben que isto deveniva un campania militar costose e prolongate. Eduardo I es etiam cognoscite pro su politicas de persecution initial del Judéos, specialmente le [[Statuto del Judaismo (1275)]]. Isto prohibiva le Judéos de lor rolo anterior in concessiones de prestitos, e exigeva que illes travaliava como mercantes, agriculturares, artigianos o soldados. Isto esseva irrealistic e falleva.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Huscroft |first=Richard |title=Expulsion: England's Jewish solution |date=2006 |publisher=Tempus |isbn=978-0-752-43729-3 |location=Stroud |pages=112–139}}</ref> Le solution de Eduardo esseva [[Historia del Judéos in Anglaterra (1066–1290)#Eduardo I e le Expulsion|expeller le Judéos de Anglaterra]].<ref name="Hillaby 2013 104–107">{{harvnb|Hillaby|Hillaby|2013|pp=104–107}}</ref><ref name="Jacobs 1903">{{cite Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Anglaterra |first=Joseph |last=Jacobs |url=[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england](http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england) |volume=5 |page=161-174}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Huscroft|2006|pp=140–160}}</ref> Isto esseva le prime expulsion estatal e permanente in Europa.{{sfn|Roth|1964|p=90}}{{sfn|Richmond|1992|pp=44-45}}{{sfn|Skinner|2003|p=1}}{{sfn|Huscroft|2006|p=12}} Su filio, [[Eduardo II de Anglaterra|Eduardo II]], esseva considerate un disastro per altere nobles. Un homine que prefereva facer actividades como teger palia e excavar fossos<ref>{{cite book|title=Edward II: The Unconventional King|author=Kathryn Warner|date=19 February 2015|publisher=Amnberley Publishing|isbn=978-1-4456-4120-1}}</ref> e associar se con le classe inferior plus tosto que participar in activitates considerabile appropriate pro le classe superior, como justas, chassa o le usual divertimentos regial, ille passava le major parte de su regno tentando invano controlar le nobilitate, qui in retorno monstrava hostilitate constante verso ille. Interim, le conducator scotese [[Roberto le Bruce|Roberto Bruce]] comenciava recuperar tote le territorio conquistate per Eduardo I. In 1314, le exercito anglese esseva disastruosemente disfiate per le Scotes al [[Battaile de Bannockburn]]. Eduardo etiam honoreva con favor su companion [[Piers Gaveston, 1e Conte de Cornwall|Piers Gaveston]], un miles de humile nascentia. Ben que il ha longemente essite credite que Eduardo esseva homosexual a causa de su proximitate con Gaveston, il non ha prova concrete de isto. Le inimicos del rege, incluse su cosino [[Thomas de Lancaster]], capturava e assassinava Gaveston in 1312. Le [[Grande Fame de 1315–1317]] pote haber resultate in medio million de mortes in Anglaterra per fame e maladias, plus que 10 per cento del population.<ref name="famine">"''[[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGsCGAdH4YQC&pg=PA66](https://books.google.com/books?id=eGsCGAdH4YQC&pg=PA66) The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian trap]''". Alan Macfarlane (1997). p.66. {{ISBN|0-631-18117-2}}</ref> [[File:Ellesmere Chaucer, mssEL 26 C 9, folio 153v, warmer image.jpg|left|thumb|180x180px|[[Geoffrey Chaucer]], {{circa|1340s}}–1400, autor de [[Le Contos de Canterbury]]]] [[File:Canterbury Cathedral Nave 1, Kent, UK - Diliff.jpg|thumb|Nave del [[Cathedral de Canterbury]], 1377]] Le cadita de Eduardo veniva in 1326 quando su uxor, [[Isabella de Francia|Regina Isabella]], viagiava a su patria Francia e, con su amante [[Roger Mortimer, 1e Conte de Marcha|Roger Mortimer]], [[Eduardo II de Anglaterra#Invasion|invadeva Anglaterra]]. Malgrado lor parve forza, illes rapidemente reuniava supporto. Le rege fugiva London, e su companion post le morte de Gaveston, [[Hugh Despenser le juvene|Hugh Despenser le juvene]], esseva publicamente judicate e executate. Eduardo esseva capturate, accusate de violar su juramento de coronation, [[Eduardo II de Anglaterra#Abdication|deponite]] e incarcerate in Gloucestershire usque a que ille esseva assassinate in autumno 1327, probabilemente per agentes de Isabella e Mortimer. [[Eduardo III de Anglaterra|Eduardo III]], filio de Eduardo II, esseva coronate a etate de 14 annos post que su patre esseva [[deposition (politics)|deponite]] per su matre e [[Roger Mortimer, 1e Conte de Marcha|Roger Mortimer]]. A etate de 17 annos ille duceva un coup succedite contra Mortimer, le ''de facto'' governante del regno, e comenciava su regno personal. [[Eduardo III de Anglaterra|Eduardo III]] regnavit 1327–1377, restabliva le autoritate regial e transformava Anglaterra in le plus efficace potentia militar in Europa. Su regno videva importantes disveloppamentos legislative e governmental—specialmente in le evolution del parlamento anglese—assi como le devastation del [[Morte Nigre]]. Post disfacer (ma non subjugular) le [[Regno de Scotia]], ille declarava se hereditario legitime del throno francese in 1338, ma su pretendite esseva rejectate per via del [[Lege salic]]. Isto initiava lo que deveniva cognoscite como le [[Guerra de Cento Annos]].<ref>Eduardo se intitulava "Rege de Francia" in 1337, ben que ille non assumeva officialmente le titulo usque 1340; Prestwich (2005), pp. 307–8.</ref> Post qualque reversos initial, le guerra procedeva extraordinariamente ben pro Anglaterra; victorias a [[Battaile de Crécy|Crécy]] e [[Battaile de Poitiers (1356)|Poitiers]] conduceva al favorabile [[Tractato de Brétigny]]. Le annos posterior de Eduardo esseva marcate per fallimentos international e discordia domestic, principalmente a causa de su inactivity e mal stato de sanitate. Per multe annos, tensiones habeva fermentate con le [[Corona de Castilia|Castilia]]—un regno espaniol cuje marina atacava naves mercant anglese in le [[Canal Anglese|Canal]]. Eduardo ganava un [[Battaile de Winchelsea|major victoria naval]] contra un flotte castilian prope [[Winchelsea]] in 1350.<ref name="FletcherGenet2015">"...major victories such as Sluis (1340) and Winchelesea (1350)..." {{cite book|editor1=Christopher Fletcher|editor2=Jean-Philippe Genet|editor3=John Watts|title=Government and Political Life in England and France, c.1300–c.1500|author1=Steven Gunn|author2=Armand Jamme|chapter=Kings, Nobles and Military Networks|chapter-url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jlm3BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge](https://books.google.com/books?id=jlm3BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge) University Press|isbn=978-1-107-08990-7|page=48}}</ref> Ben que le ballestieros castilian occideva multe del inimicos,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=R. G. |title=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History |date=2017 |page=195}}</ref> le angleses ganiava gradualmente le melior parte del incontro. Nonobstante le successo de Eduardo, Winchelsea esseva solmente un episodio in un conflicto que durava inter angleses e hispanos per plus de 200 annos,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lavery |first1=Brian |title=The Conquest of the Ocean |date=2013 |page=61}}</ref> e culminava con le derrotas del [[Armada Hispanico]] e le [[Armada Anglese]] in 1588 e 1589.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=English History |volume=9 |page=535 |first=Samuel Rawson |last=Gardiner |author-link=Samuel Rawson Gardiner}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Elliott |first1=J H |title=Europe Divided (1559–1598) |page=351 |date=1982 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-84-8432-669-4}}</ref> In 1373, Anglaterra signava un [[Alliance Anglo-Portugalese|alliantia con le Regno de Portugal]], que es considerate le plus ancian alliantia ancora in vigor. Eduardo III moriva de un ictus le 21 junio 1377, e esseva succedite per su nepote de dece annos, [[Ricardo II de Anglaterra|Ricardo II]]. Ille se maritava con [[Anna de Bohemia]], filia de [[Carlo IV, Sacre Imperator Roman]] in 1382, e regnava usque a que ille esseva deposte per su primo cosino [[Henrico IV de Anglaterra|Henrico IV]] in 1399. In 1381, un [[Revolta del Paisanos]] guidate per [[Wat Tyler]] se diffundeva trans large partes de Anglaterra. Illo esseva supprimite per Ricardo II, con le morte de 1500 rebelles. ===Un tempore de turbamento=== {{AP|Morte Nigre in Anglaterra}} [[Le Morte Nigre]], un epidemia de [[peste bubonic]] que se disseminava trans tote Europa, arrivava in Anglaterra in 1348 e occideva usque un tertio a un medietate del population. Le conflictos militar durante iste periodo esseva generalmente con vicinos domestic como le Galleses, Irlandeses e Scotes, e includeva le [[Guerra de Cento Annos]] contra le Francese e lor alliate [[Populo scotese|scotese]]. Notabile victorias anglese in le Guerra de Cento Annos includeva [[Battaile de Crécy|Crécy]] e [[Battaile de Agincourt|Agincourt]]. Le ultime disfacta del insurrection guidate per le principe gallese [[Owain Glyndŵr]] in 1412 per le Principe Henrico (qui plus tarde deveniva [[Henrico V de Anglaterra|Henrico V]]) representa le ultime tentea armate major per le Galleses de repudiar le domination anglese. [[Eduardo III de Anglaterra|Eduardo III]] donava terras a potente familias nobile, includente multe personas de linea regial. Proque le terra esseva equivalente al poter, iste homines potente poteva tentar reclamar le corona. Quando Eduardo III moriva in 1377, ille esseva succedite per su nepote, [[Ricardo II de Anglaterra|Ricardo II]]. Le methodos autocratic e arrogante de Ricardo solmente alienava ancora plus le nobilitate, e su deposition forciate in 1399 per [[Henrico IV de Anglaterra|Henrico IV]] augmentava le turbamento. Henrico passava multo de su regno defendente se contra complottos, rebelliones e tentativas de assassination. Rebelliones continuava durante le prime dece annos del regno de Henrico, includente le revolta de [[Owain Glyndŵr]], qui se declarava [[Princep de Galles]] in 1400, e le rebellion de [[Henrico Percy, 1e Conte de Northumberland]]. Le successo del rege in supprimmer iste rebelliones esseva in parte debite al habilitate militar de su filio major, [[Henrico V de Anglaterra|Henrico de Monmouth]],<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=English History |volume=9 |page=511 |first=Charles |last=Oman |author-link=Charles Oman}}</ref> qui plus tarde deveniva rege (ben que le filio succedeva obtener multe poter effective de su patre in 1410). {{Referentias}} {{Traduction|en|History_of_England|1318386376}} [[Categoria:Historia de Anglaterra]] 99ukwvvuu1jxb7je4u4rjz4e6xap5fy 0 60299 698249 691165 2026-08-03T23:35:15Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698249 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} Le '''architectura grec antique''' proveniva del [[grecos]], cuje [[Grecia Antique|cultura]] floreva sur le continente grec, le [[Peloponneso]], le [[Insulas Egee]], e in colonias in [[Anatolia]] e in Italia durante un periodo ab circa 900 a.C. usque al prime seculo d.C., con le plus ancian obras architectural restante datante de circa 600 a.C. Le architectura grec antique es le melio cognoscite pro su [[Templos del Grecia antique|templos]], multe del quales se trova in tote le region, con le [[Parthenon]] considerate, tanto nunc como in le tempore antique, como le exemplo principal.<ref>{{harvnb|Lawrence|1957|pp=83–84}}.</ref> Le major parte del restos es ruinas multo incomplete, ma un numero considerabile de edificios supervive in grande parte intacte, principalmente foras del Grecia moderne. Le secunde typo importante de edificio que supervive in tote le mundo hellenic es le [[Theatro del Grecia antique#Characteristicas del edificios|theatro a celo aperte]], con le plus ancian exemplos datante de circa 525–480 a.C. Altere [[formas architectural]] que es ancora evidente include le porta processional (le ''[[propylon]]''), le placia public (le ''[[agora]]'') circumdate per colonnadas con plure nivellos (le ''[[stoa]]''), le edificio del consilio civic (le ''[[bouleuterion]]''), le monumento public, le tumba monumental (le ''[[mausoleum]]'') e le ''[[stadium]]''. Le architectura grec antique se distingue per su characteristicas altemente formalisate, tanto in structura como in decoration. Isto es particularmente ver in le caso del templos, ubi cata edificio pare haber essite concipite como un entitate sculptural in le paisage, multo sovente elevate sur terreno alte, de sorta que le elegantia de su proportiones e le effectos del lumine sur su superficies pote esser observate ab tote le angulos.<ref name=HG2>{{harvnb|Gardner|Kleiner|Mamiya|2004|pp=126–132}}.</ref> [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] refere al “le forma plastic del templo [grec] […] presentate a nos con un presentia physic plus intense, plus vivente que illo de qualcunque edificio posterior”.<ref>{{harvnb|Pevsner|1943|p=19}}.</ref> Le vocabulario formal del architectura grec antique, in particular le division del stilo architectural in tres ordines definite — le [[Ordine doric]], le [[Ordine ionic]] e le [[Ordine corinthie]] — habeva un effecto profunde sur le [[Historia del architectura|architectura occidental]] de periodos posterior. Le [[Architectura roman antique]] nasceva de illo de Grecia e manteneva su influentia in Italia sin interruption usque al tempore presente. A partir del [[Renascentia]], le revival del [[Classicismo]] ha mantenite vive non solmente le formas precise e le detalios ordinate del architectura grec, ma etiam su conception del belleza architectural basate sur equilibrio e proportion. Le stilos successive del [[Architectura neoclassic]] e del [[Revival grec]] sequeva e adaptava de maniera proxime le stilos del Grecia antique. {{Referentias}} == Bibliographia == * {{cite book|last1=Boardman|first1=John|authorlink1=John Boardman (art historian)|last2=Dorig|first2=Jose|last3=Fuchs|first3=Werner|last4=Hirmer|first4=Max|year=1967|title=The Art and Architecture of Ancient Greece|location=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson}} * {{cite book|last=Fletcher|first=Banister|editor-last=Cruickshank|editor-first=Dan|year=1996|orig-date=1896|title=Sir Banister's A History of Architecture|edition=20th|location=Oxford|publisher=Architectural Press|isbn=0-7506-2267-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC}} * {{cite book |last=Doxiadis |first=Constantinos A. |authorlink=Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis |title=Architectural Space in Ancient Greece |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=1972 |url=https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-monograph/5057/Architectural-Space-in-Ancient-Greece |isbn=9780262368087}} * {{cite book |last1=Gardner |first1=Helen |last2=Kleiner |first2=Fred S. |last3=Mamiya |first3=Christin J. |year=2004 |title=Gardner's Art through the Ages |edition=12th |location=Belmont, California |language=en-us |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |isbn=0-15-505090-7}} * {{cite journal|last=Goldberg|first=Marilyn Y.|title=Greek Temples and Chinese Roofs|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-archaeology_1983-07_87_3/page/305|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=87|number=3|date=July 1983|pages=305–310|doi=10.2307/504798|jstor=504798|s2cid=191380231 }} * {{cite book|last1=Higgins|first1=Michael Denis|last2=Higgins|first2=Reynold|year=1996|title=A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean|location=Ithaca, NY|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-3337-1|url=http://uqac.ca/mhiggins/gcga/Geological%20companion%20to%20Greece%20-%20Higgins%20compressed.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240627111920/https://uqac.ca/mhiggins/gcga/Geological%20companion%20to%20Greece%20-%20Higgins%20compressed.pdf |date=2024-06-27 }} * {{cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Arnold Walter|author-link=A. W. Lawrence|year=1957|title=Greek Architecture (Penguin History of Art)|location=Harmondsworth|publisher=Penguin Books}} * {{cite book|last1=Moffett|first1=Marian|last2=Fazio|first2=Michael W.|last3=Wodehouse|first3=Laurence|year=2003|title=A World History of Architecture|location=London|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=1-85669-353-8}} * {{cite book |last=Neer |first=Richard T. |year=2012 |title=Greek Art and Archaeology: A New History, c. 2500–c. 150 BCE |location=New York, New York |language=en-us |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-28877-1 |oclc=745332893 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LX6TZwEACAAJ}} * {{cite book |last1=Nevett |first1=Lisa C. |title=Ancient Greek Housing |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521198721}} * {{cite book|last=Sideris|first=Athanasios|year=2008|chapter=Re-contextualized Antiquity: Interpretative VR Visualisation of Ancient Art and Architecture|editor1-last=Mikropoulos|editor1-first=T. A.|editor2-last=Papachristos|editor2-first=N. M.|title=Proceedings: International Symposium on "Information and Communication Technologies in Cultural Heritage" October 16–18, 2008|location=Ioannina|publisher=The University of Ioannina|isbn=9789609869102|pages=159–176|url=https://www.academia.edu/481085}} * {{cite book|last=Stierlin|first=Henri|year=2004|title=Greece: From Mycenae to the Parthenon|location=Köln|publisher=Taschen}} * {{cite book|last=Strong|first=Donald E.|author-link=Donald E. Strong|year=1965|title=The Classical World|location=London|publisher=Paul Hamlyn}} * {{cite journal|last=Penrose|first=Francis|title=The Orientation of Geek Temples|journal=Nature|volume=48|number=1228|date=11 May 1893|pages=42–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EpkZtUGY5y8C&pg=PA42}} * {{cite book|last=Pevsner|first=Nikolaus|year=1943|title=An Outline of European Architecture|location=London|publisher=John Murray}} * {{cite journal|last1=Rostoker|first1=William|last2=Gebhard|first2=Elizabeth|title=The Reproduction of Rooftiles for the Archaic Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, Greece|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-field-archaeology_summer-1981_8_2/page/211|journal=Journal of Field Archaeology|volume=8|number=2|date=Summer 1981|pages=211–212}} * {{cite journal|last=Wikander|first=Örjan|author-link=Örjan Wikander|title=Archaic Roof Tiles the First Generations|journal=Hesperia|volume=59|issue=1|pages=285–290|date=January–March 1990|jstor=148143}} {{Grecia antique}} [[Categoria:Architectura del Grecia Antique]] c99hsa7g5ipn5n144xm6o2s2i7hr28r 0 60351 698212 691420 2026-08-03T22:41:28Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698212 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Homo sapiens sapiens (Fundort Jebel Irhoud Marokko).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction de un precoce ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' ab [[Jebel Irhoud]], Marocco, c. 315 000 annos AP.]] '''[[Human moderne precoce]]''', o '''human anatomicamente moderne''',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nitecki|first1=Matthew H|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzb5BwAAQBAJ|title=Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans|last2=Nitecki|first2=Doris V|publisher=Springer|year=1994|isbn=1-4899-1507-9}}</ref> es terminos usate pro distinguer ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' (le sol specie existente del [[Hominina]]) que es [[Anatomia human|anatomicamente]] conforme al [[Variabilitate human|extension de phenotypos]] observate in humanos contemporanee, ab species extinguite de [[Humanos archaic|humanos archaic]]. Iste distinction es particularmente utile pro periodos e regiones ubi humanos anatomicamente moderne e humanos archaic co-existeva, per exemplo in le [[Europa paleolithic]]. Inter le restos plus ancian cognoscite de ''Homo sapiens'' se trova illos discoperite al sito archeologic del [[Restos de Omo|Omo-Kibish I]] in le sud-occidente de [[Ethiopia]], datate a circa 233 000<ref name="Vidal22">{{Cite journal |last1=Vidal |first1=Celine M. |last2=Lane |first2=Christine S. |author-link2=Christine Lane |last3=Asfawrossen |first3=Asrat |display-authors=etal |date=Jan 2022 |title=Age of the oldest known Homo sapiens from eastern Africa |journal=Nature |volume=601 |issue=7894 |pages=579–583 |bibcode=2022Natur.601..579V |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04275-8 |pmc=8791829 |pmid=35022610}}</ref> a 196 000 annos ante le presente,<ref name="Hammond 199–219">{{Cite journal|last1=Hammond|first1=Ashley S.|last2=Royer|first2=Danielle F.|last3=Fleagle|first3=John G.|date=Jul 2017|title=The Omo-Kibish I pelvis|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=108|pages=199–219|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.004|issn=1095-8606|pmid=28552208|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017JHumE.108..199H }}</ref> le [[Cranio de Florisbad]] trovate al [[Sito archeologic e paleontologic de Florisbad]] in Africa del Sud, datate a circa 259 000 annos ante le presente,{{cn|date=January 2025}} e le sito de [[Jebel Irhoud]] in Marocco, datate a circa 315 000 annos ante le presente.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richter |first=Daniel |last2=Grün |first2=Rainer |last3=Joannes-Boyau |first3=Renaud |last4=Steele |first4=Teresa E. |last5=Amani |first5=Fethi |last6=Rué |first6=Mathieu |last7=Fernandes |first7=Paul |last8=Raynal |first8=Jean-Paul |last9=Geraads |first9=Denis |last10=Ben-Ncer |first10=Abdelouahed |last11=Hublin |first11=Jean-Jacques |last12=McPherron |first12=Shannon P. |date=June 2017 |title=The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age |url=https://archive.org/details/nature-uk_2017-06-08_546_7657/page/293 |journal=Nature |volume=546 |issue=7657 |pages=293–296 |doi=10.1038/nature22335 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Le [[Listas de species extinguite|species extinguite]] del genere ''[[Homo]]'' include ''[[Homo erectus]]'' (existente ab approximativemente 2 000 000 a 100 000 annos ante le presente) e un numero de altere species (considerate per alcun autores como [[Subspecies human|subspecies]] de ''H. sapiens'' o de ''H. erectus''). Le divergence del linea evolutionary que conduce a ''H. sapiens'' a partir de un ancestral ''H. erectus'' (o de un specie intermedie como ''[[Homo antecessor]]'') es estimate haber occurrite in Africa circa 500 000 annos ante le presente. Le plus ancian evidentia fossil de humanos moderne precoce appare in [[Africa]] circa 300 000 annos ante le presente, con le prime separationes genetic inter humanos moderne, secundo certe evidentias, datante a circa le mesme periodo.<ref name="NAT-20190910">{{cite journal |last1=Mounier |first1=Aurélien |last2=Lahr |first2=Marta |title=Deciphering African late middle Pleistocene hominin diversity and the origin of our species |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=3406 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-11213-w |pmid=31506422 |pmc=6736881 |year=2019 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.3406M }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Scerri|first1=Eleanor M. L.|last2=Thomas|first2=Mark G.|last3=Manica|first3=Andrea|last4=Gunz|first4=Philipp|last5=Stock|first5=Jay T.|last6=Stringer|first6=Chris|last7=Grove|first7=Matt|last8=Groucutt|first8=Huw S.|last9=Timmermann|first9=Axel|last10=Rightmire|first10=G. Philip|last11=d'Errico|first11=Francesco|date=2018-08-01|title=Did Our Species Evolve in Subdivided Populations across Africa, and Why Does It Matter?|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume=33|issue=8|pages=582–594|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005|pmid=30007846|pmc=6092560|bibcode=2018TEcoE..33..582S }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=350kiloyearsAgo|Basate sur Schlebusch et al., “Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350 000 to 260 000 years ago”,<ref name=Schlebusch350-260>{{cite journal |last=Schlebusch |display-authors=etal |title=Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago |url=https://archive.org/details/science_2017-11-03_358_6363/page/652 |journal=Science |volume=358 |issue=6363 |date=3 November 2017 |pages=652–655 |doi=10.1126/science.aao6266 |pmid=28971970 |bibcode=2017Sci...358..652S |doi-access=free }}</ref> e Stringer (2012),<ref name=Stringer2012>{{cite journal|last=Stringer |first=C |title=What makes a modern human |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2012-05-03_485_7396/page/33 |journal=Nature |year=2012 |volume=485 |issue=7396 |pages=33–35 |doi=10.1038/485033a |pmid=22552077 |bibcode=2012Natur.485...33S |doi-access=free }}</ref> (admixtion archaic).}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Neubauer|first1=Simon|last2=Hublin|first2=Jean-Jacques|last3=Gunz|first3=Philipp|date=2018-01-01|title=The evolution of modern human brain shape|journal=Science Advances|volume=4|issue=1|article-number=eaao5961|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aao5961|pmid=29376123|pmc=5783678|bibcode=2018SciA....4.5961N}}</ref> Un admixtion prolongate de [[Admixtion de humanos archaic con humanos moderne]] es cognoscite haber occurrite tanto in Africa como (post le [[Origine african recente del humanos moderne|expansion recente foras de Africa]]) in Eurasia, inter circa 100 000 e 30 000 annos ante le presente.<ref name=Harrod2014>{{cite journal|title=Harrod (2014) Suppl File Table 1 mtDNA language myth Database rev May 17 2019.doc |journal=Mother Tongue |last1=Harrod |first1=James }}</ref> {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Homine]] ldi4k0vyj4i9n1t1y279u68e3x2jmxm 0 60534 698236 695894 2026-08-03T23:16:18Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698236 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|thumb|Mappa del Imperio Roman<br/>{{legend|#C46C5C|[[Republica Roman|Republica]]}}{{legend|#9C649C|Principato/Dominato}}{{legend|#BCC45C|[[Imperio Byzantin]]/Oriental}}{{legend|#5CA4CC|Imperio Occidental}}|alt=Mappa animate del Republica e Imperio Roman]] Le '''cadita del Imperio Roman de Occidente''', anque appellate le '''cadita del Imperio Roman''' o le '''cadita de Roma''', esseva le perdita de controlo politic central in le [[Imperio roman de occidente]], un processo in le qual le Imperio faliava a imponer su regula, e su vaste territorio esseva dividite inter plure entitates politic successor. Le Imperio Roman perdeva le fortias que le permitteva exercer controlo effective sur su provincias occidental; historiographos moderne postula factores includente le effectivitate e le numeros del armea, le sanitate e numeros del population roman, le fortia del economia, le competentia del imperatores, le luctas interne pro le poter, le cambios religiose del periodo, e le efficientia del administration civil. Pression crescente de populos invasor foras del cultura roman anque contribueva multo al colapso. Cambios climatic e maladias tanto endemic como epidemic moveva multe de iste factores immediate.{{sfn|Harper|2017}} Le rationes pro le colapso es subjectos major del historiographia del mundo antique e illos informa multo del discurso moderne sur le falia del stato.{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|2005|p=1}}<ref>e.g. Why Nations Fail. Acemoglu D and Robinson JA. Profile Books (Random House Inc.) 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-84668-429-6}}. pp. 166–175</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |author-link=Jared Diamond |title=Collapse |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-311700-1 |pages=13–14}}</ref> In 376, un grande migration de gothos e altere populos non-roman, fugiente del hunnos, entrava in le Imperio. Le fortias roman non esseva capace de exterminar, expeller o subjugar los (como esseva lor practica normal). In 395, post vincer duo destructive guerras civil, Theodosio I moriva. Ille lassava un armea de campo in colapso, e le Imperio se divideva inter le ministros belligerante de su duo filios incapace. Le gothos e altere non-romanos deveniva un fortia que poteva peter ambe partes del Imperio. Altere gruppos barbaric transversava le Rheno e altere frontieras. Le fortias armate del Imperio de Occidente deveniva pauc e ineffective, e malgrado breve recuperationes sub duces habile, le controlo central nunquam esseva consolidate effectivemente de novo. Per 476, le position de imperator roman de occidente exerceva un poter militar, politic o financiari negligibile, e non habeva alcun controlo effective sur le dominios de occidente dispersate que ancora poteva esser describite como roman. Regnos barbaric habeva establite lor proprie poter in multo del area del Imperio de Occidente. In 476, le rege barbaric germanic Odoacre deponeva le ultime imperator del Imperio Roman de Occidente in Italia, Romulo Augustulo, e le Senato inviava le insignias imperial al imperator roman de oriente Zenon. Ben que su legitimitate durava pro seculos de plus e su influentia cultural remane hodie, le Imperio de Occidente nunquam habeva le fortia pro resurger. Le [[Imperio roman de oriente]], o byzantin, superviveva e remaneva pro seculos un poter effective del Mediterraneo oriental, ben que illo diminueva in fortia. Ben que le perdita de unitate politic e controlo militar es universalmente recognoscite, le cadita de Roma non es le sol concepto unificator pro iste eventos; le periodo describite como antiquitate tarde accentua le continuitates cultural a traverso de e ultra le colapso politic. == Approches historic e syntheses moderne == {{AP|Historiographia del cadita del Imperio Roman de Occidente}} Desde 1776, quando [[Edward Gibbon]] publicava le prime volumine de su ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|Historia del declino e cadita del Imperio Roman]]'', Declino e Cadita ha essite le thema circa le qual multo del historia del Imperio Roman ha essite structurate. "A partir del 18e seculo," scribeva le historico [[Glen Bowersock]], "nos ha essite obsesse per le cadita: illo ha essite valorisate como un archetypo pro omne declino percipite, e, per consequente, como un symbolo pro nostre proprie timores."<ref>Glen Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome" ''Bulletin of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]'' 1996. vol. 49 no. 8 pp. 29–43.</ref> === Un altere paradigma del periodo === {{AP|Antiquitate tardive}} Desde al minus le tempore de [[Henri Pirenne]] (1862–1935), eruditos ha describite un continuitate del [[Cultura del Roma antique|cultura roman]] e del legitimitate politic multo post 476.<ref name="Ramsay MacMullen 1981">{{Cite book |last=MacMullen |first=Ramsay |title=Paganism in the Roman Empire |date=1981 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300029840 |edition=unabridged}}</ref>{{rp|5–7}}<ref name="survival_greece">Gregory, T. (1986). The Survival of Paganism in Christian Greece: A Critical Essay. ''The American Journal of Philology'', '''107'''(2), 229–242. {{doi|10.2307/294605}}</ref> Pirenne postponeva le fin del [[Antiquitate classic|civilisation classic]] usque al 8e seculo. Ille contestava le notion que le [[Periodo del migrationes|barbaros germanic]] habeva causate le fin del [[Imperio Roman de Occidente]], e ille refusava de equalar le fin del Imperio Roman de Occidente con le fin del officio de [[Imperator roman|imperator]] in Italia. Ille signalava le continuitate essential del economia del [[Mediterraneo]] roman mesmo post le invasiones [[barbaro|barbare]], e suggereva que solmente le [[Conquestas musulman|conquestas musulman]] representava un ruptura decisive con le antiquitate. Le formulation plus recente de un periodo historic characterisate como "[[Antiquitate tardive]]" emphase le transformationes del mundos antique al medieval intra un continuitate cultural.{{sfn|Brown|1978|pp=2–3}} In le ultime decennios, argumentos basate sur le archeologia extende mesmo le continuitate in le [[cultura material]] e in le patronos de colonisation usque al 11e seculo.<ref name="Lavan">{{Cite book |last=Lavan |first=Luke |title=The Archaeology of Late Antique "paganism" |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004192379 |editor-last=Lavan |editor-first=Luke |page=xxiv |editor-last2=Mulryan |editor-first2=Michael}}</ref>{{sfn|Hunt|2001|p=256}}<ref>Gregory, T. (1986). The Survival of Paganism in Christian Greece: A Critical Essay. The American Journal of Philology, 107(2), 229–242. {{doi|10.2307/294605}}</ref><ref name="Anna Leone">{{Cite book |last=Leone |first=Anna |title=The End of the Pagan City: Religion, Economy, and Urbanism in Late Antique North Africa |date=2013 |publisher=OUP |isbn=978-0199570928 |edition=illustrated |page=9}}</ref> Observante le realitate politic del perdita de controlo (e le fragmentation concomitante del commercio, cultura, e lingua), sed anque le continuitates cultural e archeologic, le processo ha essite describite como un complexe transformation cultural, plus tosto que un cadita.<ref name="Bowersock">{{Cite journal |last=Bowersock |first=Glen W. |date=1996 |title=The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome |journal=Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences |volume=49 |issue=8 |pages=29–43 |doi=10.2307/3824699 |jstor=3824699}}</ref>{{rp|34}} "Le perception del Antiquitate tardive ha cambiate significatemente: le periodo non es plus vidite como un era de declino e crise, sed como un epocha de metamorphose in le region mediterranee".<ref name="Rebenich in Rousseau" /><ref name="Johnson 2015">{{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity |date=2015 |publisher=OUP |isbn=978-0190277536 |editor-last=Johnson |editor-first=Scott Fitzgerald |edition=illustrated, reprint |page=6}}</ref>{{rp|3,4}} === Phases major === [[File:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png|thumb|Rutas prendite per le invasores barbaric del Imperio Roman durante le [[Periodo del Migrationes]]]] Un synthese per Harper (2017) presentava quatro tornos decisive de eventos in le transformation ab le apogeo del imperio usque al prime Medievo: * Le [[Peste Antonine]] que finiva un longe periodo de expansion demographic e economic, debilitante ma non renversante le imperio. * Le [[Crise del Tertie Seculo]], in le qual le [[Variabilitate e cambio climatic|cambio climatic]] natural, un renovate [[Peste de Cypriano|maladia pandemic]], e le instabilitate politic interne e externe duceva al quasi-collapso del systema imperial. Su reconstitution includeva un nove base pro le moneta, un apparato governamental professional expandite, imperatores plus distantiate de lor populo, e, bentosto, le ascension del [[Christianismo]], un [[Exclusivismo religiose|religion exclusive]] e proselytisante que anticipava le [[Eschatologia|imminente fin del mundo]]. * Le fallimento militar e politic del Occidente, in le qual le migration de massa ab le [[Steppa eurasian]] vinceva e dismembrava le parte occidental de un imperio internemente debilitate. Le imperio oriental se reconstrueva novemente e comenciava le reconquista del Occidente. * In le terras circum le Mediterraneo, le [[Parve Era Glacial del Antiquitate Tardive]] e le [[Peste de Justiniano]] creava un del pejor cataclismos ambiental in le historia registrate. Le systema imperial se collabeva in le proxime duo generationes e postea perdeva vaste territorios al armeas del [[Islam]], un nove religion exclusive e proselytisante que anque attendeva un imminente tempore final. Le diminuite e impauperite stato residue byzantin superviveva in medio de un lucta perpetual inter e intra le sequitores del christianismo e del islam.{{sfn|Harper|2017|p=21}} Le perdita de controlo politic centralisate super le Occidente, e le poter diminuite del Oriente, es universalmente acceptate, ma le thema del declino ha essite prendite pro doperir un intervallo de tempore multo plus ample que le cento annos ab 376. Pro [[Cassio Dion]], le ascension del imperator [[Commodo]] in 180 p.Chr. marcava le descension "ab un regno de auro a un de rubigine e ferro".<ref>Dio Cassius [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html#36 72.36.4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221024915/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72%2A.html#36 |date=2021-02-21 }}, Loeb edition translated E. Cary</ref> Depost le era del [[humanismo]], on ha pensate que le processo del Cadita comenciava con [[Constantino le Grande]], o con le [[Imperatores de quartiero|imperatores soldato]] qui sasiva le poter per medio del commando del armea ab 235 usque a 284, o con [[Commodo]], o mesmo con [[Augusto]].<ref name="Rebenich in Rousseau">{{Cite book |last=Rebenich |first=Stefan |title=A Companion to Late Antiquity |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1118293478 |editor-last=Rousseau |editor-first=Philip |page=78 |chapter=6 Late Antiquity in Modern Eyes}}</ref> Gibbon esseva incerte super quando le declino comenciava. "In le prime paragrapho de su texto, Gibbon scribeva que ille intendeva traciare le declino ab le era auree del Antoninos"; texto posterior lo face comenciar circa 180 p.Chr. con le morte de Marco Aurelio; durante que in le capitulo 7, ille repelle le initio del declino a circa 52 a.Chr., le tempore de Julio Cesare, Pompeio e Ciceron.{{sfn|Gruman|1960|pp=84–85}} Gibbon placiava le fin del imperio occidental con le remotion del homine a qui Gibbon se refereva como "le impotente Augustulo" in 476.{{sfn|Bowersock|1996|p=31}} [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] e [[James Burke (historico del scientia)|James Burke]] argumenta que tote le era imperial esseva un de constante decadentia de institutiones fundate in epochas [[Republica Roman|republican]]. [[Theodor Mommsen]] excludeva le periodo imperial de su ''[[Historia de Roma (Mommsen)|Historia de Roma]]'' (1854–1856), ganiator del Premio Nobel. Como un marcador conveniente pro le fin, 476 ha essite usate depost Gibbon, ma altere datas clave pro le cadita del Imperio Roman in le Occidente include le [[Crise del Tertie Seculo]], le [[Traversata del Rheno]] in 406 (o 405), le [[Sacco de Roma (410)|sacco de Roma in 410]], e le morte de [[Julio Nepote]] in 480.{{sfn|Momigliano|1973}} ===Causas, secundo Gibbon (1776–1789)=== Quando Gibbon publicava su obra monumental, illo deveniva rapidemente le texto de referentia.{{sfn|Jordan|1969|pp=83, 93–94}}{{sfn|Gibbon|1906|pp=279, 312}} Peter Brown ha scribite que "le obra de Gibbon formava le culmine de un seculo de erudition que habeva essite conducite in le credentia que le studio del declinante Imperio Roman esseva anque le studio del origines de Europa moderne".{{sfn|Brown|2013|p=37}} Gibbon esseva le prime a tentar un explication del causas de un cadita de imperio.{{sfn|Brown|2013|p=37}} Como altere pensatores del Illuminismo e citatanos britannic del epocha imbibite de anticatholicismo institutional, Gibbon dispreciava le Etate Media como un Etate Obscure superstitiose e dominate per prestres. On credeva que solmente in su proprie era, le "Epocha del Ration", con su emphase super le pensamento rational, le historia human poteva reprender su progresso.<ref>{{cite journal |first=J.G.A. |last=Pocock |year=1976 |title=Between Machiavelli and Hume: Gibbon as Civic Humanist and Philosophical Historian |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_daedalus_summer-1976_105_3/page/153 |journal=Daedalus |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=153–169}}</ref><ref>Pocock, ''The Enlightenments of Edward Gibbon, 1737–1764'', 303–304; ''The First Decline and Fall'', 304–306.</ref> Ille initiava un controversia continue super le rolo del christianismo, sed ille dava grande peso a altere causas de declino interne e a attaccos ab extra le Imperio. <blockquote>Le historia de su ruina es simple e obvie; e, in loco de investigar pro que le imperio roman esseva destruite, nos deberea plus tosto esser surprendite que illo habeva subsistite tanto tempore. Le legiones victoriose, que, in guerras distante, acquireva le vitios de estranieros e mercenarios, primo opprimeva le libertate del republica, e postea violava le majestate del purpura. Le imperatores, anxie pro lor securitate personal e le pace public, esseva reducite al base expediente de corrumper le disciplina que rendeva los equalmente formidabile a lor soverano e al inimico; le vigor del governamento militar esseva relaxate, e finalmente dissolvite, per le institutiones partial de Constantino; e le mundo roman esseva submersite per un diluvio de Barbaros. |Edward Gibbon. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', Capitulo 38 "Observationes General super le Cadita del Imperio Roman in le Occidente"</blockquote> <blockquote>Post un diligente investigation, io pote discerner quatro causas principal del ruina de Roma, que continuava a operar in un periodo de plus de mille annos. I. Le injurias del tempore e del natura. II. Le attaccos hostile del Barbaros e del Christianos. III. Le uso e abuso del materiales. E, IV. Le querelas domestic del Romanos. |Edward Gibbon. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', Capitulo 71 "Quatro Causas de Declino e Destruction."</blockquote> {{Referentias}} == Bibliographia == * {{cite book |last1=Harper |first1=Kyle|title=The fate of Rome. Climate, disease, and the end of an empire |year=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location= |isbn=978-0-691-19206-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Ward-Perkins |first1=Bryan |title=The fall of Rome and the end of civilization |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-280728-1}} {{Roma antique}} [[Categoria:Roma antique]] noigdd4k216l6cp6ozwbm5wmxxxmh3a 0 60735 698244 695236 2026-08-03T23:30:13Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} '''Mesopotamia'''{{Efn|{{Langx|ar|بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن}} {{Transliteration|ar|Bilād ar-Rāfidayn}} or {{Lang|ar|بَيْن‌ُ ٱلْنَهْرَيْن}} {{Transliteration|ar|Bayn ul-Nahrayn}}; {{langx|tr|Mezopotamya}}; {{langx|fa|میان‌رودان}} {{Transliteration|fa|miyân rudân}}; {{langx|el|Μεσοποταμία}} {{tlit|grc|Mesopotamíā}}; {{langx|syc|ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ}}, {{Transliteration|syc|Bēṯ Nahrēn}}}} es un [[region historic]] de [[Asia Occidental]] situate intra le [[systema fluvial Tigris-Euphrates]], in le parte nord del [[Crescente Fertile]]. Illo corresponde approximativemente al territorio del moderne [[Irak]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seymour |first=Michael |date=2004 |title=Ancient Mesopotamia and Modern Iraq in the British Press, 1980–2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_2004-06_45_3/page/351 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=351–368 |doi=10.1086/383004 |jstor=10.1086/383004 |s2cid=224788984 |issn=0011-3204 }}</ref><ref name="miqueletal" />. Justo ultra illo se trova le sud-west de [[Iran]], ubi le region face le transition al [[alteplano iranian|alteplano persian]], marcante le cambio del [[mundo arabe]] a Iran.<ref>A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, rev. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977).</ref> Mesopotamia es le sito del prime developpamentos del [[Revolution Neolithic]] ab circa 10.000 a.C. Illo ha essite identificate como habente "inspirate alicun del developpamentos le plus importante in le historia human, includente le invention del [[rota]], le plantation del prime [[cultura]]s de [[cereal]], le developpamento del scriptura [[cursive]], [[mathematica]], [[astronomia]], e [[agricultura]]". Illo es recognoscite como le cuna de alicun del prime civilisationes del mundo.<ref name="historyandpolicy">{{cite web |last=Milton-Edwards |first=Beverley |date=May 2003 |title=Iraq, past, present and future: a thoroughly-modern mandate? |url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-13.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208112958/http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-13.html |archive-date=8 December 2010 |access-date=9 December 2010 |work=History & Policy |location=[[Regno Unite]] |accessdate=2 March 2026 |archivedate=8 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208112958/http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-13.html }}</ref> Le [[sumerios]] e [[accadios]], cata uno originari de areas differente, dominava Mesopotamia ab le initio del [[historia registrate]] ({{circa|3100 a.C.}}) usque al [[cadita de Babylonia]] in 539 a.C. Le ascension de imperios, comenciante con [[Sargon de Accad]] circa 2350 a.C., characterisava le subsequente 2.000 annos de historia mesopotamic, marcate per le succession de regnos e imperios tal como le [[Imperio Accadie]]. Le initio del secunde millennio a.C. videva le polarisation del societate mesopotamic in [[Assyria]] in le nord e [[Babylonia]] in le sud. De 900 a 612 a.C., le [[Imperio Neo-Assyrie]] assereva controlo super gran parte del antique Oriente Proxime. Subsequentemente, le babylonios, qui habeva essite longemente eclipsate per Assyria, [[Imperio Neo-Babylonic|prendeva le poter]], dominante le region durante un seculo como le ultime regno mesopotamic independente usque al era moderne.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lemche |first=Niels Peter |title=Historical dictionary of ancient Israel |date=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-4848-1 |series=Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras |location=Lanham, Md. |pages=64–67 |chapter=Assyria and Babylonia |quote=}}</ref> In 539 a.C., Mesopotamia esseva conquirite per le [[Imperio Achemenide]] sub [[Cyro le Grande]]. Le area esseva depost conquirite per [[Alexandro le Grande]] in 332 a.C. Post su morte, illo esseva disputate per le varie [[Diadochos]] (successores de Alexandro), del quales le [[Imperio Seleucide|seleucides]] emergeva victoriose. Circa 150 a.C., Mesopotamia esseva sub le controlo del [[Imperio Parthic]]. Illo deveniva un campo de battalia inter le [[Roma antique|romanos]] e parthos, con partes occidental del region veniente sub ephemere controlo roman. In 226 p.C., le regiones oriental de Mesopotamia cadeva al [[Imperio Sassanide|persas sassanide]] sub [[Ardashir I]]. Le division del region inter le Imperio Roman e le Imperio Sassanide durava usque al [[conquesta musulman de Persia]] del seculo VII del [[Imperio Sassanide]] e le [[conquesta musulman del Levante]] ab le byzantinos. Un numero de statos mesopotamic native primarimente neo-assyrie e christian existeva inter le seculo I a.C. e le seculo III p.C., includente [[Adiabene]], [[Osroene]], e le [[Regno de Hatra|Hatra]]. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Mesopotamia]] swbllx071nvtrx5ky756evkf8i599ql 0 60746 698257 694962 2026-08-03T23:45:59Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698257 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Indig2.jpg|thumb|Un gravure del fin del 19e seculo que depinge [[Gweagal|homines gweagal]] confrontante un gruppo de debarcamento britannic in 1770]] Le '''historia del australianos indigene''' comenciava 50.000 a 65.000 annos retro quando [[human|humanos]] populava prime vice le [[Australia (continente)|continente australian]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Martin A. J. |last2=Spooner |first2=Nigel A. |last3=McDonnell |first3=Kathryn |last4=O'Connell |first4=James F. |date=January 2021 |title=Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |url-status=live |journal=Geoarchaeology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=92–108 |bibcode=2021Gearc..36...92W |doi=10.1002/gea.21822 |issn=0883-6353 |s2cid=225321249 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004091731/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |access-date=16 October 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="ClarksonJacobs20172">{{Cite journal |last1=Clarkson |first1=Chris |last2=Jacobs |first2=Zenobia |last3=Marwick |first3=Ben |last4=Fullagar |first4=Richard |last5=Wallis |first5=Lynley |last6=Smith |first6=Mike |last7=Roberts |first7=Richard G. |last8=Hayes |first8=Elspeth |last9=Lowe |first9=Kelsey |last10=Carah |first10=Xavier |last11=Florin |first11=S. Anna |last12=McNeil |first12=Jessica |last13=Cox |first13=Delyth |last14=Arnold |first14=Lee J. |last15=Hua |first15=Quan |year=2017 |title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago |journal=Nature |volume=547 |issue=7663 |pages=306–310 |bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C |doi=10.1038/nature22968 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=28726833 |s2cid=205257212 |hdl-access=free |last16=Huntley |first16=Jillian |last17=Brand |first17=Helen E. A. |last18=Manne |first18=Tiina |last19=Fairbairn |first19=Andrew |last20=Shulmeister |first20=James |last21=Lyle |first21=Lindsey |last22=Salinas |first22=Makiah |last23=Page |first23=Mara |last24=Connell |first24=Kate |last25=Park |first25=Gayoung |last26=Norman |first26=Kasih |last27=Murphy |first27=Tessa |last28=Pardoe |first28=Colin |hdl=2440/107043|url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers/4803 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Veth|O'Connor|2013|p=19}}<ref name="FaganDurrani20182">{{Cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0NvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250 |title=People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory |last2=Durrani |first2=Nadia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-3517-5764-5 |pages=250–253 |access-date=17 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203142816/https://books.google.com/books?id=W0NvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=3 December 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Iste articulo recovre le '''historia del populos aborigene australian e del insulanos del Stricto de Torres''', duo gruppos amplemente definite que include cata un altere subgruppos definite per lingua e cultura. Le habitation human del continente australian comenciava con le migration del ancestres del [[australianos aborigene]] de hodie per pontes de terra e curte transversadas maritime ab lo que es ora le [[Asia del Sud-Est]].<ref name="Oppenheimer20132">{{Cite book |last=Oppenheimer |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQQvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP111 |title=Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World |date=2013 |publisher=Little, Brown Book Group |isbn=978-1-7803-3753-1 |pages=111– |access-date=17 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203142820/https://books.google.com/books?id=VQQvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP111#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=3 December 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Le populo aborigene se extendeva per tote le continente, adaptante se a diverse ambientes e al cambiamento climatic pro disvelopper un del plus antique culturas continue sur le Terra.{{Sfn|Flood|2019|p=161}}<ref name="Malaspinas Westaway Muller Sousa 2016 pp. 207–214">{{cite journal |last1=Malaspinas |first1=Anna-Sapfo |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael C. |last3=Muller |first3=Craig |last4=Sousa |first4=Vitor C. |last5=Lao |first5=Oscar |last6=Alves |first6=Isabel |last7=Bergström |first7=Anders |last8=Athanasiadis |first8=Georgios |last9=Cheng |first9=Jade Y. |last10=Crawford |first10=Jacob E. |last11=Heupink |first11=Tim H. |last12=Macholdt |first12=Enrico |last13=Peischl |first13=Stephan |last14=Rasmussen |first14=Simon |last15=Schiffels |first15=Stephan |display-authors=1 |date=21 September 2016 |title=A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia |url=https://archive.org/details/nature-uk_2016-10-13_538_7624/page/207 |journal=Nature |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=207–214 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..207M |doi=10.1038/nature18299 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=27654914 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10754/622366 |last16=Subramanian |first16=Sankar |last17=Wright |first17=Joanne L. |last18=Albrechtsen |first18=Anders |last19=Barbieri |first19=Chiara |last20=Dupanloup |first20=Isabelle |last21=Eriksson |first21=Anders |last22=Margaryan |first22=Ashot |last23=Moltke |first23=Ida |last24=Pugach |first24=Irina |last25=Korneliussen |first25=Thorfinn S. |last26=Levkivskyi |first26=Ivan P. |last27=Moreno-Mayar |first27=J. Víctor |last28=Ni |first28=Shengyu |last29=Racimo |first29=Fernando |last30=Sikora |first30=Martin|pmc=7617037 }}</ref> Al tempore del prime contacto europee, le estimationes del population aboriginal varia inter 300.000 e un million.<ref name=":362">[https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/bfc28642d31c215cca256b350010b3f4!OpenDocument "1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 2002"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116012204/https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/bfc28642d31c215cca256b350010b3f4!OpenDocument|date=16 January 2022}}. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 25 January 2002.</ref><ref name=":392">{{Cite book |last1=McCalman |first1=Janet |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, volume 1 |last2=Kipen |first2=Rebecca |year=2013 |page=294 |chapter=Population and health}}</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=30–35}} Illes esseva chassatores-collectores complexe con economias e societates diverse. Il habeva circa 600 tribos o nationes e 250 linguas con varie dialectos.{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=21–22, 37}}<ref name="Broome-2019a22">{{Cite book |last=Broome |first=Richard |title=Aboriginal Australians |publisher=Allen and Unwin |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-76052-821-8 |location=Sydney |pages=12}}</ref> Certe gruppos practicava le agricultura de foco<ref name=":462">{{Cite web |last=Wyrwoll |first=Karl-Heinz |date=11 January 2012 |title=How Aboriginal burning changed Australia's climate |url=http://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715015907/https://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |archive-date=15 July 2023 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> e le piscicultura,<ref name=":472">{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Anna |date=31 August 2023 |title=Friday essay: traps, rites and kurrajong twine – the incredible ingenuity of Indigenous fishing knowledge |url=http://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211091555/https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |archive-date=11 February 2024 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> e construeva abrigos semi-permanente.{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=239–40}}<ref name=":110">{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth |year=2015 |title=Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia |journal=Antiquity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=61 |issue=232 |pages=310–321 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00052182 |s2cid=162146349}}</ref> Le grado in que certe gruppos practicava le agricultura es controverse.{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=25-27, 146}}<ref name=":502">Gammage, Bill (October 2011). The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia. Allen & Unwin. pp. 281–304.</ref><ref name=":512">{{cite book |last1=Sutton |first1=Peter |author1-link=Peter Sutton (anthropologist) |title=Farmers or Hunter-Gatherers? The Dark Emu Debate |last2=Walshe |first2=Keryn |date=2021 |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |isbn=978-0-522-87785-4 |location=Melbourne}}</ref> Le populo insulari del Stricto de Torres se stabiliva permanentemente in lor insulas al minus 2.500 annos retro. Culturalmente e linguisticamente distincte del populos aborigene del continente, illes esseva navigatores e obteneva lor sustento del [[horticultura]] saisonal e del ressources de lor recifes e mares. Le agricultura anque se developpava in alcun insulas. Villages habeva apparite in lor areas verso le 14e seculo.{{Sfn|Veth|O'Connor|2013|pp=34–35}}{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=198–99}} Le [[Imperio Britannic]] establiva un [[colonia penal]] in [[Botany Bay]] in 1788. In le 150 annos que sequeva, le numero de australianos indigene diminueva drasticamente a causa de maladias introducite e [[conflictos violente con le colonos]]. Desde le annos 1930, le population indigene comenciava a recuperar se e communitates indigene fundava organisationes pro defender lor derectos. Desde le annos 1960, le personas indigene ganiava le derecto de votar in electiones federal e de stato, e alcunes obteneva le restitution de partes de lor terras traditional. In 1992, le [[Corte Alte de Australia]], in le [[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)|Causa Mabo]], determinava que derectos de titulo native indigene existeva in le [[derecto commun]]. Verso 2021, le australianos indigene habeva titulo exclusive o compartite de circa 54% del massa terrestre de Australia.<ref name=":632">{{Cite web |last1=Josh |first1=Nicholas |last2=Wahlquist |first2=Calla |last3=Ball |first3=Andy |last4=Evershed |first4=Nick |date=7 May 2021 |title=Who owns Australia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/ng-interactive/2021/may/17/who-owns-australia |access-date=2 July 2024 |website=The Guardian Australia}}</ref> De 1971 a 2006, le empleo indigena, le receptas median, le proprietate de casas, le education e le sperantia de vita tote se meliorava, ben que illos remaneva multo infra le nivello de illes qui non esseva indigena.<ref name=":642">Broome, Richard (2019). p. 353-54</ref> Depost 2008, successive governamentos australian ha lanceate politicas visante a reducer le disavantage indigena in education, empleo, alphabetisation e mortalitate infantil. Tamen, verso 2023 le personas indigena ancora experientiava un inequalitate radicate.<ref name=":652">{{Cite book |last=Productivity Commission |url=https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/closing-the-gap-review/report |title=Review of the National Agreement on Closing the Gap: Study report Volume I |date=January 2024 |publisher=Australian Government |location=Canberra |page=3}}</ref> In octobre 2023, le populo australian, in un referendum, votava contra un emendation constitutional pro stabilir un corpore consultative indigena al governamento. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Historia del australianos indigene]] 8s0knqwj9lxyhbjff839bsrrxkvbr9h 0 60765 698262 695246 2026-08-03T23:54:35Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 7 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698262 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Strategia}} '''Strategia''' (del [[greco antique]] στρατηγία ''stratēgia'', "duction de truppas; officio de general, commando, generalato"<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dstrathgi%2Fa στρατηγία], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', sur Perseus</ref>) es un [[plano]] general pro attinger un o plus [[objectivo]]s a longe termino o global sub conditiones de [[incertitude]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |year=1973 |page=251}}</ref> In le senso del "[[Arte (habilitate)|arte]] del general", que includeva plure sub-insimules de habilitates includente [[tactica militar]], [[arte de assedio]], [[logistica]] etc., le termino entrava in uso in le 6e seculo p.Chr. in le terminologia [[romano oriental]], e esseva traducite in le [[linguas vernacular]] occidental solmente in le 18e seculo. De tunc usque al 20e seculo, le parola "strategia" veniva a denotar "un modo comprehensive de cercar persequer fines politic, includente le menacia o le uso real de fortia, in un dialectica de voluntates" in un [[conflicto militar]], in le qual ambe adversarios interage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heuser |first=Beatrice |title=The evolution of strategy : thinking war from antiquity to the present |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=14 October 2010 |isbn=978-0-52-115524-3 |edition=Illustrated |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=27–28 |language=EN}}</ref> Strategia es importante proque le recursos disponibile pro attinger objectivos es usualmente limitate. Strategia generalmente implica fixar objectivos e prioritates, determinar actiones pro attinger le objectivos, e mobilisar recursos pro executar le actiones.<ref name="LFreedman2013">{{cite book | last = Freedman | first = Lawrence | year = 2013 | title = Strategy | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-932515-3}}</ref> Un strategia describe como le fines (objectivos) essera attingite per le medios (recursos).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simeone |first1=Luca |title=Characterizing Strategic Design Processes in Relation to Definitions of Strategy from Military, Business and Management Studies |journal=The Design Journal |pages=515–534 |doi=10.1080/14606925.2020.1758472 |date=3 July 2020|volume=23 |issue=4 |s2cid=218922359 |url=https://vbn.aau.dk/ws/files/334327680/Characterizing_strategic_design_processes_Simeone.pdf }}</ref> Strategia pote esser intentional o pote emerger como un modello de activitate a mesura que le organisation se adapta a su ambiente o compete.<ref name="LFreedman2013"/> Illo implica activitates tal como [[planification strategic]] e [[pensamento strategic]].<ref name="Mintzberg and Quinn 1996">{{cite book | last = Mintzberg, Henry and | first = Quinn, James Brian | year = 1996 | title = The Strategy Process: Concepts, Contexts, Cases | publisher = Prentice Hall | isbn = 978-0-132-340304}}</ref> [[Henry Mintzberg]] del [[Universitate McGill]] definiva strategia como un modello in un fluxo de decisiones pro contrastar con un vision de strategia como planification,<ref name=charlesw>{{cite journal|url=http://faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/~charlesw/LongStrat2010/papers/class%2010/Patterns%20of%20Strategy%20Formulation.pdf |title=Pattern in Strategy Formation |author=Henry Mintzberg |journal=Management Science |volume=24 |number=9 |date=May 1978 |pages=934–48 |access-date=31 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019210811/http://faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/~charlesw/LongStrat2010/papers/class%2010/Patterns%20of%20Strategy%20Formulation.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2013 |doi=10.1287/mnsc.24.9.934|bibcode=1978ManSc..24..934M |s2cid=154086210 }}</ref> dum [[Max McKeown]] (2011) argue que "strategia tracta de formar le [[futuro]]" e es le tentativa human de arrivar a "fines desirabile con medios disponibile". [[Vladimir Kvint]] defini strategia como "un systema de trovar, formular, e disveloppar un doctrina que assecurara successo a longe termino si illo es sequite fidelmente."<ref>{{cite book|author=Kvint, Vladimir|url=https://archive.org/details/globalemergingma0000kvin |url-access=registration|quote=the global emerging market.|title=''The Global Emerging Market: Strategic Management and Economics'' |publisher=Routeledge |year=2009|isbn=9780203882917 }}</ref> ==Theoria militar== {{main|Strategia militar}} {{Citation|Subordinar le puncto de vista politic al militar serea absurde, proque es le politica que ha create le guerra... Le politica es le inteligentia guidante, e le guerra solmente le instrumento, non vice-versa.|[[De guerra]] per [[Carl von Clausewitz]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Summers |first=Harry G. |title=Clausewitz and Strategy Today |journal=Naval War College Review |volume=36 |issue=2 |date=March–April 1983 |pages=40–46 |jstor=44636277 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44636277 |accessdate=2025-01-14}}</ref>}} In theoria militar, strategia es "le utilisation durante tanto le pace como le guerra, de tote le fortias del nation, per medio de planification e disveloppamento a grande scala e a longe alcance, pro assecurar securitate e victoria" (''Random House Dictionary'').<ref name=charlesw/> Le patre del [[Studios strategic|studio strategic]] moderne occidental, [[Carl von Clausewitz]], definiva strategia militar como "le empleo de battalias pro ganiar le fin del guerra." Le definition de [[B. H. Liddell Hart]] poneva minus emphase sur le battalias, definiente strategia como "le arte de distribuer e applicar medios militar pro complir le fines del politica".<ref>[[B. H. Liddell Hart|Liddell Hart, B. H.]] ''Strategy'' London: Faber, 1967 (2nd rev ed.) p. 321</ref> Ergo, ambes dava le preeminentia al scopos politic sur le objectivos militar. Le instructor del U.S. Naval War College Andrew Wilson definiva strategia como le "processo per le qual le proposito politic es traducite in action militar."<ref name="Wilson2012">{{cite book | last = Wilson | first = Andrew | year = 2012 | title = Masters of War: History's Greatest Strategic Thinkers | publisher = The Teaching Company}}</ref> [[Lawrence Freedman]] definiva strategia como le "arte de crear potentia."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Strategy : a history|last=Freedman, Lawrence.|isbn=9780199349906|location=Oxford|oclc=858282187|date = 2 September 2013}}</ref> Le philosophia [[militar]] oriental data de multo plus retro, con exemplos tal como ''[[Le Arte del Guerra]]'' per [[Sun Tzu]] datate circa 500 a.C.<ref name="Lionel Giles 2007">{{aut|Giles, Lionel}} ''The Art of War by Sun Tzu''. Special Edition Books. 2007.</ref> === Strategia de contraterrorismo === Proque le [[Contraterrorismo|contraterrorismo]] implica le effortios synchronisate de numerose entitates bureaucratic concurrante, le governamentos national frequentemente crea strategias de contraterrorismo global al nivello national.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Stigall|first1=Dan E.|last2=Miller|first2=Chris|last3=Donnatucci|first3=Lauren|date=2019-10-07|title=The 2018 U.S. National Strategy for Counterterrorism: A Synoptic Overview|journal=American University National Security Law Brief|location=Washington DC|ssrn=3466967}}</ref> Un strategia national de contraterrorismo es le plano de un governamento pro usar le instrumentos de potentia national pro neutralisar terroristas, lor organisationes, e lor retes a fin de render los incapabile de usar violentia pro instillar timor e pro coercer le governamento o su citatanos a reager in accordo con le scopos del terroristas.<ref name=":0" /> Le Statos Unite ha habite plure tal strategias durante le curso del [[guerra contra le terrorismo]], includente le ''United States National Strategy for Counterterrorism'' (2018);<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/NSCT.pdf|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|title=2018 U.S. National Strategy for Counterterrorism|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|date=October 2018}}</ref> le ''National Strategy for Counterterrorism'' del era Obama (2011); e le ''National Strategy for Combatting Terrorism'' (2003). Il ha anque habite un numero de planos ancillari o de supporto, tal como le ''Strategy to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant'' de 2014, e le ''Strategic Implementation Plan for Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Violent Extremism in the United States'' de 2016.<ref name=":0" /> Similarmente, le strategia de contraterrorismo del Regno Unite, [[CONTEST]], cerca "reducer le risco pro le RU e su citatanos e interesses de ultra-mar proveniente del terrorismo de modo que le gente pote continuar lor vitas liberemente e con confidentia."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/counter-terrorism-strategy-contest-2018|title=Counter-terrorism strategy (CONTEST) 2018|website=GOV.UK|date=20 August 2018 |access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> ==Theoria de gestion== {{main|Gestion strategic}} {{Citation|Le essentia de formular strategia competitive es relatar un compania a su ambiente. | source = [[Michael Porter]]<ref name="Porter1980">{{cite book| last = Porter| first = Michael E.| year = 1980 | title = Competitive Strategy | publisher = Free Press | isbn = 978-0-684-84148-9| title-link = Competitive Strategy}}</ref> }} Le strategia de commercio moderne emergeva como un campo de studio e practica in le annos 1960; ante ille tempore, le parolas "strategia" e "competition" rarmente appareva in le litteratura de gestion le plus prominente.<ref name="LOS2010">{{cite book | last = Kiechel | first = Walter | year = 2010 | title = The Lords of Strategy | publisher = Harvard Business Press | isbn = 978-1-59139-782-3| title-link = The Lords of Strategy }}</ref><ref name="Ghemawat1">{{cite journal | last = Ghemawat | first = Pankaj | title = Competition and Business Strategy in Historical Perspective | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_business-history-review_2002_spring_76_1/page/37 | journal = Business History Review | date = Spring 2002 | volume = 76 | issue = 1 | pages = 37–74 | doi = 10.2307/4127751 | jstor = 4127751 | ssrn = 264528 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.|Alfred Chandler]] scribeva in 1962 que: "Strategia es le [[determination]] del objectivos basic a longe termino de un [[Commercio|interprisa]], e le adoption de cursos de action e le allocation de recursos necessari pro realisar iste objectivos."<ref>Chandler, Alfred ''Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the history of industrial enterprise'', Doubleday, New York, 1962.</ref> [[Michael Porter]] definiva strategia in 1980 como le "...formula ample pro como un commercio va competer, qual deberea esser su objectivos, e qual politicas essera necessari pro realisar ille objectivos" e le "...combination del ''fines'' (objectivos) pro le quales le firma se effortia e le ''medios'' (politicas) per le quales illo cerca arrivar ibi."<ref name="Porter1980" /> ===Definition=== [[Henry Mintzberg]] describeva cinque definitiones complementari de strategia in 1998: * Strategia como plano – un curso de action dirigite pro attinger un insimul ''intentional'' de objectivos; similar al concepto de planification strategic; * Strategia como modello – un modello consistente de comportamento passate, con un strategia ''realisate'' con le tempore plus tosto que planificate o ''intentional''. Ubi le modello realisate esseva differente del intention, ille se refereva al strategia como ''emergente''; * Strategia como position – situar marcas, productos, o companias intra le mercato, basate sur le quadro conceptual de consumidores o altere partes interessate; un strategia determinate primarimente per factores externe al firma; * Strategia como stratagema – un manoeuvera specific intentional pro vincer un competitor; e * Strategia como perspectiva – executar strategia basate sur un "theoria del commercio" o extension natural del mentalitate o perspectiva ideologic del organisation.<ref>Mintzberg, H. Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. ''Strategy Safari : A Guided Tour Through the Wilds of Strategic Management'', The Free Press, New York, 1998.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mintzberg |first=Henry |date=March 1980 |title=Structure in 5's: A Synthesis of the Research on Organization Design |url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.26.3.322 |journal=Management Science |language=en |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=322–341 |doi=10.1287/mnsc.26.3.322 |issn=0025-1909|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Theoristas del complexitate defini strategia como le displicamento del aspectos interne e externe del organisation que resulta in actiones in un contexto socio-economic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stacey|first1=R. D.|title=The science of complexity – an alter-native perspective for strategic change processes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_strategic-management-journal_1995-09_16_6/page/477|journal=Strategic Management Journal|year=1995|volume=16|issue=6 |pages=477–95|doi=10.1002/smj.4250160606|s2cid=16794111}}</ref><ref name="TerraPassador2016">{{cite journal|last1=Terra|first1=L. A. A.|last2=Passador|first2=J. L.|title=Symbiotic Dynamic: The Strategic Problem from the Perspective of Complexity|year=2016|journal=Systems Research and Behavioral Science|volume=33|issue=2|pages=235–248|doi=10.1002/sres.2379}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Morin|first1=E.|title=Introduction à la pensée complexe|year=2005|publisher=Éditionsdu Seuil|location=Paris}}</ref> ===Problema strategic=== In 1998, Crouch definiva le problema strategic como le mantenimento de relationes flexibile que pote variar de un competition intense a un cooperation harmoniose inter differente joccatores in un mercato dynamic. Ben que Crouch esseva aperte al idea de cooperation inter joccatores, su approche ancora emphase que le strategia es formate per le conditiones del mercato e le structura organisational. Iste vision se alinea con le definitiones de strategia proponite per Porter e Mintzberg.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Crouch|first1=A.|title= Reframing the strategic problem: An accommodation of harmony and belligerence in strategic management|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-business-research_1998-01_41_1/page/n8|year=1998|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=41|issue=1|pages=3–13|doi=10.1016/S0148-2963(97)00007-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Porter|first=M. E. A. A.|title= What is strategy?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_harvard-business-review_november-december-1996_74_6/page/61|year=1996|journal=Harvard Business Review|volume=74|issue=6|pages=61–78}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mintzberg|first=H.|title= Crafting Strategy|year=1987|journal=Harvard Business Review|pages=66–75}}</ref> In contrasto, Burnett considera le strategia como un plano formulate per medio de un methodologia in le qual le problema strategic comprehende sex tascas: formulation de objectivos, analyse ambiental, formulation de strategia, evalutation de strategia, implementation de strategia, e controlo de strategia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Burnett|first=J.J.|title=A strategic approach to managing crises|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_public-relations-review_winter-1998_24_4/page/475|year=1998|journal=Public Relations Review|volume=24|issue=4|pages=475–488|doi=10.1016/S0363-8111(99)80112-X }}</ref> Le litteratura identifica duo fontes principal pro definir un problema strategic. Le prime es ligate a factores ambiental, e le secunde se concentra sur le contexto organisational (Mukherji e Hurtado, 2001). Iste duo fontes resume tres dimensiones originalmente proponite per Ansoff e Hayes (1981). Secundo illes, un problema strategic surge del analyse de questiones interne e externe, le processos pro solver los, e le variabiles implicate.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mukherji|first1=A.|last2=Hurtado|first2=P.|title=Interpreting, categorizing and responding to the environment: the role of culture in strategic problem definition|year=2001|journal=Management Decision|volume=39|issue=2|pages=105–112|doi=10.1108/EUM0000000005416 }}</ref> In le vision de Terra e Passador, le organisationes e le systemas circa illos es strictemente connectite, assi illos depende le unes del alteres pro surviver. Isto significa que un strategia deberea equilibrar le esser proactive e reactive. Isto implica recognoscer le impacto del organisation sur le ambiente e ager pro minimisar le damno dum se adapta a nove demandas. Le strategia deberea anque alinear aspectos interne e externe del organisation e includer tote le entitates ligate. Isto adjuta a construer un systema socio-economic complexe ubi le organisation es parte de un ecosystema sustenibile.<ref name="TerraPassador2016" /> ===Theoria del complexitate=== Le scientia del [[Complexitate]], como articulate per R. D. Stacey, representa un quadro conceptual capace de harmonisar strategias emergente e deliberate. Intra le approches de complexitate le termino "strategia" es intricatemente ligate al action. Theoristas del complexitate considera le programmas mermente como sequentias predeterminate effective in ambientes multo ordinate e minus chaotic. Inversemente, le strategia emerge de un examine simultanee de conditiones determinate (ordine) e incertitudes (disordine) que motiva le action. Le theoria del complexitate postula que le strategia implica execution, comprehende controlo e emergentia, scrutinise tanto aspectos organisational interne como externe, e pote prender le forma de manoeuveras o de omne altere acto o processo.<ref name="Stacey1995">{{cite journal|last1=Stacey|first1=R. D.|title= The science of complexity: An alternative perspective for strategic change processes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_strategic-management-journal_1995-09_16_6/page/477|year=1995|journal=Strategic Management Journal|volume=16|issue=6|pages=477–495|doi=10.1002/smj.4250160606 }}</ref><ref name="TerraPassador2016"/><ref name="Morin2005">{{cite book |last1=Morin |first1=E. |title=Introduction à la pensée complexe |publisher=Éditionsdu Seuil |year=2005 |location=Paris}}</ref> Le operas de Stacey sta como effortios pioner in applicar principios de complexitate al campo del strategia. Iste autor applicava principios de auto-organisation e de chaos pro describer le strategia, le dynamica del cambio organisational, e le apprentissage. Lor propositiones advoca pro un strategia approchate per medio de electiones e le processo evolutionari de selection competitive. In iste contexto, correctiones de anomalias occurre per actiones que implica retroaction negative, dum le innovation e le cambio continue proveni de actiones guidate per retroaction positive.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stecey|first1=R. D.|title=Emerging strategies for a chaotic environment|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_long-range-planning_1996-04_29_2/page/182|year=1996|journal=Long Range Planning|volume=29|issue=2|pages=182–189|doi=10.1016/0024-6301(96)00006-4}}</ref><ref name="Stacey1995"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stacey|first1=R. D.|title=The chaos frontier: creative strategic control for business|year=2005|publisher=Redwood Press|location=Malksham}}</ref> Dynamicamente, le complexitate in le gestion strategic pote esser elucidated per le modello de "Dynamica Symbiotic" per Terra e Passador.<ref name="TerraPassador2016" /><ref name="TerraPassador2019">{{cite journal|last1=Terra|first1=L. A. A.|last2=Passador|first2=J. L.|title=The nature of social organization of production: From firms to complex dynamics|year=2019|journal=Systems Research and Behavioral Science|volume=36|issue=4|pages=514–531|doi=10.1002/sres.2567 |s2cid=149946425 }}</ref> Iste modello concipe le organisation social del production como un interaction inter duo systemas distincte existente in un relation symbiotic dum interconnectite con le ambiente externe. Le rete social del organisation age como un entitate auto-referential que controla le vita del organisation, dum su structura technic resimila un "machina" con proposito que forni le systema social per medio del processamento de recursos. Iste structuras entrelacate excambia disturbationes e residuos dum interage con le mundo externe per lor apertura. Essentialmente, a mesura que le organisation se produce se ipse, illo anque hetero-produce, supervivente per fluxos de energia e recursos a transverso de su subsystemas.<ref name="TerraPassador2016" /><ref name="TerraPassador2019"/> Iste dynamica ha implicationes strategic, governante le dynamica organisational per un insimul de bassinos de attraction que stabili le capabilitates operational e regenerative. Ergo, un del rolos primari del strategistas es identificar "attractores human" e evalutar lor impactos sur le dynamica organisational. Secundo le theoria del Dynamica Symbiotic, tanto le duces como le systema technic pote ager como attractores, influentiante directemente le dynamica organisational e le responsas a disruptiones externe. Terra e Passador assere in plus que dum produce, le organisationes contribue al entropia ambiental, potentialmente ducente a rupturas abrupte e collapsos intra lor subsystemas, mesmo intra le organisationes mesme. Considerante iste question, le autores conclude que le organisationes que interveni pro mantener le stabilitate del ambiente intra parametros appropriate pro le superviventia tende a exhibir major longevitate.<ref name="TerraPassador2016" /><ref name="TerraPassador2019"/> Le theoria del Dynamica Symbiotic postula que le organisationes debe recognoscer lor impacto sur le ambiente externe (mercatos, societate, e le ambiente) e ager systematicamente pro reducer lor degradation dum se adapta al demandas surgente de iste interactiones. Pro attinger isto, le organisationes besonia incorporar tote le systemas interconnectite in lor processos de decision, permittente le vision de systemas socio-economic complexe ubi illos se integra de un maniera stabile e sustenibile. Iste mixtura de proactivitate e reactivitate es fundamental pro assecurar le superviventia del organisation mesme.<ref name="TerraPassador2016" /> ===Componentes=== Professor [[Richard Rumelt|Richard P. Rumelt]] describeva strategia como un typo de resolution de problemas in 2011. Ille scribeva que un bon strategia ha un structura subjacente que ille appellava un ''nucleo'' (kernel). Le nucleo ha tres partes: 1) Un ''diagnose'' que defini o explica le natura del defia; 2) Un ''politica guidante'' pro tractar con le defia; e 3) ''Actiones'' coherente designate pro realisar le politica guidante.<ref name="Rumelt2011">{{cite book | last = Rumelt | first = Richard P. | year = 2011 | title = Good Strategy/Bad Strategy | publisher = Crown Business | isbn = 978-0-307-88623-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/goodstrategybads00rume }}</ref> Presidente [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] illustrava iste tres elementos de strategia in su Discurso al Nation sur le [[Crise del missiles cuban]] del 22 de octobre 1962: # Diagnose: "Iste Governamento, como promittite, ha mantenite le vigilantia le plus stricte del augmento militar sovietic sur le insula de Cuba. Intra le passate septimana, evidentia inequivoc ha stabilite le facto que un serie de sitos de missiles offensive es ora in preparation sur ille insula prisionere. Le proposito de iste bases pote esser nihil altere que provider un capacitate de attacco [[Arma nuclear|nuclear]] contra le Hemispherio Occidental." # Politica Guidante: "Nostre objectivo inalterabile, per consequente, debe esser impedir le uso de iste missiles contra iste o omne altere pais, e assecurar lor retirata o elimination del Hemispherio Occidental." # Planos de Action: Le prime inter septe passos numerate esseva le sequente: "Pro arrestar iste augmento offensive, un quarantena stricte sur tote le equipamento militar offensive sub expedition a Cuba es initiate. Tote le naves de omne typo a destination de Cuba de qualcunque nation o porto essera, si on trova que illos contine cargos de armas offensive, obligate a retornar."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkcubanmissilecrisis.html|title=American Rhetoric: John F. Kennedy – Cuban Missile Crisis Address to the Nation}}</ref> Rumelt scribeva in 2011 que tres aspectos importante de strategia include "premeditation, le anticipation del comportamento de alteres, e le designo intentional de actiones coordinate." Ille describeva strategia como solver un problema de designo, con compromissos inter varie elementos que debe esser arrangiate, adjustate e coordinate, plus tosto que un plano o election.<ref name="Rumelt2011"/> ===Formulation e implementation=== Strategia typicamente implica duo major processos: ''[[formulation]]'' e ''[[implementation]]''. ''Formulation'' implica analysar le ambiente o situation, facer un diagnose, e disveloppar politicas guidante. Illo include activitates tal como [[planification strategic]] e [[pensamento strategic]]. ''Implementation'' se refere al planos de action prendite pro attinger le objectivos stabilite per le politica guidante.<ref name="Mintzberg and Quinn 1996"/><ref name="Rumelt2011"/> [[Bruce Henderson]] scribeva in 1981 que: "Strategia depende del capacitate de previder consequentias futur de initiativas presente." Ille scribeva que le requirimentos basic pro le disveloppamento de strategia include, inter altere factores: 1) cognoscentia extense sur le ambiente, mercato e competitores; 2) capacitate de examinar iste cognoscentia como un systema dynamic interactive; e 3) le imagination e logica pro eliger inter alternativas specific. Henderson scribeva que le strategia esseva valorose a causa de: "recursos finite, incertitude sur le capacitate e intentiones de un adversario; le compromisso irreversibile de recursos; necessitate de coordinar actiones trans le tempore e le distantia; incertitude sur le controlo del initiativa; e le natura del perceptiones mutue del adversarios le unes del alteres."<ref>{{cite web | author = Henderson, Bruce | date = 1 January 1981 | title = The Concept of Strategy | url = https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/Classics/strategy_concept_of_strategy/ | access-date = 18 April 2014 | publisher = [[Boston Consulting Group]] | accessdate = 3 March 2026 | archivedate = 17 July 2017 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170717201656/https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/Classics/strategy_concept_of_strategy/ }}</ref> ==Theoria de jocos== {{main|Strategia (theoria de jocos)}} In [[theoria de jocos]], le studio mathematic de interactiones strategic, le strategia de un [[Jocator (joco)|jocator]] es qualcunque del optiones que le jocator eligeria in un contexto specific. Omne resultatos optimal que illes recipe depende non solmente de lor actiones sed anque del actiones de altere jocatores.<ref>[[Ben Polak]] ''Game Theory: Lecture 1 Transcript'' ECON 159, 5 September 2007, [[Open Yale Courses]].</ref> {{Ref}} [[Category:Strategia| ]] [[Category:Planification]] oatl2d8tw0oeu29ien5lcl1zwef2ld1 0 60800 698238 695242 2026-08-03T23:18:09Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698238 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} Le '''judicatura de Germania''' es le systema de cortes que interpreta e applica le lege in [[Germania]]. Le systema legal german es un [[derecto civil (systema legal)|derecto civil]] basate principalmente sur un compendio comprehensive de [[statuto]]s, in comparation con le systemas de [[common law]]. In derecto penal e administrative, Germania usa un [[systema inquisitorial]] ubi le [[judice]]s es activemente implicate in investigar le factos del caso, in comparation con un [[systema adversari]] ubi le rolo del judice es primarimente illo de un arbitro impartial inter le [[procurator]] o [[demandante]] e le [[defendente]] o [[defensa (derecto)|advocato de defensa]]. In Germania, le independentia del judicatura es historicamente plus ancian que le democratia. Le organisation del cortes es traditionalmente forte, e quasi tote le actiones federal e statal es subjecte a revision judicial. Le judices seque un percurso de carriera distincte. Al fin de lor education legal al universitate, tote le studentes de derecto debe passar un examine de stato ante que illes pote continuar a un apprentissage que provide a illes un trainamento ample in le profession legal durante duo annos. Illes debe tunc passar un secunde examine de stato que los qualifica pro practicar le derecto. A ille puncto, le individuo pote eliger o esser un advocato o entrar in le judicatura. Le candidatos judicial comencia a travaliar in le cortes immediatemente. Tamen, illes es subjecte a un periodo de probation de usque a cinque annos ante de esser nominate como judices pro vita. Le systema judicial es establite e governate per le parte IX del [[Lege Fundamental pro le Republica Federal de Germania]]. Articulo 92 del Lege Fundamental establi le cortes, e declara que "le poter judicial essera vestite in le judices; illo essera exercite per le Corte Constitutional Federal, per le cortes federal providite in iste Lege Fundamental, e per le cortes del [[Statos de Germania|Länder]]." ==Historia== Germania usava [[processo per jury]] ab le Medievo in avante, per exemplo in le {{Lang|de|[[Landgericht (medieval)|Landgerichte]]}}.{{sfn|Forsyth|1852|pp=369–371}}{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|pp=137–139}} Le systema de jury esseva implementate in le [[Imperio German]] per le [[:de:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz|Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz]] (GVG) del 27 de januario 1877 con le corte de jury (''{{lang|de|Schwurgericht}}'') consistente de 3 judices e 12 juratos.{{sfn|Wolff|1944|loc=footnote 7, pp. 1069–1070}}{{sfn|Wolff|1944|p=1074}} Durante un stato de emergentia sub [[Articulo 48 (Constitution de Weimar)|Articulo 48]] (del [[Constitution de Weimar]]), e circa un mense ante le processo de [[Adolf Hitler]] in februario 1924 pro le [[Putsch del Hall de Birra]] de novembre 1923, le [[Reforma de Emminger]] (un {{lang|de|Notverordnung}}, o decreto de emergentia) esseva approbate in januario 1924 aboliente le jurys e reimplaciante los con le systema mixte de [[judice]]s e [[judice laic|judices laic]] que es ancora usate hodie.{{sfn|Kahn-Freund|1974|loc=footnote 73, p. 18}}{{sfn|Wolff|1944|loc=footnote 7, pp. 1069–1070}}{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=135}} ==Lege== {{main|Derecto de Germania}} Le systema legal de Germania es un systema de [[derecto civil (systema legal)|derecto civil]], cuje fonte le plus alte de derecto es le [[Lege Fundamental pro le Republica Federal de Germania]] de 1949 (que servi como le constitution del nation), que establi le judicatura moderne, sed le lege adjudicate in corte proveni del Codices German; assi, le derecto german es primarimente de natura codic. Le systema de cortes adjudica (1) [[derecto public]] (''{{lang|de|öffentliches Recht}}''), id es, derecto administrative (litigation civil-governamental o litigation inter duo corpores governamental) e [[derecto penal]], e (2) [[derecto private]] (''{{lang|de|Privatrecht}}''). Le derecto german—specialmente le derecto private—es basate principalmente sur le ancian [[derecto byzantin]], specificamente le [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Codice de Justiniano]], e in un mesura multo minor sur le [[Codice Napoleonic]]. Le derecto german non es impregnate de positivismo legal al mesura del systemas legal napoleonic, assi le judicatura de Germania non es subordinate al legislatura; le Lege Fundamental investi directemente le poter judicial supreme in le Corte Constitutional assi como in altere cortes federal e le cortes de cata Länder, e le jurisprudentia ha un plus grande importantia, ben que non al mesura del systemas de common law. In contrasto con le [[systema adversari]] usate per le paises de [[common law]], le systema german de procedura penal (e administrative) es un [[systema inquisitorial]]. In loco de permitter le [[interrogatorio cruciate]] inter le defensa e le procuratores, le judices conduce le majoritate del processo. Durante un processo, on expecta que le partes da tote lor evidentia al judices, qui tunc appellara e interrogara le testes, post lo qual le advocato de defensa e le procurator pote interrogar le testes.<ref name=howto>{{Cite web|url=http://www.howtogermany.com/pages/legal.html|title=How to Germany - German Law and the German Legal System|date=11 October 2022|accessdate=4 March 2026|archivedate=29 March 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329091733/https://www.howtogermany.com/pages/legal.html}}</ref><ref>''Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice''. Albanese, Jay and Reichel, Phillip. p. 33</ref> ==Cortes== Le legislation primari concernente le organisation del cortes es le Acto de Constitution del Cortes (''{{lang|de|[[:de:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz|Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz]]}}'', o ''{{lang|de|GVG}}''). Le cortes se characterisa per esser specialisate, regional, e hierarchicamente integrate al nivello federal.{{sfn|Bell|2006|pp=110}} Il ha cinque typos de base de cortes, plus le [[Corte Constitutional Federal de Germania|Corte Constitutional Federal]] e le cortes constitutional del Länder:{{sfn|Bell|2006|pp=110}} * [[Cortes ordinari]], que tracta de casos [[derecto penal|penal]] e le majoritate del casos [[derecto private|civil]] * Cortes de [[derecto administrative]] * Cortes de [[derecto fiscal]] * Cortes de [[derecto del travalio]] * Cortes de [[derecto social]] * Cortes de [[derecto constitutional]], focalisate sur le revision judicial e le interpretation constitutional Le differentia principal inter le Corte Constitutional Federal e le Corte Federal es que le Corte Constitutional Federal pote solmente esser appellate si un materia constitutional intra un caso es in question (p.ex., un possibile violation de derectos human in un processo penal), durante que le Corte Federal de Justitia pote esser appellate in omne caso. Solmente le Corte Constitutional pote declarar un Acto del Parlamento invalide. Le cortes ordinari es de lunge le plus numerose.{{sfn|Bell|2006|pp=110}} Actualmente il ha 828 cortes ordinari (687 local, 116 regional, 24 de appello, un federal), 142 cortes del travalio (122 local, 19 de appello, un federal), 69 cortes administrative (52 local, 16 superior, un federal), 20 cortes [[derecto fiscal|fiscal]] (19 local, un federal), 86 cortes social (69 local, 16 de appello, un federal) e 17 cortes constitutional (16 Cortes Constitutional de Stato, un Corte Constitutional Federal). Plus recentemente, cortes commercial specialisate ha essite create. In januario de 2018, le Camera pro Disputas Commercial International del Landgericht Frankfurt am Main esseva establite.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chamber for International Commercial Disputes |url=https://ordentliche-gerichtsbarkeit.hessen.de/landgerichtsbezirk-frankfurt-am-main/landgericht-frankfurt-am-main/chamber-for-international-commercial-disputes |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=Ordentliche Gerichtsbarkeit Hessen |language=de}}</ref> Il ha tamben le Corte Commercial basate in Stuttgart e Mannheim specialisate in major disputas commercial e international.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Commercial Court Baden-Württemberg: Commercial Court Stuttgart and Mannheim |url=https://www.commercial-court.de/en/ |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=www.commercial-court.de}}</ref> ===Cortes ordinari=== Le cortes de processo in materias penal es componite de:<ref>Acto de Constitution del Cortes (''{{lang|de|[[:de:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz|Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz]]}}'', o ''{{lang|de|GVG}}''). {{cite web | url= http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gvg/englisch_gvg.html#p0019 | title= Courts Constitution Act GVG | publisher= [[:de:juris|juris GmbH]] | access-date= 2012-10-29}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2" | Corte de Processo ! Composition ! Jurisdiction |- | rowspan="2" | ''[[Amtsgerichte]]'' |''[[Strafrichter]]'' | 1 judice | Offensas penal ubi le sententia expectate es minus de duo annos. |- | ''Schöffengericht'' | 1 o 2 judices, 2 judices laic | Offensas penal ubi le sententia expectate es inter duo e quatro annos. |- | rowspan="2" | ''Landgerichte'' | ''große Strafkammer'' o ''Staatsschutzkammer'' | 2 o 3 judices, 2 judices laic | Casos ubi le sententia expectate excede quatro annos, casos ubi le procurator decideva non esser judicate per ''Amtsgerichte'', e crimines politic minor. |- | ''Schwurgericht'' o ''Wirtschaftsstrafkammer'' | 3 judices, 2 judices laic | ''Strafkammer'' specialmente constituite pro felonias resultante in morte e crimines economic. |- | {{Lang|de|[[Oberlandesgericht]]e}} | ''[[Strafsenat]]'' | 3 o 5 judices | Grave [[crimine politic|crimines politic]]. |} Le cortes de appello in materias penal es componite de:{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=142}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2" | Corte de Appello ! Composition ! Jurisdiction |- | rowspan="1" | ''Landgerichte'' | ''kleine Strafkammer'' | 1 judice, 2 judices laic | Appello pro revision de factos e derecto ab le ''Amtsgerichte''. |- | ''Oberlandesgerichte'' | ''Strafsenat'' | 3 judices | Appello pro error de derecto ab certe decisiones de ''Amtsgerichte''. |- | ''[[Corte Federal de Justitia de Germania|Bundesgerichtshof]]'' (Corte Federal de Justitia) | ''Strafsenat'' | 5 judices | Appello pro error de derecto ab decisiones de processo del ''Landgerichte'' e ''Oberlandesgerichte''. |} Pro un comparation del activitate relative del [[cortes ordinari]], in 1969 il habeva 468.273 casos penal in Germania, e 388.619 o 83% de istos esseva tenite in le ''[[Amtsgericht]]'' componite de un sol judice.{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=143}} ===Cortes specialisate=== [[Cortes specialisate]] tracta de cinque areas distincte: administrative, travalio, social, fiscal, e derecto de patentes. Como le cortes ordinari, illos es organisate hierarchicamente con le systemas de corte de stato sub un corte federal de appello. * Cortes de derecto administrative (''{{lang|de|Verwaltungsgerichte}}'') consiste de cortes administrative local, cortes administrative superior, e le [[Corte Administrative Federal de Germania|Corte Administrative Federal]]. In iste cortes, individuos pote haber actos administrative erronee annullate. Per exemplo, multe litiges ha essite presentate in cortes administrative per citatanos contra le governamento concernente le location e le standardes de securitate de [[energia nuclear|centrales nuclear]]. Illos tamben decide certe disputas inter institutiones governamental, p.ex. inter un municipalitate e un agentia de stato o inter le burgomastro e le consilio de un municipalitate. Le [[Corte Administrative Federal de Germania|Corte Administrative Federal]] (''{{lang|de|Bundesverwaltungsgericht}}'') es le corte de derecto administrative le plus alte. * Cortes de derecto del travalio (''{{lang|de|Arbeitsgerichte}}'') tamben functiona sur tres nivellos e tracta disputas sur accordos de negotiation collective e conditiones de travalio. Le [[Corte Federal del Travalio de Germania|Corte Federal del Travalio]] (''{{lang|de|Bundesarbeitsgericht}}'') es le corte de derecto del travalio le plus alte. * Cortes de derecto social (''{{lang|de|Sozialgerichte}}''), organisate a tres nivellos, adjudica casos relative al systema de [[assecurantia social]], que include [[compensation de disoccupation]], [[compensation de travaliatores]], e pagamentos de [[securitate social]]. Illos es tamben responsabile pro plure altere casos sur derecto de securitate social, como supporto pro personas handicappate o victimas de crimines. Le [[Corte Social Federal de Germania|Corte Social Federal]] (''{{lang|de|Bundessozialgericht}}'') es le corte de derecto social le plus alte. * [[Corte Fiscal (Germania)|Cortes Fiscal]] (''{{lang|de|Finanzgerichte}}''), tamben appellate cortes de [[derecto fiscal]] o cortes de finantia, audi casos relative a impostos e ha solmente un structura de duo nivellos. Le [[Corte Fiscal Federal]] (''{{lang|de|Bundesfinanzhof}}'') es le corte de derecto fiscal le plus alte e audi appellos contra le decisiones del Cortes Fiscal. * Le [[Corte Federal de Patentes de Germania|Corte Federal de Patentes]] audi certe casos de [[proprietate intellectual]] sur patentes, derectos de utilitate e marcas commercial. In materias de patentes, derectos de utilitate e marcas commercial il ha un bifurcation de responsabilitates judiciari in Germania inter le Corte Federal de Patentes e le varie Cortes Regional German. Iste systema de corte bifurcate ha un longe tradition in Germania e es basate sur le notion que le decisiones del [[Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt]] (Officio German de Patentes e Marcas) debe esser verificate per un corte particular create pro ille proposito, a saper, le Corte Federal de Patentes in Munich.<ref>{{cite web |last=Seyfert |first=Christian |title=Bifurcation of judiciary responsibilities: Federal Patent Court and German Regional Courts |url=http://zellerseyfert.com/en/litigationblog-detail/items/trademark-litigation-in-germany.html |access-date=10 November 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225195727/http://zellerseyfert.com/en/litigationblog-detail/items/trademark-litigation-in-germany.html |url-status=dead |accessdate=4 March 2026 |archivedate=25 February 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225195727/http://zellerseyfert.com/en/litigationblog-detail/items/trademark-litigation-in-germany.html }}</ref> Le corte de appello es in tote le casos le (ordinari) [[Corte Federal de Justitia de Germania]]. ===Cortes constitutional=== ====Stato==== Cata un del [[Statos de Germania|Länder]] ha su proprie corte constitutional de stato (vide p.ex. le [[Corte Constitutional del Stato de Berlin]] o le [[Corte Constitutional de Saxonia]]). Iste cortes es administrativamente independente e financieramente autonome de omne altere corpore governamental. Per exemplo, un corte constitutional de stato pote scriber su proprie budget e ingajar o dimitter empleatos, poteres que representa un grado de independentia unic in le structura governamental. Le cortes de cata stato es tamben directemente autorisate per le Lege Fundamental pro le Republica Federal. ====Federal==== Le [[Corte Constitutional Federal]] (''{{lang|de|Bundesverfassungsgericht}}'', o ''{{lang|de|BVerfG}}'') es le [[Corte Supreme|supreme]] [[corte constitutional]] establite per le constitution o [[Lege Fundamental pro le Republica Federal de Germania|Lege Fundamental de Germania]]. Depost su inception con le comenciamento del Republica Federal de Germania, le corte ha essite situate in le citate de [[Karlsruhe]]{{mdash}}intentionalmente a un certe distantia geographic del altere institutiones federal in [[Berlin]] (previemente in [[Bonn]]), [[Munich]], e [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]]. Le sol carga del corte es le [[revision judicial]], e illo pote declarar omne legislation federal o statal [[constitutionalitate|inconstitutional]], rendente los assi inefficace. In iste respecto, illo es simile a altere cortes supreme con poteres de revision judicial, como le [[Corte Supreme del Statos Unite]]; totevia le Corte possede un numero de poteres additional, e es considerate como un del cortes national le plus interventionista e potente in le mundo. A differentia de altere [[corte supreme|cortes supreme]], le corte constitutional non es un stadio integral del processo judicial o de appello (excepte in casos concernente derecto constitutional o derecto international public), e non servi como un [[corte de appello]] regular ab cortes inferior o le [[Corte Supreme#Germania|Cortes Supreme Federal]] sur omne violation de leges federal. Le jurisdiction del corte es focalisate sur questiones constitutional e le conformitate de tote le institutiones governamental con le constitution. Amendamentos constitutional o cambios passate per le Parlamento es subjecte a su revision judicial, post que illos debe esser compatibile con le principios le plus fundamental del ''{{lang|de|Grundgesetz}}'' (secundo le "[[clausula de eternitate]]"), illos essente le principios de [[dignitate human]], [[derectos human]] inalienabile, [[democratia]], [[republicanismo]], [[responsabilitate social]], [[federalismo]] e [[separation de poteres]]. Le practica del corte de un frequentia de controlo constitutional enorme de un parte, e le continuitate in [[restringimento judicial]] e revision politic del altere parte, ha create un defensor unic del ''{{lang|de|Grundgesetz}}'' depost le Secunde Guerra Mundial e ha date a illo un rolo preciose in le democratia moderne de Germania. ==Personal== ===Judices professional=== Le cortes federal es administrate per le governamento federal; tote le altere cortes pertine a un stato e es administrate per illo. Le independentia del judicatura que es stipulate in le constitution federal (articulo 97 para. 1) se refere solmente al processo de decision judicial de omne judice individual, non al poter judicial como un toto. In linea con isto, le cortes es corpores administrative subordinate al respective departimento de justitia, regulas special applicante se solmente al processo de decision judicial e al stato del judices. Tote le judices professional es membros de un corpore commun in le qual illes es recrutate per un processo commun e lor carriera es governate largemente per le derecto federal.{{sfn|Bell|2006|pp=109–110}} Tamen, le majoritate del judices es servitores civil del stato (''{{lang|de|Länder}}'') e seque regulas statal sur education legal, nomination, e promotion.{{sfn|Bell|2006|pp=110–111}} ====Stato==== Como regula, cata decision sur le empleo initial, assignation con permanentia pro vita o promotion de un judice es prendite per le departimento de justitia. Tamen in alicun del statos il ha un typo de corpore parlamentari que debe esser audite o mesmo ha un voce in alicun del decisiones sur carrieras de judices individual (''[[Richterwahlausschuss]]''). Le influentia principalmente decisive del administration sur le carriera de judices es exceptional in Europa continental, ubi principalmente corpores de judices, eligite per e intra le judicatura, prende iste typo de decision (p.ex., Francia: ''conseil supérieur de la magistrature'', Italia: ''consiglio superiore della magistratura''). Per alicunos illo es considerate como un menacia al independentia judicial que con un vista a lor carriera personal le judices poterea esser inclinate a considerar specialmente le possibile effectos politic de lor decisiones o pote eliger supportar un partito politic. ====Federal==== Le judices federal es seligite in un procedura {{Lang|la|in camera}} per un corpore componite de un Ministro del stato federal, deputatos federal e ministros del statos (articulo 95 para. 2 del constitution federal). Le candidatos non debe esser judices professional, sed debe esser advocatos. Il ha ni auditiones public, ni le identitate de omne candidato serea mesmo revelate al publico. Membros judicial del corte constitutional federal es eligite in tornos per le cameras federal (articulo 94 del constitution federal). Iste decision requirente un grande majoritate, illo usualmente seque un compromisso politic. Discussion public sur candidatos es multo inusual. ===Judices laic=== [[Judice laic|Judices laic]] {{lang|de|(Schöffen)}} es membros ordinari del publico seligite pro iste rolo per un committe special, al suggestion de un [[consilio municipal]], pro un termino de cinque annos.<ref>Section 42(1) Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz (GVG).</ref> Le judices laic debe esser citatanos german qui ha ni essite condemnate pro ni es sub investigation pro omne crimine grave.<ref>Section 32 Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz (GVG).</ref> In plus, certe gruppos de individuos non essera seligite como judices laic, como personas sub le etate de 25 o super le etate de 69, o individuos travaliante in le systema de cortes in un capacitate professional (como advocatos e judices).<ref>Sections 33, 34 GVG.</ref> In plus, individuos super le etate de 65 pote refusar de servir, como pote, per exemplo, membros de legislaturas federal o statal, medicos, infirmeros, e illes qui ha servite como judices laic in le termino precedente.<ref>Section 35 GVG.</ref> Applicationes pro devedir judices laic pote esser facite per citatanos interessate e le governamentos local typicamente incuragiara applicationes ante que un nove termino comencia.<ref>Vide p.ex. [https://www.gesetze-bayern.de/Content/Document/BayVV_3001_J_13391/True Gemeinsame Bekanntmachung der Bayerischen Staatsministerien der Justiz und des Innern, für Sport und Integration über die Vorbereitung der Sitzungen der Schöffengerichte und Strafkammern (Schöffenbekanntmachung) vom 27. Oktober 2022 (BayMBl. Nr. 672)], para 9.4.</ref> Institutiones de benesser, clubes de sport, institutiones de assecurantia financiari e de sanitate, syndicatos, companias industrial e altere autoritates public es a vices appellate a nominar candidatos.{{sfn|Malsch|2009|p=137}} Excepte pro le majoritate del crimines pro le quales le [[judicator del factos]] es un sol judice professional e crimines politic grave que es judicate ante un pannello de judices professional, tote le accusationes es judicate ante tribunales mixte sur le quales judices laic sede al flanco de judices professional.{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=141}} Le Codice German de Procedura Penal require un majoritate de duo tertios pro le majoritate del decisiones disfavorable al defendente; negation de probation per majoritate simple es un exception importante.{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=141}} In le majoritate del casos, le judices laic non ha accesso al dossier del caso.{{sfn|Malsch|2009|p=137}} Le judices laic necessari pro formar le varie tribunales es seligite per un committe de selection ab listas que es passate per le consilios municipal ({{lang|de|{{ill|Gemeinderat|de|Gemeinderat (Deutschland)|lt=Gemeinderat}}}}) con un majoritate de duo tertios del consilieros local presente.{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=182}}{{sfn|Bell|2006|p=153}} Date le alte limine pro inclusion sur le listas del consilio municipal, in practica iste listas es primarimente compilate per le bureaucratias municipal e le [[Lista de partitos politic in Germania|partitos politic in Germania]],{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=182}}{{sfn|Bell|2006|p=153}} sed alicun consilios municipal se fia sur [[registration de residentes#Germania|registros de residentes]] e genera nomines aleatorimente.{{sfn|Bell|2006|p=153}} Le committe de selection consiste de un judice del {{Lang|de|[[Amtsgericht]]}}, un representante del governamento del stato, e dece "citatanos de confidentia" ({{lang|de|Vertrauenspersonen}}) qui es tamben eligite per duo tertios del consilio municipal.{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=182}}{{sfn|Bell|2006|p=153}} Le judices laic ha historicamente essite predominantemente homines de etate medie de contextos de classe medie;{{sfn|Bell|2006|p=153}}{{sfn|Vogler|2005|p=245}} plus recentemente, le portion de judices mascule e feminin esseva circa le mesme.<ref>Hasso Lieber, "Die Ergebnisse der Schöffenwahlen für die Amtszeit 2019 bis 2023" (2020) 32 Richter ohne Robe 3, 5f.</ref> Un studio conducite in 1969 trovava que, del judices laic in su specimen, approximatemente 25% esseva empleatos del [[servicio civil]], comparate con solmente circa 12% de contextos de [[travaliator manual]].{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=183}} Un studio publicate in 2009 poneva le proportiones a 27% empleatos del servicio civil contra 8% del population general e notava le numeros relativemente alte de [[massa de casa|amas de casa]], le numero relativemente basse de empleatos del [[sector private]], e le etate relativemente avantiate del judices laic.{{sfn|Malsch|2009|p=137}} ===Procuratores=== Procuratores public, qui gania tanto como le judices, es nihilominus simple servitores ordinari mancante del independentia del Tribunal. Le cambio inter officio de procurator e le tribunal es non solmente acceptate sed incuragiate pro permitter le plus grande amonta de experientia. ===Advocatos=== Un advocato pote solmente qualificar se como un advocato de defensa si ille compli con/possede le assi appellate {{lang|de|Befähigung zum Richteramt}}.{{sfn|Delmas-Marty|2002|p=299}} Isto se traduce litteralmente como "aptitude pro esser judice"; totevia, le significato de base es haber completate con successo un studio de derecto a approximatemente un nivello de [[magisterio]], essente finalmente examinate per le stato mesme ({{lang|de|Staatsexamen}}), e haber servite durante duo annos como un associato a differente advocatos de cata un de lor occupationes le plus popular (advocato, judice, official administrative, etc.; isto es appellate le {{lang|de|Referendariat}}). Tamen, pro devedir de facto un judice, ultra le {{lang|de|Befähigung zum Richteramt}} le expectationes include resultatos eminente in le respective examines, lo que non es expectate pro advocatos (sed, approximatemente, es expectate pro procuratores e officiales administrative). Le advocatos de defensa es gruppate in divisiones de lor [[collegio de advocatos]] local o statal{{sfn|Delmas-Marty|2002|p=299}} in le quales le membrantia es obligatori. ==Practicas de sententia== Si un defendente es condemnate, le corte usualmente creditara le periodo de confinamento pre-processual como parte del sententia. Le sententias pote variar de un mense a vita, e typicamente non excede 15 annos.<ref name=howto/> Defendentes condemnate a [[Prision pro vita in Germania|prision pro vita]] pote typicamente applicar pro liberation condicional post 15 annos, e si le application es rejectate, le defendente pote re-applicar post un periodo fixate non plus longe que duo annos. Si le corte determina que il ha un "sever gravitate de culpa", le liberation condicional pote esser retardate pro un periodo non specific ultra 15 annos. In plus de reducer le sententia de un delinquente, le systema de correctiones de Germania ha un forma de punition appellate sententia suspendite. Dependente del crimine, alicun sententias pote eliminar le tempore de prision e remplaciar lo con probation. Si un persona es condemnate pro un crimine, ille pote esser ponite sub un sententia de probation ubi ille non debe ir al prision si "le persona condemnate demonstra que esser condemnate esseva in se un advertimento sufficiente que ille non commettera altere crimines".<ref name="bmj.de">Jehle, Jörg-Martin (2019). [https://www.bmjv.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Service/Fachpublikationen/Strafrechtspflege_Deutschland_engl.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=5 ''Criminal Justice in Germany''] (7th ed.). Ministerio Federal de Justitia e Protection del Consumitor. Accessite le 10 de april 2021.</ref> Malgrado deber esser ponite sub "supervision de un official de probation", le persona es capace de evitar le aspectos negative del prision como esser "distachate de su vita anterior, travalio, e contractos social".<ref name="bmj.de"/> Sententias de sex menses o minus es automaticamente suspendite per le corte assi como ille sententias inter sex menses e un anno a minus que illo es "necessari que le persona servi le sententia pro preservar le ordine legal".<ref name="bmj.de"/> Post que un delinquente servi duo tertios de su sententia de prision, il es possibile haber su sententia suspendite. Le processo pro haber un sententia suspendite post haber servite tempore es le mesme que applicar pro liberation condicional. Il es tamben possibile pro delinquentes serviente sententias pro vita reciper un sententia suspendite post haber servite al minus dece-cinque annos. Justo como omne altere sententia de probation, si le delinquente rumpe su probation o commette un altere crimine, ille pote haber su libertate revocate e esser remittite al prision.<ref name="bmj.de"/> ==Analyse e critica== Selection de judices laic ha essite describite como un "processo altemente politic e discriminatori".{{sfn|Casper|Zeisel|1972|p=182}} On ha arguite que le cognoscentia personal, le affiliation politic e le occupation ha tote historicamente jocate un rolo importante, ben que non recognoscite publicamente, in le procedura de selection.{{sfn|Bell|2006|p=153}}{{sfn|Vogler|2005|p=245}} {{ref}} == Bibliographia == * {{cite journal | title= Lay Judges in the German Criminal Courts | url= https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-legal-studies_1972-01_1_1/page/135 | first1 = Gerhard | last1= Casper | author-link1= Gerhard Casper | first2= Hans | last2= Zeisel | author-link2= Hans Zeisel | journal= [[Journal of Legal Studies]] | volume= 1 | issue= 1 | date= January 1972 | pages = 135–191 | doi = 10.1086/467481 | jstor= 724014 | s2cid = 144941508 }} * {{cite book | title= Criminal Justice in Germany | first= Jörg-Martin | last= Jehle | author2= German Federal Ministry of Justice | author2-link= Federal Ministry of Justice (Germany) | publisher= Forum-Verl | year= 2009 | isbn= 978-3-936999-51-8 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-V-ng-8jOoQC&pg=PA23 | ref= {{harvid|Jehle|BMJ|2009}}}} * {{cite book | title= European Criminal Procedures | first= Mireille | last= Delmas-Marty | author-link=Mireille Delmas-Marty | publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] | year= 2002 | isbn= 978-0-521-59110-2 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=epTsD3_6DVMC&pg=PA306 }} * {{cite book | title= Judiciaries Within Europe: A Comparative Review | first= John | last= Bell | author-link=John Bell (legal scholar) | publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] | year= 2006 | isbn= 978-0-521-86072-7 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Hw47iqneTnIC&pg=PA153 }} * {{cite journal | title= Lay Judges in German Criminal Courts: The Modification of an Institution | first= Nancy Travis | last= Wolfe | journal= [[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]] | volume= 138 | issue= 4 | date= December 1994 | pages= 495–515 | jstor= 986849 }} * {{cite book | title= Democracy in the Courts: Lay Participation in European Criminal Justice Systems | first = Marijke | last= Malsch | year= 2009 | publisher= Ashgate Publishing | isbn= 978-0-7546-7405-4 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CrLLzVZfrPwC&pg=PA137 }} * {{cite book | title= A World View of Criminal Justice | series= International and Comparative Criminal Justice | first= Richard | last= Vogler | year= 2005 | publisher= Ashgate Publishing | isbn= 978-0-7546-2467-7 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rN90FSGhr-cC&pg=PA245 }} * {{cite journal | title= On Uses and Misuses of Comparative Law | first = Otto | last= Kahn-Freund | author-link= Otto Kahn-Freund | journal= [[Modern Law Review]] | volume= 37 | issue= 1 | date= January 1974 | pages = 1–27 | doi = 10.1111/j.1468-2230.1974.tb02366.x | jstor= 1094713 | doi-access= free }} * {{cite journal | title= Criminal Justice in Germany | first = Hans Julius | last= Wolff | author-link= Hans Julius Wolff (legal historian) | journal= [[Michigan Law Review]] | volume= 42 | issue= 6 | date= June 1944 | pages = 1067–1088 | doi = 10.2307/1283584 | jstor= 1283584 | url = https://repository.law.umich.edu/mlr/vol42/iss6/7 | url-access= subscription }} * {{cite web | title= Volksgerichte, 1918-1924 | first= Franz J. | last= Bauer | work= [[:de:Historisches Lexikon Bayerns|Historisches Lexikon Bayerns]] | date= 23 December 2009 | url= http://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/artikel/artikel_44638 }} * {{cite book | title= Der Hitler-Prozeß vor dem Volksgericht in München |trans-title=The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich | year= 1924 | ref= {{harvid|Volksgericht|1924}}}} * {{cite book | title= Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic | first= Bernhard | last= Fulda | year= 2009 | publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] | isbn= 978-0-19-954778-4 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=StNY-71yVXQC&pg=PA69 }} * {{cite book | title= The Creation of the Modern German Army: General Walther Reinhardt and the Weimar Republic, 1914-1930 | first= William | last= Mulligan | year= 2005 | series= Monographs in German History | volume= 12 | publisher= Berghahn Books | isbn= 978-1-57181-908-6 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lrQz-DQwF_kC&pg=PA173 }} * {{cite book | title= The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany | title-link=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich | first= William L. | last= Shirer | author-link=William L. Shirer | year= 1990 | publisher= Simon and Schuster | isbn= 978-0-671-72868-7 | url= }} * {{cite book | title= European Constitutional History | last= Case | first= Nelson | year= 1902 | publisher= Jennings & Pye | oclc= 608806061 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G2t9AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA139 }} * {{cite book | title= History of Trial by Jury | last= Forsyth | first= William | author-link= William Forsyth (QC) | year= 1852 | publisher= J. W. Parker | oclc= 29739821 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CTdeF8IhJiAC&pg=PA369 }} [[Categoria:Germania]] 27bh1kuo74aivul68ugnnjo983ovohe 0 60811 698266 695313 2026-08-04T00:01:20Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{For|le processo de administrar medicina|Iontophorese}} {{other uses}} [[File:Motion by electrophoresis of a charged particle.svg|thumb|300px|1. Illustration de electrophorese de un particula cargate]] [[File:Retardation Force.svg|thumb|300px|2. Illustration del retardation electrophoretic]] '''Electrophorese''' es le motion de [[Carga electric|particulas disperse cargate]] o [[Molecula|moleculas]] [[Ion|cargate]] [[Solvation|dissolvite]] relative a un fluido sub le influentia de un [[campo electric]] spatialmente uniforme. Como regula, iste particulas e moleculas [[zwitterion]]ic ha o un carga nette positive o negative, le qual es frequentemente characterisate con le [[potential zeta]].<ref name="Dukhin">{{cite book |last1=Dukhin |first1=Andrei S. |last2=Xu |first2=Renliang |title=Zeta Potential: Fundamentals, Methods, and Applications |date=2025 |publisher=Academic Press |location=London Cambridge, MA| url=https://www.amazon.com/Zeta-Potential-Fundamentals-Applications-Technology/dp/0443334439|isbn=978-0443334436 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Michov, B. |year=2022 |title=Electrophoresis Fundamentals: Essential Theory and Practice |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110761641/html |url-access= |publisher=De Gruyter, ISBN 9783110761627|doi=10.1515/9783110761641 |isbn=9783110761641 }}</ref> Electrophorese es usate in [[Laboratorio|laboratorios]] pro separar [[macromolecula]]s basate sur lor cargas. Le technica normalmente applica un carga negative appellate [[cathodo]] de modo que le moleculas de proteina anionic se move verso un carga positive appellate [[anodo]].<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Electroanalysis |date=2006 |volume=18 |pages=103–6 |title=Comparison of the electrochemical behavior of the high molecular mass cadmium proteins in ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' and in vegetable plants on using preparative native continuous polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PNC-PAGE) |author=Kastenholz, B. |doi=10.1002/elan.200403344 |issue=1 }} </ref> Ergo, le electrophorese de particulas o moleculas cargate positivemente ([[cation]]es) es a vices appellate '''cataphorese''', dum le electrophorese de particulas o moleculas cargate negativemente (aniones) es a vices appellate '''anaphorese'''.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Lyklema |title= Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science |volume= 2 |page=3.208 |year=1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=R.J. |last=Hunter |title=Foundations of Colloid Science |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=S.S. |last1=Dukhin |first2=B.V. |last2=Derjaguin |title=Electrokinetic Phenomena |publisher=J. Wiley and Sons |year=1974}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=W.B. |last1=Russel |first2=D.A. |last2=Saville |first3=W.R. |last3=Schowalter |title=Colloidal Dispersions |url=https://archive.org/details/colloidaldispers0000russ |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989|isbn=9780521341882 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=H.R. |last=Kruyt |title=Colloid Science |publisher=Elsevier |volume=1, Irreversible systems |year=1952}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Dukhin | first1=A.S. | last2=Goetz | first2=P.J. <!-- | url= https://dispersion.com/books/ --> |title=Characterization of liquids, nano- and micro- particulates and porous bodies using Ultrasound | publisher= Elsevier | year=2017 |url= https://www.elsevier.com/books/characterization-of-liquids-dispersions-emulsions-and-porous-materials-using-ultrasound/dukhin/978-0-444-63908-0 |isbn= 978-0-444-63908-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=J.L.|date=January 1989 |title=Colloid Transport by Interfacial Forces |journal=Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics |language=en |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=61–99 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.fl.21.010189.000425 |issn=0066-4189 |bibcode=1989AnRFM..21...61A}}</ref> Electrophorese es le base pro [[Chimica analytic|technicas analytic]] usate in [[biochimia]] e [[biologia molecular]] pro separar particulas, moleculas, o iones per [[Massa molecular|grandor]], carga, forma, o [[Fortia intermolecular|affinitate de ligamine]], sia [[Electrophorese de frontiera mobile|liberemente]] o a transverso de un [[gel|medio]] de supporto usante un [[Currente electric|fluxo]] unidirectione de carga electric.<ref>{{cite book |first=P. |last=Malhotra |title= Analytical Chemistry: Basic Techniques and Methods |publisher=Springer, ISBN 9783031267567 |volume= |page=346 |year=2023}}</ref> Illo es usate extensivemente in le analyse de [[ADN]], [[ARN]] e [[proteina]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Introduction to Biophysical Methods for Protein and Nucleic Acid Research |date=1995 |volume= |pages=53–109 |title=Chapter 2 – Electrophoretic Methods |author=Garfin, D.E. |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012286230-4/50003-1 |doi=10.1016/B978-012286230-4/50003-1 |pmid= |url-access=subscription }} </ref> Le "electrophorese de [[Gutta (liquido)|guttettas]]" liquide es significativemente differente del classic "electrophorese de [[particula]]s" a causa de characteristicas del guttetta tal como un carga superficial mobile e le non-rigiditate del interfacie. Etiam, le systema liquido–liquido, ubi il ha un interaction inter le [[Dynamica de fluidos|fortias hydrodynamic]] e [[Electrohydrodynamica|electrokinetic]] in ambe phases, adde al complexitate del motion electrophoretic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rashidi |first1=Mansoureh |title=Mechanistic studies of droplet electrophoresis: A review |journal=Electrophoresis |date=2021 |volume=42 |issue=7–8 |pages=869–880 |doi=10.1002/elps.202000358 |pmid=33665851 }}</ref> == Historia == Le prime observation de [[electrophorese]] occurreva durante le prime annos del 19e seculo independentemente per Gautherot in 1801 <ref>{{cite journal| author = Gautherot N|title= Mémoire sur le Galvanisme|journal = Annales de Chimie ou Récueil |year=1801|pages=203-210}}</ref> e per Reuss in 1809<ref>{{cite journal| author = Reuss FF |title= Sur un nouvel effet de l'électricité galvanique |journal = Mem Soc Imp Natur Moscou |year=1809|volume=2|pages=327-337}}</ref>. Existe un panorama del disveloppamento ulterior del fundamentos de [[electrophorese]] e del [[phenomenos electrokinetic]] in general durante duo seculos in le libro <ref>{{cite book |last1=Dukhin |first1=Andrei S. |last2=Xu |first2=Renliang |title=Zeta Potential: Fundamentals, Methods, and Applications |date=2025 |publisher=Academic Press |location=London Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-443-33443-6 |url=https://www.amazon.com/Zeta-Potential-Fundamentals-Applications-Technology/dp/0443334439/}}</ref>. Le '''historia''' del [[Electrokinetic phenomena|electrokinetica]] e del [[electrophorese]] pro lor [[Electrokinetic phenomena|applicationes]] le plus amplemente usate, tal como le separation molecular e le [[analyse chimic]], comenciava con le travalio de [[Arne Tiselius]] in 1931, dum nove [[processo de separation|processos de separation]] e technicas de analyse de speciation chimic basate sur le electrophorese e le electrokinetica continua a esser disveloppate in le 21e seculo.<ref>{{cite book |first=P. |last=Malhotra |title= Analytical Chemistry: Basic Techniques and Methods |publisher=Springer, ISBN 9783031267567 |volume= |page=346 |year=2023}}</ref> Tiselius, con le appoio del [[Fundation Rockefeller]], disveloppava le [[electrophorese de frontiera mobile]], que esseva describite in 1937 in su ben cognoscite articulo.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 33| pages = 524–531| last = Tiselius| first = Arne| title = A new apparatus for electrophoretic analysis of colloidal mixtures| journal = Transactions of the Faraday Society| year = 1937|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/1937/tf/tf9373300524 |doi = 10.1039/TF9373300524 | url-access = subscription}}</ref> Le methodo se extendeva lentemente usque al advento de methodos de [[electrophorese de zona]] effective in le annos 1940 e 1950, que usava [[papiro de filtro]] o [[gel]]es como medios de supporto. Verso le annos 1960, methodos de [[electrophorese in gel]] de plus in plus sophisticate rendeva possibile separar moleculas biologic basate sur minute differentias physic e chimic, adjutante a stimular le [[historia del biologia molecular|ascesa del biologia molecular]] e del [[historia del biochimia|biochimia]]. Le electrophorese in gel e technicas connexe deveniva le base pro un ample gamma de [[Bioanalysis#Bioanalytical techniques|methodos biochimic]], tal como le [[Peptide mass fingerprinting|identification de proteinas per massa peptidica]], [[Southern blot]], altere proceduras de blotting, [[sequentiation de DNA]], e multe alteres.<ref name=":4">{{cite book |author=Michov, B. |year=2022 |title=Electrophoresis Fundamentals: Essential Theory and Practice |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110761641/html |url-access= |publisher=De Gruyter, ISBN 9783110761627|doi=10.1515/9783110761641 |isbn=9783110761641 }}</ref> == Theoria == Particulas suspendite ha un [[carga electric superficial]], fortemente afficite per species adsorbite sur le superficie,<ref> {{cite journal | last1=Hanaor | first1=D.A.H. | last2=Michelazzi | first2=M. | last3=Leonelli | first3=C. | last4=Sorrell | first4=C.C. | title= The effects of carboxylic acids on the aqueous dispersion and electrophoretic deposition of ZrO₂ | journal= Journal of the European Ceramic Society | year=2012 | volume=32 | issue=1 | pages=235–244 | doi= 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2011.08.015| arxiv=1303.2754 | s2cid=98812224 }}</ref> sur le quales un campo electric externe exerce un [[fortia de Coulomb]] [[electrostatic]]. Secundo le theoria del [[Duple hapa (interfacial)|duple hapa]], tote le cargas superficial in fluidos es protegite per un [[hapa diffuse]] de iones, le qual ha le mesme carga absolute sed de signo opposite respective a illo del carga superficial. Le [[campo electric]] etiam exerce un fortia sur le iones in le hapa diffuse le qual ha un direction opposite a illo que age sur le [[carga superficial]]. Iste ultime fortia non es de facto applicate al particula, sed al [[ion]]es in le hapa diffuse locate a alcun distantia del superficie del particula, e parte de illo es transferite usque al superficie del particula a transverso de [[Stress (physica)|tension]] [[Viscositate|viscose]]. Iste parte del fortia es etiam appellate fortia de retardation electrophoretic, o ERF in breve. Quando le campo electric es applicate e le particula cargate a analysar es in movimento stabile a transverso del hapa diffuse, le fortia total resultante es zero: :<math> F_{\text{tot}} = 0 = F_{\text{el}} + F_{\mathrm{f}} + F_{\text{ret}}</math> Considerante le [[Resistentia (physica)|resistentia]] sur le particulas in movimento debite al [[viscositate]] del dispersante, in le caso de un basse [[numero de Reynolds]] e un fortia de campo electric moderate ''E'', le [[velocitate de deriva]] de un particula disperse ''v'' es simplemente proportional al campo applicate, lo que lassa le [[Mobilitate electric|mobilitate electrophoretic]] μ_e definite como:<ref>{{cite journal | arxiv=1303.2742 | doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2010.12.017 | title=Anodic aqueous electrophoretic deposition of titanium dioxide using carboxylic acids as dispersing agents | year=2011 | last1=Hanaor | first1=Dorian | last2=Michelazzi | first2=Marco | last3=Veronesi | first3=Paolo | last4=Leonelli | first4=Cristina | last5=Romagnoli | first5=Marcello | last6=Sorrell | first6=Charles | journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society | volume=31 | issue=6 | pages=1041–1047 | s2cid=98781292 }}</ref> :<math>\mu_e = {v \over E}.</math> Le theoria le plus cognoscite e amplemente usate de electrophorese esseva disvolupate in 1903 per [[Marian Smoluchowski]]:<ref>{{cite journal |first=M. |last=von Smoluchowski |journal=Bull. Int. Acad. Sci. Cracovie |volume=184 |year=1903 |title=Contribution à la théorie de l'endosmose électrique et de quelques phénomènes corrélatifs}}</ref> :<math>\mu_e = \frac{\varepsilon_r\varepsilon_0\zeta}{\eta}</math>, ubi ε_r es le [[constante dielectric]] del [[medio de dispersion]], ε₀ es le [[permissivitate del vacuo]] (C²&nbsp;N⁻¹&nbsp;m⁻²), η es le [[viscositate dynamic]] del medio de dispersion (Pa&nbsp;s), e ζ es le [[potential zeta]] (i.e., le [[potential electrokinetic]] del [[plano de glissamento]] in le [[duple hapa (interfacial)|duple hapa]], unitates mV o V). Le theoria de Smoluchowski es multo potente proque illo functiona pro [[particulas disperse]] de omne [[forma]] a omne [[concentration]]. Illo ha limitationes in su validitate. Per exemplo, illo non include le [[longitude de Debye]] κ⁻¹ (unitates m). Tamen, le longitude de Debye debe esser importante pro le electrophorese, como se seque immediatemente del Figura 2, [[#Fig2|"Illustration del retardation electrophoretic"]]. Augmentar le spissitate del duple hapa (DL) duce a remover le puncto del fortia de retardation plus longe del superficie del particula. Quanto plus spisse es le DL, tanto minor debe esser le fortia de retardation. Analyse theoretic detaliate provava que le theoria de Smoluchowski es valide solmente pro un DL sufficientemente fin, quando le radio del particula ''a'' es multo major que le longitude de Debye: :<math> a\kappa \gg 1</math>. Iste modelo de "duple hapa fin" offere simplificationes tremende non solmente pro le theoria de electrophorese sed pro multe altere theorias electrokinetic. Iste modelo es valide pro le majoritate del systemas [[aquee]], ubi le [[longitude de Debye]] es usualmente solmente alcun [[nanometro]]s. Illo solmente fali pro nano-colloides in solution con [[fortia ionic]] proxime a illo del aqua. Le theoria de Smoluchowski etiam neglige le contributiones del [[conductivitate superficial]]. Isto es exprimite in le theoria moderne como condition de parve [[numero de Dukhin]]: :<math> Du \ll 1 </math> In le effortio de expander le rango de validitate del theorias electrophoretic, le caso asymptotic opposite esseva considerate, quando le longitude de Debye es plus grande que le radio del particula: :<math> a \kappa < \!\, 1</math>. Sub iste condition de un "duple hapa spisse", [[Erich Hückel]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=E. |last=Hückel |journal=Phys. Z. |volume=25 |page=204|title=Die kataphorese der kugel |year=1924}}</ref> prediceva le sequente relation pro le mobilitate electrophoretic: :<math>\mu_e = \frac{2\varepsilon_r\varepsilon_0\zeta}{3\eta}</math>. Iste modelo pote esser utile pro alcun [[nanoparticula]]s e fluidos non-polar, ubi le longitude de Debye es multo plus grande que in le casos usual. Il ha plure theorias analytic que incorpora le [[conductivitate superficial]] e elimina le restriction de un parve [[numero de Dukhin]], initiate per [[Theodoor Overbeek]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=J.Th.G |last=Overbeek |journal=Koll. Bith. |page=287 |title=Theory of electrophoresis — The relaxation effect|year=1943}}</ref> e F. Booth<ref>{{cite journal |first=F. |last=Booth |journal=Nature |volume=161 |issue=4081 |pages=83–86 |year=1948|bibcode = 1948Natur.161...83B |doi = 10.1038/161083a0 |pmid=18898334|title=Theory of Electrokinetic Effects |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1948-01-17_161_4081/page/83 |s2cid=4115758 |doi-access=free }}</ref>. Le theorias moderne e rigorose que es valide pro omne [[potential zeta]] e frequentemente omne ''aκ'' proveni principalmente del theoria de Dukhin–Semenikhin.<ref name="DukhinSemenikhin">Dukhin, S.S. e Semenikhin N.V. "Theory of double layer polarization and its effect on electrophoresis", Koll.Zhur. USSR, volume 32, pagina 366, 1970.</ref><ref name="Dukhin"></ref> In le limite del ''duple hapa fin'', iste theorias confirma le solution numeric al problema fornite per Richard W. O'Brien e Lee R. White.<ref>{{cite journal |first=R.W. |last=O'Brien |author2=L.R. White |title=Electrophoretic mobility of a spherical colloidal particle|journal=J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. |volume=2 |issue=74 |page=1607 |year=1978|doi=10.1039/F29787401607 }}</ref> Pro modular scenariios plus complexe, iste simplificationes deveni inaccurate, e le campo electric debe esser modulate spatialmente, traciante su magnitude e direction. Le [[equation de Poisson]] pote esser usate pro modular iste campo electric spatialmente variante. Su influentia sur le fluxo de fluido pote esser modulate con le [[lege de Stokes]],<ref name="Paxton Sen Mallouk 2005 pp. 6462–6470">{{cite journal | last1=Paxton | first1=Walter F. | last2=Sen | first2=Ayusman | last3=Mallouk | first3=Thomas E. | title=Motility of Catalytic Nanoparticles through Self-Generated Forces | journal=Chemistry - A European Journal | publisher=Wiley | volume=11 | issue=22 | date=2005-11-04 | issn=0947-6539 | doi=10.1002/chem.200500167 | pages=6462–6470| pmid=16052651 | bibcode=2005ChEuJ..11.6462P }}</ref> dum le transporto de differente iones pote esser modulate usante le [[equation de Nernst–Planck]]. Iste approche combinate es referite como le equationes de Poisson-Nernst-Planck-Stokes. Illo ha essite validate pro le electrophorese de particulas.<ref name="MORANPOSNER2011">{{cite journal | last1=Moran | first1=Jeffrey L. | last2=Posner | first2=Jonathan D. | title=Electrokinetic locomotion due to reaction-induced charge auto-electrophoresis | journal=Journal of Fluid Mechanics | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=680 | date=2011-06-13 | issn=0022-1120 | doi=10.1017/jfm.2011.132 | pages=31–66| bibcode=2011JFM...680...31M | s2cid=100357810 }}</ref> ==Vide etiam== *[[Electrophorese de affinitate]] *[[Deposition electrophoretic]] *[[Papiro electronic]] *[[Electrophorese capillari]] *[[Dielectrophorese]] *[[Electrophorese de fluxo libere]] *[[Electroblotting]] *[[Electrophorese in gel]] *[[Electrophorese in gel de acidos nucleic]] *[[Electrophorese in gel de proteinas]] *[[Historia del electrophorese]] *[[Electrophorese in gel#Historia|Historia del electrophorese in gel]] *[[Immunoelectrophorese]] *[[Focalisation isoelectric]] *[[Isotachophorese]] *[[Frictiophorese nonlinear]] *[[Electrophorese in gel de campo pulsate]] *[[Fluxo de Stokes]] ==Referentias== {{Reflist}} ==Lectura ulterior== * {{Cite journal |last=Barz |first=D.P.J. |author2=P. Ehrhard |year=2005 |title=Model and Verification of Electrokinetic Flow and Transport in a Micro-Electrophoresis Device |journal=Lab Chip |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=949–958 |doi=10.1039/b503696h |pmid=16100579}} * {{Cite journal |last=Jahn |first=G.C. |author2=D.W. Hall |author3=S.G. Zam |year=1986 |title=A Comparison of the Life Cycles of Two ''Amblyospora'' (Microspora: ''Amblyosporidae'') in the Mosquitoes ''Culex salinarius'' and ''Culex tarsalis'' Coquillett |journal=J. Florida Anti-Mosquito Assoc. |volume=57 |pages=24–27}} * {{Cite journal |last=Khattak |first=M.N. |author2=R.C. Matthews |year=1993 |title=Genetic Relatedness of ''Bordetella'' Species as Determined by Macrorestriction Digests Resolved by Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis |journal=Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=659–64|pmid=8240949 |doi=10.1099/00207713-43-4-659|doi-access=free }} * {{Cite journal |last=Shim |first=J. |author2=P. Dutta |author3=C.F. Ivory |year=2007 |title=Modeling and Simulation of IEF in 2-D Microgeometries |journal=[[Electrophoresis (journal)|Electrophoresis]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=527–586|doi=10.1002/elps.200600402 |pmid=17253629 |s2cid=23274096 }} * {{Cite book |author=Voet and Voet |year=1990 |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry00voet |url-access=registration |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}{{Full citation needed|date=October 2024}} ==Ligamines externe== {{Commons}} * [http://web.med.unsw.edu.au/phbsoft/mobility_listings.htm Lista de mobilitates relative] [[Category:Electrophorese| ]] [[Category:Chimica colloidal]] [[Category:Processos de separation biochimic]] [[Category:Methodos electroanalytic]] [[Category:Analyse instrumental]] [[Category:Technicas de laboratorio]] iq1k9wfmxd41m5fx06jcu9s6932iwe0 0 60861 698197 696694 2026-08-03T22:17:46Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698197 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} Durante le [[Revolution Francese]], [[Maximilien Robespierre]] se adressava al [[Convention National]] le 26 de julio 1794, esseva arrestate le die sequente, e executate le 28 de julio. In su discurso del 26 de julio, Robespierre parlava del existentia de inimicos interne, conspiratores, e [[:wikt:calumniator|calumniatores]], intra le Convention e le Comites de governamento. Ille refusava nominar los, lo que alarmava le deputatos qui timeva que Robespierre preparava un altere [[purga]] del Convention, simile a illos precedente durante le [[Regno del Terror]].{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=214}} Le die sequente, iste tension in le Convention permitteva a [[Jean-Lambert Tallien]], un del conspiratores que Robespierre habeva in mente in su denunciation, de tornar le Convention contra Robespierre e decretar su arresto.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=347}}{{Sfn|Jordan|1985|p=218}} Al fin del 28 de julio, Robespierre esseva executate per [[guillotina]] sur le [[Place de la Concorde|Placia del Revolution]].{{Sfn|Jordan|1985|p=220}} Le cadita de Robespierre duceva al implementation de politicas plus moderate durante le [[Reaction Thermidorian]], que sequeva bentosto.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewes |first=George Henry |title=The Life of Maximilien Robespierre: With Extracts from His Unpublished Correspondence |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |isbn=1402172729 |publication-date=May 3, 2001}}</ref> == Antecedentes == === Purga del hebertistas e dantonistas === Le 27 de julio 1793, Robespierre esseva elegite al [[Comitato de Salute Public]] e remanerea un membro usque a su morte.{{Sfn|Rudé|1976|p=38}} Inter septembre 1793 e julio 1794, le poter del Comitato cresceva dramaticamente per medie de plure mesuras instaurate durante le [[Regno del Terror]], tal como le [[Lege del Suspectos]] e le [[Lege de Frimario|Lege del 14 de Frimario]], deveniente le brancia executive ''de facto'' del governamento revolutionari, sub le supervision del [[Convention National]].{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=284-285, 297}}{{Sfn|Rudé|1976|p=40-41}} Durante iste tempore, duo differente factiones surgeva in opposition al governamento revolutionari restructurate: le ''ultra-revolutionarios'' de sinistra e le ''citra-revolutionarios'' moderate de dextera.{{Sfn|Stewart|1951|p=519}} Le sinistra (cognoscite como [[Hebertistas]] o ''exagérés'') se reuniva circa [[Jacques Hébert]], assi como le duces del [[Communa de Paris (Revolution Francese)|Communa de Paris]] e le ''exagérés'' del [[Club del Cordeliers]].{{Sfn|Rudé|1976|p=41}} Illes pulsava pro mesuras de repression plus forte que illos ja in vigor durante le Terror e faceva campania pro le [[Dechristianisation de Francia durante le Revolution Francese|dechristianisation]].{{Sfn|Rudé|1976|p=42}}{{Sfn|Stewart|1951|p=519}} Le dextera (cognoscite como dantonistas o ''[[Indulgentes]]'') se formava circa [[Georges Danton]] assi como le membros ''indulgentes'' del Club del Cordeliers, incluse [[Camille Desmoulins]]. Illes se opponeva fortemente al machineria del Terror e al politicas del Comitato de Salute Public.{{Sfn|Rudé|1976|p=41-42}} Ambe iste factiones esseva accusate como conspiratores contra le governamento revolutionari e sententiate al guillotina: le hebertistas le 24 de martio (4 de germinal) e le dantonistas le 5 de april (16 de germinal).{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=189-191}} Con iste purgas, le poter del Comitato esseva reaffirmate. Le mortes de Danton e Desmoulins, ambes olim amicos de Robespierre, lassava un profunde impacto sur ille. Isto, combinate con le crescenti demandas de ambe le Comitato de Salute Public e le Convention National, deteriorava le sanitate mental e physic de Robespierre usque al puncto que ille esseva obligate a reducer su presentia in le [[Jacobinos|Club del Jacobinos]] e le Convention National.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=194-195}} === Division intra le governamento revolutionari === [[File: Jacques René Hébert.JPG|thumb|left| [[Jacques Hébert|Jacques-René Hébert]]]] [[File: Georges Danton.jpg|thumb|[[Georges Danton]]]] Robespierre non reappariva in le Convention National usque al 7 de maio (18 Floréal). Pro iste die ille habeva planate un discurso super le relation inter religion, moralitate, e le principios republican; e pro establir le [[Culto del Essere Supreme]] in loco del [[Culto del Ration]] promovite per de-christianisatores como le hébertistas.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=196}} Le 21 de maio 1794 le governamento revolutionari decideva que le Terror esserea centralisate, con quasi tote le [[Tribunal revolutionari|tribunales]] in le provincias claudite e tote le processos tenite in Paris.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=9lWNCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny by Ian Davidson, p. xiv]</ref> Robespierre duceve le processiones durante le Festival in Honor del Essere Supreme celebrate le 8 de junio (20 Prairial). Ben que le festival esseva ben acceptate per le turbas, le position prominente de Robespierre in illo esseva suspiciose in le oculos de alcun deputatos, e murmures comenciava super le fanaticismo e le desiro de poter de Robespierre.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|pp=198–199}} Duo dies post le festival, Robespierre pulsava le Convention National a approbar le [[Lege del 22 Prairial]] redigite per ille e [[Georges Couthon]], lo que accelerava le processo de judicio e extendeva le pena de morte pro includer un nove insimul de "inimicos del populo"; isto includeva illes qui cercava restablir le monarchia, interferer con le provisiones de alimentos, discreditar le Convention National, e communicar con estranieros, inter alteres.{{Sfn|Rudé|1976|p=47}}{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=328}} Le timor de assassination pulsava Robespierre a prender iste mesura: duo tentativas de assassination contra Robespierre e [[Collot d'Herbois]] habeva occurrite le 23 e 24 de maio (4–5 Prairial), e le memoria del assassinatos de [[Louis-Michel le Peletier, marquis de Saint-Fargeau|Lepeletier]] e [[Jean-Paul Marat]] ancora excitava sentimentos in le Convention.{{Sfn|Jordan|1985|p=204}} Le lege non esseva universalmente acceptate in le Convention, e criticos de Robespierre e [[Louis Antoine de Saint-Just]] lo usarea contra illes durante le eventos del 9 Thermidor.{{Sfn|Rudé|1976|p=328}} [[File:Raymond Quinsac Monvoisin - Le 9 Thermidor.jpg|thumb|Raymond Quinsac Monvoisin <br/> Le 9 Thermidor]] Plus opposition veniva del [[Committee de Securitate General]], que non habeva essite consultate super le contento del lege. Le Committee de Securitate General jam se sentiva menaciate per le nove capacitate del Committee de Salute Public de emitter mandatos de arresto, assi como per le Bureau de Policia, que habeva essite create per Saint-Just e esseva dirigite per Robespierre in su absentia, e de qui le functiones se superponeva con illos del Committee de Securitate General.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=330-331}} Como recompensa, illes presentava un reporto super le ligamines inter le inimico anglese e le auto-proclamate "Matre de Deo", [[Catherine Théot]], qui habeva prophetisate que Robespierre esseva un nove Messia. Isto esseva facite tanto con le intention de deminuer Robespierre, como pro rider se de su positiones religiose e del Culto del Essere Supreme.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=205}} Le 28 de junio (10 Messidor) Saint-Just retornava del fronte del nord portante novas: le Armea Revolutionari habeva vincite le armea austriac in Belgica al [[Battalia de Fleurus (1794)|Battalia de Fleurus]], assecurante le via a Paris. Iste victoria signalava le fin del guerra contra le austriacos, e con illo, le fin del governamento del Terror. Robespierre, desirante debarrassar se de inimicos tanto interne como externe, se opponeva al dissolution del governamento de guerra.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=340}} Le die sequente, in un reunion juncte del Comitatos de Salute Public e de Securitate General, [[Lazare Carnot]] allegatemente critava a Saint-Just que tanto ille como Robespierre esseva "dictatores ridicule". Post iste evento, Robespierre cessava de participar directemente in le deliberationes del Comitato de Salute Public.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=209}} Habente abandonate tanto le Comitato como le Convention National, le qual ille cessava de frequentar post que su presidentia finiva le 18 de junio (30 Prairial),{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=207}} le absentia de Robespierre permitteva que le ruptura inter ille e altere membros del governamento revolutionari se expandeva. Ille non reappareva usque le 23 de julio (5 Thermidor), quando ille assisteva a un altere convention juncte del duo Comitatos proponite in un tentativa fallite de resolver lor differentias mutue.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=213}} == Eventos == === 8 Thermidor (26 de julio) === [[File:Robespierre à la Société des Jacobins - Auguste Raffet.jpg|thumb|Robespierre al Societate del Jacobinos - Auguste Raffet]] [[File:9 Thermidor.jpg|thumb|Le attacco del 9 Thermidor]] Durante su absentia tanto del Convention National como del Committee de Salute Public durante le menses de junio e julio (Messidor), Robespierre preparava un discurso pro esser pronunciate le 26 de julio (8 Thermidor).{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=213}} Ille pronunciava le discurso primo al Convention National e plus tarde le mesme die al Club del Jacobinos.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=215}} In illo, ille tentava tanto defender se del rumores e attaccos contra su persona que se habeva expandite depost le initio del Regno del Terror; como revelar un conspiration anti-revolutionari que ille credeva habeva penetrate in le Convention e le Committees de Governamento.<ref>[[:s:fr:Discours du 8 thermidor an II (Robespierre)|Discours du 8 thermidor an II (Robespierre)]] – French Wikisource.</ref> Ben que ille accusava tres deputatos per nomine ([[Pierre-Joseph Cambon]], [[François René Mallarmé]], e [[Dominique-Vincent Ramel-Nogaret]]), su discurso pareva incriminar plure alteres.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=214}} In plus, esseva precisemente proque ille faliava de nominar le condemnatos que le terror se expandeva per le Convention quando le deputatos comenciava a pensar que Robespierre planificava ancora un altere purga como illo del dantonistas e hebertistas.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=215}} Plus tarde le mesme die ille presentava le discurso al Club del Jacobinos, ubi illo esseva recipite con un appoio massive malgrado alcun opposition initial.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=216}} Tanto [[Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne]] como [[Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois]], qui se opponeva al impression del discurso, esseva expellite del Club del Jacobinos.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=350}} === 9 Thermidor (27 de julio) === [[File:La nuit du 9 au 10 thermidor an II (1794).jpg|thumb|Saint-Just e Robespierre al Hôtel de Ville de Paris in le nocte del 9 al 10 de thermidor del anno II (27 al 28 de julio 1794). Pictura per Jean-Joseph Weerts]] Le 27 de julio, le tempore esseva tempestuose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE PUBLIC PROSECUTOR OF THE TERROR: ANTOINE QUENTIN FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, p. 118 |url=http://rewolucjafrancuska.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/The-Public-Prosecutor-Of-The-Terror_Fouquier-Tinville.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203055607/http://rewolucjafrancuska.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/The-Public-Prosecutor-Of-The-Terror_Fouquier-Tinville.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2018 |access-date=9 January 2019 |accessdate=11 March 2026 |archivedate=3 December 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203055607/http://rewolucjafrancuska.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/The-Public-Prosecutor-Of-The-Terror_Fouquier-Tinville.pdf }}</ref> Le travaliatores de Paris organisava un demonstration contra le restrictiones salarial imponite per le Lege del [[Maximo General]].<ref>Rude, George (1967) The crowd in the French Revolution, p. 136. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Walter, G. (1961) Le vaincu du neuf Thermidor, p. 17. In: L'œuvre, vol. II, part III. Gallimard.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Aftalion |first=Florin |title=The French Revolution: An Economic Interpretation |date=22 March 1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5213-6810-0 }}</ref> A medie-die Saint-Just comenciava a adressar se al Convention sin haber monstrate su discurso al duo Commites.<ref>Cobb, R. & C. Jones (1988) The French Revolution. Voices from a momentous epoch 1789-1795, p. 230</ref> Ille esseva interrumpite per [[Jean-Lambert Tallien]] qui se plangeva que e Robespierre e Saint-Just habeva rumpite con le Commites e parlava solmente pro se mesme; e postea per Billaud-Varenne, qui relatava como ille e Collot habeva essite expellite del Club del Jacobinos le die precedente, e qui accusava Robespierre de conspiration contra le Convention.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=352}} Robespierre tentava defender se ma esseva silentiate per le commotion intra le Convention e per le deputatos critante qui lo condemnava como un tyranno e conspirator.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=217}} Le Convention votava tunc pro arrestar cinque deputatos – Robespierre, [[Augustin Robespierre|su fratre]], Couthon, Saint-Just e [[Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas|Le Bas]] – assi como [[François Hanriot]] e altere officiales robespierrista.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=218}}{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=352}} Illes esseva portate ante le Commite de Securitate General e inviate a differente prisiones.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=218}} Necun del prisiones del citate voleva arrestar le deputatos e officiales, e un vice que un deputation del Communa de Paris, que se habeva sublevate in supporto de Robespierre, arrivava al prisiones del citate demandante que illes refusava reciper le arrestatos, le officiales del prision consentiva.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=253}} Un pauc post medie-nocte, circa 50 personas, le cinque deputatos rebelle, Hanriot e [[René-François Dumas]] consultava sur le prime etage del [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]].{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=253}} === 10 Thermidor (28 de julio) === [[File:Arrestation de Robespierre.jpg|thumb|Arrestation de Robespierre]] [[File:Matin du 10 thermidor an II-Melingue-IMG 2405.JPG|thumb|Jacente super un tabula, Robespierre es le objecto del curiositate e del burlas del [[Thermidorianos]], ([[Musée de la Révolution française]])]] Al reciper novas que Robespierre e su alliatos non habeva essite imprisionate, le Convention National, que esseva in session permanente, declarava que Robespierre, Saint-Just, e le altere deputatos esseva proscritos, e commandava fortias armate entrar in le Hôtel de Ville. Verso le 2:30 a.m., illes habeva entrate in le Hôtel de Ville e facite le arrestation.{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=219}} Existe duo relatos contradictori sur como Robespierre esseva vulnerate: le prime propone que Robespierre habeva tentate suicidar se con un pistola,{{Sfn|McPhee|2012|p=219}} e le secunde es que ille esseva colpite per un tiro de [[Charles-André Meda]], un del officieros occupante le Hôtel de Ville.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=354}} Robespierre esseva portate foras del Hôtel de Ville con un maxilla fracturate e passava le resto del nocte in le antecamera del [[Comitato de Securitate General]]. Le die sequente, secundo le [[Calendario republican francese|calendario revolutionari francese]] un die de reposo e festivitates, ille esseva portate al Tribunal Revolutionari verso le 2 p.m. insimul con 21 robespierristas (incluse Hanriot) e condemnate al morte.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=357}} Al initio del vespere, le condemnatos esseva portate in tres carretas al [[Placia del Revolution]]. Un turba critante maledictiones accompaniava le procession. Con su facie ancora tumide, Robespierre manteneva su oculos claudite. Ille esseva le decime appellate al platteforma e ascendeva le scalas del echafodage sin adjuta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iMIBAAAAYAAJ&q=PRAIRIAL&pg=RA1-PA135|title=Memoirs of the Sansons: From Private Notes and Documents (1688–1847)|first=Henri|last=Sanson|date=12 March 1876|publisher=Chatto and Windus|via=Google Books}}</ref> Al discoperir le collo de Robespierre, le executor [[Charles-Henri Sanson]] distachava bruscamente le bandage que manteneva su maxilla fracassate in su loco, causante que ille emitteva un crito de agonia usque a su morte.{{sfn|Schama|1989|pp=845–46}} Ille esseva guillotinate in le mesme loco ubi le rege [[Louis XVI]], Danton e Desmoulins habeva essite executate.{{Sfn|Scurr|2007|p=357}} == Memoriales public == [[File:Place Robespierre Marseille.png|thumb|Placia Robespierre in Marseille con le inscription: "Advocato, nascite in Arras in 1758, guillotinate sin judicio le 27 de julio 1794. Supernominate le Incorruptibile. Defensor del populo. Autor de nostre motto republican: [[Liberté, égalité, fraternité]]" ]] === Nomines de stratas === Robespierre es un del pauc revolutionarios qui non ha un strata nominate in su honor in le centro de Paris. Al [[Liberation de Paris]], le consilio municipal (electe le 29 de april 1945 con 27 communistas, 12 socialistas e 4 radicales ex 48 membros), decideva le 13 de april 1946 renominar le Place du Marché-Saint-Honoré como "Place Robespierre", un decision approbate al nivello prefectoral le 8 de junio. Tamen, post le cambios politic in 1947, illo retornava a su nomine original le 6 de novembre 1950. Stratas in le assi-nominate "Cinctura rubie" porta su nomine, per exemplo, in [[Montreuil, Seine-Saint-Denis|Montreuil]]. Existe tamben un [[Robespierre (Paris Métro)|station de metro "Robespierre"]] sur le Linea 9 (Mairie de Montreuil – Pont de Sèvres), in le communa de Montreuil, nominate durante le era del [[Fronte Popular (Francia)|Fronte Popular]]. Existe, nonobstante, numerose stratas, camminos e placias nominate in su honor in altere locos de Francia. === Placas e monumentos === Durante le era sovietic, le russos construeva duo statuas de ille, un in Leningrad e un altere in Moscova (le [[Robespierre Monument (Moscow)|Monumento a Robespierre]]). Le monumento esseva incumbite per [[Vladimir Lenin]], qui se refereva a Robespierre como un bolchevista ante su tempore.{{Sfn|Jordan|2013}} Debite al povre construction del monumento (illo esseva facite de tubos e beton), illo se collabeva intra tres dies post su inauguration e nunquam esseva reimplaciate.{{Sfn|Bean|Horak|Kapse|2014}} Le Quai Robespierre in San Petersburgo face a face con le [[Prison Kresty]] retornava a su nomine original Quai Voskresenskaya in 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tatlin |first1=V. |last2=Dymshits-Tolstaia |first2=S. |last3=Bowlt |first3=John |year=1984 |title=Memorandum from the Visual Arts Section of the People's Commissariat for Enlightenment to the Soviet of People's Commissars: Project for the Organization of Competitions for Monuments to Distinguished Persons (1918) |journal=Design Issues |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=70–74 |doi=10.2307/1511500 |jstor=1511500}}</ref> === Arras === * Le 14 de octobre 1923, un placa esseva placiate sur le domo al numero 9 del Rue Maximilien Robespierre (previemente Rue des Rapporteurs) luate per le tres fratres e sorores Robespierre in 1787–1789, in le presentia del burgomastro Gustave Lemelle, Albert Mathiez e Louis Jacob. Construite in 1730, le domo ha habite un historia variate como schola de dactylographia e museo de artisanos, sed ora illo es disveloppate como un Museo Robespierre. * In 1994, un placa esseva inaugurate per ARBR sur le fachada del brasserie del familia Carraut in le Rue Ronville, ubi Maximilien e Augustin esseva elevate per lor granparentes. * Un busto de marmore Art Deco per Maurice Cladel esseva destinate a esser exponite in le jardines del ancian Abbatia de Saint-Vaast. Un mixtura de politica e preoccupationes concernente le intemperies duceva a su collocation in le Hôtel de Ville. Post multe annos in un sala de tribunal, illo pote ora esser vidite in le Salle Robespierre. Fusiones de bronzo del busto esseva facite pro le bicentenario e es exponite in su ancian domo in le Rue Maximilien Robespierre e al Lycée Robespierre, inaugurate in 1990. === Paris e altere locos === * Robespierre es commemorate per duo placas in Paris, un sur le exterior del domo del familia Duplay, ora 398 rue Saint-Honoré, le altere, erigite per le Société des études robespierristes in le Conciergerie. * In 1909, un committeo presidite per René Viviani e Georges Clemenceau proponeva eriger un statua in le jardin del Tuileries, sed le hostilitate del pressa e le fallimento in colliger satis de subscriptiones public duceva a su abandonamento. Tamen, Robespierre es recognoscibile in le Altar del Convention National (1913) de marmore per François-Léon Sicard, originalmente destinate al jardines del Tuileries e ora in le Panthéon. * Un busto de petra per Albert Séraphin (1949) se trova in le placia Robespierre, opposite al theatro in Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis, con le inscription: "Maximilien Robespierre l'Incorruptible 1758–1794". * Le gruppo sculptural de bronzo del annos 1980 per Charles Correia al Collège Robespierre in Épinay-sur-Seine depinge le e Louis Antoine de Saint-Just a un tabula, laborante sur le Constitution de 1793 e le Declaration del Derectos del Homine. Un mural in le schola anque depinge le. * In 1986, le busto de terracotta de 1791 per Claude-André Deseine esseva emite pro le nove Musée de la Révolution française a Vizille. Isto retornava al vista public le unic portrait sculpte contemporanee supervivente de Robespierre. Un fusion de gypso de illo es exponite al Conciergerie in Paris, e un fusion de bronzo se trova in le Place de la Révolution Française in Montpellier, con bronzos de altere figuras del epocha. === Unitates de resistentia === In le Secunde Guerra Mundial, plure gruppos del Resistentia Francese prendeva su nomine: le Compania Robespierre in Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, commandate per le Locotenente Aurin, alias Maréchal; le Battalion Robespierre in le Rhône, sub le Capitano Laplace; e un maquis formate per Marcel Claeys in le Ain. {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == * {{Cite book |last1=Bean |first1=Jennifer M. |title=Silent Cinema and the Politics of Space |last2=Horak |first2=Laura |last3=Kapse |first3=Anupama |date=2014 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-2530-1507-5 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=McPhee |first=Peter |title=Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life |date=2012 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-3001-1811-7}} * {{Cite book |last=Scurr |first=Ruth |title=Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution. |date=2007 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |isbn=978-1-4668-0578-1}} * {{Cite journal |last=Jordan |first=David P. |title=Robespierre |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-history_1977-06_49_2/page/282 |journal=Journal of Modern History |volume=49 |issue=2 |date=1977 |pages=282–291 |doi=10.1086/241568 |jstor=1876343|s2cid=222428259 }} * {{Cite book |last=Jordan |first=David P. |title=The Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre. |date=1985 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-2264-1037-1}} * {{Cite book |last=Jordan |first=David P. |title=Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre |date=2013 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-1-4767-2571-0 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Rudé |first=George |title=Robespierre : portrait of a Revolutionary Democrat |date=1976 |publisher=Viking Press |isbn=978-0-6706-0128-8 |location=New York |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |title=Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution |publisher=Vintage |year=1989 |location=New York}} * {{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=John Hall |title=A Documentary Survey of the French Revolution |date=1951 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-7581-9211-0 |language=en}} * [[John Stevens Cabot Abbott|Abbott, John Stevens Cabot]], The French Revolution of 1789: As Viewed in the Light of Republican Institutions p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ALE9AAAAYAAJ&q=Robespierre&pg=PA383 393] * Andress, David. "Living the Revolutionary Melodrama: Robespierre's Sensibility and the Construction of Political Commitment in the French Revolution." ''Representations'' 114#1 2011, pp.&nbsp;103–128. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rep.2011.114.1.103 online] * Belissa, Marc, and Julien Louvrier. "Robespierre in French and English language publications since 2000." {{Lang|fr|Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française,}} no. 1, pp.&nbsp;73–93. Armand Colin, 2013. * Benigno, Francesco. "Never the Same Again: On Some Recent Interpretations of the French Revolution." {{Lang|fr|Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales:}} ''English Edition'' 71.2 (2016): 189–216 [https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_ANNA_712_0319--no-longer-what-she-once-was.htm online]. * [[Richard Cobb]], {{Lang|fr|Les armées révolutionnaires. Instrument de la Terreur dans les départements. Avril 1793-Floréal An II}}, Paris-La Haye, Mouton and Co, 1961–1963, 2 volumes in-8°, VIII–1017, [http://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1965_num_123_1_449698_t1_0273_0000_3 présentation en ligne], [http://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1966_num_21_1_421363_t1_0213_0000_2 présentation en ligne]. * Cobban, Alfred. "The Political Ideas of Maximilien Robespierre during the Period of the Convention", ''English Historical Review'' Vol. 61, No. 239 (January 1946), pp.&nbsp;45–80 {{JSTOR|554837}} * Cobban, Alfred. "The Fundamental Ideas of Robespierre", ''English Historical Review'' Vol. 63, No. 246 (1948), pp.&nbsp;29–51 {{JSTOR|555187}} * Dicus, Andrew. "Terror and Self-Evidence: Robespierre and the General Will." ''European Romantic Review'' 31.2 (2020): 199–218. * {{Cite book |last=Eagan, James Michael |title=Maximilien Robespierre: Nationalist Dictator |publisher=Octagon Books |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-3749-2440-9 |location=New York}} Presents Robespierre as the origin of Fascist dictators. * [[Donald Clark Hodges|Hodges, Donald Clark]] (2003) ''Deep Republicanism: Prelude to Professionalism''. Lexington Books. * Jones, Colin. "The overthrow of Maximilien Robespierre and the "indifference" of the people". ''American Historical Review'' 119.3 (2014): 689–713. * {{cite archive |item= |item-url= |type=Textual record |item-id= |date=10 thermidor an II |page= |pages= |fonds= |series=W 434 |file=Dossier 975 |box= |collection=Jurisdictions extraordinaires |collection-url= |repository= |institution=[[Archives Nationales (France)|Archives nationales]] |location=Paris |oclc= |accession= }} * [https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/37837/9789004416451_webready_content_text.pdf Koekkoek, René (2020) The Citizenship Experiment Contesting the Limits of Civic Equality and Participation in the Age of Revolutions. Studies in the History of Political Thought] * {{Cite journal |last=Linton |first=Marisa |author-link=Marisa Linton |title=Robespierre and the Terror |journal=History Today |date=August 2006 |volume=56 |issue=8 |pages=23–29 |url=http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=31771&aid=&tgid=&amid=30232604&g31771=x&g31763=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313181009/http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=31771&aid=&tgid=&amid=30232604&g31771=x&g31763=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x |archive-date=13 March 2007 |access-date=29 August 2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313181009/http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=31771&aid=&tgid=&amid=30232604&g31771=x&g31763=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x |date=13 March 2007 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Linton |first=Marisa |author-link=Marisa Linton |title=Robespierre et l'authenticité révolutionnaire |lang=fr |journal=Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française |volume=371 |date=January–March 2013 |issue=371 |pages=153–173|doi=10.4000/ahrf.12700 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Linton |first=Marisa |author-link=Marisa Linton |title=The choices of Maximilien Robespierre |journal=H-France Salon |volume=7 |issue=14 |date=2015 |url=https://h-france.net/Salon/Lintonedited.pdf}} * {{Cite journal |last=McPhee |first=P. |date=2013 |title=«Mes forces et ma santé ne peuvent suffire». crises politiques, crises médicales dans la vie de Maximilien Robespierre, 1790-1794 |journal=Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française |volume=371 |issue=371 |pages=137–152 |doi=10.4000/ahrf.12695 |doi-access=free |lang=fr}} * {{Cite book |last=Palmer |first=Robert Roswell |title=Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of Terror in the French Revolution |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1941 |isbn=978-0-6910-5119-2 |author-link=R.R. Palmer}} A sympathetic study of the [[Committee of Public Safety]]. * Parry, Albert. ''Terrorism: from Robespierre to the weather underground. '' Courier, 2013). * Poirot, Thibaut. "Robespierre and War, a question posed as early as 1789?." {{Lang|fr|Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française,}} no. 1, pp.&nbsp;115–135. Armand Colin, 2013. * Popkin, Jeremy D. ''A New World Begins: The History of the French Revolution'' (2018) * {{Cite book |last1=Robespierre |first1=Maximilien |title=Virtue and Terror |last2=Žižek |first2=Slavoj |date=2017 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-7866-3337-8 |editor-last=Ducange |editor-first=Jean |series=Revolutions |translator-last=Howe |translator-first=John |author-link2=Slavoj Žižek}} * Rudé, George. "Robespierre"''History Today'' (Apr 1958) 8#4 pp 221–229. * Scott, Otto. ''Robespierre: The Voice of Virtue'' (Routledge, 2017). * Sepinwall, Alyssa Goldstein. "Robespierre, Old Regime Feminist? Gender, the Late Eighteenth Century, and the French Revolution Revisited." ''Journal of Modern History'' 82#1 2010, pp.&nbsp;1–29. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/650505 online] * Shusterman, Noah C. "All of His Power Lies in the Distaff: Robespierre, Women and the French Revolution." ''Past & Present'' 223.1 (2014): 129–160. * Smyth, Jonathan. ''Robespierre and the Festival of the Supreme Being: The search for a republican morality'' (Manchester UP, 2016). * [[Albert Soboul|Soboul, Albert]]. "Robespierre and the Popular Movement of 1793–4", ''Past and Present'', No. 5. (May 1954), pp.&nbsp;54–70. {{JSTOR|649823}} * Turner, Michael J. "Revolutionary Connection: 'The Incorruptible' Maximilian Robespierre and the 'Schoolmaster of Chartism' Bronterre O'Brien." ''The Historian'' 75.2 (2013): 237–261. [[Categoria:Revolution francese]] f66qr19s2b2j94otoebfij0wz6c9338 0 60876 698246 695590 2026-08-03T23:31:59Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698246 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''Geopolitica''' (ex le greco γῆ terra, solo e πολιτική politica) es le studio del effectos del [[geographia]] del Terra sur le [[politica]] e le [[relationes international]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=An introduction to international relations|others=Devetak, Richard, George, Jim, 1946-, Percy, Sarah V. (Sarah Virginia), 1977- |page=816|date = 2017-09-11|isbn=978-1-316-63155-3|edition=Third|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|oclc=974647995}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Overland|first=Indra|date=2015|chapter=Future Petroleum Geopolitics: Consequences of Climate Policy and Unconventional Oil and Gas|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281774890|pages=3517–3544|doi=10.1002/9781118991978.hces203|via=ResearchGate|title=Handbook of Clean Energy Systems|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-99197-8|hdl=11250/2451749}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-25399-7 |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Geopolitics |date=2025 |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland |isbn=978-3-031-25399-7 |editor-last=Cope |editor-first=Zak |location=Cham |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-25399-7}}</ref> Le geopolitica usualmente se refere al paises e al relationes inter illos. Secundo un gruppo de investigatores, le termino es actualmente usate pro describer un ample spectro de conceptos, in un senso general usate como "un synonymo pro [[Relationes international|relationes politic international]]", sed plus specificamente "pro implicar le structura global de tal relationes"; iste uso se basa sur un "termino del initio del seculo vinti pro un [[pseudoscientia]] de [[geographia politic]]" e altere theorias pseudoscientific de [[determinismo historic|determinismo historic]] e [[determinismo geographic]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Gogwilt|first=Christopher|title=The fiction of geopolitics: afterimages of geopolitics, from Wilkie Collins to Alfred Hitchcock, 1860–1940|date=2000|publisher=Stanford University Press; Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-3726-5|location=Stanford, Calif.; Cambridge|pages=35–36|language=en|oclc=44932458}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dittmer|first1=Jason|title=Geopolitics: an introductory reader|last2=Sharp|first2=Joanne P|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-66663-3|location=London; New York|page=64|language=en|oclc=895013513}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deudney|first=Daniel|date=March 2000|title=Geopolitics as Theory:: Historical Security Materialism|journal=European Journal of International Relations|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=77–107|doi=10.1177/1354066100006001004|s2cid=146194629|issn=1354-0661}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Al nivello del relationes international, le geopolitica es un methodo de studiar le [[politica externe]] pro comprender, explicar e predicer le comportamento politic international per medio de variabiles geographic. Istos include [[studios de area]], [[climate]], [[topographia]], [[demographia]], [[ressources natural]], e [[scientia applicate]] del region evalutate.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Evans, Graham|title=The Penguin dictionary of international relations|date=1998|publisher=Penguin Books|others=Newnham, Jeffrey.|isbn=0-14-051397-3|location=London|oclc=41113670}}</ref> Le geopolitica se concentra sur le [[poter (social e politic)|poter politic]] ligate al spatio geographic, in particular, [[aquas territorial]], [[lista de statos soberan|territorio terrestre]] e [[ricchessa]] de [[ressources natural]], in correlation con le [[historia diplomatic]], in particular le contexto de un poter major relative a su statos vicin de poter minor o simile. Alcun academicos ha arguite que le geopolitica deberea servir como "un adjuta al arte de governar."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Park |first=Jaehan |title=Rethinking Geopolitics: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Fall 2023) |date=2023 |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/122026 |access-date=2025-06-09 |others=The University Of Texas At Austin |publisher=Texas National Security Review |language=en |doi=10.26153/TSW/48843}}</ref> Le topicos de geopolitica include relationes inter le interesses de actores politic international concentrate intra un area, un spatio, o un elemento geographic, relationes que crea un systema geopolitic.<ref>Vladimir Toncea, 2006, "Geopolitical evolution of borders in Danube Basin"</ref> Le [[geopolitica critic]] deconstrue le theorias geopolitic classic, monstrante lor functiones politic o ideologic pro le [[grande potentias]]. Existe alcun ovras que discute le geopolitica del [[energia renovabile]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Overland|first=Indra|date=2019-03-01|title=The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=49|pages=36–40|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018|issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019ERSS...49...36O |hdl=11250/2579292|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=O'Sullivan|first1=Meghan|last2=Overland|first2=Indra|last3=Sandalow|first3=David|date=2017|title=The Geopolitics of Renewable Energy|journal=SSRN Working Paper Series|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2998305|issn=1556-5068|ssrn=2998305|hdl=11250/2447113|s2cid=157400282|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Le relation inter geopolitica e geoeconomia es frequentemente analysate per duo scholas principal de pensamento: le schola strategic e le schola politico-economic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sahakyan |first=Mher D. |last2=Lo |first2=Kevin |date=2025-03-09 |title=Hotspot Geopolitics: Political Economy of the Belt and Road Initiative in South Caucasus |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s41111-025-00281-7 |journal=Chinese Political Science Review |language=en |doi=10.1007/s41111-025-00281-7 |issn=2365-4244|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le historico austro-hungare [[Emil Reich]] (1854–1910) es considerate le prime a haber create le termino in anglese<ref>{{Cite journal |last=GoGwilt |first=Christopher Lloyd |date=1998 |title=The Geopolitical Image: Imperialism, Anarchism, and the Hypothesis of Culture in the Formation of Geopolitics |journal=Modernism/Modernity |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=49–70 |doi=10.1353/mod.1998.0058 |issn=1080-6601 |s2cid=144340839}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> ja in 1902 e plus tarde publicate in Anglaterra in 1904 in su libro ''Foundations of Modern Europe''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reich, Emil |title=Foundations of modern europe. |date=2010 |publisher=Nabu Press |isbn=978-1-171-68627-9 |location=[Place of publication not identified] |oclc=944201019}}</ref> ==Statos Unite== === Alfred Thayer Mahan e le poter naval === [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]] (1840–1914) esseva un commentatore frequente sur le affaires naval strategic e diplomatic del mundo. Mahan credeva que le grandessa national esseva inextricabilemente associate con le mar—e particularmente con su uso commercial in pace e su controlo in guerra. Le structura theoretic de Mahan proveniva de [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], e emphaseva que locos strategic (tal como [[puncto de strangulamento|punctos de strangulamento]], canales, e stationes de carbon), assi como nivellos quantificabile de poter de combatto in un flotta, esseva conducive al controlo sur le mar. Ille proponeva sex conditiones requirite pro que un nation habeva [[poter naval]]: #Position geographic avantagiose; #Costas servibile, ressources natural abundante, e un climate favorabile; #Extension del territorio; #Population satis grande pro defender su territorio; #Societate con un aptitude pro le mar e le interprisa commercial; e #Le Governamento con le influentia e inclination de dominar le mar.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Navy Basic Military Requirements (Navedtra 14325) – Nonresident Training Course|date=2013|isbn=978-1-304-18585-3|language=en|chapter=20|publisher=Lulu.com |oclc=986982257}}</ref> Mahan distingueva un region clave del mundo in le contexto eurasian, a saper, le Zona Central de Asia situate inter 30° e 40° nord e extendente se ab Asia Minor usque a [[Japon]].<ref>Alfred Thayer Mahan, ''The Problem of Asia and the Effects upon International Politics'', (Washington and London: Kennikat Press, 1920, p 26–27).</ref> In iste zona, paises independente ancora superviveva – Turchia, Persia, Afghanistan, China, e Japon. Mahan considerava ille paises, situate inter Britannia e Russia, como si illos fese inter "Scylla e Charybdis". Del duo monstros – Britannia e Russia – esseva le secunde que Mahan considerava plus menaciante pro le fato de [[Asia Central]]. Mahan esseva impressionate per le dimension transcontinental de Russia e su position strategicamente favorabile pro un expansion verso le sud. Ergo, ille trovava necessari que le "poter naval" anglo-saxon resisteva a Russia.<ref>Alfred Thayer Mahan, ''The Problem of Asia and the Effects upon International Politics'', (Washington and London: Kennikat Press, 1920, p 25–27, 167–8, 172).</ref> === Nicholas J. Spykman === [[Nicholas J. Spykman]] esseva tanto un sequitore como un critico del geostrategos Alfred Mahan e [[Halford Mackinder]]. Su travalio se basava sur assumptiones simile a illos de Mackinder, includente le unitate del politica mundial e del mar mundial. Ille extende isto pro includer le unitate del aire. Spykman adopta le divisiones del mundo de Mackinder, renominante alcunes: #Le [[Theoria del Heartland|Heartland]]; #Le [[Rimland]] (analoge al "crescente interne o marginal" de Mackinder, anque un region intermedie, situate inter le Heartland e le poteres naval marginal); e #Le Insulas e Continentes de Mar Alte (le "crescente externe o insular" de Mackinder).<ref>Vide mappa in Polelle, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hp1-oyQjqTgC&pg=PA118 Raising Cartographic Consciousness], p. 118.</ref> Sub le theoria de Spykman, un Rimland separa le Heartland del portos que es usabile durante tote le anno (es dicer, non gelate durante le hiberno). Spykman suggereva que isto requireva que le tentativas per le nationes del Heartland (particularmente [[Russia]]) de conquirere portos in le Rimland debeva esser impedite. Spykman modificava le formula de Mackinder sur le relation inter le Heartland e le Rimland (o le crescente interne), affirmante que "Qui controla le rimland governa Eurasia. Qui governa [[Eurasia]] controla le destinos del mundo." Spykman moriva ante le fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, sed su theorias influentiava le concepto de [[contention]], in le senso que Spykman argueva que le Statos Unite deberea appoyar statos in le Rimland pro equilibrar contra un poter del Heartland (vide anque [[Doctrina Truman]]).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rhodes |first=Andrew |title=Thinking in Space: The Role of Geography in National Security Decision-Making (August 2019) |date=August 2019 |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/79634 |access-date=2025-06-09 |others=The University Of Texas At Austin |publisher=Texas National Security Review |language=en |doi=10.26153/TSW/6664}}</ref> ===Homer Lea=== [[Homer Lea]], in ''The Day of the Saxon'' (1912), assereva que tote le [[Anglo-saxonismo del seculo 19|racia anglo-saxon]] faceva fronte a un menacia del expansionismo german (teuton), russe (slavo), e japonese: Le relation "fatal" de Russia, Japon, e Germania "ha ora assumite per le urgentia de fortias natural un coalition dirigite contra le superviventia del suprematia saxon." Illo es "un terribile Dreibund".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lea, Homer|title=Day of the saxon.|date=2010|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-171-68898-3|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=944371816}}</ref> Lea credeva que dum Japon se moveva contra le Extreme Oriente e Russia contra India, le germanos colpareva Anglaterra, le centro del Imperio Britannic. Ille pensava que le anglo-saxones faceva fronte a un desastro certe de lor opponentes militante. === Edmund Walsh === [[Edmund A. Walsh|Edmund Walsh]] establiva le [[Walsh School of Foreign Service|Schola de Servicio Externe]] in le [[Universitate de Georgetown]] in 1919 pro appoyar le studio del relationes international in le Statos Unite. Walsh criticava fortemente le travalio de Haushofer e le periculo del nazismo, arguente in favor de un nove e unicamente american geopolitica.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walsh |first=Edmund |title=Compass of the World |publisher=Macmillan |year=1944 |editor-last=Weigert |editor-first=Hans |chapter=Geopolitics and International Morals}}</ref> Post le fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, Walsh serviva como consiliero in le [[Processos de Nuremberg]] e interviewava Haushofer in captivitate.{{cn|date=June 2025}} === Kissinger, Brzezinski, e le Grande Tabuliero de Escacos === [[File:Хартленд и Римленд.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|left|Mappa mundial con le conceptos de Heartland e Rimland applicate]] Duo [[Consiliero de Securitate National (Statos Unite)|consilieros de securitate national]] del periodo del Guerra Frigide, [[Henry Kissinger]] e [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], argueva pro continuar le foco geopolitic del Statos Unite sur Eurasia e, particularmente Russia, malgrado le [[dissolution del Union Sovietic]] e le fin del [[Guerra Frigide]]. Ambes continuava lor influentia sur le geopolitica post le fin del Guerra Frigide, scribente libros sur le tema in le annos 1990—''[[Diplomacy (libro de Kissinger)|Diplomacy]]'' e ''[[The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives]]''.<ref name=":5" /> Le theorias geopolitic classic anglo-american esseva revivite. Kissinger argueva contra le credentia que con le [[dissolution del URSS]], le intentiones hostile habeva finite e le considerationes traditional de politica externe non se applicava plus. "Illes arguerea … que Russia, sin importar qui lo governa, se situa sur le territorio que Halford Mackinder appellava le heartland geopolitic, e illo es le herede de un del traditiones imperial plus potente." Ergo, le Statos Unite debe "mantener le equilibrio global de poter vis-à-vis le pais con un longe historia de expansionismo."<ref>Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 814</ref> Post Russia, le secunde menacia geopolitic que remaneva esseva Germania e, como Mackinder habeva timite novanta annos retro, su association con Russia. Durante le Guerra Frigide, Kissinger argue, ambe lateres del Atlantico recognosceva que, "a minus que America sia organicamente implicate in Europa, illo esserea plus tarde obligate a implicar se sub circumstantias que esserea multo minus favorabile pro ambe lateres del Atlantico. Isto es ancora plus ver hodie. Germania ha devenite tan forte que le institutiones e organisationes europee existente non pote establir un equilibrio inter Germania e su partenarios europee per se sol. Ni pote Europa, mesmo con le assistentia de Germania, gerer […] Russia" per se sol. Assi Kissinger credeva que le interesses de necun pais serea jam servite si Germania e Russia formava unquam un association in le qual cata pais se considerarea le partenari principal. Illes excitarea timores de condominios.{{clarify|date=September 2016}} Sin America, Britannia e Francia non pote facer fronte a Germania e Russia; e "sin Europa, America poterea transformar se … in un insula proxime al costas de Eurasia."<ref>Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 821-2</ref> Le vision de [[Nicholas J. Spykman]] sur Eurasia esseva fortemente confirmate: "Geopoliticamente, America es un insula proxime al costas del grande massa terrestre de Eurasia, de qui le ressources e population excede multo illos del Statos Unite. Le domination per un sol poter de qualcunque del duo spheras principal de Eurasia—Europa e Asia—remane un bon definition de periculo strategic pro America. Guerra Frigide o non Guerra Frigide. Proque tal un gruppamento haberea le capacitate de superar America economicamente e, al fin, militarmente. Iste periculo deberea esser resistite mesmo si le poter dominante esseva apparentemente benevole, proque si su intentiones cambiava unquam, America se retrovarea con un capacitate grossiermente diminuite pro un resistentia effective e un incapacitate crescente de formar le eventos."<ref>Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 813</ref> Le interesse principal del duces american es mantener le equilibrio de poter in Eurasia.<ref>Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 810</ref> Hante se convertite de un ideologo in un geopolitico, Kissinger retrospectivemente interpretava le Guerra Frigide in terminos geopolitic—un approche que non esseva characteristic de su ovras durante le Guerra Frigide. Ora, totevia, ille se concentrava sur le initio del Guerra Frigide: "Le objectivo de opposition moral al Communismo se habeva fusionate con le carga geopolitic de contener le expansion sovietic."<ref>Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 804</ref> Nixon, ille addeva, esseva un guerriero frigide geopolitic plus tosto que ideologic.<ref>Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 703-732</ref> Tres annos post le ''Diplomacy'' de Kissinger, Zbigniew Brzezinski sequeva le exemplo, lansante ''The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives'' e, post tres annos plus, ''The Geostrategic Triad: Living with China, Europe, and Russia''. ''The Grand Chessboard'' describeva le triumpho american in le Guerra Frigide in terminos de controlo sur Eurasia: pro le prime vice unquam, un poter "non-eurasian" habeva emergite como un arbitro clave del relationes de poter "eurasian".<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Brzezinski|first=Zbigniew|title=The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and its Geostrategic Imperatives|date=6 December 2016|isbn=978-0-465-09435-6|location=New York|oclc=959877505}}</ref> Le libro declara su proposito: "Le formulation de un geostratagia eurasian comprehensive e integrate es ergo le proposito de iste libro."<ref name=":5" /> Ben que le configuration de poter suffreva un cambio revolutionari, Brzezinski confirmava tres annos plus tarde, Eurasia esseva ancora un mega-continente.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brzezinski|first=Zbigniew|title=The geostrategic triad: living with China, Europe, and Russia|date=2009|publisher=CSIS Press|isbn=978-0-89206-384-0|location=Washington (D.C.)|page=55|language=en|oclc=780907306}}</ref> Como Spykman, Brzezinski recognosce que: "Cumulativamente, le poter de Eurasia eclipsa vastemente illo de America."<ref name=":5" /> In terminos classic de Spykman, Brzezinski formulava su doctrina del "tabuliero de escacos" geostratege de Eurasia, que visa a impedir le unification de iste mega-continente.<blockquote>"Europa e Asia es politic e economicamente potente…. Se seque que… le politica externe american debe… emplear su influentia in Eurasia in un maniera que crea un equilibrio continental stabile, con le Statos Unite como le arbitro politic.… Eurasia es assi le tabuliero de escacos sur le qual le lucta pro le primatia global continua a esser jocate, e iste lucta involve geostratagia – le gestion strategic de interesses geopolitic…. Sed intertanto il es imperative que necun defidante eurasian emerge, capace de dominar Eurasia e assi anque de defidar America… Pro America le principal premio geopolitic es Eurasia… e le primatia global de America depende directemente de quanto tempore e con quanta efficacia su preponderantia sur le continente eurasian es sustenite."<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> == Regno Unite == === Mackinder e le Theoria del Heartland === [[File:Pivot area.png|thumb|upright=2.05|Le concepto de Heartland de Sir Halford Mackinder monstrante le situation del "area pivot" stabilite in le [[Theoria del Heartland]]. Plus tarde ille lo revisava pro marcar le Eurasia del Nord como un pivot dum manteneva le area marcate supra como Heartland.]] Le [[Theoria del Heartland]] de [[Sir Halford Mackinder]] initialmente recipeva pauc attention foras del mundo del geographia, sed alcun pensatores ha affirmate que illo subsequentemente influentiava le [[politica externe|politicas externe]] de poteres mundial.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sloan|first=Geoffrey|date=1999|title=Sir Halford J. Mackinder: The Heartland theory then and now|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-strategic-studies_june-september-1999_22_2-3/page/15|journal=Journal of Strategic Studies|language=en|volume=22|issue=2–3|pages=15–38|doi=10.1080/01402399908437752|issn=0140-2390}}</ref> Ille academicos qui reguarda Mackinder per lentes critic lo accepta como un stratego organic qui tentava construer un vision de politica externe pro Britannia con su analyse eurocentric de geographia historic. Su formulation del Theoria del Heartland esseva exponite in su articulo titulate "[[Le Pivot Geographic del Historia]]", publicate in [[Anglaterra]] in 1904. Le doctrina de geopolitica de Mackinder involveva conceptos diametralmente opponite al notion de Alfred Thayer Mahan sur le significantia del marinas (ille creava le termino ''poter naval'') in le conflicto mundial. Ille videva le marina como un base del imperio del era colombian (approximatemente ab 1492 usque al seculo 19), e prediceva que le seculo 20 serea le dominio del poter terrestre. Le theoria del Heartland hypothetisava un enorme imperio essente create in le Heartland—que non haberea besonio de usar transporto costal o transoceanic pro remaner coherente. Le notiones basic del doctrina de Mackinder involve considerar le geographia del Terra como essente dividite in duo sectiones: le [[Afro-Eurasia|Insula-Mundo]] o Nucleo, comprendente [[Eurasia]] e [[Africa]]; e le "insulas" Peripheric, includente le [[Americas]], [[Australia]], [[Japon]], le [[Insulas Britannic]], e [[Oceania]]. Non solmente esseva le Peripheria notabilmente plus parve que le Insula-Mundo, illo requireva necessarimente multo transporto maritime pro functionar al nivello technologic del Insula-Mundo—que contineva sufficiente ressources natural pro un economia disveloppate. Mackinder postulava que le centros industrial del Peripheria esseva necessarimente situate in locos multo separate. Le Insula-Mundo poteva inviar su marina pro destruer cata un de illos in torno, e poteva situar su proprie industrias in un region plus interne que le Peripheria (assi illos haberea un lucta plus longe pro arrivar a illos, e facerea fronte a un bastion industrial ben fornite). Mackinder appellava iste region le ''Heartland''. Illo comprendeva essentialmente [[Europa Central e del Est]]: [[Ucraina]], [[Russia]] Occidental, e [[Mitteleuropa]].<ref>Vide mappa in Polelle, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hp1-oyQjqTgC&pg=PA57 Raising Cartographic Consciousness], p. 57.</ref> Le Heartland contineva le reservas de grano de Ucraina, e multe altere ressources natural. Le notion de geopolitica de Mackinder esseva summarisate quando ille diceva: <blockquote>Qui governa Europa Central e del Est comanda le Heartland. Qui governa le Heartland comanda le Insula-Mundo. Qui governa le Insula-Mundo comanda le Mundo.</blockquote> [[File:Панрегионална доктрина-Хаусхофер.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Division del mundo secundo le doctrina de [[pan-region]]es de Haushofer]] Un altere sequitore de Mackinder esseva [[Karl Haushofer]] qui appellava le [[Le Pivot Geographic del Historia]] de Mackinder un "tractato scientific de genio."<ref name=":3">[[Karl Haushofer]], ''Pan-Ideas in Geopolitics'', 1931, (tr. Usachev I. G., Mysl', Moscova, 2004, p 312).</ref> Ille commentava sur illo: "Nunquam io ha vidite nihil plus grande que ille pauc paginas de ovra mestre geopolitic."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Heffernan|first=Michael J|title=The meaning of Europe: geography and geopolitics|date=1998|publisher=Arnold|isbn=978-0-340-58018-9|location=London|page=134|language=en|oclc=925343797}}</ref> Mackinder situava su Pivot, in le parolas de Haushofer, sur "un del prime mappas solide, geopoliticamente e geographicamente irreprochabile, presentate a un del prime foros scientific del planeta – le Royal Geographic Society in London"<ref name=":3" /> Haushofer adoptava tanto le these del Heartland de Mackinder como su vision del alliance russo-german – poteres que Mackinder videva como le principales contendentes pro le controlo de Eurasia in le seculo vinti. Sequente Mackinder ille suggereva un alliance con le Union Sovietic e, facente un passo ultra Mackinder, addeva Japon a su designo del ''Bloco Eurasian.''<ref>Karl Haushofer, "The Continental Bloc: Mittel Europa – Eurasia – Japan," 1941, (tr. Usachev I. G., Mysl', Moscova, 2004).</ref> In 2004, al centenario de Le Pivot Geographic del Historia, le historico [[Paul Kennedy]] scribeva: "Justo ora con millenas de truppas del SUA in le rimlands eurasian e con le administration constantemente explicante proque illo debe mantener le curso, il pare como si Washington prende seriemente le injunction de Mackinder de assecurar le controlo del pivot geographic del historia."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dodds|first1=Klaus|last2=Sidaway|first2=James D|date=December 2004|title=Halford Mackinder and the 'geographical pivot of history': a centennial retrospective|journal=The Geographical Journal|language=en|volume=170|issue=4|pages=292–297|doi=10.1111/j.0016-7398.2004.00131.x|bibcode=2004GeogJ.170..292D |s2cid=140660906 |issn=0016-7398}}</ref> ==Germania== === Friedrich Ratzel === [[Friedrich Ratzel]] (1844–1904), influentiate per pensatores tal como [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] e le [[zoologia|zoologo]] [[Ernst Heinrich Haeckel]], contribueva al 'Geopolitik' per le expansion del conception biologic de geographia, sin un conception static de frontieras. Postulante que le statos es organic e crescente, con frontieras representante solmente un arresto temporari in lor movimento, ille susteneva que le extension del frontieras de un stato es un reflexion del sanitate del nation—significante que le paises static es in declino. Ratzel publicava plure articulos, inter le quales esseva le essayo "Lebensraum" (1901) concernente le [[biogeographia]]. Ratzel creava un fundamento pro le variante german de geopolitica, ''geopolitik''. Influentiate per le [[geostratagia|geostratego]] american Alfred Thayer Mahan, Ratzel scribeva sur aspirationes pro le extension naval german, concordante que le poter naval esseva auto-sustenibile, proque le profito del commercio pagarea pro le marina mercante, a differentia del poter terrestre. Le theoria geopolitic de Ratzel ha essite criticate como essente troppo vaste, e su interpretation del historia human e geographia como essente troppo simple e mechanic. Criticamente, ille anque subestimava le importantia del organisation social in le disveloppamento del poter.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last1=Ó Tuathail|first1=Gearóid|title=The geopolitics reader|last2=Dalby|first2=Simon|last3=Routledge|first3=Paul|date=2011|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-34148-6|location=London; New York|language=en|oclc=750496870}}</ref> === Le association del Geopolitik german con le Nazismo === Post le [[Prime Guerra Mundial]], le pensamentos de [[Rudolf Kjellén]] e Ratzel esseva prendite e extendite per un numero de autores german tal como [[Karl Haushofer]] (1869–1946), [[Erich Obst]], Hermann Lautensach, e [[Otto Maull]]. In 1923, [[Karl Haushofer]] fundava le ''Zeitschrift für Geopolitik'' (Jornal de Geopolitica), que esseva plus tarde usate in le [[propaganda]] de [[Germania Nazi]]. Le conceptos clave del Geopolitik de Haushofer esseva Lebensraum, [[autarchia]], [[pan-region]]es, e frontieras organic. Le statos ha, Haushofer argueva, un derecto innegabile de cercar [[frontiera natural|frontieras natural]] que garantirea le [[wikt:autarky|autarchia]]. Le influentia de Haushofer intra le [[Partito Nazi]] ha essite contestate, dado que Haushofer faliava a incorporar le ideologia racial del nazis in su travalio.<ref name=":6" /> Visiones popular del rolo del geopolitica in le Tertie Reich nazi suggere un significantia fundamental per parte del geo-politicos in le orientation ideologic del stato nazi. Bassin (1987) revela que iste visiones popular es in manieras importante misleading e incorrecte. Malgrado le numerose similitudes e affinitates inter le duo doctrinas, le geopolitica esseva sempre tenite como suspecte per le ideologos national-socialista. Isto esseva comprensibile, proque le orientation philosophic subjacente del geopolitica non se conformava a illo del National-Socialismo. Le geopolitica participava del [[materialismo scientific]] e determinismo geographic de Ratzel, e susteneva que le societate human esseva determinate per influentias externe—frente al quales le qualitates tenite innatemente per individuos o gruppos esseva de significantia reducite o nulle. Le National-Socialismo rejectava in principio tanto le materialismo como le determinismo e anque elevava le qualitates human innate, in le forma de un hypothetisate 'character racial,' al factor de major significantia in le constitution del societate human. Iste differentias duceve post 1933 a friction e ultimemente a un denunciation aperte del geopolitica per le ideologos nazi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bassin|first=Mark|date=April 1987|title=Race contra space: the conflict between German geopolitik and national socialism|journal=Political Geography Quarterly|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=115–134|doi=10.1016/0260-9827(87)90002-4}}</ref> Nihilominus, le Geopolitik german esseva discreditate per su (mal)uso in le politica expansionista nazi del [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]] e nunquam ha attingite un prestigio comparabile al periodo de ante le guerra. Le resultante association negative, particularmente in circulos academic del SUA, inter le geopolitica classic e le ideologia nazi o [[imperialista]], se basa sur justificationes debile. Isto ha essite observate in particular per criticos del geographia academic contemporanee, e proponente de un geopolitica "neo"-classic in particular. Istos include Haverluk et al., qui argue que le stigmatisation del geopolitica in le academia es inutile proque le geopolitica como un campo de investigation positivista mantene potential in investigar e resolver problemas actual, frequentemente politisate, tal como le [[resolution de conflictos]] e prevention, e le mitigation del [[cambio climatic]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14650045.2013.803192 | volume=19 | title=The Three Critical Flaws of Critical Geopolitics: Towards a Neo-Classical Geopolitics | journal=Geopolitics | pages=19–39| year=2014 | last1=Haverluk | first1=Terrence W. | last2=Beauchemin | first2=Kevin M. | last3=Mueller | first3=Brandon A. | s2cid=144597416 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1234503 }}</ref> ===Differentias disciplinari in perspectivas=== Associationes negative con le termino "geopolitica" e su application practic derivante de su association con le Secunde Guerra Mundial e eruditos e studentes de geopolitica german de ante le Secunde Guerra Mundial es in grande parte specific al campo del geographia academic, e specialmente subdisciplinas del [[geographia human]] tal como le geographia politic. Tamen, iste association negative non es tan forte in disciplinas tal como le historia o le scientia politic, le quales face uso de conceptos geopolitic. Le geopolitica classic forma un elemento importante de analyse pro le historia militar assi como pro subdisciplinas del scientia politic tal como le relationes international e le [[studios de securitate]]. Iste differentia in perspectivas disciplinari es tractate per Bert Chapman in ''Geopolitics: A Guide To the Issues'', in le qual Chapman nota que le jornales academic e professional de Relationes International es plus favorabile al studio e analyse del Geopolitica, e in particular del geopolitica classic, que le jornales academic contemporanee in le campo del geographia politic.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chapman|first=Bert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swINFRDahjYC|title=Geopolitics: A Guide to the Issues|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38579-7|language=en|oclc=913615116}}</ref> In disciplinas foras del geographia, le geopolitica non es vidite negativemente (como illo es frequentemente inter geographos academic tal como [[Carolyn Gallaher]] o [[Klaus Dodds]]) como un instrumento de imperialismo o associate con le nazismo, sed plus tosto vidite como un maniera valide e consistente de evalutar major circumstantias e eventos geopolitic international, non necessariemente ligate a conflictos armate o operationes militar. == Francia == === Montesquieu e le theoria del climate === Le doctrinas geopolitical francese se oppone largemente al [[Geopolitik]] german e rejecta le idea de un geographia fixe. Le geographia francese se concentra super le evolution de territorios polymorphe que es le resultato del actiones del humanitate. Illo se basa tamben sur le consideration de longe periodos de tempore per un refusa de prender in conto eventos specific. Iste methodo ha essite theorisate per le Professor Lacoste secundo tres principios: [[Social representation|Representation]]; Diachronia; e Diatopia. In ''[[The Spirit of the Laws|Le Spirito del Leges]]'', [[Montesquieu]] delineava le vision que le homine e le societates es influentiate per le climate. Ille credeva que climates plus calide crea personas de temperamento ardente e climates plus frigide personas distante, dum le climate temperate de Francia es ideal pro systemas politic. Considerate un del fundatores del geopolitica francese, [[Élisée Reclus]] es le autor de un libro considerate un referentia in le geographia moderne (Nouvelle Géographie universelle). Como Ratzel, ille considera le geographia per un vision global. Tamen, in opposition complete al vision de Ratzel, Reclus considera que le geographia non es immutabile; illo debe evoluer proportionalmente al developpamento del societate human. Su visiones politic marginal resultava in su rejection per le academia. === Ancel, Braudel, e le rejection del determinismo === Le [[geographo]] e geopolitico [[France|francese]] [[Jacques Ancel]] (1879–1936) es considerate le prime theoretico del geopolitica in Francia, e dava un serie notabile de conferentias al Centro Europee del [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] in Paris e publicava ''Géopolitique'' in 1936. Como Reclus, Ancel rejecta le visiones determinista german sur le geopolitica (incluse le doctrinas de Haushofer). Le vision ample de [[Braudel]] usava cognoscentias de altere scientias social, empleava le concepto del ''longue durée'', e minimisava le importantia de eventos specific. Iste methodo esseva inspirate per le [[geographo]] francese [[Paul Vidal de la Blache]] (qui a su vice esseva influentiate per le pensamento german, particularmente illo de [[Friedrich Ratzel]] a qui ille habeva incontrate in Germania). Le methodo de Braudel esseva analysar le interdependentia inter le individuos e lor ambiente. Le geopolitica vidalian se basa sur varie formas de cartographia e sur le ''[[Possibilism (geography)|possibilismo]]'' (fundate sur un approche societal del geographia—i.e. sur le principio de facies polymorphe de spatios dependente de multe factores, inter illos le humanitate, le cultura, e le ideas) in opposition al determinismo. === Lacoste e le renascentia del geopolitica francese === Debite al influentia del ''Geopolitik'' german sur le geopolitica francese, iste ultime esseva durante longe tempore bannite del travalios academic. In le medie del annos 1970, [[Yves Lacoste]]—un [[geographo]] francese qui esseva directemente inspirate per Ancel, Braudel e Vidal de la Blache—scribeva ''La géographie, ça sert d'abord à faire la guerre'' (Le geographia servi primarimente a facer le guerra) in 1976. Iste libro symbolisa le nascentia de iste nove schola de geopolitica (si non propriemente le prime schola francese de geopolitica, viste que Ancel esseva multo isolate in le annos 1930–40). Initialmente ligate al partito communista, illo evolveva verso un approche minus liberal. Al fin del annos 1980 ille fundava le Institut Français de Géopolitique (Instituto Francese de Geopolitica) que publica le revista [[Hérodote]]. Ben que rejectante le generalisationes e ample abstractiones empleate per le traditiones german e anglo-american (e le "nove geographos"), iste schola se concentra sur le dimension spatial del affaires geopolitical in differente nivellos de analyse. Iste approche emphase le importantia del analyse multi-nivello (o multi-scala) e del mappas, al contrario del geopolitica critic que evita tal instrumentos. Lacoste proponeva que omne conflicto (tanto local como global) pote esser considerate ab un perspectiva basate sur tres assumptiones: 1. '''[[Social representation|Representation]]''': Cata gruppo o individuo es le producto de un education e se characterisa per representationes specific del mundo o de altere gruppos o individuos. Assi, le credentias societal basic se basa in lor ethnicitate o location specific. Le studio del representation es un puncto commun con le geopolitica critic plus contemporanee. Ambe es ligate al travalio de Henri Lefebvre (La production de l'espace, publicate primarimente in 1974). 2. '''Diachronia''': Conducer un analyse historic confrontante "longe periodos" e curte periodos como le prominente historico francese Fernand Braudel suggereva. 3. '''Diatopia''': Conducer un studio cartographic per un mappage multi-scala. Ligate a iste currente, e ancian membro del consilio editorial de Hérodote, le geographo francese Michel Foucher developpava un analyse a longe termino del frontieras international. Ille creava varie neologismos, inter illos: ''Horogenesis'': Neologismo que describe le concepto de studiar le "nascentia del frontieras"; ''Dyade'': frontiera compartite per duo statos vicin (per exemplo, le territorio del SUA ha duo dyades terrestre: un con Canada e un con Mexico). Le libro principal de iste recercator, "Fronts et frontières" (Frontes e frontieras), publicate primarimente in 1991, sin equivalente, remane non traducite in anglese. Michel Foucher es un experto del [[Union African]] pro affaires de frontieras. Plus o minus ligate a iste schola, Stéphane Rosière pote esser citate como le redactor in chef del dornal in linea ''L'Espace politique''; iste dornal create in 2007 deveniva le plus prominente dornal francese de geographia politic e geopolitica con Hérodote. Le [[dispositif]] del philosopho francese Michel Foucault, introducite pro le proposito del recerca [[biopolitics|biopolitica]], esseva tamben adoptate in le campo del pensamento geopolitical ubi illo joca ora un rolo. == Russia == Le postura geopolitical adoptate per Russia ha traditionalmente essite informate per un perspectiva eurasian, e le location de Russia provide un grado de continuitate inter le postura geostrategic tsarista e sovietic e le position de Russia in le ordine international.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewkowicz|first=Nicolas|title=The United States, the Soviet Union and the Geopolitical Implications of the Origins of the Cold War|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2018|isbn=978-1-78308-799-0|location=New York|page=136}}</ref> In le annos 1990, un recercator senior al [[Instituto de Philosophia, Academia de Scientias de Russia]] del [[Academia de Scientias de Russia]], Vadim Tsymbursky (1957–2009), creava le termino "insula-Russia" e developpava le concepto del "Grande [[Statos limitrophe|Limitrophe]]". Le Coronel-General [[Leonid Ivashov]] (retirate), un specialista de geopolitica russe del initio del seculo 21, dirigeva le Academia de Problemas Geopolitical (Академия геополитических проблем), que analysa le situationes international e domestic e developpa le doctrina geopolitical. Previemente, ille dirigeva le Direction Principal pro Cooperation Militar International del [[Ministerio de Defensa del Federation Russe]]. Vladimir Karyakin, recercator principal al [[Instituto Russe pro Studios Strategic]], ha proponite le termino "geopolitica del tertie unda".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Карякин|first=В. В.|title=Геополитика третьей волны: трансформация мира в эпоху Постмодерна|date=2013|publisher=Граница |isbn=978-5-94691-563-2|language=ru|oclc=878676552}}</ref>{{clarify|date=February 2017|reason=Summario necessari, in loco del galimatias que io eliminava}} [[Aleksandr Dugin]], un analysta politic russe qui ha developpate un relation stricte con le Academia del Stato Major General de Russia, scribeva ''"[[Le Fundamentos de Geopolitica|Le Fundamentos de Geopolitica: Le Futuro Geopolitical de Russia]]"'' in 1997, lo que ha habite un grande influentia intra le elites militar, policial e de politica estranier de Russia <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/07/27/geopolitics-russia-mackinder-eurasia-heartland-dugin-ukraine-eurasianism-manifest-destiny-putin/|title=The Unlikely Origins of Russia's Manifest Destiny|website=Foreign Policy|date=27 July 2016 |access-date=2017-10-23}}</ref> e illo ha essite usate como un libro de texto in le [[Academia del Stato Major General (Russia)|Academia del Stato Major General]] del fortias armate russe.<ref name="HI01">{{cite web|url=http://www.hoover.org/research/russias-new-and-frightening-ism|title=Russia's New—and Frightening—"Ism"|last=Dunlop|first=John B.|date=July 30, 2004|work=Hoover Institution|access-date=12 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0"/> Su publication in 1997 esseva ben recipite in Russia e figuras politic russe potente postea se interessava in Dugin.<ref name="Liverant">{{cite journal|last=Liverant|first=Yigal|date=Winter 2009|title=The Prophet of the New Russian Empire|journal=Azure|publisher=Shalem Center|location=Jerusalem|issue=35|issn=0793-6664|url=http://azure.org.il/include/print.php?id=483|access-date=2015-04-06}}</ref> == China == Secundo Li Lingqun, un characteristica major del geopolitica del [[China|Republica Popular de China]] es le tentativa de cambiar le [[Lege del mar|leges del mar]] pro avantiar pretensiones in le [[Mar de China Meridional]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Lingqun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-RhDwAAQBAJ |title=China's Policy towards the South China Sea: When Geopolitics Meets the Law of the Sea |date=2018-02-19 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-65736-5 |language=en}}</ref> Un altere question geopolitica es le pretensiones del RPC super le territorios de [[Taiwan]] contra le [[governamento del Republica de China]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=James |last2=Lin |first2=Andy |date=2021-12-26 |title=China-Taiwan geopolitical rivalry fuels tensions in Pacific Islands |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/5d660fbb-71da-4712-98c9-1fcd9e6154ac |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5d660fbb-71da-4712-98c9-1fcd9e6154ac |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=2022-04-22}}</ref> Varie analystas affirma que China creava le [[Initiativa del Cinctura e del Via]] como un effortio [[Geostratagia|geostratagic]] pro prender un rolo plus grande in le affaires global, e subverter lo que le Partito Communista percipe como le [[hegemonia american]].<ref name="China OBOR Transform">{{cite web |date=21 June 2016 |title=China's one belt, one road initiative set to transform economy by connecting with trading partners along ancient Silk Road |url=https://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/1978450/chinas-one-belt-one-road-initiative-set-transform-economy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107172637/http://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/1978450/chinas-one-belt-one-road-initiative-set-transform-economy |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=7 January 2017 |publisher=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref><ref name="caixin100761304">{{cite web |date=2014-12-10 |title=One Belt, One Road |url=http://english.caixin.com/2014-12-10/100761304.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912022038/http://english.caixin.com/2014-12-10/100761304.html |archive-date=2016-09-12 |access-date=2016-04-13 |publisher=Caixin Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What Does China's Belt and Road Initiative Mean for US Grand Strategy? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/what-does-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-mean-for-us-grand-strategy/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref> On ha anque arguite que China co-fundava le [[Banca Asian de Investimento in Infrastructura]] e le [[Nove Banca de Disveloppamento]] pro competer con le [[Banca Mundial]] e le [[Fundo Monetari International]] in le [[financia de disveloppamento]].<ref name="AIIB NDB">{{cite web |title=AIIB Vs. NDB: Can New Players Change the Rules of Development Financing? |url=http://english.caixin.com/2016-09-08/100986629.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226055140/http://english.caixin.com/2016-09-08/100986629.html |archive-date=2016-12-26 |access-date=26 December 2016 |publisher=[[Caixin]]}}</ref><ref name="Global Economy">{{cite book |last=Cohn |first=Theodore H. |title=Global Political Economy: Theory and Practice |date=2016-05-05 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-33481-1}}</ref> Secundo [[Bobo Lo]], le [[Organisation de Cooperation de Shanghai]] ha essite annunciate como un "organisation politic de un typo nove" que pretende transcender le geopolitica.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lo |first=Bobo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9T_IH6ZdiEC |title=Axis of Convenience: Moscow, Beijing, and the New Geopolitics |date=2009-08-01 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0-8157-0146-0 |page=13 |language=en}}</ref> Le politologo Pak Nung Wong dice que un forma major de geopolitica inter le SUA e China include le competition in securitate cybernetic, regulationes de politica concernente le standardes technologic e le platteformas de medios social, e formas traditional e non-traditional de spionage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wong |first=Pak Nung |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdo6EAAAQBAJ |title=Techno-Geopolitics: US-China Tech War and the Practice of Digital Statecraft |date=2021-09-23 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-44879-5 |language=en}}</ref> Un vision del [[Le Nove Grande Joco|Nove Grande Joco]] es un cambio verso le competition geoeconomic in comparation con le competition geopolitica. Le interesse in petroleo e gas include oleoductos e gasoductos que transmitte energia al costa est de China. [[Xiangming Chen]] crede que le rolo de China es plus simile a illo del Britannia que a illo del Russia in le Nove Grande Joco, ubi Russia joca le rolo que le Imperio Russe faceva originalmente. Chen declarava: "Sin reguardo al prospecto, China per medio del BRI es profundemente implicate in jocar un 'Nove Grande Joco' in Asia Central que differe considerabilemente de su precedente historic de circa 150 annos retro, quando Britannia e Russia luctava le un con le altere sur le steppas eurasian."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiangming |last2=Fazilov |first2=Fakhmiddin |date=2018-06-19 |title=Re-centering Central Asia: China's "New Great Game" in the old Eurasian Heartland |journal=Palgrave Communications |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1057/s41599-018-0125-5 |issn=2055-1045 |s2cid=49311952|doi-access=free }}</ref> In le [[Fundation Carnegie pro le Pace International|Fundation Carnegie]], Paul Stronski e Nicole Ng scribeva in 2018 que China non ha fundamentalmente provocate alcun interesses russe in Asia Central.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last1=Stronski |first1=Paul |last2=Ng |first2=Nicole |date=2018-02-28 |title=Cooperation and Competition: Russia and China in Central Asia, the Russian Far East, and the Arctic |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2018/02/cooperation-and-competition-russia-and-china-in-central-asia-the-russian-far-east-and-the-arctic?lang=en |access-date=2021-07-26 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |language=en}}</ref> Durante le annos 2020, le interesse geopolitic in le ressources de petroleo e gas se attenuava aliquanto e esseva partialmente reimplaciate per un foco sur le manufactura de technologias de energia munde assi como le controlo del patentes e del production de materiales critic pro tal technologias.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scholten |first=Daniel |last2=Bazilian |first2=Morgan |last3=Overland |first3=Indra |last4=Westphal |first4=Kirsten |date=2020-03-01 |title=The geopolitics of renewables: New board, new game |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421519306469 |journal=Energy Policy |volume=138 |article-number=111059 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111059 |issn=0301-4215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Overland |first=Indra |date=2019-03-01 |title=The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629618308636 |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=49 |pages=36–40 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018 |issn=2214-6296}}</ref> Hic, China prendeva un position central, complente le dominantia in le production de pannellos solar, batterias, vehiculos electric e le major parte del materiales critic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Overland |first=Indra |last2=Seah |first2=Sharon |date=2024 |title=Can Asia's climate leader please step forward? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aspp.12754 |journal=Asian Politics & Policy |language=en |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=429–449 |doi=10.1111/aspp.12754 |issn=1943-0787}}</ref> In Asia del Sud-Est, isto permitteva a China avantiar se al grande potentias occidental, que remaneva trenchate in le sector de petroleo e gas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Øverland |first=Joseph Rachman, Indra |date=2026-01-01 |title=A Power-Hungry Southeast Asia Wants China's Energy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2025/11/14/china-energy-renewables-asean-southeast-asia/ |access-date=2025-12-27 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Øren Aldal |first=Malin |last2=Overland |first2=Indra |date=2025-08-07 |title=Does ASEAN climate policy pay sufficient attention to public transportation? |journal=Discover Sustainability |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=767 |doi=10.1007/s43621-025-01716-6 |issn=2662-9984}}</ref> {{Referentias}} == Bibliographia == * {{cite book |last1=Amineh |first1=Parvizi M. |first2=Henk |last2=Houweling |title=Central Eurasia in Global Politics |location=London |publisher=Brill Academic Publishing |at=Introduction; Chapter 11 }} *{{cite book |last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |year= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= 1 |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 2-88155-004-5 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Devetak |editor-first=Richard |editor2-last=Burke |editor2-first=Anthony |editor3-last=George |editor3-first=Jim |title=An Introduction to International Relations |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-60000-3}} * {{cite book |author-link= Jared Diamond |last=Diamond |first=Jared |title=Guns, Germs, and Steel |url= https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa00diam_1 |url-access= registration |year=1997|publisher=Jonathan Cape |isbn=978-0-224-03809-6 }} * {{cite book |author-link= Filip Kovacevic |last=Kovacevic |first=Filip |title=Teoretičari klasične geopolitike: ciklus predavanja |year=2014 |publisher=Centar za gradjansko obrazovanje |location=Podgorica |isbn=978-86-85591-43-3}} * Munoz, J. Mark (2013). ''Handbook on the Geopolitics of Business''. Edward Elgar Publishing : UK. {{ISBN|9780857939746}} * {{cite book |last1=O'Loughlin |first1= John |last2=Heske |first2=Henning |title=From War to a Discipline for Peace |editor-last=Kliot |editor-first=N |editor2-last=Waterman |editor2-first=S |series=The Political Geography of Conflict and Peace | publisher=Belhaven Press |year=1991 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=Spang |first=Christian W. |title=Karl Hausofer Re-examined: Geopolitics As a Factor within Japanese-German Rapprochement in the Inter-War Years? |editor-first=C. W. |editor-last=Spang |editor2-first=R.H. |editor2-last=Wippich |series=Japanese-German Relations, 1895–1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion |location= London |year=2006 |pages=139–157}} * Spang, Christian W. (2013). Karl Haushofer und Japan. Die Rezeption seiner geopolitischen Theorien in der deutschen und japanischen Politik. Munich: Iudicium. {{ISBN|978-3-86205-040-6}}. * Venier, Pascal (2010), [http://espacepolitique.revues.org/1714 "Main Theoretical Currents in Geopolitical Thought in the Twentieth Century"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208035844/http://espacepolitique.revues.org/1714 |date=2017-02-08 }}, L'Espace Politique, vol. 12, no 3, 2010. * Cerreti, Claudio; Marconi, Matteo; Sellari, Paolo (2019). [https://www.academia.edu/40244189/Spazi_e_Poteri._Geografia_politica_geografia_economica_geopolitica Spazi e poteri. Geografia politica, geografia economica, geopolitica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408120436/https://www.academia.edu/40244189/Spazi_e_Poteri._Geografia_politica_geografia_economica_geopolitica |date=2022-04-08 }}. Roma-Bari: Laterza. [[Categoria:Geopolitica| ]] [[Categoria:Theoria del relationes international]] [[Categoria:Geographia politic]] oo6li82u8vuvoax5gmldhxa5uunekz4 0 60887 698233 696138 2026-08-03T23:13:18Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698233 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dollarnote siegel hq.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Como vidite in le bilyete de US$1, le [[Oculo de Providentia]] ha essite percipite per alcunos como prova de un conspiration que liga le [[Patres Fundator del Statos Unite]] al [[theoria de conspiration del Nove Ordine Mundial]].<ref name="Barkun2003"/>{{rp|58}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=Micah|last1=Issitt|first2=Carlyn|last2=Main|title=Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2014|isbn=978-1-61069-478-0}}</ref>{{rp|47–49}}]] Un '''theoria de conspiration''' es un explication pro un evento o situation que assere le existentia de un [[conspiration]] (generalmente per gruppos potente e sinistre, sovente con motivation politic),<ref name="Harambam-Aupers 2021">{{cite journal|last1=Harambam|first1=Jaron|last2=Aupers|first2=Stef|date=August 2021|title=From the unbelievable to the undeniable: Epistemological pluralism, or how conspiracy theorists legitimate their extraordinary truth claims|journal=[[European Journal of Cultural Studies]]|volume=24|issue=4|pages=990–1008|doi=10.1177/1367549419886045|doi-access=free|hdl=11245.1/7716b88d-4e3f-49ee-8093-253ccb344090|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Ted|last=Goertzel|date=December 1994|title=Belief in conspiracy theories|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_political-psychology_1994-12_15_4/page/731|journal=[[Political Psychology]]|volume=15|issue=4|pages=731–742|doi=10.2307/3791630|jstor=3791630|quote=explanations for important events that involve secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups}}</ref><ref>{{Cite OED |conspiracy theory}} "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; ''spec''. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event"</ref> quando altere explicationes es plus probabile.<ref name="Harambam-Aupers 2021"/><ref name="BrothertonFrench2013">{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|last2=French|first2=Christopher C.|last3=Pickering|first3=Alan D.|title=Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=4|year=2013|page=279|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279|pmid=23734136|pmc=3659314|s2cid=16685781|quote=A conspiracist belief can be described as 'the unnecessary assumption of conspiracy when other explanations are more probable'.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="probability">Fontes additional: * {{cite book|last1=Aaronovitch|first1=David|title=Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History|date=2009|publisher=Jonathan Cape|isbn=978-0-224-07470-4|page=253|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icxkMJK-WmgC|access-date=17 August 2019|language=en|quote=It is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of Occam's razor to their arguments.|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|last2=French|first2=Christopher C.|title=Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|volume=28|issue=2|year=2014|pages=238–248|doi=10.1002/acp.2995|quote=A conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy, claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people.|doi-access=free|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|last1=Jonason|first1=Peter Karl|last2=March|first2=Evita|last3=Springer|first3=Jordan|title=Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=12|year=2019|article-number=e0225964|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0225964|pmid=31794581|pmc=6890261|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1425964M|quote=Conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs, and generally implicate a malevolent force (e.g., a government body or secret society) involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public, in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal.|doi-access=free|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|last1=Thresher-Andrews|first1=Christopher|title=An introduction into the world of conspiracy|journal=PsyPAG Quarterly|volume=1|year=2013|issue=88|pages=5–8|doi=10.53841/bpspag.2013.1.88.5|s2cid=255932379|url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf|quote=Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.|archive-date=13 August 2015|access-date=12 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813062541/http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf|url-status=dead|ref=none}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813062541/http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |date=13 August 2015 }}</ref> Le termino generalmente ha un [[connotation]] negative, proque illo pote sovente basar se in [[prejudicio]], conviction emotional, evidentia insufficiente o [[paranoia]].<ref name="Byford">{{Cite book|title=Conspiracy theories: a critical introduction|last=Byford|first=Jovan|date=2011|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0-230-34921-6|location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire|oclc=802867724}}</ref> Un theoria de conspiration es distincte de un conspiration; illo se refere a un conspiration hypothetisate con characteristicas specific, includente ma non limitate al opposition al consenso general inter illes qui es qualificate pro evaluar su accuratessa, tal como [[scientista]]s o [[historico]]s.<ref name="Andrade2020">{{cite journal|last=Andrade|first=Gabriel|date=April 2020|title=Medical conspiracy theories: Cognitive science and implications for ethics|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf|url-status=live|journal=[[Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy]]|volume=23|issue=3|pages=505–518|doi=10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6|doi-access=free|pmc=7161434|pmid=32301040|s2cid=215787658|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508193924/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf|archive-date=8 May 2020|access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Barkun2016"/><ref name="Brotherton2013-q"/> Como tal, le theorias de conspiration es identificate como [[Theoria laic|theorias laic]]. Theorias de conspiration es generalmente designate pro resister al [[Falsificabilitate|falsification]] sia per evidentia contra illos sia per un manco de evidentia pro illos.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Douglas|first1=Karen M.|last2=Sutton|first2=Robbie M.|date=12 April 2011|title=Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|url-status=live|journal=[[British Journal of Social Psychology]]|volume=10|issue=3|pages=544–552|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x|lccn=81642357|oclc=475047529|pmid=21486312|s2cid=7318352|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103180834/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|archive-date=3 November 2018|access-date=8 May 2024}}</ref> Illos es reinfortiate per un [[raciocinio circular]]: tanto le evidentia contra le conspiration ''como'' le absentia de evidentia pro illo es misinterpretate como prova de su veritate.<ref name="Byford"/><ref name="Keeley1999">{{Cite journal|last=Keeley|first=Brian L.|date=March 1999|title=Of Conspiracy Theories|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-philosophy_1999-03_96_3/page/109|journal=The Journal of Philosophy|volume=96|issue=3|pages=109–126|doi=10.2307/2564659|jstor=2564659}}</ref> Le psychologo [[Stephan Lewandowsky]] observa que "quanto plus forte es le evidentia contra un conspiration, tanto plus le conspiratores debe voler que le gente crede in lor version del eventos."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lewandowsky|first1=Stephan|last2=Gignac|first2=Gilles E.|last3=Oberauer|first3=Klaus|date=2 October 2013|editor-last=Denson|editor-first=Tom|title=The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=10|article-number=e75637|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0075637|doi-access=free|pmc=3788812|pmid=24098391|bibcode=2013PLoSO...875637L}}</ref> Como consequentia, le conspiration deveni un question de fide plus tosto que alique que pote esser provate o refutate.<ref name="Barkun2003">{{cite book|last1=Barkun|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Barkun|title=A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|pages=3–4|title-link=A Culture of Conspiracy}}</ref><ref name="Barkun2011">{{cite book|last1=Barkun|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Barkun|title=Chasing Phantoms: Reality, Imagination, and Homeland Security Since 9/11|date=2011|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|page=10}}</ref> Studios ha ligate le credentia in theorias de conspiration al [[Anti-autoritate|diffidentia del autoritate]] e al [[Cynismo (contemporanee)|cynismo]] politic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swami|first=Viren|date=6 August 2012|title=Social Psychological Origins of Conspiracy Theories: The Case of the Jewish Conspiracy Theory in Malaysia|journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]]|location=London, UK|volume=3|page=280|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280|pmc=3412387|pmid=22888323|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Radnitz|first=Scott|title=Revealing Schemes|chapter=Citizen Cynics: How People Talk and Think about Conspiracy|date=2021|pages=153–172|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780197573532.001.0001/oso-9780197573532-chapter-9|publication-place=[[University of Washington]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|doi=10.1093/oso/9780197573532.003.0009|isbn=978-0-19-757353-2|access-date=17 May 2022|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jolley|first1=Daniel|last2=Douglas|first2=Karen M.|date=20 February 2014|title=The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions|journal=[[PLOS One]]|language=en|publication-place=[[University of Kent]]|volume=9|issue=2|article-number=e89177|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0089177|pmc=3930676|pmid=24586574|bibcode=2014PLoSO...989177J|doi-access=free}}</ref> Alcun cercatores suggere que le '''ideation conspiracista'''—le credentia in theorias de conspiration—pote esser psychologicamente damnose o pathologic.<ref name="Freeman 595–604">{{Cite journal|last1=Freeman|first1=Daniel|last2=Bentall|first2=Richard P.|date=29 March 2017|title=The concomitants of conspiracy concerns|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|language=en|volume=52|issue=5|pages=595–604|doi=10.1007/s00127-017-1354-4|pmc=5423964|pmid=28352955}}</ref><ref name="Barron 156–159">{{Cite journal|last1=Barron|first1=David|last2=Morgan|first2=Kevin|last3=Towell|first3=Tony|last4=Altemeyer|first4=Boris|last5=Swami|first5=Viren|date=November 2014|title=Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=70|pages=156–159|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040|url=http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/14570/1/1-s2.0-S0191886914003821-main.pdf}}</ref> Tal credentia es correlate con le [[projection psychologic]], le paranoia, e le [[Machiavellismo (psychologia)|machiavellismo]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Douglas|first1=Karen M.|last2=Sutton|first2=Robbie M.|date=12 April 2011|title=Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=544–552|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x|pmid=21486312|s2cid=7318352|access-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103180834/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|archive-date=3 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=20402445|date=2010|last1=Brüne|first1=M.|last2=Basilowski|first2=M.|last3=Bömmer|first3=I.|last4=Juckel|first4=G.|last5=Assion|first5=H. J.|title=Machiavellianism and executive functioning in patients with delusional disorder|journal=Psychological Reports|volume=106|issue=1|pages=205–215|doi=10.2466/PR0.106.1.205-215}}</ref> Le credentia in un sol theoria de conspiration es sovente associate con le credentia in altere theorias de conspiration.<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="SuttonDouglas2020"/><ref name="annurev-psych">{{cite journal|author1-last=Douglas|author1-first=Karen M.|author2-last=Sutton|author2-first=Robbie M.|date=January 2023|title=What Are Conspiracy Theories? A Definitional Approach to Their Correlates, Consequences, and Communication|editor-last=Fiske|editor-first=Susan T.|editor-link=Susan Fiske|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=74|pages=271–298|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031329|doi-access=free|oclc=909903176|pmid=36170672|s2cid=252597317}}</ref> Psychologos generalmente attribue le credentia in theorias de conspiration a un numero de conditiones psychopathologic tal como paranoia, [[schizotypia]], [[narcissismo]], e [[attaccamento insecur]],<ref name="Andrade2020"/> o a un forma de [[prejudicio cognitive]] appellate "[[perception de patronos illusori]]".<ref>{{cite web|title=Conspiracy Theorists Really Do See The World Differently, New Study Shows|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/conspiracy-theory-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception-cognitive-science|first=Signe|last=Dean|publisher=[[Journal of Biological Sciences|Science Alert]]|date=23 October 2017|access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Conspiracy Theorists Have a Fundamental Cognitive Problem, Say Scientists|url=https://www.inverse.com/article/37463-conspiracy-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception|first=Sarah|last=Sloat|publisher=[[Bustle (magazine)|Inverse]]|date=17 October 2017|access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref> Illo ha etiam essite ligate al typos de personalitate del assi-nominate [[Triade obscur]], de qui le tracto commun es le manco de [[empathia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hughes|first1=Sara|last2=Machan|first2=Laura|date=2021|title=It's a conspiracy: Covid-19 conspiracies link to psychopathy, Machiavellianism and collective narcissism|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=171|article-number=110559|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2020.110559|pmc=8035125|pmid=33867616}}</ref> Tamen, un articulo de revista de 2020 trovava que le majoritate del [[scientista cognitive|scientistas cognitive]] considera le theorisation conspirative como typicamente non-pathologic, dato que le credentia infundate in conspirationes es commun in culturas tanto historic como contemporanee, e pote originar se de tendentias human innate verso le commatrage, le cohesion de gruppo, e le religion.<ref name="Andrade2020"/> Un revista historic de theorias de conspiration concludeva que "Le evidentia suggere que le sentimentos aversive que le gente experimenta quando es in crise—timor, incertitude, e le sentimento de esser foras de controlo—stimula un motivation pro dar senso al situation, augmentante le probabilitate de perciper conspirationes in situationes social."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van Prooijen|first1=Jan-Willem|last2=Douglas|first2=Karen M|date=2017|title=Conspiracy theories as part of history: The role of societal crisis situations|journal=Memory Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=3|pages=323–333|doi=10.1177/1750698017701615|pmc=5646574|pmid=29081831}}</ref> Historicamente, le theorias de conspiration ha essite strictemente ligate al prejudicio, al [[propaganda]], al [[chassa al magas]], al [[guerra]]s, e al [[genocidio]]s.<ref name="annurev-psych"/><ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/><ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="HR">{{cite journal|author-last=Frankfurter|author-first=David|date=February 2021|title=Religion in the Mirror of the Other: The Discursive Value of Cult-Atrocity Stories in Mediterranean Antiquity|editor1-last=Copp|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Wedemeyer|editor2-first=Christian K.|editor2-link=Christian K. Wedemeyer|journal=[[History of Religions (journal)|History of Religions]] |volume=60|issue=3|pages=188–208|doi=10.1086/711943|jstor=00182710|s2cid=233429880|lccn=64001081|oclc=299661763}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last=Nefes|author-first=Turkay|year=2018|chapter=Framing of a Conspiracy Theory: The Efendi Series|editor1-last=Asprem|editor1-first=Egil|editor2-last=Dyrendal|editor2-first=Asbjørn|editor3-last=Robertson|editor3-first=David G.|title=Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion|location=[[Leiden]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion|volume=17|doi=10.1163/9789004382022_020|isbn=978-90-04-38150-6|pages=407–422|s2cid=158560266|quote=Conspiracy theories often function as popular conduits of ethno-religious hatred and conflict.}}</ref>{{overcite|date=December 2025}} Illos es sovente credite fortemente per le perpetratores de [[Terrorismo|attacos terrorista]], e esseva usate como justification per [[Timothy McVeigh]] e [[Anders Breivik]], assi como per governamentos tal como le [[Germania Nazi]], le [[Statos Unite]], le [[Union Sovietic]],<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/> e [[Theorias de conspiration in Turchia|Turchia]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Göknar|first1=Erdağ|title=Conspiracy Theory in Turkey: Politics and Protest in the Age of "Post-Truth" by Julian de Medeiros (review)|journal=The Middle East Journal|date=2019|volume=73|issue=2|pages=336–337|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/730239|language=en}}</ref> Le [[negationismo del SIDA]] per le governamento de [[Africa del Sud]], motivate per theorias de conspiration, causava un stimation de 330.000 mortes per SIDA.<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="SimelelaVenter2015"/><ref name="BurtonGiddy2015"/> [[QAnon]] e le [[Movimento de negation electoral in le Statos Unite|negationismo]] super le resultatos del [[election presidential del Statos Unite de 2020]] duce al [[attaco al Capitolio del Statos Unite del 6 de januario]],<ref name="Nature 2021">{{cite magazine|last=Tollefson|first=Jeff|date=4 February 2021|title=Tracking QAnon: how Trump turned conspiracy-theory research upside down|url=https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf|url-status=live|magazine=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=590|pages=192–193|doi=10.1038/d41586-021-00257-y|doi-access=free|lccn=12037118|pmid=33542489|s2cid=231818589|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427105931/https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf|archive-date=27 April 2021|access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Crossley 2021">{{cite journal|last=Crossley|first=James|date=September 2021|title=The Apocalypse and Political Discourse in an Age of COVID|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-for-the-study-of-the-new-testament_2021-09_44_1/page/93|journal=[[Journal for the Study of the New Testament]]|volume=44|issue=1|pages=93–111|doi=10.1177/0142064X211025464|doi-access=free|s2cid=237329082}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=QAnon reshaped Trump's party and radicalized believers. The Capitol siege may just be the start.|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/13/qanon-capitol-siege-trump/|date=13 January 2021}}</ref> e le credentia in [[Theorias de conspiration super OGM|theorias de conspiration super alimentos geneticamente modificate]] duce le governamento de [[Zambia]] a rejectar adjuta alimentari durante un [[famine]],<ref name="Goertzel2010"/> in un momento quando tres milliones de personas in le pais suffreva de fame.<ref name="BrossardShanahan2007"/> Theorias de conspiration es un obstaculo significante pro meliorationes in le [[sanitate public]],<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="GlickBooth2014"/> incoragiante le opposition a mesuras de sanitate public tal como le [[vaccination]] e le [[fluoridation del aqua]]. Illos ha essite ligate a eruptiones de [[maladia prevenibile per vaccination|maladias prevenibile per vaccination]].<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="GlickBooth2014"/><ref name="PrematungeCorace2012"/> Altere effectos de theorias de conspiration include un fiducia reducite in le [[evidentia scientific]],<ref name="annurev-psych"/><ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="Douglas 538–542"/> radicalisation e reinfortiamento ideologic de gruppos [[extremista]],<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/><ref name="Brotherton2015-2"/> e consequentias negative pro le [[economia]].<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/> Theorias de conspiration que olim esseva limitate a audientias marginal ha devenite commun in le [[Internet]] e le [[medios social]],<ref name="Andrade2020"/><ref name="annurev-psych"/> emergente como un [[phenomeno cultural]] del fin del seculo 20 e initio del seculo 21.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=58}}<ref name="Camp 1997"/><ref name="Goldberg 2001"/><ref name="Fenster 2008"/> Illos es extense in tote le mundo e es sovente credite amplemente, a vices mesmo per le majoritate del population.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/><ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="Brotherton2015-i"/> Interventiones pro reducer le occurrentia de credentias conspirative include mantener un [[societate aperte]], incoragiar le gente a usar le [[pensamento analytic]], e reducer sentimentos de incertitude, anxietate, o impotentia.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/><ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/><ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/> == Origine e uso == Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' defini ''theoria de conspiration'' como "le theoria que un evento o phenomeno occurre como resultato de un conspiration inter partes interessate; ''spec.'' un credentia que alcun agentia oculte ma influential (typicamente con motivation politic e intention oppressive) es responsabile pro un evento non explicate". Le exemplo de uso le plus antique que illo cita es un articulo de 1909 in ''[[The American Historical Review]]'',<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM'' (v. 4.0), Oxford University Press, 2009, s.v. '''4'''</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Allen|title=Reviewed Work: ''The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise: Its Origin and Authorship'' by P. Orman Ray|journal=[[The American Historical Review]]|volume=14|issue=4|pages=835–836|doi=10.2307/1837085|jstor=1837085|date=July 1909|hdl=2027/loc.ark:/13960/t27948c87|url=https://archive.org/details/missouricomp00rayprich|quote=The claim that [David R.] Atchison was the originator of the [Missouri Compromise] repeal may be termed a recrudescence of the conspiracy theory first asserted by Colonel John A. Parker of Virginia in 1880.|hdl-access=free}}</ref> ben que le phrase appareva in imprimate plure decennios antea.<ref name="JoMS-1870">{{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Mental Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsRMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA141|last1=Robertson|first1=Lockhart<!--author Robertson as listed on page 134 of the journal-->|author2=Association of Medical Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane (London, England)|author3=Medico-psychological Association of Great Britain and Ireland|author4=Royal Medico-psychological Association<!-- authors 2-4 as listed at WorldCat oclc=1194357571-->|title=The Report of a Quarterly Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association, held in London at the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society, by permission of the President and Council, on the 27th January, 1870. [in Part IV. Psychological News.]|editor1-last=Maudsley|editor1-first=Henry|editor2-last=Sibbald|editor2-first=John|volume=XVI|number=73|location=London|date=April 1870|publisher=[[Longman, Green, Longman, & Roberts]]<!--frontispiece lists [[J. & A. Churchill]]; google books and WorldCat both list Longman-->|oclc=4642826321|quote=The theory of Dr. Sankey as to the manner in which these injuries to the chest occurred in asylums deserved our careful attention. It was at least more plausible that the conspiracy theory of Mr. Charles Reade, and the precautionary measure suggested by Dr. Sankey of using a padded waistcoat in recent cases of mania with general paralysis—in which mental condition nearly all these cases under discussion were—seemed to him of practical value.}}</ref> Le uso cognoscite le plus antique esseva per le autor american [[Charles Astor Bristed]], in un littera al editor publicate in ''[[The New York Times]]'' le 11 de januario 1863.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news|last1=Bristed|first1=C. A.|title=English Insincerity on the Slavery Question.|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96772461/first-use-of-conspiracy-theory-by/|access-date=2 March 2022|work=The New York Times|date=11 January 1863|page=3}}</ref> Ille lo usava pro referer se a pretensiones que aristocratas britannic esseva intentionalmente [[Le Regno Unite e le Guerra Civil American|debilitante le Statos Unite durante le Guerra Civil American]] pro avantiar lor interesses financiari. {{blockquote |text=Anglaterra ha habite satis a facer in Europa e Asia, sin sortir de su cammino pro intromitter se con America. Esseva un impossibilitate physic e moral que illa poterea ducer a cabo un conspiration gigantic contra nos. Ma nostre massas, habente solmente un cognoscentia general e rude del affaires estranier, e non innaturalmente exaggerante un pauc le spatio que nos occupa in le oculo del mundo, non apprecia le complicationes que rendeva tal conspiration impossibile. Illes solmente reguarda le subite movimento de conversion total del pressa e publico anglese, lo que es plus facilemente explicate per le theoria de conspiration.<ref name="nyt"/>}} Le termino es etiam usate como un modo de discreditar analyses [[Opinion dissidente|dissidente]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Starcevic|first1=Vladan|last2=Brakoulias|first2=Vlasios|date=14 April 2021|title='Things are not what they seem to be': A proposal for the spectrum approach to conspiracy beliefs|journal=Australasian Psychiatry|volume=29|issue=5|pages=535–539|doi=10.1177/10398562211008182|pmid=33852369|s2cid=233242206|doi-access=free}}</ref> Robert Blaskiewicz commenta que exemplos del termino esseva usate ja in le seculo dece-novem e declara que su uso ha essite sempre derogatori.<ref name="CSICOP">{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/nope_it_was_always_already_wrong|title=Nope, It Was Always Already Wrong|last1=Blaskiewicz|first1=Robert|website=The Skeptical Inquirer|publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|access-date=11 December 2015|date=8 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212122454/http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/nope_it_was_always_already_wrong|archive-date=12 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Secundo un studio per Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrasto, in le seculo dece-novem le termino ''theoria de conspiration'' simplemente "suggere un postulate plausibile de un conspiration" e "non portava, in iste stadio, alcun connotation, ni negative ni positive", ben que a vices un postulate assi etiquettate esseva criticate.<ref>McKenzie-McHarg, Andrew (2019) "Conspiracy Theory: The Nineteenth-Century Prehistory of a Twentieth-Century Concept", pp. 78, 76. In Joseph E. Uscinski (ed) ''Conspiracy Theories & the People Who Believe Them''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Le autor e activista [[George Monbiot]] argumentava que le terminos "theoria de conspiration" e "conspiracista" es ingannose, proque conspirationes vermente existe e le [[theoria]]s es "explicationes rational subjecte a refutation". In su loco, ille proponeva le terminos "fiction de conspiration" e "fantasista de conspiration".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Monbiot|first=George|author-link=George Monbiot|date=4 May 2024|title='You're going to call me a Holocaust denier now, are you?': George Monbiot comes face to face with his local conspiracy theorist|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2024/may/04/youre-going-to-call-me-a-holocaust-denier-now-are-you-george-monbiot-comes-face-to-face-with-his-local-conspiracy-theorist|access-date=4 May 2024|work=The Guardian|language=en-GB}}</ref> Theorias involvente plure conspiratores que es provate como correcte, tal como le [[scandalo Watergate]], es usualmente appellate [[jornalismo de investigation]] o [[analyse historic]] plus tosto que theoria de conspiration.<ref name="knight-2003">{{cite book |author=Peter Knight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC&pg=PA730 |title=Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia |date=1 January 2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-812-9 |pages=730– |access-date=27 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906162011/https://books.google.com/books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC&pg=PA730 |archive-date=6 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bjerg (2016) scribe: "le modo in que nos usa normalmente le termino theoria de conspiration exclude instantias ubi le theoria ha essite generalmente acceptate como ver. Le scandalo Watergate servi como le referentia standard."<ref name="bjerg1">{{cite journal |last1=Bjerg |first1=Ole |date=2016 |title=Conspiracy Theory: Truth Claim or Language Game? |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0263276416657880?journalCode=tcsa |journal=Theory, Culture & Society |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=7–8 |doi=10.1177/0263276416657880 |hdl=10398/815ad149-79b0-4000-9d07-327893a24ee6 |url-access=subscription |access-date=24 April 2024 |quote=It also seems to be the case that the way we normally use the term conspiracy theory excludes instances where the theory has been generally accepted as true...Just as the Watergate scandal is now part of the official account of the Nixon administration, the NSA monitoring practices are arguably also part of our present understanding of the way that US intelligence works and neither thus qualify as 'conspiracy theories' anymore. The point here is that when we employ the term 'conspiracy theory' in actual language use, we are implicitly assuming and implying that the claims advanced by the theory are not true. |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Per contrasto, le termino "theoria de conspiration de Watergate" es usate pro referer se a un varietate de hypotheses in le quales illes qui esseva condemnate in le conspiration esseva de facto le victimas de un conspiration plus profunde.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Ron Rosenbaum |year=2012 |title=Ah, Watergate |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/104169/ah-watergate |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806155414/https://newrepublic.com/article/104169/ah-watergate |archive-date=6 August 2016 |access-date=29 June 2016 |magazine=New Republic}}</ref> Il ha tamben tentativas de analysar le theoria del theorias de conspiration (theoria de theoria de conspiration) pro assecurar que le termino "theoria de conspiration" es usate pro referer se a narrationes que ha essite refutate per expertos, plus tosto que como un rejection generalisate.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bigliardi |first=Stefano |date=July–August 2020 |title=Who's Afraid Of Conspiracy Theory Theory? |magazine=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]] |location=Amherst, New York}}</ref> Le theoristas de conspiration es differente del jornalistas de investigation in que le jornalistas se appoia sur evidentia de fontes verificate e aborda le investigationes libere de prejudicio, plus tosto que creder que le theoria es un facto. === Allegate origines del CIA === [[File:WarrenReport-cover1.jpg|[[The Warren Report]]|thumb]] Le termino "theoria de conspiration" es ipse le subjecto de un theoria de conspiration, le qual postula que le termino esseva popularisate per le [[CIA]] pro discreditar credentes conspiratorial, particularmente criticos del [[Commission Warren]], facente de illes un objectivo de ridiculo.<ref name="Brotherton2015-4">{{cite book|author=Robert Brotherton|title=Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories|chapter=Chapter 4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awrcCQAAQBAJ|date=19 November 2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4729-1564-1}}</ref> In su libro de 2013 ''Conspiracy Theory in America'', le scientista politic Lance deHaven-Smith scribeva que le termino entrava in le linguage quotidian in le Statos Unite post 1964, le anno in le qual le Commission Warren publicava su conclusiones sur le [[assassinato de John F. Kennedy]], con ''The New York Times'' publicante cinque articulos ille anno usante le termino.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TilCeCKDujQC|title=Conspiracy Theory in America|last1=deHaven-Smith|first1=Lance|date=15 April 2013|isbn=978-0-292-74379-3|page=3|publisher=University of Texas Press|quote=The term 'conspiracy theory' did not exist as a phrase in everyday American conversation before 1964.&nbsp;... In 1964, the year the Warren Commission issued its report, ''The New York Times'' published five stories in which 'conspiracy theory' appeared.|access-date=27 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906032935/https://books.google.com/books?id=TilCeCKDujQC&printsec=frontcover|archive-date=6 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Michael Butter, un professor de Historia Litterari e Cultural American al [[Universitate de Tübingen]], scribeva in 2020 que le documento del CIA ''Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report'', le qual le proponentes del theoria usa como evidentia de motivo e intention del CIA, non contine le phrase "theoria de conspiration" in le singular, e solmente usa le termino "theorias de conspiration" un vice, in le phrase: "Theorias de conspiration ha frequentemente jectate suspicion sur nostre organisation, per exemplo, per allegar falsemente que [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] travaliava pro nos."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Butter|first1=Michael|title=There's a conspiracy theory that the CIA invented the term 'conspiracy theory' – here's why|url=https://theconversation.com/theres-a-conspiracy-theory-that-the-cia-invented-the-term-conspiracy-theory-heres-why-132117|website=The Conversation|publisher=The Conversation Trust (UK) Limited|access-date=23 November 2020|date=16 March 2020}}</ref> Le uso registrate del phrase "theoria de conspiration" data de al minus 1863, e illo esseva notabilemente invocate in reportos post le tiroteo de 1881 del tunc presidente James A. Garfield, plus de 60 annos ante que le CIA esseva establite. Un revista academic del bibliotheca digital JSTOR trovava que le termino "theorista de conspiration" habeva essite publicate al minus in le anno ante le morte de Kennedy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2023 |title='Conspiracy theory' coined long before JFK assassination |url=https://apnews.com/article/fact-check-conspiracy-theory-jfk-941578119864 |access-date=17 June 2025 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> ==Differentia de conspiration== Un theoria de conspiration non es simplemente un [[conspiration]], que se refere a qualcunque plano secrete involvente duo o plus personas.<ref name="Barkun2016"/> In contrasto, le termino "theoria de conspiration" se refere a conspirationes ''hypothetisate'' que ha characteristicas specific. Per exemplo, credentias conspirationista invariabilemente se oppone al consenso general inter ille personas qui es qualificate pro evaluar lor accuratessa, tal como [[scientista]]s o [[historico]]s.<ref name="Brotherton2013-q">{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|year=2013|title=Verso un definition de 'theoria de conspiration'|url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf|journal=PsyPAG Quarterly|volume=1|issue=88|pages=9–14|doi=10.53841/bpspag.2013.1.88.9|s2cid=141788005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007174759/http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2013|quote=Un theoria de conspiration non es mermente un explanation candidate inter altere alternativas equalmente plausibile. Al contrario, le etiquetta se refere a un affirmation que va contra un relato plus plausibile e amplemente acceptate... [Credentias conspiratorial es] invariabilemente in desacordo con le consenso general inter scientistas, historicos, o altere judices legitime del veritate del affirmation.}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813062541/http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |date=13 August 2015 }}</ref> Theoristas de conspiration se vide como habente accesso privilegiate a cognoscentia socialmente persequite o un modo de pensar stigmatisate que los separa del massas qui crede le version official.<ref name="Barkun2016">{{cite journal|author-last=Barkun|author-first=Michael|author-link=Michael Barkun|date=October 2016|title=Theorias de conspiration como cognoscentia stigmatisate|editor1-last=Campion-Vincent|editor1-first=Véronique|editor2-last=Renard|editor2-first=Jean-Bruno|journal=[[Diogenes (journal)|Diogenes]]|volume=62|issue=3–4 |pages=114–120|doi=10.1177/0392192116669288|lccn=55003452|s2cid=152217672}}</ref> [[Michael Barkun]] describe un theoria de conspiration como un "modello imponite super le mundo pro dar le apparentia de ordine al eventos".<ref name="Barkun2016"/> Conspirationes real, mesmo illos multo simple, es difficile a celar e regularmente experimenta problemas inexpectate.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/> In contrasto, theorias de conspiration suggere que le conspirationes es unrealisticamente succedite e que gruppos de conspiratores, tal como [[burocratia]]s, pote ager con competentia e secreto quasi perfecte. Le causas de eventos o situationes es simplificate pro excluder factores complexe o interactante, assi como le rolo del hasardo e consequentias non intendite. Quasi tote le observationes es explicate como habente essite deliberate mente planificate per le allegate conspiratores.<ref name="Brotherton2013">{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|year=2013|title=Verso un definition de 'theoria de conspiration'|url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf|journal=PsyPAG Quarterly|volume=1|issue=88|pages=9–14|doi=10.53841/bpspag.2013.1.88.9|s2cid=141788005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007174759/http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813062541/http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |date=13 August 2015 }}</ref> In theorias de conspiration, on affirma habitualmente que le conspiratores age con malitia extreme.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/> Como describite per Robert Brotherton: <blockquote>Le intention malivole assumite per le majoritate del theorias de conspiration va multo ultra le complottos quotidian nascite de interesse proprie, corruption, crudelitate, e criminalitate. Le conspiratores postulate non es mermente personas con agendas egoista o valores differente. Al contrario, theorias de conspiration postulate un mundo in nigre e blanc in le qual le ben lucta contra le mal. Le publico general es presentate como le victima de persecution organisate, e le motivos del allegate conspiratores frequentemente avicina le pur mal maniacal. Al minus, on dice que le conspiratores ha un despecto quasi inhuman pro le libertate basic e le benesser del population general. Theorias de conspiration plus grandiose pinge le conspiratores como essente le Mal Incarnate: de haber causate tote le males de que nos suffre, committente actos abominabile de crudelitate impensabile de forma routinari, e effortiante se ultimemente a subverter o destruer toto lo que nos ama.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/></blockquote> {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Theorias de conspiration]] kia6mzqj7xv25a9036jplbj63o830ob 0 60906 698229 696122 2026-08-03T23:07:37Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698229 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''''Brave New World''''' (Mundo Nove Brave) es un [[Fiction utopic e dystopic#Fiction dystopic|romance dystopic]] per le autor anglese [[Aldous Huxley]], scribite in 1931 e publicate in 1932.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brave New World by Aldous Huxley |url=https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/brave-new-world-by-aldous-huxley |website=British Library |access-date=16 October 2022 |archive-date=12 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012031300/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/brave-new-world-by-aldous-huxley |url-status=dead |accessdate=17 March 2026 |archivedate=12 October 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012031300/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/brave-new-world-by-aldous-huxley }}</ref> Ambientate in grande parte in un futuristic [[Governamento mundial|Stato Mundial]], cuje citatanos es ingeniate ambientalmente in un [[hierarchia social]] basate super le intelligentia, le romance anticipa enorme avantiamentos scientific in [[technologia reproductive]], [[hypnopedia]], [[manipulation psychologic]] e [[conditionamento classic]] que es combinate pro crear un [[dystopia|societate dystopic]] que es provocate per le protagonista del historia. Huxley sequeva iste libro con un re-evalutation in forma de [[essayo]], ''[[#Brave New World Revisited|Brave New World Revisited]]'' (1958), e con su ultime romance, ''[[Island (romance de Huxley)|Island]]'' (1962), le contraparte [[utopia|utopic]]. Iste romance es frequentemente usate como un companion o contraparte de inversion a ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' (1949) de [[George Orwell]]. In 1998 e 1999, le [[Modern Library]] classificava ''Brave New World'' al numero 5 in su lista del [[Le 100 melior romances del Modern Library|100 melior romances in anglese del seculo 20]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Modern Library Top 100 - Penguin Random House |url=https://sites.prh.com/modern-library-top-100 |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=sites.prh.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2003, [[Robert McCrum]], scribente pro ''[[The Observer]]'', includeva ''Brave New World'' chronologicamente al numero 53 in "le 100 plus grande romances de omne tempores",<ref name="McCrum">{{cite news |title=100 greatest novels of all time |newspaper=Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/oct/12/features.fiction |access-date=10 October 2012 |location=London |first=Robert |last=McCrum |date=12 October 2003}}</ref> e le romance esseva listate al numero 87 in le sondage [[The Big Read]] per le [[BBC]].<ref name="BBC – The Big Read">{{Cite web |date=April 2003 |title=BBC - The Big Read - Top 100 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/bigread/top100_2.shtml |access-date=29 December 2022 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref> ''Brave New World'' ha essite frequentemente prohibite e contestate depost su publication original. Illo ha figurate in le lista del American Library Association del 100 libros plus prohibite e contestate del decennio depost que le association comenciava le lista in 1990.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> ==Titulo== Le titulo ''Brave New World'' deriva de ''[[The Tempest]]'' de [[William Shakespeare]], Acto V, Scena I, le discurso de [[Miranda (The Tempest)|Miranda]]:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006qykl |title=Brave New World |last=Anon |work=In Our Time |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=9 April 2009}}</ref> {{poem quote| O meraviglia! Quante belle creaturas es hic! Como es belle le humanitate! O brave nove mundo, Que ha tal gente in illo!|William Shakespeare|''The Tempest'', Acto V, Scena I, ll. 203–206<ref>{{cite book |title=William Shakespeare: Complete Works |year=2007 |last1=Bate |first1=Jonathan |author-link1=Jonathan Bate |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Eric |others=[[Royal Shakespeare Company|The Royal Shakespeare Company]]. Chief Associate Editor: Héloïse Sénéchal |isbn=978-0-230-00350-7 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Publishers Ltd]] |page=47}}</ref>}} Le uso del phrase per Shakespeare es intendite ironicamente, proque le parlante fali a recognoscer le natura malefic del visitatores del insula a causa de su innocentia.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ira Grushow|title=Brave New World and The Tempest|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_college-english_1962-10_24_1/page/42|journal=College English|date=October 1962|volume=24|number=1|pages=42–45|jstor = 373846|doi = 10.2307/373846 |issn = 0010-0994}}</ref> De facto, le proxime parlante—le patre de Miranda, Prospero—responde a su observation innocente con le declaration: "'Illo es nove pro te". Traductiones del titulo sovente allude a expressiones simile usate in operas domestic de litteratura: le edition francese del opera es titulate ''Le Meilleur des mondes'' (''Le melior del mundos''), un allusion a un expression usate per le philosopho [[Gottfried Leibniz]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Martine de Gaudemar|title=La Notion de nature chez Leibniz: colloque|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-1z1FQeK_kIC&pg=PA77|year=1995|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|isbn=978-3-515-06631-0|pages=77}}</ref> e satirisate in ''[[Candide|Candide, Ou l'Optimisme]]'' per [[Voltaire]] (1759). Le prime traduction in [[Chinese Standard]], facite per le romancero Lily Hsueh e Aaron Jen-wang Hsueh in 1974, es titulate "美麗新世界" ([[Pinyin]]: ''Měilì Xīn Shìjiè'', litteralmente "''Belle Nove Mundo''"), citante le traduction chinese de ''The Tempest''. ==Historia== Huxley scribeva ''Brave New World'' durante que ille viveva in [[Sanary-sur-Mer]], Francia, in le quatro menses de maio a augusto 1931.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meckier|first=Jerome|date=1979|title=A Neglected Huxley "Preface": His Earliest Synopsis of Brave New World|journal=Twentieth Century Literature|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–20|doi=10.2307/441397|jstor=441397|issn=0041-462X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Murray|first=Nicholas|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/dec/13/featuresreviews.guardianreview27|title=Nicholas Murray on his life of Huxley|date=2003-12-13|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-04-13|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sanary.com/a-huxley-in-sanary-1-introduction.html |title=A. Huxley in Sanary 1 - Introduction |website=www.sanary.com |access-date=27 September 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111125115/http://www.sanary.com/a-huxley-in-sanary-1-introduction.html |url-status=dead |accessdate=17 March 2026 |archivedate=11 January 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111125115/http://www.sanary.com/a-huxley-in-sanary-1-introduction.html }}</ref> In iste epoca, Huxley se habeva establite como un scriptor e satirista social. Ille esseva un contributor al magazines ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine american 1913-1936)|Vanity Fair]]'' e ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' e habeva publicate un collection de su poesia (''The Burning Wheel'', 1916) e quatro romances satiric, ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' (1921), ''[[Antic Hay]]'' (1923), ''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' (1925) e ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' (1928). ''Brave New World'' esseva le quinte romance de Huxley e su prime opera [[dystopia|dystopic]]. Un breve passage in ''Crome Yellow'' prefigura ''Brave New World'', monstrante que Huxley habeva tal futuro in mente ja in 1921. Mr. Scogan, un del personages del libro anterior, describe un "generation impersonal" del futuro que "prendera le loco del horribile systema de Natura. In vaste incubatorios de stato, filas e filas de bottiglias gravide fornira al mundo le population que illo require. Le systema familial disparera; le societate, debilitate in su base mesme, debera trovar nove fundamentos; e [[Eros (concepto)|Eros]], bellamente e irresponsabilemente libere, volitara como un gaie papilion de flor in flor a transverso de un mundo illuminate per le sol". Huxley diceva que ''Brave New World'' esseva inspirate per le romances [[utopia|utopic]] de [[H. G. Wells]], includente ''[[A Modern Utopia]]'' (1905), e como un parodia de ''[[Men Like Gods]]'' (1923).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wickes |first1=George |last2=Fraser |first2=Raymond |title=Aldous Huxley, The Art of Fiction No. 24 |journal=[[Paris Review]] |date=1960 |volume=Spring 1960 |issue=23 |url=https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4698/the-art-of-fiction-no-24-aldous-huxley |access-date=24 August 2022 |language=en |issn=0031-2037 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922002704/http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4698/the-art-of-fiction-no-24-aldous-huxley |archive-date=22 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Aldous Huxley |first=Aldous |last=Huxley |title=Letters of Aldous Huxley |chapter=letter to Mrs. Kethevan Roberts, 18 May 1931 |editor-first=Grover |editor-last=Smith |place=New York and Evanston |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1969 |page=348 |quote=I am writing a novel about the future – on the horror of the Wellsian Utopia and a revolt against it. Very difficult. I have hardly enough imagination to deal with such a subject. But it is none the less interesting work.}}</ref> Le vision sperante de Wells sur le futuro dava a Huxley le idea de comenciar a scriber un parodia del romances, que deveniva ''Brave New World''. Ille scribeva in un littera a Mrs. Arthur Goldsmith, un cognoscite american, que ille habeva "essite divertente se un pauc a expensas de H. G. Wells" ma tunc ille "esseva captivate per le excitation de [su] proprie ideas".<ref>{{cite book |last=Heje |first=Johan |chapter=Aldous Huxley |editor-last=Harris-Fain |editor-first=Darren |title=British Fantasy and Science-Fiction Writers, 1918–1960 |location=Detroit |publisher=Gale Group |year=2002 |page=100 |isbn=0-7876-5249-0}}</ref> A differentia del romances utopic optimistic plus popular del epoca, Huxley cercava provider un vision terrificante del futuro. Huxley se refereva a ''Brave New World'' como un "utopia negative", in parte influentiate per le proprie opera de Wells ''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]'' (que tracta de subjectos como le tyrannia corporative e le conditionamento de comportamento) e le operas de [[D. H. Lawrence]].<ref>Le biographo de Lawrence [[Frances Wilson (scriptor)|Frances Wilson]] scribe que "le romance integre es saturate de Lawrence" e cita "le Nove Mexico de Lawrence" in particular. Wilson, Frances (2021). ''Burning Man: The Trials of D.H. Lawrence'', New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, pp. 404–405.</ref> Pro su parte, Wells publicava, duo annos post ''Brave New World'', su utopic ''[[The Shape of Things to Come]]''. Cercante refutar le argumento de Mustapha Mond de Huxley—que le classes inferior moronic esseva un "gyroscopio social" necesse e que un societate componite solmente de "Alphas" intelligente e assertive inevitabilemente se disintegrara in luctas interne—Wells depingeva un societate egalitari stabile emergente post plere generationes de un elite reformator que habeva controlo complete del education in tote le mundo. In le futuro depingite in le libro de Wells, le posteritate recorda Huxley como "un scriptor reactionari".<ref>Nathaniel Ward "The visions of Wells, Huxley and Orwell—why was the Twentieth Century impressed by Distopias rather than Utopias?" in Ophelia Ruddle (ed.) Proceedings of the 2003 Annual Multidisciplinary Round Table on Twentieth Century Culture"</ref> On crede que le futurismo scientific in ''Brave New World'' esseva appropriate de ''[[Daedalus; or, Science and the Future|Daedalus]]''<ref>{{cite book |author-link=J. B. S. Haldane |first=J.B.S. |last=Haldane |title=Daedalus; or, Science and the Future |title-link=Daedalus; or, Science and the Future |year=1924}}</ref> per [[J. B. S. Haldane]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Disturbing the Universe |at=Chapter 15 |first=Freeman |last=Dyson |publisher=Basic Books |year=1976}}</ref> Le eventos del [[Grande Depression in le Regno Unite|Grande Depression]] in Grande Britannia in 1931, con su deoccupation de massa e le abandono del standard de auro, persuadeva Huxley a asserer que le stabilitate esseva le "necessitate primal e ultime" si le civilisation voleva supervivre al crise presente.<ref name="Bradshaw">{{cite book |author=Bradshaw, David |chapter=Introduction |title=Brave New World |editor=Huxley, Aldous |editor-link=Aldous Huxley |place=London, UK |publisher=Vintage |year=2004 |edition=Print}}</ref> Le personage de ''Brave New World'' Mustapha Mond, Controlator Mundial Residente de Europa Occidental, es nominate secundo Sir [[Alfred Mond, 1me Baron Melchett|Alfred Mond]]. Poco ante de scriber le romance, Huxley visitava le [[Planta de Manufactura de Billingham]], le fabrica technologicamente avantiate de Mond proxime a [[Billingham]], nord-est de Anglaterra, e illo faceva un grande impression sur ille.<ref name="Bradshaw"/>{{rp|xxii}} Huxley usava le scenario e le personages in su romance de fiction scientific pro exprimer anxietates amplemente sentite, particularmente le timor de perder le identitate individual in le mundo accelerate del futuro. Un viage precoce al Statos Unite dava a ''Brave New World'' multo de su character. Huxley esseva indignate per le cultura del juventute, le hilaritate commercial, le promiscuitate sexual e le natura introvertite de multe americanos; ille habeva anque trovate le libro ''My Life and Work'' per [[Henry Ford]] sur le barca verso America del Nord e ille videva le principios del libro applicate in omne cosa que ille incontrava post lassar San Francisco.<ref name="Bradshaw"/>{{rp|viii}} ==Trama== Le romance se aperi in le citate del [[Governamento mundial|Stato Mundial]] de [[London]] in AF (Post Ford) 632 (2540 d.C. in le [[calendario gregorian]]), ubi le citatanos es ingeniate per [[utero artificial|uteros artificial]] e programmas de indoctrination infantil in [[casta]]s predeterminate basate super le intelligentia e le labor. Le [[embryon]]es in differente bottiglias es tractate con substantias chimic pro adaptar los a lor rolos planificate; illos pro le classes superior recipe substantias pro optimisar los, e illos del classes inferior es facite crescentemente imperfecte. Le classes es Alpha (leaderes planificate), Beta, Gamma, Delta, e Epsilon (laboratores manual de intelligentia limitate).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last=Lohnes | first=Kate | title=Brave New World, by Huxley |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=14 April 2025 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brave-New-World}}</ref> Cata casta es indoctrinate, in grande parte per conditionamento durante le somno, pro preferer su proprie classe—le epsilones es felice que illes non ha le fardello intellectual del alphas—e porta un color uniforme de vestimento pro un identification facile. Lenina Crowne, un travaliatrice de incubatorio, es popular e sexualmente desirabile, ma Bernard Marx, un psychologo, non lo es. Ille es plus curte in statura que le membro medie de su alte casta alpha, lo que le da un [[complexo de inferioritate]]. Su travalio con [[hypnopedia]] permitte le comprender, e disapprovar, le methodos de su societate pro mantener le pace de su citatanos, lo que include lor consumo constante de un droga calmante e producente felicitate appellate "soma." Riscante le desastro, Bernard es vocal e arrogante sur su criticas, e su chef contempla exiliar le a [[Islanda]] a causa de su non-conformismo. Su sol amico es Helmholtz Watson, un scriptor talentose qui trova difficile usar su talentos creativemente in lor societate sin dolor. Bernard prende vacantias con Lenina foras del Stato Mundial a un "Reservation Salvage" in [[Nove Mexico]], in le qual le duo observa pro le prime vice personas [[parto|nascite naturalmente]], maladias, le processo de inveteration, altere linguas, e stilos de vita religiose. Le cultura del gente del village resimila le gruppos contemporanee de nativos american del region, descendentes del [[Anasazi]], includente le [[pueblos]] de [[Hopi]] e [[Zuni]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meckier |first1=Jerome |date=2002 |title=Aldous Huxley's Americanization of the ''Brave New World'' Typescript |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3176042.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3176042.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Twentieth Century American Literature |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=439|doi=10.2307/3176042|jstor=3176042}}</ref> Bernard e Lenina es testes de un ritual public violente e tunc incontra Linda, un femina originari del Stato Mundial qui vive in le reservation con su filio John, ora un juvene homine. Illa, anque, visitava le reservation in vacantias multe annos retro, ma se separava de su gruppo e esseva lassate retro. Illa habeva intertanto devenite gravide per un companon de vacantias (qui se revela esser le chef de Bernard, le Director de Incubatorios e Conditionamento). Illa non tentava retornar al Stato Mundial a causa de su vergonia per su pregnantia. Malgrado passar tote su vita in le reservation, John nunquam ha essite acceptate per le villageanos, e le vitas de ille e Linda ha essite dur e displacente. Linda ha insignate John a leger, ben que ex le sol libro in su possession—un manual scientific—e un altere libro lassate retro per un residente local nominate Popé: le operas complete de Shakespeare. Ostracisate per le villageanos, John es capace de articular su sentimentos solmente in terminos del drama shakespearian, citante sovente de ''[[The Tempest]]'', ''[[King Lear]]'', ''[[Othello]]'', ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' e ''[[Hamlet]]''. Linda ora vole retornar a London, e John, anque, vole vider iste "brave nove mundo" que su matre tanto sovente laudava. Bernard vide un opportunitate pro frustrar le planos de exiliar le, e obtene permission pro portar Linda e John de retorno. A lor retorno a London, John incontra le Director e lo appella su "patre", un vulgaritate que causa un rugito de riso. Le Director humiliante se demitte in vergonia ante que ille pote exiliar Bernard. Bernard, como "custode" del "salvage" John qui ora es tractate como un celebritate, es adulate per le membros le plus alte del societate e se delecta in le attention que ille olim despectava. Le popularitate de Bernard es fugace, totevia, e ille deveni invidiose que John solmente se liga vermente con Helmholtz, qui ha un mente litterari. Considerate horribile e sin amicos, Linda passa tote su tempore usante soma, que illa anhelava durante tanto de tempore, durante que John refusa assister a eventos social organisate per Bernard, consternate per lo que ille percipe como un societate vacue. Lenina e John es physicamente attrahite le un al altere, ma le vision de John sur le galanteo e le romantismo, basate sur le scriptos de Shakespeare, es completemente incompatibile con le attitude libere de Lenina verso le sexo. Illa tenta seducer le, ma ille la attacca, ante de esser subitemente informate que su matre es in su lecto de morte. Ille curre al lecto de Linda, causante un scandalo, proque isto non es le attitude "correcte" verso le morte. Alcun pueros qui entra in le sala pro "conditionamento al morte" se monstra despectuose verso John, e ille attacca un physicamente. Ille tunc tenta interrumper un distribution de soma a un gruppo de casta inferior, dicente les que ille los libera. Helmholtz e Bernard curre pro stoppar le tumulto sequente, que le policia placa per vaporisar vapor de soma in le fola. Bernard, Helmholtz, e John es tote portate ante Mustapha Mond, le "Controlator Mundial Residente pro Europa Occidental", qui dice a Bernard e Helmholtz que illes debe esser exiliate a insulas pro activitate antisocial. Bernard implora pro un secunde opportunitate, ma Helmholtz accepta le opportunitate de esser un ver individuo, e elige le [[Insulas Falkland]] como su destination, credente que [[Climate del Insulas Falkland|lor mal tempore]] inspirara su scriptura. Mond dice a Helmholtz que le exilio es de facto un recompensa. Le insulas es plen del personas le plus interessante del mundo, individuos qui non se adaptava al modelo social del Stato Mundial. Mond explica a John le eventos que duceva al societate presente e su argumentos pro un systema de castas e controlo social. John rejecta le argumentos de Mond, e Mond resume le visiones de John affirmante que John exige "le derecto de esser infelice". John demanda si ille pote ir al insulas anque, ma Mond refusa, dicente que ille desira vider lo que occurre a John postea. Fastidite de su nove vita, John se move a un pharo abandonate sur un collina, proxime al village de [[Puttenham, Surrey|Puttenham]], ubi ille intende adoptar un stilo de vita [[ascetismo|ascetic]] e solitari pro purificar se del civilisation, practicante le [[autoflagellation]]. Isto attrahe reporteros e finalmente centenas de spectatores surprendite, [[Curiositate morbide|sperante vider]] su comportamento bizarre. Durante un tempore, il pare que John poterea esser lassate sol, post que le attention del publico es attrahite per altere devertimentos, ma un documentarista ha secretemente filmate le autoflagellation de John de distantia, e quando illo es liberate, le documentario causa un sensation international. Helicopteros arriva con plus de jornalistas. Folas de personas descende sur le refugio de John, exigente que ille realisa su ritual de flagellation pro illes. Ex un helicoptero emerge un juvene femina qui on implica es Lenina. John, al vista de un femina que ille e adora e detesta, la flagella con furia e tunc flecte le flagello sur se mesme, excitante le fola, cuje comportamento salvage se transforma in un [[orgia]] alimentate per soma. Le matino sequente, John se evelia sur le terra e es consumite per le remorso sur su participation in le orgia. Iste vespere, un nibe de helicopteros appare in le horizonte, post que le historia del orgia del nocte passate ha essite in tote le jornales. Le prime spectatores e reporteros qui arriva trova que John es morte, habente se [[suicidio per pendimento|pendite]]. ==Personages== '''Bernard Marx''', un specialista in hypnopedia al Centro de Incubatorios e Conditionamento de London Central. Ben que Bernard es un Alpha-Plus (le classe superior del societate), ille es un inadaptato. Ille es inusualmente curte pro un Alpha; un allegate accidente con alcohol in le substituto de sanguine de Bernard ante su decantation lo ha lassate legiermente subdisveloppate. A differentia de su concitatanos utopic, Bernard es sovente furiose, resentite, e invidiose. A vices, ille es anque poltron e hypocrita. Su conditionamento es clarmente incomplete. Ille non frui del sport communal, del servicios de solidaritate, o del sexo promiscue. Ille non frui particularmente del soma. Bernard es in amor con Lenina e non ama que illa dormi con altere homines, ben que "tote le mundo appertine a tote le mundo". Le retorno triumphante de Bernard al civilisation utopic con John le Salvage ex le Reservation precipita le cadita del Director, qui habeva planificate exiliar le. Le triumpho de Bernard es breve; ille es ultimemente bannite a un insula pro su comportamento non-conformista. '''John''', le filio illicite del Director e Linda, nascite e elevate in le Reservation Salvage ("Malpais") post que Linda esseva involuntarimente lassate retro per su amante errante. John ("le Salvage" o "Mr. Savage", como ille es sovente appellate) es un estraniero tanto in le Reservation—ubi le nativos ancora practica le maritage, le parto natural, le vita familial e le religion—como in le ostensibilemente civilisate Stato Mundial, basate sur principios de stabilitate e felicitate. Ille ha legite nihil altere que le operas complete de [[William Shakespeare]], que ille cita extensivemente e, pro le major parte, aptemente, ben que su allusion al "Brave New World" (le parolas de Miranda in ''[[The Tempest]]'') prende un resonantia plus obscur e amarmente ironic a mesura que le romance se developpa. John es intensemente moral secundo un codice que ille ha essite insignate per Shakespeare e le vita in Malpais ma ille es anque naive: su visiones es tanto importate in su proprie conscientia como lo es le messages [[hypnopedia|hypnopedic]] del citatanos del Stato Mundial. Le admonitiones del homines de Malpais le insignava a considerar su matre como un prostibulo; ma ille non pote comprender que istes esseva le mesme homines qui continuemente la cercava malgrado lor supposte promissas sacrate de monogamia. Proque ille es non desirate in Malpais, ille accepta le invitation de viagiar de retorno a London e es initialmente surprendite per le commoditates del Stato Mundial. Ille remane committite a valores que existe solmente in su poesia. Ille prime rejecta Lenina pro faliar a viver secundo su ideal shakespearian e tunc le societate utopic integre: ille assere que su meraviglias technologic e consumerismo es povre substitutos pro le libertate individual, le dignitate human e le integritate personal. Post le morte de su matre, ille deveni profundemente affligite per le dolor, surprendente le spectatores in le hospital. Ille tunc se retira del societate e tenta purificar se del "peccato" (desiro), ma ille es incapace de facer lo. Su comportamento inusual ultimemente attrahe le attention de reporteros e, plus tarde, enorme amontas de personas, qui arriva in helicopteros e face John furiose con lor comportamento. Excitante se per su furia, le personas comencia un orgia, al qual ille non pote resister de junger se. Post eveliar se le matino sequente, John es horripilate per su actiones e se pende. '''Helmholtz Watson''', un belle e successe lector Alpha-Plus al Collegio de Ingenieria Emotional e un amico de Bernard. Ille se senti insodisfacite scribente interminabile rimas de propaganda, e le conformismo suffocante e le [[philistinismo]] del Stato Mundial lo face inquiete. Helmholtz es ultimemente exiliate al [[Insulas Falkland]]—un asylo frigide pro non-conformistas Alpha-Plus discontente—post leger un poema heretic a su studentes sur le virtutes del solitudine e adjutar John a destruer alcun rationes de soma del Deltas post le morte de Linda. A differentia de Bernard, ille accepta su exilio con serenitate e veni a vider lo como un opportunitate pro inspiration in su scriptura. Su prenomine deriva del physico german [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]. '''Lenina Crowne''', un juvene e belle technico de fetos al Centro de Incubatorios e Conditionamento de London Central. Lenina Crowne es un Beta qui frui de esser un Beta. Illa es un travaliatrice de vaccination con credentias e valores que es in linea con un citatano del Stato Mundial. Illa es parte del 30% del population feminin que non es "freemartins" (feminas sterile). Lenina es promiscue e popular ma aliquanto peculiar in su societate: illa habeva un relation de quatro menses con Henry Foster, eligente non haber sexo con ninguen altere que ille durante un periodo de tempore. Illa es fundamentalmente felice e ben conditionate, usante soma pro supprimer emotiones non desirate, como on expecta. Lenina ha un rendevous con Bernard, per qui illa se senti ambivalentemente attrahite, e illa va al Reservation con ille. Al retornar al civilisation, illa tenta e falia a seducer John le Salvage. John ama e desira Lenina ma ille es repellite per su audacia e le prospecto de sexo pre-marital, rejectante la como un "[[q:List of quotes from Shakespeare in Brave New World#Chapter 13|impudente strumpet]]". Lenina visita John al pharo ma ille la attacca con un flagello, involuntarimente incitante le spectatores a facer le mesme. Su fati precise es lassate non specificate. '''Mustapha Mond''', Controlator Mundial Residente de Europa Occidental, "Su Forditate" Mustapha Mond preside sur un del dece zonas del Stato Mundial, le governamento global establite post le catastrophic Guerra de Novem Annos e le grande Collapso Economic. Sophisticate e de bon natura, Mond es un urbane e hyperintelligente advocato del Stato Mundial e su ethos de "Communitate, Identitate, Stabilitate". Inter le personages del romance, ille es unicamente conscie del natura precise del societate que ille supervisa e lo que illo ha sacrificate pro complir su gananias. Mond argue que le arte, le litteratura, e le libertate scientific debe esser sacrificate pro assecurar le ultime scopo [[Utilitarismo|utilitari]] de maximisar le felicitate societal. Ille defende le systema de castas, le conditionamento de comportamento, e le manco de libertate personal in le Stato Mundial: istos, ille dice, es un precio que vale la pena pagar pro attinger le stabilitate social, le virtute social le plus alte proque illo duce a un felicitate durabile. '''Fanny Crowne''', amica de Lenina Crowne (illas ha le mesme supernomine proque solmente dece mille supernomines es in uso in un Stato Mundial que comprende duo billiones de personas). Fanny exprime le valores conventional de su casta e societate, particularmente le importantia del promiscuitate: illa consilia Lenina que illa deberea haber plus de un homine in su vita proque il es indecorose concentrar se sur solmente un. Fanny tunc averti Lenina contra un nove amante a qui illa considera non merite, totevia illa es ultimemente supportive del attraction del juvene femina verso le salvage John. '''Henry Foster''', un del multe amantes de Lenina, es un masculo Alpha perfectemente conventional, discutente casualmente le corpore de Lenina con su collegas de travalio. Su successo con Lenina, e su attitude casual sur isto, furiose le invidiose Bernard. Henry ultimemente se prova como un citatano ideal del Stato Mundial, non trovante le corage de defender Lenina del attaccos de John malgrado haber mantenite un relation sexual inusualmente longe con illa. '''Benito Hoover''', un altere del amantes de Lenina. Illa recorda que ille es particularmente pilose quando ille se devesti.<!--is this really useful? --> Le '''Director de Incubatorios e Conditionamento (DIC)''', tamben cognoscite como '''Thomas "Tomakin"''', es le administrator del Centro de Incubatorios e Conditionamento de London Central, ubi ille es un figura menaciante qui intende exiliar Bernard a Islanda. Su deisgnios prende un tornada inesperate quando Bernard retorna del Reservation con Linda (vide infra) e John, un filio de qui ambes realisa que es de facto le sue. Iste facto, scandalose e obscene in le Stato Mundial, non proque illo esseva extramatrimonial (lo que tote le actos sexual es), sed proque illo esseva procreative, duce le Director a resignar su posto in vergonia. '''Linda''', le matre de John, decantate como un Beta-Minus in le Stato Mundial, originalmente laborava in le Sala de Fertilisation del DIC, e subsequentemente se perdeva durante un tempesta durante que illa visitava le Reservation Salvage de Nove Mexico con le Director multe annos ante le eventos del romance. Malgrado sequer su precautiones usual, Linda deveniva pregnante con le filio del Director durante lor tempore insimul e esseva per lo tanto incapace de retornar al Stato Mundial al momento que illa trovava su via a Malpais. Habente essite conditionate al normas social promiscue del Stato Mundial, Linda se trova immediatemente popular con omne homine in le pueblo (proque illa es aperte a tote le avanses sexual) e tamben execrate pro le mesme ration, vidite como un meretrice per le sposas del homines qui la visita e per le homines mesme (qui veni a illa nihilominus). Su unic confortos ibi es le ''mescal'' apportate per Popé assi como le ''[[peyote|peyotl]]''. Linda es desperate de retornar al Stato Mundial e al soma, desiderante nihil plus de su vita restante que conforto usque al morte. Le '''Cantor-Communitari-Principal''', le equivalente secular del [[Archiepiscopo de Canterbury]] in le societate del Stato Mundial. Ille se offende personalmente quando John refusa de assister al festa de Bernard. Le '''Director de Crematorios e Reclamation de Phosphoro''', un del multe figuras importante e disappunctate qui assiste al festa de Bernard. Le '''Custode''', un Alpha-Minus, le administrator principal loquace del Reservation Salvage de Nove Mexico. Ille es blonde, curte, de spatulas large, e ha un voce resonante.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huxley|first1=Aldous|title=Brave New World|date=1932|publisher=Harper & Brothers|isbn=978-0-06-085052-4|location=New York|page=101}}<!--|access-date=2015-04-16--></ref> '''Darwin Bonaparte''', un "photographo de grande chassa" (i.e., cineasta) qui filma John flagellante se mesme. Darwin Bonaparte deveniva cognoscite pro duo operas: "feely del nuptias del gorillas",<ref name="Brave New World">{{cite book|last1=Huxley|first1=Aldous|title=Brave New World|date=1932|publisher=Harper & Brothers|isbn=978-0-06-085052-4|location=New York|page=253}}<!--|access-date=2015-04-16--></ref> e "Vita amorose del Cachalote".<ref name="Brave New World"/> Ille jam habeva facite un nomine pro se mesme<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huxley|first1=Aldous|title=Brave New World|date=1932|publisher=Harper & Brothers|isbn=978-0-06-085052-4|location=New York|page=252}}<!--|access-date=2015-04-16--></ref> sed ancora cerca plus. Ille renova su fama filmante le salvage, John, in su plus nove lanson "Le Salvage de Surrey".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huxley|first1=Aldous|title=Brave New World|date=1932|publisher=Harper & Brothers|isbn=978-0-06-085052-4|location=New York|page=254}}<!--|access-date=2015-04-16--></ref> Su nomine allude a [[Charles Darwin]] e [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. '''Dr. Shaw''', le medico de Bernard Marx qui consequentemente deveni le medico de ambe Linda e John. Ille prescribe un dose letal de soma a Linda, lo que stoppara su systema respiratori de functionar in un periodo de un a duo menses, a su proprie demanda sed non sin protesto de John. Finalmente, omnes concorda que es pro le melior, post que negar le iste requesta causarea plus problemas pro le Societate e pro Linda mesme. '''Dr. Gaffney''', [[Provost (education)|Preposito]] de Eton, un Schola Superior pro individuos de alte casta. Ille monstra a Bernard e John le salas de classe, e le Sala de Controlo Hypnopaedic (usate pro conditionamento de comportamento via apprentissage durante le somno). John demanda si le studentes lege Shakespeare sed le Preposito dice que le bibliotheca contine solmente libros de referentia proque activitates solitari, tal como le lectura, es discoragiate. '''Seniorita Keate''', [[Head teacher|Directrice]] del Schola Superior de [[Eton College|Eton]]. Bernard la ama, e arrangia un rendevous con illa.<ref>Su nomine es un referentia joccose a [[John Keate]], le notorie director flagellante de Eton del seculo 19.</ref> {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua anglese]] fgeeq0qh3yvxli4d9sobbx82uoi637r 0 60912 698252 697233 2026-08-03T23:41:03Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698252 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Neuromarketing''' es un campo de [[communication]] de [[marketing]] commercial que applica le [[neuropsychologia]] al [[recerca de mercato]], studiante le responsas [[Theoria de Piaget del disveloppamento cognitive|sensoriomotor]], [[cognitive]], e [[affective]] del consumitores a stimulos de marketing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=N|last2=Broderick|first2=AJ|last3=Chamberlain|first3=L|title=What is "neuromarketing"? A discussion and agenda for future research.|journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology|date=February 2007|volume=63|issue=2|pages=199–204|doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.03.007|pmid=16769143|url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1524086}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Vlăsceanu|first=Sebastian|date=2014|title=New directions in understanding the decision-making process: neuroeconomics and neuromarketing|volume=17|pages=758–762|via=Elsevier}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Neuromarketing in Action: How to Talk and Sell to the Brain|last=Georges|first=Patrick M|publisher=Kogan Page Ltd|year=2014|location=London|pages= 9–16}}</ref> Le beneficios potential pro le mercatistas include campanias e strategias de marketing plus efficiente e effective, minus fallimentos de productos e campanias, e ultimemente le manipulation del necessitates e desiderios real del personas pro satisfacer le necessitates e desiderios del interesses de marketing.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=3 June 2014 |title=Neuromarketing For Dummies |last=Agarwal |first=Sharad |journal=Journal of Consumer Marketing |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=330–331 |doi=10.1108/jcm-12-2013-0811 |issn=0736-3761}}</ref> Certe companias, particularmente illos con ambitiones a grande scala pro predicer le comportamento del consumitor, ha investite in lor proprie laboratorios, personal scientific, o partenariatos con le academia. Le neuromarketing es ancora un approche costose; illo require apparatos e technologia avantiate tal como le imagine per resonantia magnetic (IRM), le captura de movimento pro le oculometria, e le electroencephalogramma.<ref>Karmarkar, Uma R. (2011). "Note on Neuromarketing". ''Harvard Business School'' (9-512-031).</ref> Considerante le amonta de nove cognoscentias proveniente del neuroscientia e del recerca de marketing, le mercatistas ha comenciate a applicar le melior practicas de neuromarketing sin le necessitate de realisar tests costose. ==Historia== Le neuromarketing es un campo disciplinari emergente in le marketing. Illo prende prestate instrumentos e methodologias de campos como le neuroscientia e le psychologia. Le termino "neuromarketing" esseva introducite per differente autores in 2002 (cf. ''infra'') sed recerca in le campo pote esser trovate ab le annos 1990.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://tedx.amsterdam/2015/09/neuromarketing-friend-or-foe/|title=Neuromarketing – friend or foe? - TEDxAmsterdam|date=2015-09-01|work=TEDxAmsterdam|access-date=2018-04-27}}</ref><ref name=procedia>{{Cite journal|date=2014-04-22|title=Neuromarketing and Neuroethics|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|volume=127|pages=763–768|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.351|issn=1877-0428|last1=Sebastian|first1=Vlăsceanu|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Gerald Zaltman]] es associate con un del prime experimentos in neuromarketing. Al fin del annos 1990, tanto [[Gemma Calvert]] (RU) como [[Gerald Zaltman]] (SU) habeva establite companias de [[neuroscientia del consumitor]]. Le professor de marketing Gerald Zaltman patentava le [[technica de elicitation de metaphora de Zaltman]] (ZMET) in le annos 1990 pro vender publicitate.<ref name=kelly>Kelly, M. (2002). [http://www.commercialalert.org/news/archive/2002/12/the-science-of-shopping "The Science of Shopping"] ''Commercial Alert''. Recuperate le 30 de martio 2016.</ref> ZMET explorava le subconsciente human con series de imagines specialmente seligite que causa un responsa emotional positive e activa imagines celate, metaphoras que stimula le emption.<ref>Carbone, Lou. "Clued In: How to Keep Customers Coming Back Again and Again". Upper Saddle River, NJ: ''[[Financial Times]]'' Prentice Hall (2004): 140-141, 254.</ref> Collages graphic esseva construite super le base de imagines detegite, lo que constitue le base pro le annuncios commercial. ZMET ganiava rapidemente popularitate inter centenas de grande companias-clientes includente [[Coca-Cola]], [[General Motors]], [[Nestle]], e [[Procter & Gamble]]. Zaltman e su associatos esseva empleate per ille organisationes pro investigar scansiones cerebral e observar le activitate neural de consumitores.<ref name=kelly /> In 1999, ille comenciava a usar le [[imagine per resonantia magnetic functional]] (fMRI) pro monstrar correlationes inter le activitate cerebral del consumitor e le stimulos de marketing.<ref name=":0" /> Le methodos de recerca de marketing de Zaltman meliorava le recerca psychologic usate in instrumentos de marketing.<ref name=kelly /> Le termino "neuromarketing" esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 2002 in le these de maestria<ref>Defensa public le 12 de decembre 2002, sub le direction de Pr. Jean Attali, Pr. Bruno Fortier, Pr. Ahmet Gulgonen, Pr. Christian Girard, Pr. Ass. Jean-Paul Rayon.</ref> del professor associate Philippe Morel,<ref>Philippe Morel es un architecto e professor associate al Ecole nationale supérieure d'Architecture Paris-Malaquais (Paris) e un professor visitante al UCL Bartlett (London).</ref> tunc un studente al Ecole Nationale supérieure d'architecture de Paris-Belleville. Le capitulo "Capitalismo II : Infocapitalismo (experientia)" contine un developpamento con le subcapitulo ''Anticipation hyper-rational: Neuroscientia e Neuromarketing''. In le mesme anno, le termino "neuromarketing" esseva publicate in un articulo per BrightHouse (post contactar le Prof. Assoc. Morel super iste topico), un firma de marketing basate in Atlanta<ref name=":3">Ait Hammou, Galib & Melloul, 2013</ref> e usate per le professor de marketing nederlandese Ale Smidts. BrightHouse sorsonava recerca neurophysiologic (functionamento del systema nervose) in divisiones de marketing; illes construeva un unitate de negotio que usava scansiones fMRI pro scopos de recerca de mercato.<ref name=":3" /> Le firma attraheva rapidemente criticas e disapprobation concernente conflictos de interesse con le Universitate Emory, que adjutava a establir le division.<ref name=fisher>{{cite journal|last1=Fisher |first1=C. |last2=Chin |first2=L. |last3=Klitzman |first3=R. |year=2010 |title=Defining Neuromarketing: Practices and Professional Challenges |doi=10.3109/10673229.2010.496623 |pmid=20597593 |journal=Harvard Review of Psychiatry |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=230–237 |pmc=3152487}}</ref> Iste interprisa dispariva del attention public e ora labora con plus de 500 clientes e interprisas de productos de consumo.<ref name=":3" /> Le "[[Pepsi Challenge]]", un [[test de gusto a cec]] de [[Coca-Cola]] e [[Pepsi]], esseva un studio conducite in 2004 que portava attention al neuromarketing.<ref name=":1" /> In 2006, [[Dr. Carl Marci]] (SU) fundava [[Innerscope Research]] que se focalisava in le recerca de neuromarketing. Innerscope Research esseva postea acquirite per le [[Nielsen Corporation]] in maio 2015 e renominate Nielsen Consumer Neuroscience.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rogerdooley/2015/06/03/nielsen-doubles-down-on-neuro/#4ffaf7ee306c|title=Nielsen Doubles Down on Neuro|last=Dooley|first=Roger|work=Forbes|access-date=2018-04-27}}</ref> Le Consumer Research Exploratory Fund (CREF) de [[Unilever]] habeva anque publicate libros blanc super le applicationes potential del neuromarketing.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=[[David Lewis (psychologist)|David Lewis]] & Darren Bridger|date=July–August 2005|title=Market Researchers make Increasing use of Brain Imaging|url=http://www.drdavidlewis.co.uk/assets/NeuroMarket1.pdf|journal=Advances in Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation|volume=5|issue=3|pages=35+|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206070204/http://www.drdavidlewis.co.uk/assets/NeuroMarket1.pdf|archive-date=6 February 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206070204/http://www.drdavidlewis.co.uk/assets/NeuroMarket1.pdf |date=6 February 2012 }}</ref> ==Concepto== Colliger information sur como le mercato de scopo responderia a un producto es le prime passo implicate pro organisationes que face [[publicitate]] de un producto. Methodos traditional de recerca de marketing include [[gruppo de discussion|gruppos de foco]] o sondages considerabile usate pro evaluar characteristicas del producto proponite.<ref name=venkatraman>{{cite journal|last1=Venkatraman |first1=V. |last2=Clithero |first2=J. |last3=Fitzsimons |first3=G. |last4=Huettel |first4=S. |year=2012 |title=New scanner data for brand marketers: How neuroscience can help better understand differences in brand preferences |doi=10.1016/j.jcps.2011.11.008 |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |volume=22 |issue=1|pages=143–153|s2cid=11816200 }}</ref> Alcun del technicas de recerca conventional usate in iste typo de studio es le mesuration del [[electrocardiogramma|activitate electric cardiac]] (ECG) e le [[activitate electrodermal|activitate electric del dermis]] (EDA) de subjectos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baraybar-Fernández|first1=Antonio|last2=Baños-González|first2=Miguel|last3=Barquero-Pérez|first3=Óscar|last4=Goya-Esteban|first4=Rebeca|last5=de-la-Morena-Gómez|first5=Alexia|date=2017-07-01|title=Evaluation of Emotional Responses to Television Advertising through Neuromarketing |journal=Comunicar |volume=25 |issue=52 |pages=19–28 |doi=10.3916/C52-2017-02 |issn=1134-3478 |doi-access=free|hdl=10272/14084|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Totevia, illo resulta in un incompatibilitate inter le constatationes del recerca de mercato e le comportamento real exhibite per le mercato de scopo al puncto de emption.<ref name=decision>{{cite journal|last1=Agarwal |first1=S. |last2=Dutta |first2=T. |year=2015 |title=Neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience: current understanding and the way forward |doi=10.1007/s40622-015-0113-1 |journal=Decision |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=457–462|s2cid=146551139 }}</ref> Le de-prenner de decisiones human es tanto un processo consciente como non-consciente in le cerebro,<ref>Glanert, M. (2012). [http://behavioraltargeting.biz/behavioral-targeting-pros-and-cons/ "Behavioral Targeting Pros and Cons"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320205618/http://behavioraltargeting.biz/behavioral-targeting-pros-and-cons/ |date=20 March 2016 }} - Behavioral Targeting Blog. Retrieved 31 March 2016</ref> e ben que iste methodo de recerca succedeva in colliger emotiones explicite (o consciente), illo faliava in obtener le emotiones implicite (o inconsciente) del consumitor.<ref name=shiv>{{cite journal|last1=Shiv |first1=B. |last2=Yoon |first2=C. |year=2012 |title=Integrating neurophysiological and psychological approaches: Towards an advancement of brand insights |doi=10.1016/j.jcps.2012.01.003 |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |volume=22 |issue=1|pages=3–6 |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/141509/1/jcpy3.pdf|doi-access=free |hdl=2027.42/141509 }}</ref> Information non-consciente ha un grande influentia in le processo de de-prenner decisiones.<ref name=decision /> Le concepto de neuromarketing<ref name=kotler>Kotler, P., Burton, S., Deans, K., Brown, L., & Armstrong, G. (2013). ''Marketing'' (9th ed., pp.&nbsp;171). Australia: Pearson.</ref> combina marketing, psychologia e neuroscientia. Recerca es conducite circa le motivationes implicite pro comprender le decisiones del consumitor per methodos non-invasive de mesurar le [[activitate cerebral]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morin |first1=C |year=2011 |title=Neuromarketing: The New Science of Consumer Behavior |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_society_march-april-2011_48_2/page/131 |doi=10.1007/s12115-010-9408-1 |journal=Soc |volume=48 |issue=2|pages=131–135 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=kotler /><ref name=":5" /> Istes include [[electroencephalographia]] (EEG), [[magnetoencephalographia]] (MEG), e [[imagine per resonantia magnetic functional]] (fMRI), [[seguimento ocular]], mesuras de responsa electrodermal e altere neuro-technologias. Investigatores investiga e apprende como consumitores responde e se senti quando presentate con productos e/o stimulos connexe.<ref name=kotler /> Observationes pote tunc esser correlate con le emotiones presumite e [[interaction social|interactiones social]] del participantes.<ref name=fisher /> Recercatores de mercato usa iste information pro determinar si productos o annuncios stimula responsas in le cerebro ligate con [[emotion positive|emotiones positive]].<ref name=kotler /> Le concepto de neuromarketing esseva ergo introducite pro studiar emotiones human relevante e [[patrono de comportamento|patronos de comportamento]] associate con productos, annuncios e de-prenner de decisiones.<ref>Neuromarketing Science and Business Association, n.d.</ref> Neuromarketing forni modellos de comportamento del consumitor e pote anque esser usate pro re-interpretar recerca existente. Illo forni theorisation de aspectos emotional del comportamento del consumitor.<ref>Genco, S.J., Pohlmann, A.P. and Steidl, P., ''Neuromarketing For Dummies'', John Wiley & Sons, 2013</ref> Comportamento del consumitor investiga tanto le optiones consciente de un individuo como le nivellos de activitate cerebral subjacente.<ref name=shiv /> Per exemplo, processos neural observate forni un prediction plus accurate de datos al nivello de population in comparation con datos auto-reportate.<ref name=decision /> Neuromarketing pote mesurar le impactos de branding e strategias de mercato ante applicar los al consumitores de scopo.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=venkatraman /><ref name=decision /> Marketeros pote tunc facer publicitate del producto de modo que illo communica e satisface le necessitates de consumitores potential con differente predictiones de option.<ref name=venkatraman /> Neuromarketing es anque usate con [[grande datos]] pro comprender canales de publicitate moderne tal como [[rete social|reticulation social]], comportamento de recerca, e patronos de ingagiamento in sitos web.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.artifact.co.za/weblog/neuromarketing-with-artifact/|title=Tapping into how consumers react with Neuromarketing|date=2017-07-20|work=Artifact's Blog|access-date=2018-04-27|archive-date=10 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410220141/https://www.artifact.co.za/weblog/neuromarketing-with-artifact/|accessdate=2026-03-19|archivedate=2017-04-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410220141/https://www.artifact.co.za/weblog/neuromarketing-with-artifact/}}</ref> Agentias como Darling<ref>{{Cite web |title=Darling |url=https://darlingwebdesign.com/ |accessdate=2026-03-19 |archivedate=2026-01-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20260111124756/https://www.darlingwebdesign.com/ }}</ref> adjuta organisationes a usar iste typo de neuroscientia in lor marketing pro melior communicar con consumitores al nivello subconsciente. ==Instrumentos de neuroscientia== Il ha varie instrumentos de neuroscientia que es usate pro studiar le deprendimento de decisiones e le comportamento del consumitor. Habitualmente, illos include dispositivos que pote mesurar functiones physiologic vital (p.ex., rhythmo cardiac, [[frequentia respiratori]], [[pression arterial]]) e [[reflexos]] (p.ex., [[Fixation (visual)|fixation del oculos]], [[dilatation pupillar]], [[expression facial]]).<ref>Global Harmonization Task Force (2012). Principles of Medical Devices Classification.</ref> Iste instrumentos revela information super impressiones, reactiones (p.ex., positive, negative) e responsas emotional (p.ex., positive, negative) quando exponite a stimulos de marketing. <ref name="Hemelin 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Hamelin |first1=Nicolas |last2=Moujahid |first2=Othmane El |last3=Thaichon |first3=Park |title=Emotion and advertising effectiveness: A novel facial expression analysis approach |journal=Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services |date=1 May 2017 |volume=36 |pages=103–111 |doi=10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.01.001}}</ref> Instrumentos de neuroscientia del consumitor permitte anque mesurationes in tempore real del activitate cerebral, tal como le imagine per resonantia magnetic functional (fMRI) e le electroencephalogramma (EEG). Le instrumentos pote esser dividite in tres categorias basate sur le typo de mesurationes: (1) [[Autoreporto]]s e comportamental, (2) Physiologic e (3) Neurophysiologic. Le instrumentos actualmente usate in le recerca de neuroscientia del consumitor es EEG, fMRI, fNIRS, ECG, ET, GSR, e fERS. EEG es le instrumento le plus communmente usate in le recerca de neuroscientia del consumitor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alvino |first1=Letizia |last2=Pavone |first2=Luigi |last3=Abhishta |first3=Abhishta |last4=Robben |first4=Henry |title=Picking Your Brains: Where and How Neuroscience Tools Can Enhance Marketing Research |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |date=3 December 2020 |volume=14 |article-number=577666 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2020.577666|pmid=33343279 |pmc=7744482 |doi-access=free }}</ref> {{ref}} [[Categoria:Recerca de mercato]] [[Categoria:Neuroeconomia]] [[Categoria:Neologismos del annos 2000]] a1y6o3p4prjw1f1iskuh8qy0rx7dyhd 0 61094 698272 698080 2026-08-04T00:10:52Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} Le '''Senato del Statos Unite''' es un camera del [[Bicameralismo|bicameral]] [[Congresso del Statos Unite]]; illo es le [[camera superior]], e le [[Camera de Representantes del Statos Unite|Camera de Representantes del S.U.]] es le [[camera inferior]]. Insimul, le Senato e le Camera ha le autoritate, sub le [[Articulo Un del Constitution del Statos Unite|Articulo Un]] del [[Constitution del Statos Unite|Constitution]], de elaborar e approbar o rejectar legislation federal. Le Senato ha le potentia exclusive de confirmar [[Presidente del Statos Unite|nominationes presidential del SUA]], de approbar o rejectar tractatos, e de condemnar o exonerar casos de [[Impeachment in le Statos Unite|impeachment]] initiate per le Camera. Le Senato e le Camera provide un [[Separation del poteres sub le Constitution del Statos Unite|sistema de controlo e equilibrio]] super le potentias del [[Governo federal del Statos Unite#Branca executive|branca executive]] e del [[Judiciatura federal del Statos Unite|branca judiciari]] del governo. Le composition e le potentias del Senato es establite per le Articulo Uno del Constitution del SUA, que ha essite in vigor desde le 4 de martio 1789.<ref name="senate_a1_sec3">{{Cite web |title=Constitution del Statos Unite |url=https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm#a1_sec3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127215619/https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm |archive-date=27 de novembre 2022 |access-date=8 de januario 2023 |publisher=Senate.gov}}</ref> Cata uno del [[Statos del SUA|50 statos]] es representate per duo [[#Membros|senatores]] qui servi [[Classes de senatores del Statos Unite|mandatos alternante de sex annos]], pro un total de 100 membros.<ref name="Article1">{{Cite journal |title=Articulo 1, Section 3, Clause 1 |url=https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/article-1/section-3/ |journal=Constitution del Statos Unite |issue=}}</ref> Desde le creation del Senato in 1789 usque a 1913, le senatores esseva nominate per le [[Legislatura de stato (Statos Unite)|legislaturas de stato]] de lor respective statos. Desde 1913, tamen, post le ratification del [[Dicesepte Emendamento al Constitution del Statos Unite|Dicesepte Emendamento]], le senatores ha essite eligite per voto [[Election directe|popular]] a nivello de stato.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Dicesepte Emendamento |url=https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-17/ |journal=Constitution del Statos Unite}}</ref> Le Senato ha plure potentias de [[adviso e consentimento]]. Iste include le approbation de [[tractatos]], le confirmation de [[Cabinet del Statos Unite|secretarios del Cabinet]], [[Judice federal del Statos Unite|judices federal]] (incluse [[Lista de judices del Corte Supreme del Statos Unite|judices del Corte Supreme]]), [[Flag officer#Statos Unite|officiarios de bandiera]], officiarios regulatori, [[Ambassatores del Statos Unite|ambassatores]], [[Departamentos executive federal del Statos Unite|altere officiarios executive federal]], e [[Servitios in uniforme del Statos Unite|officiarios federal in uniforme]]. Si necun candidato recipe un majoritate del [[Collegio electoral (Statos Unite)|electores]] pro [[Vice-presidente del Statos Unite|vice-presidente]], le [[Duodecime Emendamento al Constitution del Statos Unite|deber cade al Senato]] de eliger un del duo candidatos con le plus alte numero de electores pro iste function. Le Senato conduce processos contra officiarios qui ha essite accusate per impeachment per le Camera. Le Senato ha essite considerate un corpore plus deliberative<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Amar |first=Vik D. |date=1 de januario 1988 |title=Le Senato e le Constitution |journal=The Yale Law Journal |volume=97 |issue=6 |pages=1111–1130 |doi=10.2307/796343 |jstor=796343 |s2cid=53702587 | issn = 0044-0094 }}</ref> e plus prestigiose<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Charles |last2=Reynolds |first2=Mark |date=1 de januario 1990 |title=Mercatos televisive e electiones al Senato del SUA |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_legislative-studies-quarterly_1990-11_15_4/page/495 |journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=495–523 |jstor=439894}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=11 de julio 2018 |title=Quando le Camera e le Senato es controlate per partitos differente, qui vince? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/07/us/politics/house-senate-difference-control.html |access-date=21 de novembre 2023 |archive-date=21 de novembre 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121211025/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/07/us/politics/house-senate-difference-control.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Joseph S. Friedman |date=30 de martio 2009 |title=Le sequencia rapide de eventos que forzava le action del Senato: un reevaluation del Dicesepte Emendamento, 1890–1913 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/curej/93/ |url-status=live |journal=Curej – College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal |issue=93 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724022757/https://repository.upenn.edu/curej/93/ |archive-date=24 de julio 2019 }}</ref> que le Camera del Representantes, a causa de su mandatos plus longe, su dimensiones plus parve, e su electoratos a nivello de stato, factores que historicemente conduceva a un atmosphera plus collegial e minus [[Partisan (political)|partisan]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Frances E. |date=16 de junio 2006 |title=Consentir a dissentir: contento del agenda e partisanismo del Senato, 198 |journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=199–222 |doi=10.3162/036298008784311000}}</ref> Le [[Camera del Senato del Statos Unite|camera del Senato]] es situate in le ala nord del [[Edificio del Capitolio del Statos Unite|Edificio del Capitolio]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], le capital del nation. Non essente se ipse un senator, le vice-presidente del Statos Unite servi como [[ex officio]] official presidente e presidente del Senato; ille vota solmente quando e si le Senato es equalmente dividite. In le absentia del vice-presidente, le [[Presidente pro tempore del Senato del Statos Unite|presidente pro tempore]], qui es traditionalmente le membro plus senior del partito majoritari del Senato, preside super le Senato, e plus frequentemente per regulamento permitte a un senator junior de occupar le sedia, sub le direction del [[Parlamentario del Senato del Statos Unite|parlamentario]]. In le initio del annos 1920, le practica de partitos majoritari e minoritari de eliger lor [[Lideres de partito del Senato del Statos Unite|lideres del plenario]] comenciava. Le activitate legislative e executive del Senato es administrate e planificate per le leader majoritari del Senato, qui, in certe ocasiones, negotia alcun asuntos con le leader minoritari del Senato. Un practica characteristic del Senato es le [[Filibuster in le Senato del Statos Unite|filibuster]] in certe casos e su remedio, le [[cloture|voto super le cloture]]. {{Referentias}} == Ligamentes externe == * [http://www.senate.gov Sito web official del Senato del Statos Unite] [[Categoria:Senato del Statos Unite| ]] [[Categoria:Fundationes de 1789 in le Statos Unite]] [[Categoria:Branca legislative del governamento del Statos Unite]] [[Categoria:Cameras alte national]] [[Categoria:Cameras federal]] de9wravfhqo07zeziexrn61lzf0itg5 0 61096 698220 698179 2026-08-03T22:53:54Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verificabilitate]] (20260803sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 698220 wikitext text/x-wiki In le Statos Unite, le federalismo es le division constitutional del poter inter le governamentos del [[Statos del Statos Unite|statos]] e le [[Governamento federal del Statos Unite|governo federal del Statos Unite]]. Post le fundation del pais, e specialmente post le fin del [[Guerra Civil American|Guerra Civil American]], le poter se displaciava ab le statos verso le governamento national. Le evolution del federalismo include [[Federalismo dual|federalismo dual]], [[Federalismo cooperative|federalismo cooperative]] e [[Nove Federalismo|Nove Federalismo]]. == Federalismo initial == [[Federalismo]] es un forma de organisation politic que visa a divider le poter inter le statos local e le governamento, distribuente differente poteres a differente nivellos pro permitter un certe grado de independentia politic in un structura global.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Follesdal|first=Andreas|title=Federalism|date=2018|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/federalism/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2021-02-06|archive-date=June 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626034759/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/federalism/|url-status=live}}</ref> In le Statos Unite, le [[republicanismo federal]] deveniva un solution politic al problemas del [[Articulos de Confederation]], que dava pauc autoritate practic al [[Confederation|governamento confederal]]. Per exemplo, le Articulos accordava al [[Congresso del Confederation]] le poter de signar tractatos e declarar le guerra, sed illo non poteva levar impostos pro pagar un armea, e tote le decisiones major requireva un voto unanime.<ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Gerston|2007|pp=24–25}}</ref> Le movimento pro le federalismo esseva grandemente reinfortiate per le reaction al [[Rebellion de Shays]] de 1786–1787, ubi un sublevation armate de fermeros ''yeoman'' in le west de [[Massachusetts]] se sublevava in responsa a un economia debile que esseva create, in parte, per le incapacitate del governamento confederal de gerer efficacemente le debita del [[Guerra de Independentia del Statos Unite]]. Le governamento confederal habeva difficultates a mobilisar un fortia efficace pro reprimer le rebellion, e Massachusetts esseva obligate a mobilisar le sue proprie.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shays' Rebellion|url=https://www.history.com/topics/early-us/shays-rebellion|access-date=2021-02-06|website=HISTORY|date=November 12, 2009|language=en|archive-date=December 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220184142/https://www.history.com/topics/early-us/shays-rebellion|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Franklin|first1=Benjamin|last2=Jefferson|first2=Thomas|last3=Jay|first3=John|last4=Adams|first4=Abigail|last5=Madison|first5=James|last6=Smith|first6=John Rubens|last7=Washington|first7=George|last8=Birch|first8=William|last9=Monroe|first9=James|date=2008-04-12|title=Road to the Constitution - Creating the United States {{!}} Exhibitions - Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/road-to-the-constitution.html|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.loc.gov|archive-date=June 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626005207/https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/road-to-the-constitution.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Le [[Convention de Annapolis (1786)|Convention de Annapolis]] se reuniva in 1786, in le qual dece-duo delegatos de cinque [[Statos del Statos Unite]] ([[New Jersey]], [[New York (stato)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Delaware]], e [[Virginia]]) se congregava pro discuter e disveloppar un consenso super le reversion del barrieras commercial [[protectionista]] que cata stato habeva erigite. [[New Hampshire]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Rhode Island]], e [[Carolina del Nord]] habeva nominate commissarios, ma non arrivava a Annapolis a tempore pro assister al reunion. [[Connecticut]], [[Maryland]], [[Carolina del Sud]], e [[Georgia (stato)|Georgia]] non habeva prendite alcun action.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annapolis Convention Resolution, 1786|url=https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/annapolis-convention-resolution/|publisher=Ashbrook Center at Ashland University|website=TeachingAmericanHistory.org|access-date=March 30, 2016|location=Ashland, Ohio}}</ref> Le reporto final del convention esseva adoptate unanimemente e enviate al Congresso e al statos. Illo cercava appoio pro un [[convention constitutional (reunion politic)|convention constitutional]] plus ample a esser celebrate le maio sequente in [[Philadelphia]]. Illo sperava que plus statos serea representate e que lor delegatos o deputatos serea autorisate a examinar areas plus ample que le simple commercio.<ref>{{cite book|last=Morris|first=Richard Brandon|title=The forging of the Union, 1781–1789|year=1987|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=978-0-06-015733-3|page=254|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJF2AAAAMAAJ&q=Annapolis|access-date=March 29, 2014}}</ref> Le 15 de maio 1787, cinquanta-cinque delegatos se reuniva in lo que serea cognoscite como le [[Convention Constitutional (Statos Unite)|Convention Constitutional]] in le Philadelphia State House. Ibi, le delegatos debatteva le structura, dispositiones, e limitationes del federalismo in lo que serea le [[Constitution del Statos Unite]].<ref name=":1" /> Exemplos precedente, tal como in le [[Declaration de Derectos de Virginia]], influentiava le delegatos dum illes formulava le ideas de un legislatura federal [[bicameralismo|bicameral]], un representation equilibrate de statos parve e grande ([[Grande Compromisso]]), e un structura de [[frenos e contrapesos]].<ref name= "Liberty Fund">{{cite web |url=https://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/1791-us-bill-of-rights-1st-10-amendments-with-commentary#targetText=The%20first%20ten%20amendments%20were,as%20the%20Bill%20of%20Rights |title=1791: US Bill of Rights (1st 10 Amendments) - with commentary |publisher=Online Library of Liberty |access-date=March 25, 2022}}</ref> [[James Madison]] declarava in un [[memorandum]] pre-conventional al delegatos que, proque «on a pena poteva expectar que le [[legislatura]]s del statos adoptase visiones illuminate super le affaires national», un governamento central plus forte esseva necessari.<ref>{{harvnb|Gerston|2007|p=26}}</ref> Madison scribeva plus tarde in [[Federalist No. 10]] super su appoio a un governamento federal: <blockquote> "Quanto plus parve es le numero de individuos que compone un majoritate, e quanto plus stricte es le ambito in le qual illes es placiate, tanto plus facilemente illes concertara e executara lor planos de oppression. Extende le sphera, e tu includera un plus grande varietate de partitos e interesses; tu rendera minus probabile que un majoritate del toto habera un motivo commun pro invader le derectos de altere citatanos".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/resources/display/content/The+Federalist+Papers#TheFederalistPapers-10 |title=Full Text of The Federalist Papers |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=March 25, 2022 |archive-date=April 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422044103/https://www.congress.gov/resources/display/content/The+Federalist+Papers#TheFederalistPapers-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> </blockquote> Le convention habeva comenciate a alterar su plano original, sed postea decideva abandonar le effortios continuate de [[Critica textual#Stemmatica|emendation]], e officialmente comenciava a rediger un nove [[Constitution del Statos Unite]]. Iste nove Constitution serea finalmente ratificate in tote le statos. Un vice que le convention habeva terminate e publicate le Constitution pro le consumo public, le movimentos federalista e [[Antifederalistas|antifederalista]] tosto comenciava a divulgar lor convinctiones divergente in jornales e segmentos local.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roche |first1=John P. |title=The Founding Fathers: A Reform Caucus in Action |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-political-science-review_1961-12_55_4/page/814 |journal=The American Political Science Review |date=1961 |volume=55 |issue=4 |page=814 |doi=10.2307/1952528 |jstor=1952528 |s2cid=145725823 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref> Le defensa le plus vigorose del nove Constitution esseva ''[[The Federalist Papers]]'', un compilation de 85 essayos anonyme publicate in le Citate de New York pro convincer le populo del stato a votar pro le ratification. Iste articulos, scripte per [[Alexander Hamilton]] e [[James Madison]], con alcunes contribute per [[John Jay]], examinava le beneficios del nove Constitution proponite, e analysava le [[Philosophia politic|theoria politic]] e le function detra le varie articulos del Constitution. ''The Federalist Papers'' remane importante in le historia american e le scientia politic.<ref name="Citycyclopedia">Jackson, Kenneth T. ''The Encyclopedia of New York City'': The New York Historical Society; Yale University Press; 1995. p. 194.</ref><ref>Amar, Akhil Reed, ''Anti-Federalists, the Federalist Papers, and the Big Argument for Union'', 16. Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 111 (1993).</ref> Le anti-federalistas, qui se opponeva al nove Constitution, habeva generalmente un perspectiva local plus tosto que cosmopolite, orientate verso plantationes e fermas plus tosto que verso le commercio o le finanzas, e voleva governamentos statal fortes e un governamento national debile. Secundo le politologo James Wilson, le anti-federalistas "esseva multo plus compromittite con statos fortes e un governamento national debile.... Un governamento national forte, illes sentiva, serea distante del populo e usarea su poteres pro annihilar o absorber le functiones que pertineva propriemente al statos."<ref>{{Cite book |last=James Wilson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fZfk-KosYcC&pg=PA21 |title=American Government: Brief Edition |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-547-21276-0 |pages=21–22}}.</ref> Le critica antifederalista tosto se centrava sur le absentia de un [[declaration de derectos]], lo que le federalistas in le conventiones de ratification promitteva provider. Washington e Madison se habeva personalmente compromittite a considerar emendationes, reconoscente que illos serea necessari pro reducer le pression pro un secunde convention constitutional que poterea alterar drasticamente e debilitar le nove governamento federal. Madison proponeva emendationes que dava plus derectos a individuos que a statos, lo que duceva a criticas de diversion per le antifederalistas.<ref name=":2" /> Le Congresso del Confederation sortente programmava electiones pro le nove governamento, e fixava le 4 de martio 1789 como le data in que le nove governamento assumerea le poter. In 1789, le nove [[Congresso del Statos Unite]] submitteva dece-duo articulos de emendamento al statos. Dece de iste articulos, redigite per comitatos congressional, obteneva le approbation le 15 de decembre 1791, e deveniva le [[Declaration de Derectos del Statos Unite]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|last2=|first2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|first4=|date=|title=Demand for a Bill of Rights - Creating the United States {{!}} Exhibitions - Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/demand-for-a-bill-of-rights.html|access-date=2021-01-11|website=www.loc.gov|publisher=Library of Congress|archive-date=June 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626011949/https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/demand-for-a-bill-of-rights.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Le [[Decime Emendamento]] stabiliva le directivas pro le federalismo in le Statos Unite.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tenth Amendment|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/tenth_amendment|access-date=2021-01-11|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|archive-date=August 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807150314/https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/tenth_amendment|url-status=live}}</ref> === Partito Federalista === {{AP|Partito Federalista}} Post que le prime movimento federalista attingeva su objectivos in promover le Constitution, un Partito Federalist official emergeva con objectivos levemente differente. Iste se basava super le politicas de Alexander Hamilton e su alliatos pro un governamento national plus forte, un [[interpretation laxe]] del Constitution, e un economia mercantil (plus tosto que agrari). A mesura que le tempore passava, le factiones que adhereva a iste politicas se organisava in le prime partito politic del nation, le Partito Federalist, e le foco e le fortuna del movimento comenciava a sequer los del partito que illo generava. Ben que le movimento federalista del annos 1780 e le Partito Federalista esseva entitates distincte, illos esseva ligate per plus que un simple nomine commun. Le Partito Jeffersonian o [[Partito Democratic-Republican]], le opposition al Partito Federalista, sublineava le timor que un forte governamento national esseva un menacia al libertates del populo. Illes insisteva que le debita national create per le nove governamento conducerea le pais al bancarotta, e que le detentores de obligationes federal esseva pagate per medio de impostos colligite de fermeros e travaliatores honeste. Iste themas resonava con le antifederalistas, le opposition al movimento federalista del annos 1780. Como Norman Risjord ha documentate pro Virginia, del supportatores del Constitution in 1788, 69% se univa al Partito Federalista, dum que quasi tote le opponentes (94%) se univa al republicanos. 71% del supportatores de [[Thomas Jefferson]] in Virginia esseva ancian antifederalistas qui continuava a timer le governamento centralisate, dum que solmente 29% habeva essite defensores del Constitution alcun annos antea. Tamen, James Madison, qui esseva un del plus forte defensores del Constitution e un membro del prime movimento federalista, deveniva un jeffersoniano,<ref>{{Cite web|title=1784 to 1807 {{!}} James Madison Timeline {{!}} Articles and Essays {{!}} James Madison Papers, 1723-1859 {{!}} Digital Collections {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/james-madison-papers/articles-and-essays/james-madison-timeline-1751-to-1836/1784-to-1807/|access-date=2021-02-06|website=Library of Congress|archive-date=July 17, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717024039/https://www.loc.gov/collections/james-madison-papers/articles-and-essays/james-madison-timeline-1751-to-1836/1784-to-1807/|url-status=live}}</ref> dum que alcunes qui esseva antifederalistas ante le ratification del Constitution, como [[Patrick Henry]], deveniva supportatores del Partito Federalista. Le movimento attingeva su zenith con le election de [[John Adams]], un presidente overtemente federalista. Tamen, con le disfacta de Adams in le [[Election presidential del Statos Unite, 1800|election de 1800]] e le [[Duello Burr-Hamilton|morte de Hamilton]], le Partito Federalista comenciava un longe declino del qual ille nunquam se restabiliva. Lo que finalmente dava le colpo de gratia al Partito Federalista esseva le [[Convention de Hartford]] de 1814, in le qual cinque statos de [[Nove Anglia]] se reuniva pro discuter plure emendationes constitutional necessari pro proteger le interesses de Nove Anglia in relation al blocada de lor portos per le britannicos durante le [[Guerra de 1812]]. Le menacia de [[Secession in le Statos Unite|secession]] etiam esseva proponite durante iste reuniones secrete. Tres delegatos esseva enviate a Washington, DC pro negociar le terminos de Nove Anglia, solmente pro discoperir le signatura del [[Tractato de Gante]], que finiva le guerra con le britannicos.<ref>[http://www.sparknotes.com/history/american/warof1812/section8.rhtml War of 1812] Sparknotes.com</ref> In tote le nation, le republicanos usava le grande victoria in New Orleans pro ridiculisar le federalistas como coardes o defeatistas. Postea, le federalistas esseva associate con le dislealtate e le parochialismo del Convention de Hartford e destruite como fortia politic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stoltz|first1=Joseph F.|year=2012|title="It Taught our Enemies a Lesson:" the Battle of New Orleans and the Republican Destruction of the Federalist Party|journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly|volume=71|issue=2|pages=112–127|jstor=42628249}}</ref> {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Federalismo in le Statos Unite| ]] [[Categoria:Federalismo per pais|Statos Unite]] iszjruwmrxpsp5tiw88103ozzc4yklf 0 61103 698283 698177 2026-08-04T01:45:09Z Jondel 198 698283 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ribot Theodule The Cook And The Cat-1.jpg|thumb|Le Chef]]'''Chef de cocina''' es cocinero professional e artesiano e es proficiente in varias aspectos de [[cocinar]]. Ille verbo "chef" deriva del termino ''chef de cuisine'' de francese, que es le director del cocina. == Bibliografia == *[http://www.britannica.com/topic/chef Britannica.Chef.2026] [[Categoria:Occupationes]] qnqtwn8932sutkpjwqk031na3g6y9h7 698284 698283 2026-08-04T01:50:25Z Jondel 198 698284 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ribot Theodule The Cook And The Cat-1.jpg|thumb|Le Chef]]'''Chef de cocina''' es cocinero professional e artesiano e es proficiente in varias aspectos de [[cocinar]]. Ille verbo "chef" deriva del termino ''chef de cuisine'' de francese, que es le director del cocina. Novicio pote acceptar education ex schola. == Bibliografia == *[http://www.britannica.com/topic/chef Britannica.Chef.2026] [[Categoria:Occupationes]] ansmnu67baqbt0os6p9mdguq8jctn1w