Wikipedia iawiki https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagina_principal MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.16 first-letter Multimedia Special Discussion Usator Discussion Usator Wikipedia Discussion Wikipedia File Discussion File MediaWiki Discussion MediaWiki Patrono Discussion Patrono Adjuta Discussion Adjuta Categoria Discussion Categoria Portal Discussion Portal Appendice Discussion Appendice TimedText TimedText talk Modulo Discussion Modulo Evento Discussion Evento 0 7865 699013 698985 2026-08-25T23:34:04Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Rescuing 4 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 699013 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20](https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20) October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[aesthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[skepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant tracava un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le [[aesthetica]] nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser securate per medio de un [[federation]] international de estados [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74) |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=[https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5](https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5) |journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html](http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html) |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html) |url-status=live}}</ref> Su cognomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de arneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=[https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1](https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1) |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf) |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de}}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/) |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: * Kant, I. (1756a) [[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448) "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. * Kant, I. (1756b) [[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460) "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. * Kant, I. (1756c) [[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494) "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. * Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=[http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27](http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27) septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}})</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=276}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition{{mdash}}id es, cognition rational{{mdash}}iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=37}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=631}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general''{{mdash}}isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=52–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos''{{mdash}}i.e., inferentias false{{mdash}}que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']]{{mdash}}i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme{{mdash}}in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate{{mdash}}comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres{{mdash}}como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo{{mdash}}nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalizate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic{{mdash}}illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Política === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento{{mdash}}democratia, aristocratia e monarchia{{mdash}}con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21) 7]}}</ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant{{mdash}}a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=38–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live}})</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=67–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=9–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=109–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=45–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=40–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=198–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] mgpqbzc5nqts5wphmy5w2xiehejbqu4 102 12410 699035 698016 2026-08-26T10:33:02Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699035 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} Le prime ministro de Canada es le chef del plus grande partito in le parlamento federal. Le prime ministro es un parlamentario. {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q5 . ?item wdt:P39 wd:Q839078 } |wdq= |columns=item,label,P18,P569,P570,P21,P1412 |sort=P569 |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! imagine ! data de nascentia ! data de morte ! sexo ! linguas parlate o scribite |- | [[:d:Q128702|Q128702]] | ''[[:d:Q128702|John A. 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Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_68fe390e7aa7609debdb2f627ef143b8cc8db8e23bbd5cfaaa549245ccc8c8e5">''[[:d:Q838302|Dictionary of Canadian Biography]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1892" | 1892-04-17<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]] |- | [[:d:Q128677|Q128677]] | ''[[:d:Q128677|Mackenzie Bowell]]'' | [[File:SirMackenzieBowell.jpg|center|48px]] | 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name="ref_47984cd472c330f9ded38c20ef895bdfa7fcf972d038158ec6f3777edbee4973">''[[:d:Q21401824|The Peerage]]''</ref><ref name="ref_68fe390e7aa7609debdb2f627ef143b8cc8db8e23bbd5cfaaa549245ccc8c8e5">''[[:d:Q838302|Dictionary of Canadian Biography]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f0c930e3b91b7846a577d80d9eb10fa1aa44a9be2046eba6f9ee99a6225b1865">''[[:d:Q130334|Canadian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-06-26<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref 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Normdatei]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-07-22<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref 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Meighen]]'' | [[File:Former PM Arthur Meighen.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1874" | 1874-06-16<ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960-08-05<ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1973" | 1973-07-25<ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref 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''[[:d:Q128614|John Diefenbaker]]'' | [[File:John Diefenbaker 1961.png|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1895" | 1895-09-18<ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_68fe390e7aa7609debdb2f627ef143b8cc8db8e23bbd5cfaaa549245ccc8c8e5">''[[:d:Q838302|Dictionary of Canadian Biography]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1979" | 1979-08-16<ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref> | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]]<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q128604|Q128604]] | ''[[:d:Q128604|Lester B. Pearson]]'' | [[File:Lester B. Pearson (1963 ABC press photo).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1897" | 1897-04-23<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_68fe390e7aa7609debdb2f627ef143b8cc8db8e23bbd5cfaaa549245ccc8c8e5">''[[:d:Q838302|Dictionary of Canadian Biography]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972-12-27<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]]<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q8619|Q8619]] | ''[[:d:Q8619|Pierre Trudeau]]'' | [[File:Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau 1975 (UPI press photo) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1919" | 1919-10-18<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_68fe390e7aa7609debdb2f627ef143b8cc8db8e23bbd5cfaaa549245ccc8c8e5">''[[:d:Q838302|Dictionary of Canadian Biography]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus 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''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[Lingua francese|francese]]<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><br/>[[Lingua anglese|anglese]]<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q128568|Q128568]] | ''[[:d:Q128568|John Turner]]'' | [[File:John Turner (39436619124) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1929" | 1929-06-07<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="2020" | 2020-09-19<ref name="ref_fb49a90b4f4bca510d06d56d1d0ee24a4c50ce5393a02ec6b7f518d36fb71b56">https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/john-turner-obituary-1.5731229</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]] |- | [[:d:Q128543|Q128543]] | ''[[:d:Q128543|Jean Chrétien]]'' | [[File:Jean Chrétien 2010.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1934" | 1934-01-11<ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_beb08c37302db59faae18def7df503aa49faa56692d5237f49cc8cdcaf6046c9">''[[:d:Q83365652|Roglo]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | [[Lingua francese|francese]]<br/>[[Lingua anglese|anglese]]<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q128529|Q128529]] | ''[[:d:Q128529|Paul Martin]]'' | [[File:Paul Martin in 2006.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1938" | 1938-08-28<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]] |- | [[:d:Q128563|Q128563]] | ''[[:d:Q128563|Brian Mulroney]]'' | [[File:Brian Mulroney in 1984.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1939" | 1939-03-20<ref 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''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_40d88170d07309db97fd32917ca842f1e1d1d39222f16f68252c15f5ab51f876">''[[:d:Q2567271|Who's Who]]''</ref> | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]] |- | [[:d:Q128574|Q128574]] | ''[[:d:Q128574|Joe Clark]]'' | [[File:RightHonourableJoeClark (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1939" | 1939-06-05<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]] |- | [[:d:Q128553|Q128553]] | ''[[:d:Q128553|Kim Campbell]]'' | [[File:Kim Campbell.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-03-10<ref name="ref_dc94c0369b0c0704b1297c5e5d6c30196103b012e010ca8d43a5cc6a1cbde10b">''[[:d:Q37312|Internet Movie Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b52774f7e844f3c872dc724e16198e124cd91d701f09d4422d14166517248f24">''[[:d:Q110965660|Parlinfo]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db600c583c11c1f4a3f0618664504bb3e8c69966ec7f858aab6e941ad0d589eb">''[[:d:Q61356138|FemBio database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581072|feminin]]'' | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]] |- | [[:d:Q206|Q206]] | ''[[:d:Q206|Stephen Harper]]'' | [[File:Stephen Harper by Remy Steinegger Infobox.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1959" | 1959-04-30<ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0ac047cab1782e0ebcd8c0b59c9b674e47dd920defa0d45e8c5ff2c4245da48c">''[[:d:Q1125633|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f0c930e3b91b7846a577d80d9eb10fa1aa44a9be2046eba6f9ee99a6225b1865">''[[:d:Q130334|Canadian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_da9896ec5589fa9ffe53a54c8b84174c08b1a2aa95f7d112cc52e89cd90a0648">''[[:d:Q112122720|WorldCat Entities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1db4929991e171957f2f5973322e890dc4b3247df1449932bb89063a662d6cb9">''[[:d:Q133612457|LUX: Yale Collections Discovery]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_31a940547f64c2a4e0a5895ff7162a98629ee95edfc5731705dc6cbb94f95fe7">''[[:d:Q54919|VIAF]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1db4929991e171957f2f5973322e890dc4b3247df1449932bb89063a662d6cb9">''[[:d:Q133612457|LUX: Yale Collections Discovery]]''</ref> | [[Lingua francese|francese]]<br/>[[Lingua anglese|anglese]]<ref name="ref_bcc54ec8d6f30d8860558caa47e34fc5ef298ae328272b4a447e7f36ae92c514">http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15601991r</ref><ref name="ref_31a940547f64c2a4e0a5895ff7162a98629ee95edfc5731705dc6cbb94f95fe7">''[[:d:Q54919|VIAF]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q192533|Q192533]] | ''[[:d:Q192533|Mark Carney]]'' | [[File:Mark Carney Argentina v Spain 19 July 2026-303 (3x4 close up cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-03-16<ref name="ref_2b2b63a146b9bf12995e730f7af9ff0428a4bb96edb481a87e8bb6fae1778b85">''[[:d:Q10655173|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><ref name="ref_da9896ec5589fa9ffe53a54c8b84174c08b1a2aa95f7d112cc52e89cd90a0648">''[[:d:Q112122720|WorldCat Entities]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_1db4929991e171957f2f5973322e890dc4b3247df1449932bb89063a662d6cb9">''[[:d:Q133612457|LUX: Yale Collections Discovery]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]]<ref name="ref_2b2b63a146b9bf12995e730f7af9ff0428a4bb96edb481a87e8bb6fae1778b85">''[[:d:Q10655173|Library of Parliament]]''</ref><br/>[[Lingua francese|francese]]<ref name="ref_34a79babb854246756debd7f87bf1f995882836e5f0729bfb7a09329844f51ff">https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/carney-french-debate-performance-1.7468412</ref><ref name="ref_2b2b63a146b9bf12995e730f7af9ff0428a4bb96edb481a87e8bb6fae1778b85">''[[:d:Q10655173|Library of Parliament]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q3099714|Q3099714]] | ''[[:d:Q3099714|Justin Trudeau]]'' | [[File:Justin Trudeau at the European Commission - 2025.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1971" | 1971-12-25<ref name="ref_da9896ec5589fa9ffe53a54c8b84174c08b1a2aa95f7d112cc52e89cd90a0648">''[[:d:Q112122720|WorldCat Entities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f0c930e3b91b7846a577d80d9eb10fa1aa44a9be2046eba6f9ee99a6225b1865">''[[:d:Q130334|Canadian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1db4929991e171957f2f5973322e890dc4b3247df1449932bb89063a662d6cb9">''[[:d:Q133612457|LUX: Yale Collections Discovery]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1db4929991e171957f2f5973322e890dc4b3247df1449932bb89063a662d6cb9">''[[:d:Q133612457|LUX: Yale Collections Discovery]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[Lingua anglese|anglese]]<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><ref name="ref_31a940547f64c2a4e0a5895ff7162a98629ee95edfc5731705dc6cbb94f95fe7">''[[:d:Q54919|VIAF]]''</ref><br/>[[Lingua francese|francese]]<ref name="ref_31a940547f64c2a4e0a5895ff7162a98629ee95edfc5731705dc6cbb94f95fe7">''[[:d:Q54919|VIAF]]''</ref> |} {{Wikidata list end}} # [[File:Sir John A Macdonald circa 1878 retouched.jpg|50px]] [[Sir John A. Macdonald]] ([[1867]]-[[1873]]), ([[1878]]-[[1891]]) # [[File:Alexander McKenzie3.jpg|50px]] [[Alexander Mackenzie]] (1873-1878) # [[File:Johnabbott.jpg|50px]] [[Sir John Abbot]] (1891-[[1892]]) # [[File:John Thompson.jpg|50px]] [[Sir John Thompson]] (1892-[[1894]]) # [[File:SirMackenzieBowell.jpg|50px]] [[Sir Mackenzie Bowell]] (1894-[[1896]]) # [[File:Chas Tupper - GG Bain.jpg|50px]] [[Sir Charles Tupper]] (1896) # [[File:The Honourable Sir Wilfrid Laurier Photo C (HS85-10-16873) - medium crop.jpg|50px]] [[Sir Wilfred Laurier]] (1896-[[1911]]) # [[File:Sir Robert Laird Borden, 1915.png|50px]] [[Sir Robert Borden]] (1911-[[1920]]) # [[File:Arthur Meighen-.jpg|50px]] [[Arthur Mieghen]] (1920-[[1921]]), ([[1926]]) # [[File:Wm Lyon Mackenzie King.jpg|50px]] [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] (1921-1926), (1926-[[1930]]), ([[1935]]-[[1948]]) # [[File:Richard Bedford Bennett.jpg|50px]] [[Richard Bennett]] (1930-1935) # [[File:Louisstlaurent.jpg|50px]] [[Louis St. Laurent]] (1948-[[1957]]) # [[File:John G. Diefenbaker.jpg|50px]] [[John Diefenbaker]] (1957-[[1963]]) # [[Lester B. Pearson]] (1963-[[1968]]) # [[File:Pierre Elliot Trudeau-2.jpg|50px]] [[Pierre E. Trudeau]] (1968-[[1979]]), ([[1980]]-[[1984]]) #[[Joe Clark]] (1979-1980) # [[File:John Turner Cropped.jpg|50px]] [[John Turner]] (1984) # [[File:Mulroney 2011.JPG|50px]] [[Brian Mulroney]] (1984-[[1993]]) # [[File:KimCampbell.jpg|50px]] [[Kim Campbell]] (1993) # [[File:Jean Chrétien 2010.jpg|50px]] [[Jean Cretien]] (1993-[[2003]]) # [[File:Paul Martin in 2011 crop.jpg|50px]] [[Paul Martin]] (2003-[[2006]]) # [[File:Stephen-Harper-Cropped-2014-02-18.jpg|50px]] [[Stephen Harper]] (2006-[[2015]]) # [[File:Justin Trudeau 2014-1.jpg|50px]] [[Justin Trudeau]] (2015- [[Categoria:Gente canadian]] sm1iwn536hto4y6ic7pqkd6x7cud0hy 0 31027 699014 670460 2026-08-25T23:42:37Z InternetArchiveBot 40773 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 699014 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/objecto natural}} '''Kilimanjaro'''{{linfo}}, con su tres conos vulcanic Kibo, Mawenzi e Shira, es le plus alte [[monte]] in [[Tanzania]] e le plus alte monte in [[Africa]] e le plus alte monte isolate sur [[Terra]] a {{n|5895}} metros super le [[nivello del mar]] (le Pico Uhuru/Pico Kibo).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2009/papers/ts08c/ts08c_fernandes_teamkili2008_3438.pdf|title=Precise Determination of the Orthometric Height of Mt. Kilimanjaro|author=the Kilimanjaro 2008 Precise Height Measurement Expedition|accessdate=May 12, 2009|archivedate=June 12, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612141039/http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2009/papers/ts08c/ts08c_fernandes_teamkili2008_3438.pdf}}</ref> Kilimanjaro es un del ''Septe Meravilias Natural de Africa'', que esseva declarate officialmente le [[11 de februario]] [[2013]] in [[Arusha]], Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |accessdate=2013-03-30 |archivedate=2015-12-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ }}</ref> ==Patrimonio Mundial== In 1987 le paisage esseva declarate un sito de [[Patrimonio Mundial]] per [[UNESCO]].<ref>http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/403</ref> ==Vide etiam== * [[Lista de plus alte montes]] * [[Monte]] ==Galeria== <gallery> Image:Kilimanjaro 3D - version 1.gif|Kibo 3D </gallery> ==Referentias== <references /> {{commonscat|Kilimanjaro}} {{traduction|en|Mount Kilimanjaro|547103829}} [[Categoria:Montes]] [[Categoria:Vulcanos]] [[Categoria:Patrimonio Mundial in Tanzania]] [[Categoria:Tanzania]] {{pecietta|geographia}} fmy9pohm4lwt9praw4qq3wkwdobzcpd 102 39155 699015 698652 2026-08-26T02:25:04Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699015 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} Lista de [[inventor]]es. * [[Robert Moog]] * [[Juan de la Cierva y Codorníu]] * [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] * [[Isaac Peral]] * [[Alexander Fleming]] * [[Alexander Graham Bell]] * [[Thomas Alva Edison]] ("le mago de Melon Park") * [[Benjamin Franklin]] * [[Ferdinand von Zeppelin]] * [[Samuel Colt]] * [[Humberto Fernández Morán]] {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q5 . ?item wdt:P106 wd:Q205375 } |columns=item,label,P18,P569,P570,P21,P106 |sort=P569 |thumb=48 |links=local |references=all |summary=itemnumber }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! imagine ! data de nascentia ! data de morte ! sexo ! occupation |- | [[:d:Q8739|Q8739]] | [[Archimedes]] | [[File:Retrato de un erudito (¿Arquímedes?), por Domenico Fetti.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="-287" | -287<ref name="ref_cd64887fccb6c3d67a440b2eb704f12678eedb20d9c4cfdbed6ad5f1b42a17a2">''[[:d:Q18785969|British Museum person-institution thesaurus]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c00a3a4635bce5c2e24e0ffae89793e627b74609eb7afbaec3f498b9cfbff233">''[[:d:Q55402145|Encyclopaedia Herder]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b6af51143f97de689c0d23d7b87d3cd2d282f8f7ac7b09168e80d6a2c4a53884">''[[:d:Q1768199|Большая российская энциклопедия]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref> | 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name="ref_93ff7d0cb3c031470881a8a2a9305f9521463b6d4697a5976f242ebe76058948">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/celsius-anders</ref> | data-sort-value="1744" | 1744-04-25<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_58783a16501a17524f43b546042f692cd594a59d2842380a7cd451d8c54bc8c5">''[[:d:Q379406|Dictionary of Swedish National Biography]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_42d05e09802b415c7bf06a74ec1394586eca346117fda09fdd5e05d7fe922348">https://sok.riksarkivet.se/bildvisning/C0004348_00022#?c=&m=&s=&cv=21&xywh=878%2C3475%2C2347%2C1395</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[astronomo]]<ref name="ref_58783a16501a17524f43b546042f692cd594a59d2842380a7cd451d8c54bc8c5">''[[:d:Q379406|Dictionary of Swedish National Biography]]''</ref><br/>[[physico]]<ref name="ref_58783a16501a17524f43b546042f692cd594a59d2842380a7cd451d8c54bc8c5">''[[:d:Q379406|Dictionary of Swedish National Biography]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[mathematico]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1622272|professor universitari]]''<br/>[[inventor]]<br/>[[chimico]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2310145|meteorologist]]'' |- | [[:d:Q7604|Q7604]] | [[Leonhard Euler]] | [[File:Leonhard Euler.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1707" | 1707-04-15<ref 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of the World]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1783" | 1783-09-18<ref name="ref_b8e02536ce47e5feb558b98f426388a2d0110578f45693e3976faa86f1584d9b">''[[:d:Q547473|MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref 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universitari]]''<br/>[[scriptor]]<ref name="ref_412e1c26f353d15f69222a038c65bf89a11aeb38970c7585b213377c5917927c">http://blogcritics.org/culture/article/a-nasty-mathematical-myth/</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q16031530|music theorist]]''<br/>[[astronomo]]<ref name="ref_b3cb19ef03c9a53cfda8056a0db373691a35d361dfe158a9835a39452269f507">''[[:d:Q96189706|Euler: Genius Blind Astronomer Mathematician]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2dbef0cfd5b9bd6da695088fa2d5437f95af1f6bf37d63344cff5ffa53f5fe7f">https://www.famousscientists.org/leonhard-euler/</ref><ref name="ref_57d5bcef5fa4efd272d40cdfbd726919e1ce8378c00da635f32423e0ffc8e31d">''[[:d:Q24694883|ECARTICO]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q901|scientista]]''<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><br/>[[inventor]]<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q978044|executive]]''<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q901402|geographo]]''<ref name="ref_57d5bcef5fa4efd272d40cdfbd726919e1ce8378c00da635f32423e0ffc8e31d">''[[:d:Q24694883|ECARTICO]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q9041|Q9041]] | [[James Watt]] | [[File:James Watt by Henry Howard.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1736" | 1736-01-19<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_36ce4de930bbffc9723de7712c1f4f17b6f1e9025becd52a21d3099f10950735">''[[:d:Q19062388|Watt, James (1736-1819) (DNB00)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1819" | 1819-08-25<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_47984cd472c330f9ded38c20ef895bdfa7fcf972d038158ec6f3777edbee4973">''[[:d:Q21401824|The Peerage]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<ref name="ref_36ce4de930bbffc9723de7712c1f4f17b6f1e9025becd52a21d3099f10950735">''[[:d:Q19062388|Watt, James (1736-1819) (DNB00)]]''</ref><br/>[[chimico]]<ref name="ref_d7b7d7658a2871775cfc117ae07bc94c16b0d28f9cd826287ea2b43348c5afb3">http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/v052/52.3.miller.pdf</ref><ref name="ref_e2c1ae921669836e710d2e7b23b0ba31c9ea7699bcd1d628d844c552a313344b">https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/v052/52.3.miller.html</ref><br/>[[physico]]<ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><br/>[[inventor]]<ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q131524|interprenditor]]''<br/>[[mathematico]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5352191|technician]]''<ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q11812|Q11812]] | [[Thomas Jefferson]] | [[File:Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800)(cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1743" | 1743-04-02<ref 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name="ref_47984cd472c330f9ded38c20ef895bdfa7fcf972d038158ec6f3777edbee4973">''[[:d:Q21401824|The Peerage]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cb7e3691f7e193dcee107c8f43e696dbf8e7ab31ee607bd50e722e0bab724f03">''[[:d:Q523660|International Music Score Library Project]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0b6394c9b71b4096d2093e1c96ed71f61a31b392bc22d3542305c22bb29142a2">''[[:d:Q2877812|Babelio]]''</ref><ref name="ref_809bfc42b0331ca57d8bfb459567d8a5c7896619bfbd4d734e58da3bcfe648f9">''[[:d:Q21491701|KNAW Past Members]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1b1be539a4dd280fc69294e971af2196dba0a74c48f48a27adc03b5af959a638">''[[:d:Q6023365|Internet Philosophy Ontology project]]''</ref><ref name="ref_39693e519a3b4bd531145c748da5e69c7198327e7f598d4477bf605c4c01d83f">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/jefferson-thomas</ref><ref name="ref_931851ab1666964918600e8fa1634af8ac7a2b90a6cf86b2910b446e3d4af03f">''[[:d:Q103937665|Jefferson, Thomas]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_48e9963ee25a3b63b0dbdd0640e770365429e4dfe801c4537c6b710062e0e063">''[[:d:Q56024286|Archives Directory for the History of Collecting in America]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[Inseniante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q15442776|cryptographer]]''<br/>[[architecto]]<ref name="ref_34a8d05cd161c94c3f52a81fe94b9e2e94eaa7666f12232a2bf408070bc0312c">''[[:d:Q2494649|Union List of Artist Names]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2713c3c88e6911ebb1875b2c052ec308eb21c80420740ac74c381cc159c2fffc">http://arch-pavouk.cz/index.php/architekti/1636-jefferson-thomas</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q40348|advocato]]''<br/>[[scriptor]]<ref 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name="ref_5f90aada25764a622cd97e34b60bd65a044050ba73f182ed0f679c8611e6bf62">http://amperemusee.fr</ref><ref name="ref_a000f0dfebc191c3c7086d5fc3e6ac1fb04ec7836f1b655a4cd43e9ad8df34cb">http://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P=.id-49535.ln-ru.dl-.pr-inf.uk-12</ref><ref name="ref_a2970288df4c6974c3c3d45d8067ec6e541bbfcda51fdd09a69467d982bd3409">''[[:d:Q28924058|Nouveau Dictionnaire des auteurs de tous les temps et de tous les pays]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b8e02536ce47e5feb558b98f426388a2d0110578f45693e3976faa86f1584d9b">''[[:d:Q547473|MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7f2ec2e17898e6ea3f91cc2e3a705b7ddd66aa6eb4c3b569d3c87105507c421b">https://www.leonore.archives-nationales.culture.gouv.fr/archives-images/LH003/FRDAFAN83_OL0032001v005_L.jpg</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_60eff1d8010e228bb535322c7a52150c730b2ac70a31ea8c43ee4796853fed0b">''[[:d:Q19847326|Genealogics]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_91def873cdbde77d744f48f86aa46016c6e6b9c226e31c32c3c11c543a173556">''[[:d:Q55740543|La France savante]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cf3c313e4a6b6669fd0eb4e4aa0cb9c18dca4bce8b2f48740eb356be3a924fde">''[[:d:Q105958830|Base biographique]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a0225532ce55578e1c4bec0c56d3bb163e7acceace9ed246cd446190c42768d0">http://www.fondsenligne.archives-lyon.fr/v2/ark:/18811/8bmfsfm6gr468h4m</ref> | data-sort-value="1836" | 1836-06-10<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_a2970288df4c6974c3c3d45d8067ec6e541bbfcda51fdd09a69467d982bd3409">''[[:d:Q28924058|Nouveau Dictionnaire des auteurs de tous les temps et de tous les pays]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b8e02536ce47e5feb558b98f426388a2d0110578f45693e3976faa86f1584d9b">''[[:d:Q547473|MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8aa285cbc79cce6633ec1022cd057bd3f4ef46687f42037874b9bf61958f13de">''[[:d:Q39845173|Frankfurter Personenlexikon]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1874" | 1874-01-14<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8aa285cbc79cce6633ec1022cd057bd3f4ef46687f42037874b9bf61958f13de">''[[:d:Q39845173|Frankfurter Personenlexikon]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[inventor]]<br/>[[physico]]<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q901|scientista]]''<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q40224|Q40224]] | [[Carl Benz]] | [[File:Carl Benz c. 1889.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1844" | 1844-11-25<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_604c52988f1cd62da3cd3359919f4dcf6b39cd703c748f7cd4ea681e1709b508">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/benz-carl-friedrich</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1929" | 1929-04-04<ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_604c52988f1cd62da3cd3359919f4dcf6b39cd703c748f7cd4ea681e1709b508">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/benz-carl-friedrich</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<br/>[[inventor]] |- | [[:d:Q8743|Q8743]] | [[Thomas Edison]] | [[File:Thomas Edison2.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1847" | 1847-02-11<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8281a8144a7f9896829b9934f7bdbb10157c1b2c1978fe441986b385b54a1b6b">''[[:d:Q2629164|ISFDB]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d0efb20bbdf9fd17093fcc9b48fc7a250ac0c1235c35e08af02175dafd07fa65">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/edison-thomas-alva</ref><ref name="ref_d3601acb0434d7bb9599a6c271d4ad199400d13b829bd6a1e731a29a326addc0">''[[:d:Q104010085|Edison, Thomas]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_beb08c37302db59faae18def7df503aa49faa56692d5237f49cc8cdcaf6046c9">''[[:d:Q83365652|Roglo]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5c00d955d8a15f2c3a0c92d28633d35d2fb95e6671944f0ddc26cd7688130e89">''[[:d:Q138307249|Archivio Storico Ricordi - digital collection]]''</ref><ref name="ref_34e46dbfa37bac3c07eedb582f5b0c7a2996302c003e5f19915712beae24475a">''[[:d:Q10855166|The Fine Art Archive]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1931" | 1931-10-18<ref name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8281a8144a7f9896829b9934f7bdbb10157c1b2c1978fe441986b385b54a1b6b">''[[:d:Q2629164|ISFDB]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d0efb20bbdf9fd17093fcc9b48fc7a250ac0c1235c35e08af02175dafd07fa65">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/edison-thomas-alva</ref><ref name="ref_d3601acb0434d7bb9599a6c271d4ad199400d13b829bd6a1e731a29a326addc0">''[[:d:Q104010085|Edison, Thomas]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_beb08c37302db59faae18def7df503aa49faa56692d5237f49cc8cdcaf6046c9">''[[:d:Q83365652|Roglo]]''</ref><ref name="ref_34e46dbfa37bac3c07eedb582f5b0c7a2996302c003e5f19915712beae24475a">''[[:d:Q10855166|The Fine Art Archive]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[inventor]]<ref name="ref_5c00d955d8a15f2c3a0c92d28633d35d2fb95e6671944f0ddc26cd7688130e89">''[[:d:Q138307249|Archivio Storico Ricordi - digital collection]]''</ref><ref name="ref_34e46dbfa37bac3c07eedb582f5b0c7a2996302c003e5f19915712beae24475a">''[[:d:Q10855166|The Fine Art Archive]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q131524|interprenditor]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[physico]]<ref name="ref_34e46dbfa37bac3c07eedb582f5b0c7a2996302c003e5f19915712beae24475a">''[[:d:Q10855166|The Fine Art Archive]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[mathematico]]<br/>''[[:d:Q28389|scenarista]]''<ref name="ref_f8a8b4f1fde1952ffa25ec8a5e1315e1b0b325a226a5abc38939df1f010ff071">''[[:d:Q18709181|Letterboxd]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q2526255|director de cinema]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3282637|productor de cinema]]''<ref name="ref_dc94c0369b0c0704b1297c5e5d6c30196103b012e010ca8d43a5cc6a1cbde10b">''[[:d:Q37312|Internet Movie Database]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q57162|Q57162]] | [[Otto Lilienthal]] | [[File:Otto-lilienthal.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1848" | 1848-05-23<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_82c08241e74b88cf8f435b477b582c92af906ecc414dc7301b3ecf3be12c7159">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/lilienthal-otto</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1896" | 1896-08-10<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_82c08241e74b88cf8f435b477b582c92af906ecc414dc7301b3ecf3be12c7159">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/lilienthal-otto</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q10497074|military flight engineer]]''<br/>[[Pilota]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1776724|theatre manager]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[dramaturgo]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[actor]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q12658|Q12658]] | [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] | [[File:Ostwald.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1853" | 1853-09-02<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ae5e84219ee5b1de9684e0c1cad6ca41001dadff841f0e89a806c6c436dd09fc">''[[:d:Q1868372|Biografisch Portaal]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_809bfc42b0331ca57d8bfb459567d8a5c7896619bfbd4d734e58da3bcfe648f9">''[[:d:Q21491701|KNAW Past Members]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1932" | 1932-04-04<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_1cf2ecbc0df5cd7afb033b3a7f7e5a23838cc5de4cbc4cbe813ee8117e62b1de">''[[:d:Q23667505|Leidse Hoogleraren]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[physico]]<br/>[[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1622272|professor universitari]]''<ref name="ref_1cf2ecbc0df5cd7afb033b3a7f7e5a23838cc5de4cbc4cbe813ee8117e62b1de">''[[:d:Q23667505|Leidse Hoogleraren]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52725ca89ffba6372c025246048281420bd704c6991b830d8549cda6d0d60f08">''[[:d:Q71545423|Onze Hoogleeraren]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q901|scientista]]''<ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q9036|Q9036]] | [[Nikola Tesla]] | [[File:Tesla circa 1890.jpeg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_7fab8393aed7b338df81280ffb065864997d4eda9e8ad578c2bfb2d17d6cc0b5">https://www.biography.com/people/nikola-tesla-9504443</ref> | data-sort-value="1856" | 1856-07-10<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7fab8393aed7b338df81280ffb065864997d4eda9e8ad578c2bfb2d17d6cc0b5">https://www.biography.com/people/nikola-tesla-9504443</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_18368819c27e9efa3b59f731c95314b9aec681df7474ddcf0a13e15db701ac61">''[[:d:Q1563573|Croatian Biographical Lexicon]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1943" | 1943-01-07<ref name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_76481d355d9650ae7297f7feb0685c1fac86d14890ded6508eb9f5fe9f15b05e">''[[:d:Q103882021|Tesla, Nikola (9/10 July 1856–07 January 1943), electrical inventor]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7fab8393aed7b338df81280ffb065864997d4eda9e8ad578c2bfb2d17d6cc0b5">https://www.biography.com/people/nikola-tesla-9504443</ref><ref 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Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q165029|electricista]]''<ref name="ref_7d2be0d41e3e070d322e3e74db28dc07788157999622a6f219686a488170ede0">''[[:d:Q23833686|Catalog of the German National Library]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1906857|mechanical engineer]]''<ref name="ref_7fab8393aed7b338df81280ffb065864997d4eda9e8ad578c2bfb2d17d6cc0b5">https://www.biography.com/people/nikola-tesla-9504443</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q846430|futurist]]'' |- | [[:d:Q552053|Q552053]] | [[Paul von Jankó]] | [[File:Das Fotoalbum für Weierstraß 2 34 (Paul von Jankó).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1856" | 1856-06-02<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1919" | 1919-03-17<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q639669|musico]]''<br/>[[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q860918|esperantista]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14915627|musicologo]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[pianista]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q27496075|idista]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<br/>[[mathematico]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q41257|Q41257]] | [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]] | [[File:HEINRICH HERTZ.JPG|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1857" | 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name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c97ff1c50a9048ab8a011104eb2bfe669852672a47b69a69eb73232f57a35a2e">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/hertz-heinrich-rudolf</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-04-07<ref name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-11-16<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | [[chimico]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[inventor]] |- | [[:d:Q937|Q937]] | 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Hoogleraren]]''</ref><br/>[[physico]]<ref name="ref_0a831354d244a1a70754317f991c56db87b708a07fe963d8cf9327ce23c42224">http://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/25/obituaries/zhou-peiyuan-is-dead-educator-scientist-91.html</ref><ref name="ref_f3a682eeac12ca3160a94b69c480bde6660170c391e7d4d58310c642ab61541d">http://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/23/theater/theater-review-a-fantasy-meeting-of-minds.html</ref><ref name="ref_45d794d34935c12803876846f5cef1762d537841b5ccbfda3a13bff03269ecd6">''[[:d:Q77541206|BeWeB]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7d2be0d41e3e070d322e3e74db28dc07788157999622a6f219686a488170ede0">''[[:d:Q23833686|Catalog of the German National Library]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4964182|philosopho]]''<ref name="ref_ea8cd478cce29258709207730f7b641983adb9835918e99b562c48c8a2d6fd6c">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13528165.2012.728445</ref><ref name="ref_4cccb4c7c3b6614fc06ffd7904beb275700cbadb3c18b606c036d9442d8edce3">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09515081003690418</ref><ref name="ref_45d794d34935c12803876846f5cef1762d537841b5ccbfda3a13bff03269ecd6">''[[:d:Q77541206|BeWeB]]''</ref><br/>[[scriptor]]<ref name="ref_37b52059d519103547add71b033ff75982e6e5e8a8b716ae94826be4676fcc03">http://www.smh.com.au/news/book-reviews/einstein-his-life-and-universe/2007/06/22/1182019350450.html?page=fullpage</ref><ref name="ref_3e76aad0ae44f77e605152eb69296b6f6956860894e51029b6eb311a8dde7afd">http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2172365-modern-day-einstein-smashes-flaming-golf-ball-sets-pants-on-fire</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q901|scientista]]''<ref name="ref_767dd218d47c57908da8cc1cda433c43a98634075f4eadf2ae2a6a37223a9002">''[[:d:Q4834894|BBC Programme Catalogue]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_7d2be0d41e3e070d322e3e74db28dc07788157999622a6f219686a488170ede0">''[[:d:Q23833686|Catalog of the German National Library]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q37064|Q37064]] | [[Alexander Fleming]] | [[File:Synthetic Production of Penicillin TR1468.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1881" | 1881-08-06<ref name="ref_ae5e84219ee5b1de9684e0c1cad6ca41001dadff841f0e89a806c6c436dd09fc">''[[:d:Q1868372|Biografisch Portaal]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_809bfc42b0331ca57d8bfb459567d8a5c7896619bfbd4d734e58da3bcfe648f9">''[[:d:Q21491701|KNAW Past Members]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_47984cd472c330f9ded38c20ef895bdfa7fcf972d038158ec6f3777edbee4973">''[[:d:Q21401824|The Peerage]]''</ref><ref name="ref_42c34cd2b38dd924237cf30e1a1bb3c26215bfd5bb302c77e6f2e31d4da423bf">''[[:d:Q6936720|Inspiring Physicians]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ae3af917d782d1b3df9f2ed5244e0f360f1e3cbbe7f5dabe26ce0c34ed0e7e41">''[[:d:Q107213173|www.academie-medecine.fr]]''</ref><ref name="ref_91def873cdbde77d744f48f86aa46016c6e6b9c226e31c32c3c11c543a173556">''[[:d:Q55740543|La France savante]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1955" | 1955-03-11<ref name="ref_ae5e84219ee5b1de9684e0c1cad6ca41001dadff841f0e89a806c6c436dd09fc">''[[:d:Q1868372|Biografisch Portaal]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_809bfc42b0331ca57d8bfb459567d8a5c7896619bfbd4d734e58da3bcfe648f9">''[[:d:Q21491701|KNAW Past Members]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ae3af917d782d1b3df9f2ed5244e0f360f1e3cbbe7f5dabe26ce0c34ed0e7e41">''[[:d:Q107213173|www.academie-medecine.fr]]''</ref><ref name="ref_91def873cdbde77d744f48f86aa46016c6e6b9c226e31c32c3c11c543a173556">''[[:d:Q55740543|La France savante]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_47984cd472c330f9ded38c20ef895bdfa7fcf972d038158ec6f3777edbee4973">''[[:d:Q21401824|The Peerage]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15816836|bacteriologist]]''<ref 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name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1979" | 1979-02-08<ref name="ref_02183298a19954965159df80b576b14cfe294156830e2943c01361652d3e5415">http://data.nobelprize.org/page/laureate/93</ref><ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> | [[physico]]<br/>[[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1622272|professor universitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q108897110|holographer]]''<ref name="ref_770d6c8053b8df706d00e8946777efa7ac736db00ea9d4fe2356252502b50e82">https://www.holographyforum.org/wiki/Biographies_of_Holographers</ref> |- | [[:d:Q8704|Q8704]] | [[Walt Disney]] | [[File:Walt Disney 1946.JPG|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1901" | 1901-12-05<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d546391a7e44b42fc9077fd26022cda56db201b25ef5e3c53ad78eca6b02fbca">''[[:d:Q36463449|Who's Who in Animated Cartoon]]''</ref><ref name="ref_75f410066e7f65c92af7e5e0cb4798bd37f034883b838792a166eee2264e9e11">''[[:d:Q17299517|RKDartists]]''</ref><ref name="ref_362e8e207d7b021b6f215e0338864fde1b2a1e51a3712c51e72d3c7e86616b21">''[[:d:Q24255573|Benezit Dictionary of Artists]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f2c80df09e95b58628606a2c8a10b00cd8a6048c2ebdae04cf3f20d42f6c2393">''[[:d:Q31964|Internet Broadway Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bc70e62042975513edab3ab7adcd50272b88fdc649d65c77fb4788df92180369">''[[:d:Q41599984|Enciclopédia Itaú Cultural]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6a2de5dba0ceb74e5ca82d9f5042cdf8a49df169c53444522e3a1e9799f8e86a">''[[:d:Q51343652|Lambiek Comiclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2682dc33e3142f8152e8185add840e8532bb60d12e2baaf57420542ee04a4a11">''[[:d:Q103854838|Disney, Walt (05 December 1901–15 December 1966), animator and motion picture producer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c540ddd32b3a1f16a66cde0de9a095da57a40f0b0e5d190db15973cb966aa813">''[[:d:Q2876969|BD Gest’]]''</ref><ref name="ref_329e33b0b1b714d18f05404f1241a23dc62576709cdd20b4011b4e76d83e3739">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/disney-walt</ref><ref name="ref_49144b9c75ee6ab9a8ac496217ceb9b3a57a336a62f6c8e29b7a9ab9ac18f2fa">''[[:d:Q103905586|Disney, Walt(er Elias)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d546391a7e44b42fc9077fd26022cda56db201b25ef5e3c53ad78eca6b02fbca">''[[:d:Q36463449|Who's Who in Animated Cartoon]]''</ref><ref name="ref_75f410066e7f65c92af7e5e0cb4798bd37f034883b838792a166eee2264e9e11">''[[:d:Q17299517|RKDartists]]''</ref><ref name="ref_362e8e207d7b021b6f215e0338864fde1b2a1e51a3712c51e72d3c7e86616b21">''[[:d:Q24255573|Benezit Dictionary of Artists]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f2c80df09e95b58628606a2c8a10b00cd8a6048c2ebdae04cf3f20d42f6c2393">''[[:d:Q31964|Internet Broadway Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bc70e62042975513edab3ab7adcd50272b88fdc649d65c77fb4788df92180369">''[[:d:Q41599984|Enciclopédia Itaú Cultural]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6a2de5dba0ceb74e5ca82d9f5042cdf8a49df169c53444522e3a1e9799f8e86a">''[[:d:Q51343652|Lambiek Comiclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2682dc33e3142f8152e8185add840e8532bb60d12e2baaf57420542ee04a4a11">''[[:d:Q103854838|Disney, Walt (05 December 1901–15 December 1966), animator and motion picture producer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c540ddd32b3a1f16a66cde0de9a095da57a40f0b0e5d190db15973cb966aa813">''[[:d:Q2876969|BD Gest’]]''</ref><ref name="ref_329e33b0b1b714d18f05404f1241a23dc62576709cdd20b4011b4e76d83e3739">https://brockhaus.de/ecs/julex/article/disney-walt</ref><ref name="ref_49144b9c75ee6ab9a8ac496217ceb9b3a57a336a62f6c8e29b7a9ab9ac18f2fa">''[[:d:Q103905586|Disney, Walt(er Elias)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_beb08c37302db59faae18def7df503aa49faa56692d5237f49cc8cdcaf6046c9">''[[:d:Q83365652|Roglo]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0b6394c9b71b4096d2093e1c96ed71f61a31b392bc22d3542305c22bb29142a2">''[[:d:Q2877812|Babelio]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref><ref name="ref_619ad8d627a641ee6d50841bc6cc063806bfc4d7446314bb2cc962a8421d8ee8">''[[:d:Q2451336|Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse 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name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref> | data-sort-value="1901" | 1901-09-29<ref name="ref_dc94c0369b0c0704b1297c5e5d6c30196103b012e010ca8d43a5cc6a1cbde10b">''[[:d:Q37312|Internet Movie Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_db3d99a1e40222a7836ff836e6dfdb5b473e884559e7f11b491d3144e21f587b">''[[:d:Q3407324|Proleksis Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93525d597abfc11843208a057ab6a3214e596cb962c394ca2d936705dc4845c">''[[:d:Q3621644|Archivio Storico Ricordi]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-11-28<ref name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_dc94c0369b0c0704b1297c5e5d6c30196103b012e010ca8d43a5cc6a1cbde10b">''[[:d:Q37312|Internet Movie Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8d5bc70998a03e4a1be5d58f28d1a82850e155813ea86c8aa781c84ac02745f7">''[[:d:Q1165538|Nationalencyklopedin]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93525d597abfc11843208a057ab6a3214e596cb962c394ca2d936705dc4845c">''[[:d:Q3621644|Archivio Storico Ricordi]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref><ref name="ref_70c3bb41c04c4e74e29f145065397a2885b8cb7fefd98c8d87964095ff3cbd94">''[[:d:Q13550863|Národní autority České republiky]]''</ref> | [[physico]]<ref name="ref_b06ed730acad4a7eca00b87d239560af3a784c55907e909314f773e0ffed991c">http://www.nndb.com/honors/032/000111696/</ref><ref name="ref_4e1a7213ac22daaa9a82214ba98de6ff0ba7463795acaadfdbe12e9fd351c38a">http://www.nndb.com/org/107/000099807/</ref><ref name="ref_6d6d14ef6935f845ba538643eaf5a3e1cacdf7094e4caa57ef5e7d4d74434167">''[[:d:Q1373513|NNDB]]''</ref><ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q19350898|physico theoretic]]''<ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q16742096|nuclear physicist]]''<ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1622272|professor universitari]]''<ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref><br/>[[inventor]]<ref name="ref_29ba93b1ca93d8c64dde85704540208bb3edaaa2db10ff864ffae98e001dd774">https://www.biography.com/people/enrico-fermi-9293405</ref> |- | [[:d:Q149997|Q149997]] | [[Zeppo Marx]] | [[File:Zeppo Marx.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1901" | 1901-02-25<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f2c80df09e95b58628606a2c8a10b00cd8a6048c2ebdae04cf3f20d42f6c2393">''[[:d:Q31964|Internet Broadway Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_beb08c37302db59faae18def7df503aa49faa56692d5237f49cc8cdcaf6046c9">''[[:d:Q83365652|Roglo]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1979" | 1979-11-30<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_beb08c37302db59faae18def7df503aa49faa56692d5237f49cc8cdcaf6046c9">''[[:d:Q83365652|Roglo]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref> | [[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q10800557|actor de film]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2259451|actor de theatro]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43845|homine de affaires]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q245068|comico]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[actor]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1344174|talent agent]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]'' |- | [[:d:Q213195|Q213195]] | [[B. F. Skinner]] | [[File:B.F. Skinner at Harvard circa 1950 (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1904" | 1904-03-20<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8281a8144a7f9896829b9934f7bdbb10157c1b2c1978fe441986b385b54a1b6b">''[[:d:Q2629164|ISFDB]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ae14802de020b504b1d9f863cc15934f0614e296be8d86b5ce28f04ad6154ced">''[[:d:Q201469|Solomon R. 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name="ref_12ed35a2d2ef9eff1266874dd71648471802b63bf1569331180a7865e666b933">http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/11/09/us-russia-physicist-idUSTRE5A813520091109</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q19350898|physico theoretic]]'' |- | [[:d:Q39246|Q39246]] | [[Richard Feynman]] | [[File:RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984 copyrightTamikoThiel bw.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1918" | 1918-05-11<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ca4fc94fb0ac2743da55f8ece3ef96cd3ac76a7e28836b162749c62e2da5a96">''[[:d:Q17378135|Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b8e02536ce47e5feb558b98f426388a2d0110578f45693e3976faa86f1584d9b">''[[:d:Q547473|MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_6f91f239bf608caac333415f54e2c4a6a52535385b3ee0f511a3c8aad9f39105">''[[:d:Q107456632|abART]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q16745601|quantum physicist]]''<br/>[[inventor]]<br/>[[scriptor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1622272|professor universitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4351403|percussionista]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19350898|physico theoretic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15143191|science communicator]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q82955|politico]]'' |- | [[:d:Q215574|Q215574]] | [[Mario R Capecchi]] | [[File:MarioCapecchiFotoThalerTamas2.JPG|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1937" | 1937-10-06<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_62eea75b888ac0921f7b330df1c7bd3b7ff45d81efaf968fc7603412d176e110">https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/sep/16/home-computing-pioneer-sir-clive-sinclair-dies-aged-81</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | ''[[:d:Q131524|interprenditor]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<br/>[[inventor]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q82594|computer scientist]]'' |- | [[:d:Q7439|Q7439]] | [[Richard Matthew Stallman]] | [[File:Richard Stallman Bologna 2024 abc1.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1953" | 1953-03-16<ref name="ref_dc94c0369b0c0704b1297c5e5d6c30196103b012e010ca8d43a5cc6a1cbde10b">''[[:d:Q37312|Internet Movie Database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_34e46dbfa37bac3c07eedb582f5b0c7a2996302c003e5f19915712beae24475a">''[[:d:Q10855166|The Fine Art 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name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_8b0a327cfc00f7c0d07d4d61a30e67b8df5171572af575b03421261860e5f2fa">''[[:d:Q29861311|SNAC]]''</ref><ref name="ref_fded7aef1d55ee02519f9762a808b0bc88fa657da1816a59e0144c549e9a8ace">''[[:d:Q63056|Find a Grave]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0b6394c9b71b4096d2093e1c96ed71f61a31b392bc22d3542305c22bb29142a2">''[[:d:Q2877812|Babelio]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec875aeb59436376ae3bca9b22aab5b87c90d11190c1703734a35406a107becf">''[[:d:Q1789619|Croatian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_8023c974aba1e9f2ff175b48ef1111017a582ed846e23b218cfdf99f7d99fe40">''[[:d:Q19938912|BnF authorities]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q131524|interprenditor]]''<ref name="ref_34a8d05cd161c94c3f52a81fe94b9e2e94eaa7666f12232a2bf408070bc0312c">''[[:d:Q2494649|Union List of Artist Names]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[inventor]]<ref name="ref_d40158da4c9ae8346325b8aa977616fff40ae1180590a7603dee20f05c00e262">http://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/steve-jobs-dead-apple-confirms-former-ceo-loses-cancer-fight-20111006-1lag8.html</ref><ref name="ref_8d0df4043168bee7e1d596ec80433d51b90b9988691f70e1c30d2500b178cadf">http://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/steve-jobs-quits-as-apple-ceo-20110825-1jat8.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q5322166|designator]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q82594|computer scientist]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1053574|executive producer]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3282637|productor de cinema]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1979607|financier]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q133253419|technology entrepreneur]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1210069|general manager]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4479442|founder]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref> |- | [[:d:Q4273363|Q4273363]] | [[Frances H. Arnold]] | [[File:Frances Arnold in 2021 at Caltech 01 (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-07-25<ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581072|feminin]]'' | [[Biochimico|biochimista]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1622272|professor universitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]'' |- | [[:d:Q34253|Q34253]] | [[Linus Torvalds]] | [[File:Lc3 2018 (263682303) (cropped).jpeg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1969" | 1969-12-28<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0b6394c9b71b4096d2093e1c96ed71f61a31b392bc22d3542305c22bb29142a2">''[[:d:Q2877812|Babelio]]''</ref><ref 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name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43845|homine de affaires]]'' |- | [[:d:Q317521|Q317521]] | [[Elon Musk]] | [[File:Elon Musk (54816836217) (cropped 2) (b).jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1971" | 1971-06-28<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_cd05ff4b2e7c80737dcfea926f6951432d0720738c84d35ef2684788cb398210">''[[:d:Q98769076|GeneaStar]]''</ref><ref name="ref_beb08c37302db59faae18def7df503aa49faa56692d5237f49cc8cdcaf6046c9">''[[:d:Q83365652|Roglo]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d93dab851f5a062783f73c103680ec63bc8865c6c5d40177ae8b6d19640a9a63">''[[:d:Q107343683|Munzinger Personen]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]''<ref name="ref_d00d5359b9635927475ffc0b606d7622658d6b4d1a877ac4368dcb0c1c0fde54">https://www.notablebiographies.com/news/Li-Ou/Musk-Elon.html</ref><ref name="ref_7d2be0d41e3e070d322e3e74db28dc07788157999622a6f219686a488170ede0">''[[:d:Q23833686|Catalog of the German National Library]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q5482740|programmator]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q131524|interprenditor]]''<ref name="ref_7d2be0d41e3e070d322e3e74db28dc07788157999622a6f219686a488170ede0">''[[:d:Q23833686|Catalog of the German National Library]]''</ref><ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q557880|investor]]''<ref name="ref_7d2be0d41e3e070d322e3e74db28dc07788157999622a6f219686a488170ede0">''[[:d:Q23833686|Catalog of the German National Library]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q82955|politico]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q212238|civil servant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q133253419|technology entrepreneur]]''<br/>[[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11481802|dub actor]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1979607|financier]]''<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q12362622|philanthropo]]''<ref name="ref_c8fd69863c21b6a94d6f94a0584bbdbbd51d18e1748e883480a71007e98b0b9d">https://fortune.com/2022/12/12/elon-musk-gave-5-7-billion-to-charity-last-year-where-it-went-was-a-mystery-until-now/</ref><ref name="ref_9ccb877e74b8355fe73fa7bb9824a2407b43a0f2515765018f8c59583749e26b">https://eu.detroitnews.com/story/business/2022/12/12/musks-5-7-billion-mystery-gift-went-to-his-own-charity/69722448007/</ref> |- | [[:d:Q227030|Q227030]] | [[Mark Shuttleworth]] | [[File:Markshuttleworth-dublin-20101116.jpg|center|48px]] | data-sort-value="1973" | 1973-09-18 | | ''[[:d:Q6581097|mascule]]'' | ''[[:d:Q131524|interprenditor]]''<br/>[[astronauta]]<br/>''[[:d:Q81096|ingeniero]]''<br/>[[inventor]]<br/>''[[:d:Q82594|computer scientist]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q8246794|blogger]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43845|homine de affaires]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q183888|software developer]]''<ref name="ref_046b87b212b11beda13eee5625fdac94fcc45d6cb3d39e1a337eb63e2ecd7574">https://code.launchpad.net/~sabdfl</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q20623701|space tourist]]'' |} ---- &sum; 59 items. {{Wikidata list end}} jw73luti0vunxrbl69tew07u2z96bh7 0 39311 698988 591409 2026-08-25T12:29:34Z Interlingvisto 60932 698988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[Datei:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|mini|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] iwn3haqp34lisiwnezafjqvdnv6x2mp 698989 698988 2026-08-25T12:29:59Z Interlingvisto 60932 698989 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] p1di4y4swrrtas3omiz378895dxw2pa 698990 698989 2026-08-25T12:46:17Z Interlingvisto 60932 698990 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition|extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I. (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pura]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. #### Ethica e esthetica In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Anni de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> Tu ha ration. Io debe traducer **tamben le texto intra `[[...]]`**, non solmente le texto exterior. Ecce le version correcte del ultime texto, con le contento de tote le ligamines `[[...]]` in interlingua e le structura MediaWiki preservate: == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reciption == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalismo social|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] k43uduw24g8skvyg7bhidhro9wbqsnb 698991 698990 2026-08-25T12:46:47Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Metaphysica e ethica */ 698991 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition|extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I. (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pura]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Anni de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> Tu ha ration. Io debe traducer **tamben le texto intra `[[...]]`**, non solmente le texto exterior. Ecce le version correcte del ultime texto, con le contento de tote le ligamines `[[...]]` in interlingua e le structura MediaWiki preservate: == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reciption == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalismo social|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] 7ay77acxu2vl7lwyd69tfc6uv5esvjb 698992 698991 2026-08-25T12:47:21Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Reciption */ 698992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition|extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I. (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pura]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Anni de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> Tu ha ration. Io debe traducer **tamben le texto intra `[[...]]`**, non solmente le texto exterior. Ecce le version correcte del ultime texto, con le contento de tote le ligamines `[[...]]` in interlingua e le structura MediaWiki preservate: == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalsocialismo|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] 8e16kfon2zfurqy54whip95c32wx9p6 698994 698992 2026-08-25T12:49:56Z Interlingvisto 60932 698994 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition|extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I. (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pura]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Anni de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> Tu ha ration. Io debe traducer **tamben le texto intra `[[...]]`**, non solmente le texto exterior. Ecce le version correcte del ultime texto, con le contento de tote le ligamines `[[...]]` in interlingua e le structura MediaWiki preservate: == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalsocialismo|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) {{Ref}} == Litteratura == === Ediciones de obras (selection) === * [[Christian Gottfried Körner]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich von Schillers sämmtliche Werke.'' 12 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Tübingen 1812–1815. * ''Schiller’s sämmtliche Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe in Einem Bande. Mit dem Portrait des Dichters, einem Facsimile seiner Handschrift und einem Anhang.'' Cotta, München/Stuttgart/Tübingen 1830. * [[Karl Goedeke]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers sämmtliche Schriften. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe.'' 17 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart 1867–1876. * [[Fritz Jonas]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe.'' 7 Bände. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart/Leipzig/Berlin/Wien 1892–1896. * [[Eduard von der Hellen]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Säkularausgabe.'' 16 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Berlin 1904/05. * [[Conrad Höfer]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Horenausgabe.'' 22 Bände. Müller, München/Leipzig 1910–1914 (bis Bd.&nbsp;15) und Propyläen, Berlin 1920–1926. * ''Schillers Werke. Nationalausgabe.'' Historisch-Kritische Ausgabe. Im Auftrag des Goethe- und Schiller-Archivs, des Schiller-Nationalmuseums und der Deutschen Akademie; Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Julius Petersen (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Julius Petersen]], [[Gerhard Fricke (Germanist)|Gerhard Fricke]], [[Benno von Wiese]] und [[Norbert Oellers]]. 43 Bände. Böhlau, Weimar ab 1943.<ref>[https://www.dla-marbach.de/shop/historisch-kritische-ausgaben/historisch-kritische-ausgabe-schillers-werke-nationalausgabe/ Zur Nationalausgabe im Literaturarchiv Marbach]</ref> * Gerhard Fricke, [[Herbert G. Göpfert]], [[Herbert Stubenrauch (Bibliothekar)|Herbert Stubenrauch]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Auf Grund der Originaldrucke.'' Fünf Bände. Hanser, München 1958/59. * ''Sämtliche Werke. Nach den Ausgaben letzter Hand unter Hinzuziehung der Erstdrucke und Handschriften.'' Einführung von Benno von Wiese, Anmerkungen von Helmut Koopmann. 5 Bände. Winkler, München 1968. * Hans-Günther Thalheim u.&nbsp;a. (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Berliner Ausgabe.'' 10 Bände. Aufbau, Berlin/Weimar 1980–1990 (bis Bd.&nbsp;5) und Berlin 2005. * ''Schiller. Werke und Briefe in zwölf Bänden.'' Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Gerhard Kluge (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Gerhard Kluge]], [[Otto Dann]] und Norbert Oellers. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1992–2002. * ''Friedrich Schiller, Werke'', CD–ROM, [[Digitale Bibliothek (Produkt)|Digitale Bibliothek]] Band 103, [[Directmedia Publishing]], Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-89853-203-8. * [[Albert Meier (Germanist)|Albert Meier]], Peter-André Alt, [[Wolfgang Riedel (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Wolfgang Riedel]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller. Sämtliche Werke in fünf Bänden.'' dtv, München 2005. === Biographias === * [[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit'' (2&nbsp;Bände). Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6 und ISBN 3-406-46225-1. * [[Jörg Aufenanger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Artemis und Winkler, 2004. * Jörg Aufenanger: ''Schiller und die zwei Schwestern.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 2004, ISBN 3-423-24446-1. * [[Friedrich Burschell]]: ''Friedrich Schiller in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' rororo 1958 und öfter. * [[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Das Leben des Friedrich Schiller.'' Insel, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-458-17220-3. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Friedrich Dieckmann]] |Titel=„Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt“ – Der junge Mann Schiller |Verlag=Insel |Ort=Frankfurt am Main |Datum=2005 |ISBN=3-458-17244-0}} * Frank Druffner, Martin Schalhorn: ''Götterpläne und Mäusegeschäfte&nbsp;– Schiller 1759–1805.'' Marbacher Katalog&nbsp;58, Marbach 2005, ISBN 3-937384-11-1 (Katalog der Ausstellung im Schiller-Nationalmuseum Marbach und Schiller-Museum Weimar). * Marie Haller-Nevermann: ''Friedrich Schiller. Ich kann nicht Fürstendiener sein. Eine Biographie.'' Aufbau Verlag, 2004. * [[Helmut Koopmann]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, 2. Auflage 2011. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Friedrich Schiller'' (2 Bände). Metzler, Stuttgart 1966, 2. Auflage 1977. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Schiller und die Folgen.'' Metzler, 2016, ISBN 978-3-476-02650-7. * [[Peter Lahnstein]]: ''Schillers Leben. Biographie.'' List, München 1981. * [[Johannes Lehmann (Journalist)|Johannes Lehmann]]: ''Unser armer Schiller&nbsp;– eine respektlose Annäherung.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-23270-7. * Götz Lothar-Darsow: ''Friedrich Schiller'', Metzler 2000. * [[Norbert Oellers]]: ''Schiller.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1993. * {{NDB|22|759|763|Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller|Norbert Oellers|118607626}} * Claudia Pilling: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2002, ISBN 3-499-50600-9. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Schiller oder Die Erfindung des Deutschen Idealismus.'' Biographie. Hanser, München 2004, ISBN 3-446-20548-9 (auch Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft''. Hanser, München u.&nbsp;a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3. * ''Friedrich Schiller. Eine Dokumentation in Bildern.'' Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach 1979; Lizenzausgabe Insel, Frankfurt am Main. * Helmut Schmiedt: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Literatur Kompakt, Bd. 4. Tectum, Marburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-8288-2970-1. * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Atlantis, Zürich 1967. * [[Gert Ueding]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Beck’sche Reihe, München 1990. * Barbara Wais: ''Die Schiller Chronik.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-458-17245-9. * [[Benno von Wiese]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Metzler/Poeschl, Stuttgart 1959, 3. Auflage 1963. === Altere temas, temas specialisate === * Rostislav Danilevskij: ''Schiller in der russischen Literatur'' (= ''Schriften zur Kultur der Slaven.'' Band 1). Dresden University Press, Dresden 1998, ISBN 3-931828-53-0. * Friedrich Dieckmann: ''„Freiheit ist nur in dem Reich der Träume.“ Schillers Jahrhundertwende.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-458-17455-4. * Thilo Dinkel, Günther Schweizer: ''Vorfahren und Familie des Dichters Friedrich Schiller. Eine genealogische Bestandsaufnahme.'' Südwestdeutsche Ahnenlisten und Ahnentafeln Band.&nbsp;4, Verein für Familien- und Wappenkunde in Württemberg und Baden e.&nbsp;V., Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-934464-08-4. * [[Elmar Dod]]: ''Die Vernünftigkeit der Imagination in Aufklärung und Romantik. Eine komparatistische Studie zu Schillers und Shelleys ästhetischen Theorien in ihrem europäischen Kontext'' (= ''Studien zur deutschen Literatur'', Bd. 84). Max Niemeyer, Tübingen 1985, ISBN 3-484-18084-6<ref>Rezension von [[Ralf Simon]] in: [[Arcadia (Zeitschrift)|Arcadia]], 24, 1 (1989), S. 95–98 [https://edoc.unibas.ch/13992/1/%5Barcadia%5D%20REZENSIONEN.pdf (PDF)].</ref> * Nils Ehlers: ''Zwischen schön und erhaben. Friedrich Schiller als Denker des Politischen. Im Spiegel seiner theoretischen Schriften.'' Cuvillier, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-86955-714-4. * [[Stephan Füssel]]: ''Schiller und seine Verleger.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2005, ISBN 3-458-17243-2. * Georg Günther: ''Friedrich Schillers musikalische Wirkungsgeschichte. Ein Kompendium.'' Teil 1: ''Einleitung und Register.'' Teil 2: ''Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2018, ISBN 978-3-476-04619-2. * Wolfgang Hach, Viola Hach-Wunderle: ''Von Monstern, Pest und Syphilis. Medizingeschichte in fünf Jahrhunderten.'' Schattauer, Stuttgart 2017, ISBN 978-3-7945-3210-0, Kapitel 6: ''Schillers Krankheiten und seine Bestattungen. Neue Erkenntnisse aus der Sicht des Chirurgen,'' S. 91–118 ([https://books.google.de/books?id=Jo5KDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false eingeschränkte Vorschau] bei [[Google Books]]). * [[Leopold Hartmann (Pädagoge)|Leopold Hartmann]]: ''Schillers Jenaer Jahre 1789|1799'' (=Schriften des Stadtmuseums Jena Nr. 24), Stadtmuseum Jena, Jena [1977]. * Jonas Maatsch, Christoph Schmälzle: ''Schillers Schädel – Physiognomie einer fixen Idee.'' Begleitband zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung im Schiller-Museum Weimar, 24. September 2009 bis 31. Januar 2010. Wallstein, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0575-5. * Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit.'' In: ''Hölderlin-Jahrbuch'' 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109. * [[Walter Müller-Seidel]]: ''Friedrich Schiller und die Politik: Nicht das Große, nur das Menschliche geschehe.'' C.&nbsp;H. Beck, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57284-5. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Moralästhetik versus Pflichtethik: Zur Problematik von Schillers Kant-Kritik.'' In: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Schillergesellschaft 65 (2021), ISBN 978-3-8353-5085-4, S. 39–68. * Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schillers Philosophie der Lebenskunst. Zur Ästhetischen Erziehung als einem Projekt der Moderne.'' Turnshare, London 2006, ISBN 1-903343-91-7. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Jörg Noller]] |Titel=Schillers Philosophie des Geistes. Zur ästhetischen Einheit von Vernunft und Natur |Verlag=Nomos |Ort=Baden-Baden |Datum=2022 |ISBN=978-3-495-99938-7}} * Norbert Oellers, Robert Steegers: ''Weimar. Literatur und Leben zur Zeit Goethes'' (= ''Reclam Taschenbuch.'' Nr. 20182). 2., verbesserte Auflage. Reclam, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-020182-4. * [[Georg Ruppelt]]: ''Schiller im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland. Der Versuch einer Gleichschaltung.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 3-476-00410-4. * Georg Ruppelt: ''[[Hitler]] gegen Tell. Die „Gleich- und Ausschaltung“ Friedrich Schillers im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland'' (=&nbsp;''Lesesaal – Erlesenes aus der Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Bibliothek.'' Heft 20). Verlag Niemeyer, Hameln 2005, ISBN 978-3-8271-8820-5. * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Schiller als Philosoph. Eine Anthologie.'' wjs-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-937989-08-0. * [[Heinz Stade]]: ''Unterwegs zu Schiller.'' Aufbau Taschenbuch, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-7466-8117-0. * [[Ferdinand Tönnies]]: ''Schiller als Zeitbürger und Politiker.'' Erstausgabe 1905. In: [[Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe]]. Band.&nbsp;7. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-015840-3, S.&nbsp;3–60 (s.&nbsp;a. ''Tönnies’ Aufsätze über Schiller.'' S.&nbsp;294–321). * [[Torsten Unger]]: ''Freiheitsschwabe und Moraltrompeter – Schillers Kritiker.'' Sutton, Erfurt 2013, ISBN 978-3-95400-300-6. * Andreas Maria Hogrebe: Mein Atem dürstet nach Freiheit – Der Reiseführer zu Friedrich Schiller, Olms Presse, Hildesheim, ISBN 978-3-7582-0803-4 === Super le obra === * [[Georg Bollenbeck]], Lothar Ehrlich (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller: Der unterschätzte Theoretiker.'' 1. Auflage. Böhlau, 2007, ISBN 978-3-412-11906-5. * [[Julius Burggraf]]: ''Schillers Frauengestalten.'' Carl Krabbe, Stuttgart 1897. * {{Literatur |Hrsg=Otto Dann, Norbert Oellers, Ernst Osterkamp |Titel=Schiller als Historiker |Verlag=J. B. Metzler |Ort=Stuttgart |Datum=1995 |ISBN=3-476-01333-2}} * Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018. Print: ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5; E-Book: ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9. * Arnd Meusburger: ''Die bürgerlichen Ideale des 18.&nbsp;Jahrhunderts in Schillers Dramen 1780–1804.'' Dissertation, Universität Innsbruck 1985. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Schillers Moralästhetik als verfehlte Kant-Kritik und die 'Kalokagathia'-Idee.'' (= Literatur und Philosophie, Bd. 6) Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2023, ISBN 978-3-495-99402-3. * [[Ulrich Kittstein]]: ''Das Wagnis der Freiheit. Schillers Dramen in ihrer Epoche''. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2023, ISBN 978-3-534-30010-5. * [[Günter Saße (Germanist)|Günter Saße]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller. Werk-Interpretationen''. Winter, Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 978-3-8253-5037-6. * Gert Sautermeister: ''Idyllik und Dramatik im Werk Friedrich Schillers.'' Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1971. * Karl F. Masuhr: ''Friedrich Schillers Vita, seine Dramen und medizinischen Schriften''. In: Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen. Würzburg 2018, S.&nbsp;45–53. {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] 2crii8rui4mfjvzufhpxieopgimgx9n 698995 698994 2026-08-25T12:50:24Z Interlingvisto 60932 698995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition|extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I. (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Anni de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> Tu ha ration. Io debe traducer **tamben le texto intra `[[...]]`**, non solmente le texto exterior. Ecce le version correcte del ultime texto, con le contento de tote le ligamines `[[...]]` in interlingua e le structura MediaWiki preservate: == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalsocialismo|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) {{Ref}} == Litteratura == === Ediciones de obras (selection) === * [[Christian Gottfried Körner]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich von Schillers sämmtliche Werke.'' 12 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Tübingen 1812–1815. * ''Schiller’s sämmtliche Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe in Einem Bande. Mit dem Portrait des Dichters, einem Facsimile seiner Handschrift und einem Anhang.'' Cotta, München/Stuttgart/Tübingen 1830. * [[Karl Goedeke]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers sämmtliche Schriften. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe.'' 17 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart 1867–1876. * [[Fritz Jonas]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe.'' 7 Bände. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart/Leipzig/Berlin/Wien 1892–1896. * [[Eduard von der Hellen]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Säkularausgabe.'' 16 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Berlin 1904/05. * [[Conrad Höfer]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Horenausgabe.'' 22 Bände. Müller, München/Leipzig 1910–1914 (bis Bd.&nbsp;15) und Propyläen, Berlin 1920–1926. * ''Schillers Werke. Nationalausgabe.'' Historisch-Kritische Ausgabe. Im Auftrag des Goethe- und Schiller-Archivs, des Schiller-Nationalmuseums und der Deutschen Akademie; Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Julius Petersen (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Julius Petersen]], [[Gerhard Fricke (Germanist)|Gerhard Fricke]], [[Benno von Wiese]] und [[Norbert Oellers]]. 43 Bände. Böhlau, Weimar ab 1943.<ref>[https://www.dla-marbach.de/shop/historisch-kritische-ausgaben/historisch-kritische-ausgabe-schillers-werke-nationalausgabe/ Zur Nationalausgabe im Literaturarchiv Marbach]</ref> * Gerhard Fricke, [[Herbert G. Göpfert]], [[Herbert Stubenrauch (Bibliothekar)|Herbert Stubenrauch]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Auf Grund der Originaldrucke.'' Fünf Bände. Hanser, München 1958/59. * ''Sämtliche Werke. Nach den Ausgaben letzter Hand unter Hinzuziehung der Erstdrucke und Handschriften.'' Einführung von Benno von Wiese, Anmerkungen von Helmut Koopmann. 5 Bände. Winkler, München 1968. * Hans-Günther Thalheim u.&nbsp;a. (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Berliner Ausgabe.'' 10 Bände. Aufbau, Berlin/Weimar 1980–1990 (bis Bd.&nbsp;5) und Berlin 2005. * ''Schiller. Werke und Briefe in zwölf Bänden.'' Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Gerhard Kluge (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Gerhard Kluge]], [[Otto Dann]] und Norbert Oellers. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1992–2002. * ''Friedrich Schiller, Werke'', CD–ROM, [[Digitale Bibliothek (Produkt)|Digitale Bibliothek]] Band 103, [[Directmedia Publishing]], Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-89853-203-8. * [[Albert Meier (Germanist)|Albert Meier]], Peter-André Alt, [[Wolfgang Riedel (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Wolfgang Riedel]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller. Sämtliche Werke in fünf Bänden.'' dtv, München 2005. === Biographias === * [[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit'' (2&nbsp;Bände). Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6 und ISBN 3-406-46225-1. * [[Jörg Aufenanger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Artemis und Winkler, 2004. * Jörg Aufenanger: ''Schiller und die zwei Schwestern.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 2004, ISBN 3-423-24446-1. * [[Friedrich Burschell]]: ''Friedrich Schiller in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' rororo 1958 und öfter. * [[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Das Leben des Friedrich Schiller.'' Insel, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-458-17220-3. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Friedrich Dieckmann]] |Titel=„Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt“ – Der junge Mann Schiller |Verlag=Insel |Ort=Frankfurt am Main |Datum=2005 |ISBN=3-458-17244-0}} * Frank Druffner, Martin Schalhorn: ''Götterpläne und Mäusegeschäfte&nbsp;– Schiller 1759–1805.'' Marbacher Katalog&nbsp;58, Marbach 2005, ISBN 3-937384-11-1 (Katalog der Ausstellung im Schiller-Nationalmuseum Marbach und Schiller-Museum Weimar). * Marie Haller-Nevermann: ''Friedrich Schiller. Ich kann nicht Fürstendiener sein. Eine Biographie.'' Aufbau Verlag, 2004. * [[Helmut Koopmann]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, 2. Auflage 2011. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Friedrich Schiller'' (2 Bände). Metzler, Stuttgart 1966, 2. Auflage 1977. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Schiller und die Folgen.'' Metzler, 2016, ISBN 978-3-476-02650-7. * [[Peter Lahnstein]]: ''Schillers Leben. Biographie.'' List, München 1981. * [[Johannes Lehmann (Journalist)|Johannes Lehmann]]: ''Unser armer Schiller&nbsp;– eine respektlose Annäherung.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-23270-7. * Götz Lothar-Darsow: ''Friedrich Schiller'', Metzler 2000. * [[Norbert Oellers]]: ''Schiller.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1993. * {{NDB|22|759|763|Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller|Norbert Oellers|118607626}} * Claudia Pilling: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2002, ISBN 3-499-50600-9. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Schiller oder Die Erfindung des Deutschen Idealismus.'' Biographie. Hanser, München 2004, ISBN 3-446-20548-9 (auch Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft''. Hanser, München u.&nbsp;a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3. * ''Friedrich Schiller. Eine Dokumentation in Bildern.'' Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach 1979; Lizenzausgabe Insel, Frankfurt am Main. * Helmut Schmiedt: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Literatur Kompakt, Bd. 4. Tectum, Marburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-8288-2970-1. * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Atlantis, Zürich 1967. * [[Gert Ueding]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Beck’sche Reihe, München 1990. * Barbara Wais: ''Die Schiller Chronik.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-458-17245-9. * [[Benno von Wiese]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Metzler/Poeschl, Stuttgart 1959, 3. Auflage 1963. === Altere temas, temas specialisate === * Rostislav Danilevskij: ''Schiller in der russischen Literatur'' (= ''Schriften zur Kultur der Slaven.'' Band 1). Dresden University Press, Dresden 1998, ISBN 3-931828-53-0. * Friedrich Dieckmann: ''„Freiheit ist nur in dem Reich der Träume.“ Schillers Jahrhundertwende.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-458-17455-4. * Thilo Dinkel, Günther Schweizer: ''Vorfahren und Familie des Dichters Friedrich Schiller. Eine genealogische Bestandsaufnahme.'' Südwestdeutsche Ahnenlisten und Ahnentafeln Band.&nbsp;4, Verein für Familien- und Wappenkunde in Württemberg und Baden e.&nbsp;V., Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-934464-08-4. * [[Elmar Dod]]: ''Die Vernünftigkeit der Imagination in Aufklärung und Romantik. Eine komparatistische Studie zu Schillers und Shelleys ästhetischen Theorien in ihrem europäischen Kontext'' (= ''Studien zur deutschen Literatur'', Bd. 84). Max Niemeyer, Tübingen 1985, ISBN 3-484-18084-6<ref>Rezension von [[Ralf Simon]] in: [[Arcadia (Zeitschrift)|Arcadia]], 24, 1 (1989), S. 95–98 [https://edoc.unibas.ch/13992/1/%5Barcadia%5D%20REZENSIONEN.pdf (PDF)].</ref> * Nils Ehlers: ''Zwischen schön und erhaben. Friedrich Schiller als Denker des Politischen. Im Spiegel seiner theoretischen Schriften.'' Cuvillier, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-86955-714-4. * [[Stephan Füssel]]: ''Schiller und seine Verleger.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2005, ISBN 3-458-17243-2. * Georg Günther: ''Friedrich Schillers musikalische Wirkungsgeschichte. Ein Kompendium.'' Teil 1: ''Einleitung und Register.'' Teil 2: ''Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2018, ISBN 978-3-476-04619-2. * Wolfgang Hach, Viola Hach-Wunderle: ''Von Monstern, Pest und Syphilis. Medizingeschichte in fünf Jahrhunderten.'' Schattauer, Stuttgart 2017, ISBN 978-3-7945-3210-0, Kapitel 6: ''Schillers Krankheiten und seine Bestattungen. Neue Erkenntnisse aus der Sicht des Chirurgen,'' S. 91–118 ([https://books.google.de/books?id=Jo5KDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false eingeschränkte Vorschau] bei [[Google Books]]). * [[Leopold Hartmann (Pädagoge)|Leopold Hartmann]]: ''Schillers Jenaer Jahre 1789|1799'' (=Schriften des Stadtmuseums Jena Nr. 24), Stadtmuseum Jena, Jena [1977]. * Jonas Maatsch, Christoph Schmälzle: ''Schillers Schädel – Physiognomie einer fixen Idee.'' Begleitband zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung im Schiller-Museum Weimar, 24. September 2009 bis 31. Januar 2010. Wallstein, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0575-5. * Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit.'' In: ''Hölderlin-Jahrbuch'' 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109. * [[Walter Müller-Seidel]]: ''Friedrich Schiller und die Politik: Nicht das Große, nur das Menschliche geschehe.'' C.&nbsp;H. Beck, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57284-5. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Moralästhetik versus Pflichtethik: Zur Problematik von Schillers Kant-Kritik.'' In: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Schillergesellschaft 65 (2021), ISBN 978-3-8353-5085-4, S. 39–68. * Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schillers Philosophie der Lebenskunst. Zur Ästhetischen Erziehung als einem Projekt der Moderne.'' Turnshare, London 2006, ISBN 1-903343-91-7. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Jörg Noller]] |Titel=Schillers Philosophie des Geistes. Zur ästhetischen Einheit von Vernunft und Natur |Verlag=Nomos |Ort=Baden-Baden |Datum=2022 |ISBN=978-3-495-99938-7}} * Norbert Oellers, Robert Steegers: ''Weimar. Literatur und Leben zur Zeit Goethes'' (= ''Reclam Taschenbuch.'' Nr. 20182). 2., verbesserte Auflage. Reclam, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-020182-4. * [[Georg Ruppelt]]: ''Schiller im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland. Der Versuch einer Gleichschaltung.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 3-476-00410-4. * Georg Ruppelt: ''[[Hitler]] gegen Tell. Die „Gleich- und Ausschaltung“ Friedrich Schillers im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland'' (=&nbsp;''Lesesaal – Erlesenes aus der Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Bibliothek.'' Heft 20). Verlag Niemeyer, Hameln 2005, ISBN 978-3-8271-8820-5. * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Schiller als Philosoph. Eine Anthologie.'' wjs-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-937989-08-0. * [[Heinz Stade]]: ''Unterwegs zu Schiller.'' Aufbau Taschenbuch, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-7466-8117-0. * [[Ferdinand Tönnies]]: ''Schiller als Zeitbürger und Politiker.'' Erstausgabe 1905. In: [[Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe]]. Band.&nbsp;7. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-015840-3, S.&nbsp;3–60 (s.&nbsp;a. ''Tönnies’ Aufsätze über Schiller.'' S.&nbsp;294–321). * [[Torsten Unger]]: ''Freiheitsschwabe und Moraltrompeter – Schillers Kritiker.'' Sutton, Erfurt 2013, ISBN 978-3-95400-300-6. * Andreas Maria Hogrebe: Mein Atem dürstet nach Freiheit – Der Reiseführer zu Friedrich Schiller, Olms Presse, Hildesheim, ISBN 978-3-7582-0803-4 === Super le obra === * [[Georg Bollenbeck]], Lothar Ehrlich (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller: Der unterschätzte Theoretiker.'' 1. Auflage. Böhlau, 2007, ISBN 978-3-412-11906-5. * [[Julius Burggraf]]: ''Schillers Frauengestalten.'' Carl Krabbe, Stuttgart 1897. * {{Literatur |Hrsg=Otto Dann, Norbert Oellers, Ernst Osterkamp |Titel=Schiller als Historiker |Verlag=J. B. Metzler |Ort=Stuttgart |Datum=1995 |ISBN=3-476-01333-2}} * Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018. Print: ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5; E-Book: ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9. * Arnd Meusburger: ''Die bürgerlichen Ideale des 18.&nbsp;Jahrhunderts in Schillers Dramen 1780–1804.'' Dissertation, Universität Innsbruck 1985. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Schillers Moralästhetik als verfehlte Kant-Kritik und die 'Kalokagathia'-Idee.'' (= Literatur und Philosophie, Bd. 6) Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2023, ISBN 978-3-495-99402-3. * [[Ulrich Kittstein]]: ''Das Wagnis der Freiheit. Schillers Dramen in ihrer Epoche''. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2023, ISBN 978-3-534-30010-5. * [[Günter Saße (Germanist)|Günter Saße]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller. Werk-Interpretationen''. Winter, Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 978-3-8253-5037-6. * Gert Sautermeister: ''Idyllik und Dramatik im Werk Friedrich Schillers.'' Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1971. * Karl F. Masuhr: ''Friedrich Schillers Vita, seine Dramen und medizinischen Schriften''. In: Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen. Würzburg 2018, S.&nbsp;45–53. {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] 7fwbo88qnvnbb9u1g4hel63u6nxrtpx 698996 698995 2026-08-25T12:51:10Z Interlingvisto 60932 698996 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition|extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I. (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Anni de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> Tu ha ration. Io debe traducer **tamben le texto intra `[[...]]`**, non solmente le texto exterior. Ecce le version correcte del ultime texto, con le contento de tote le ligamines `[[...]]` in interlingua e le structura MediaWiki preservate: == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalsocialismo|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) == Litteratura == === Ediciones de obras (selection) === * [[Christian Gottfried Körner]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich von Schillers sämmtliche Werke.'' 12 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Tübingen 1812–1815. * ''Schiller’s sämmtliche Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe in Einem Bande. Mit dem Portrait des Dichters, einem Facsimile seiner Handschrift und einem Anhang.'' Cotta, München/Stuttgart/Tübingen 1830. * [[Karl Goedeke]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers sämmtliche Schriften. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe.'' 17 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart 1867–1876. * [[Fritz Jonas]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe.'' 7 Bände. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart/Leipzig/Berlin/Wien 1892–1896. * [[Eduard von der Hellen]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Säkularausgabe.'' 16 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Berlin 1904/05. * [[Conrad Höfer]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Horenausgabe.'' 22 Bände. Müller, München/Leipzig 1910–1914 (bis Bd.&nbsp;15) und Propyläen, Berlin 1920–1926. * ''Schillers Werke. Nationalausgabe.'' Historisch-Kritische Ausgabe. Im Auftrag des Goethe- und Schiller-Archivs, des Schiller-Nationalmuseums und der Deutschen Akademie; Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Julius Petersen (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Julius Petersen]], [[Gerhard Fricke (Germanist)|Gerhard Fricke]], [[Benno von Wiese]] und [[Norbert Oellers]]. 43 Bände. Böhlau, Weimar ab 1943.<ref>[https://www.dla-marbach.de/shop/historisch-kritische-ausgaben/historisch-kritische-ausgabe-schillers-werke-nationalausgabe/ Zur Nationalausgabe im Literaturarchiv Marbach]</ref> * Gerhard Fricke, [[Herbert G. Göpfert]], [[Herbert Stubenrauch (Bibliothekar)|Herbert Stubenrauch]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Auf Grund der Originaldrucke.'' Fünf Bände. Hanser, München 1958/59. * ''Sämtliche Werke. Nach den Ausgaben letzter Hand unter Hinzuziehung der Erstdrucke und Handschriften.'' Einführung von Benno von Wiese, Anmerkungen von Helmut Koopmann. 5 Bände. Winkler, München 1968. * Hans-Günther Thalheim u.&nbsp;a. (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Berliner Ausgabe.'' 10 Bände. Aufbau, Berlin/Weimar 1980–1990 (bis Bd.&nbsp;5) und Berlin 2005. * ''Schiller. Werke und Briefe in zwölf Bänden.'' Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Gerhard Kluge (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Gerhard Kluge]], [[Otto Dann]] und Norbert Oellers. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1992–2002. * ''Friedrich Schiller, Werke'', CD–ROM, [[Digitale Bibliothek (Produkt)|Digitale Bibliothek]] Band 103, [[Directmedia Publishing]], Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-89853-203-8. * [[Albert Meier (Germanist)|Albert Meier]], Peter-André Alt, [[Wolfgang Riedel (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Wolfgang Riedel]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller. Sämtliche Werke in fünf Bänden.'' dtv, München 2005. === Biographias === * [[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit'' (2&nbsp;Bände). Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6 und ISBN 3-406-46225-1. * [[Jörg Aufenanger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Artemis und Winkler, 2004. * Jörg Aufenanger: ''Schiller und die zwei Schwestern.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 2004, ISBN 3-423-24446-1. * [[Friedrich Burschell]]: ''Friedrich Schiller in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' rororo 1958 und öfter. * [[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Das Leben des Friedrich Schiller.'' Insel, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-458-17220-3. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Friedrich Dieckmann]] |Titel=„Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt“ – Der junge Mann Schiller |Verlag=Insel |Ort=Frankfurt am Main |Datum=2005 |ISBN=3-458-17244-0}} * Frank Druffner, Martin Schalhorn: ''Götterpläne und Mäusegeschäfte&nbsp;– Schiller 1759–1805.'' Marbacher Katalog&nbsp;58, Marbach 2005, ISBN 3-937384-11-1 (Katalog der Ausstellung im Schiller-Nationalmuseum Marbach und Schiller-Museum Weimar). * Marie Haller-Nevermann: ''Friedrich Schiller. Ich kann nicht Fürstendiener sein. Eine Biographie.'' Aufbau Verlag, 2004. * [[Helmut Koopmann]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, 2. Auflage 2011. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Friedrich Schiller'' (2 Bände). Metzler, Stuttgart 1966, 2. Auflage 1977. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Schiller und die Folgen.'' Metzler, 2016, ISBN 978-3-476-02650-7. * [[Peter Lahnstein]]: ''Schillers Leben. Biographie.'' List, München 1981. * [[Johannes Lehmann (Journalist)|Johannes Lehmann]]: ''Unser armer Schiller&nbsp;– eine respektlose Annäherung.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-23270-7. * Götz Lothar-Darsow: ''Friedrich Schiller'', Metzler 2000. * [[Norbert Oellers]]: ''Schiller.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1993. * {{NDB|22|759|763|Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller|Norbert Oellers|118607626}} * Claudia Pilling: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2002, ISBN 3-499-50600-9. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Schiller oder Die Erfindung des Deutschen Idealismus.'' Biographie. Hanser, München 2004, ISBN 3-446-20548-9 (auch Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft''. Hanser, München u.&nbsp;a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3. * ''Friedrich Schiller. Eine Dokumentation in Bildern.'' Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach 1979; Lizenzausgabe Insel, Frankfurt am Main. * Helmut Schmiedt: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Literatur Kompakt, Bd. 4. Tectum, Marburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-8288-2970-1. * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Atlantis, Zürich 1967. * [[Gert Ueding]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Beck’sche Reihe, München 1990. * Barbara Wais: ''Die Schiller Chronik.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-458-17245-9. * [[Benno von Wiese]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Metzler/Poeschl, Stuttgart 1959, 3. Auflage 1963. === Altere temas, temas specialisate === * Rostislav Danilevskij: ''Schiller in der russischen Literatur'' (= ''Schriften zur Kultur der Slaven.'' Band 1). Dresden University Press, Dresden 1998, ISBN 3-931828-53-0. * Friedrich Dieckmann: ''„Freiheit ist nur in dem Reich der Träume.“ Schillers Jahrhundertwende.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-458-17455-4. * Thilo Dinkel, Günther Schweizer: ''Vorfahren und Familie des Dichters Friedrich Schiller. Eine genealogische Bestandsaufnahme.'' Südwestdeutsche Ahnenlisten und Ahnentafeln Band.&nbsp;4, Verein für Familien- und Wappenkunde in Württemberg und Baden e.&nbsp;V., Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-934464-08-4. * [[Elmar Dod]]: ''Die Vernünftigkeit der Imagination in Aufklärung und Romantik. Eine komparatistische Studie zu Schillers und Shelleys ästhetischen Theorien in ihrem europäischen Kontext'' (= ''Studien zur deutschen Literatur'', Bd. 84). Max Niemeyer, Tübingen 1985, ISBN 3-484-18084-6<ref>Rezension von [[Ralf Simon]] in: [[Arcadia (Zeitschrift)|Arcadia]], 24, 1 (1989), S. 95–98 [https://edoc.unibas.ch/13992/1/%5Barcadia%5D%20REZENSIONEN.pdf (PDF)].</ref> * Nils Ehlers: ''Zwischen schön und erhaben. Friedrich Schiller als Denker des Politischen. Im Spiegel seiner theoretischen Schriften.'' Cuvillier, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-86955-714-4. * [[Stephan Füssel]]: ''Schiller und seine Verleger.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2005, ISBN 3-458-17243-2. * Georg Günther: ''Friedrich Schillers musikalische Wirkungsgeschichte. Ein Kompendium.'' Teil 1: ''Einleitung und Register.'' Teil 2: ''Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2018, ISBN 978-3-476-04619-2. * Wolfgang Hach, Viola Hach-Wunderle: ''Von Monstern, Pest und Syphilis. Medizingeschichte in fünf Jahrhunderten.'' Schattauer, Stuttgart 2017, ISBN 978-3-7945-3210-0, Kapitel 6: ''Schillers Krankheiten und seine Bestattungen. Neue Erkenntnisse aus der Sicht des Chirurgen,'' S. 91–118 ([https://books.google.de/books?id=Jo5KDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false eingeschränkte Vorschau] bei [[Google Books]]). * [[Leopold Hartmann (Pädagoge)|Leopold Hartmann]]: ''Schillers Jenaer Jahre 1789|1799'' (=Schriften des Stadtmuseums Jena Nr. 24), Stadtmuseum Jena, Jena [1977]. * Jonas Maatsch, Christoph Schmälzle: ''Schillers Schädel – Physiognomie einer fixen Idee.'' Begleitband zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung im Schiller-Museum Weimar, 24. September 2009 bis 31. Januar 2010. Wallstein, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0575-5. * Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit.'' In: ''Hölderlin-Jahrbuch'' 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109. * [[Walter Müller-Seidel]]: ''Friedrich Schiller und die Politik: Nicht das Große, nur das Menschliche geschehe.'' C.&nbsp;H. Beck, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57284-5. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Moralästhetik versus Pflichtethik: Zur Problematik von Schillers Kant-Kritik.'' In: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Schillergesellschaft 65 (2021), ISBN 978-3-8353-5085-4, S. 39–68. * Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schillers Philosophie der Lebenskunst. Zur Ästhetischen Erziehung als einem Projekt der Moderne.'' Turnshare, London 2006, ISBN 1-903343-91-7. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Jörg Noller]] |Titel=Schillers Philosophie des Geistes. Zur ästhetischen Einheit von Vernunft und Natur |Verlag=Nomos |Ort=Baden-Baden |Datum=2022 |ISBN=978-3-495-99938-7}} * Norbert Oellers, Robert Steegers: ''Weimar. Literatur und Leben zur Zeit Goethes'' (= ''Reclam Taschenbuch.'' Nr. 20182). 2., verbesserte Auflage. Reclam, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-020182-4. * [[Georg Ruppelt]]: ''Schiller im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland. Der Versuch einer Gleichschaltung.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 3-476-00410-4. * Georg Ruppelt: ''[[Hitler]] gegen Tell. Die „Gleich- und Ausschaltung“ Friedrich Schillers im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland'' (=&nbsp;''Lesesaal – Erlesenes aus der Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Bibliothek.'' Heft 20). Verlag Niemeyer, Hameln 2005, ISBN 978-3-8271-8820-5. * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Schiller als Philosoph. Eine Anthologie.'' wjs-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-937989-08-0. * [[Heinz Stade]]: ''Unterwegs zu Schiller.'' Aufbau Taschenbuch, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-7466-8117-0. * [[Ferdinand Tönnies]]: ''Schiller als Zeitbürger und Politiker.'' Erstausgabe 1905. In: [[Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe]]. Band.&nbsp;7. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-015840-3, S.&nbsp;3–60 (s.&nbsp;a. ''Tönnies’ Aufsätze über Schiller.'' S.&nbsp;294–321). * [[Torsten Unger]]: ''Freiheitsschwabe und Moraltrompeter – Schillers Kritiker.'' Sutton, Erfurt 2013, ISBN 978-3-95400-300-6. * Andreas Maria Hogrebe: Mein Atem dürstet nach Freiheit – Der Reiseführer zu Friedrich Schiller, Olms Presse, Hildesheim, ISBN 978-3-7582-0803-4 === Super le obra === * [[Georg Bollenbeck]], Lothar Ehrlich (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller: Der unterschätzte Theoretiker.'' 1. Auflage. Böhlau, 2007, ISBN 978-3-412-11906-5. * [[Julius Burggraf]]: ''Schillers Frauengestalten.'' Carl Krabbe, Stuttgart 1897. * {{Literatur |Hrsg=Otto Dann, Norbert Oellers, Ernst Osterkamp |Titel=Schiller als Historiker |Verlag=J. B. Metzler |Ort=Stuttgart |Datum=1995 |ISBN=3-476-01333-2}} * Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018. Print: ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5; E-Book: ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9. * Arnd Meusburger: ''Die bürgerlichen Ideale des 18.&nbsp;Jahrhunderts in Schillers Dramen 1780–1804.'' Dissertation, Universität Innsbruck 1985. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Schillers Moralästhetik als verfehlte Kant-Kritik und die 'Kalokagathia'-Idee.'' (= Literatur und Philosophie, Bd. 6) Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2023, ISBN 978-3-495-99402-3. * [[Ulrich Kittstein]]: ''Das Wagnis der Freiheit. Schillers Dramen in ihrer Epoche''. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2023, ISBN 978-3-534-30010-5. * [[Günter Saße (Germanist)|Günter Saße]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller. Werk-Interpretationen''. Winter, Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 978-3-8253-5037-6. * Gert Sautermeister: ''Idyllik und Dramatik im Werk Friedrich Schillers.'' Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1971. * Karl F. Masuhr: ''Friedrich Schillers Vita, seine Dramen und medizinischen Schriften''. In: Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen. Würzburg 2018, S.&nbsp;45–53. {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] 41v89yi6xhd1shrkbvjfpz5g1yqn1p2 698997 698996 2026-08-25T13:10:52Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Anni de Weimar ab 1799 */ 698997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citizenship|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citizenship francese|citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[eleve|alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition|extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I. (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Annios de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> Tu ha ration. Io debe traducer **tamben le texto intra `[[...]]`**, non solmente le texto exterior. Ecce le version correcte del ultime texto, con le contento de tote le ligamines `[[...]]` in interlingua e le structura MediaWiki preservate: == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalsocialismo|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) == Litteratura == === Ediciones de obras (selection) === * [[Christian Gottfried Körner]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich von Schillers sämmtliche Werke.'' 12 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Tübingen 1812–1815. * ''Schiller’s sämmtliche Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe in Einem Bande. Mit dem Portrait des Dichters, einem Facsimile seiner Handschrift und einem Anhang.'' Cotta, München/Stuttgart/Tübingen 1830. * [[Karl Goedeke]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers sämmtliche Schriften. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe.'' 17 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart 1867–1876. * [[Fritz Jonas]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe.'' 7 Bände. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart/Leipzig/Berlin/Wien 1892–1896. * [[Eduard von der Hellen]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Säkularausgabe.'' 16 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Berlin 1904/05. * [[Conrad Höfer]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Horenausgabe.'' 22 Bände. Müller, München/Leipzig 1910–1914 (bis Bd.&nbsp;15) und Propyläen, Berlin 1920–1926. * ''Schillers Werke. Nationalausgabe.'' Historisch-Kritische Ausgabe. Im Auftrag des Goethe- und Schiller-Archivs, des Schiller-Nationalmuseums und der Deutschen Akademie; Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Julius Petersen (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Julius Petersen]], [[Gerhard Fricke (Germanist)|Gerhard Fricke]], [[Benno von Wiese]] und [[Norbert Oellers]]. 43 Bände. Böhlau, Weimar ab 1943.<ref>[https://www.dla-marbach.de/shop/historisch-kritische-ausgaben/historisch-kritische-ausgabe-schillers-werke-nationalausgabe/ Zur Nationalausgabe im Literaturarchiv Marbach]</ref> * Gerhard Fricke, [[Herbert G. Göpfert]], [[Herbert Stubenrauch (Bibliothekar)|Herbert Stubenrauch]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Auf Grund der Originaldrucke.'' Fünf Bände. Hanser, München 1958/59. * ''Sämtliche Werke. Nach den Ausgaben letzter Hand unter Hinzuziehung der Erstdrucke und Handschriften.'' Einführung von Benno von Wiese, Anmerkungen von Helmut Koopmann. 5 Bände. Winkler, München 1968. * Hans-Günther Thalheim u.&nbsp;a. (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Berliner Ausgabe.'' 10 Bände. Aufbau, Berlin/Weimar 1980–1990 (bis Bd.&nbsp;5) und Berlin 2005. * ''Schiller. Werke und Briefe in zwölf Bänden.'' Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Gerhard Kluge (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Gerhard Kluge]], [[Otto Dann]] und Norbert Oellers. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1992–2002. * ''Friedrich Schiller, Werke'', CD–ROM, [[Digitale Bibliothek (Produkt)|Digitale Bibliothek]] Band 103, [[Directmedia Publishing]], Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-89853-203-8. * [[Albert Meier (Germanist)|Albert Meier]], Peter-André Alt, [[Wolfgang Riedel (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Wolfgang Riedel]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller. Sämtliche Werke in fünf Bänden.'' dtv, München 2005. === Biographias === * [[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit'' (2&nbsp;Bände). Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6 und ISBN 3-406-46225-1. * [[Jörg Aufenanger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Artemis und Winkler, 2004. * Jörg Aufenanger: ''Schiller und die zwei Schwestern.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 2004, ISBN 3-423-24446-1. * [[Friedrich Burschell]]: ''Friedrich Schiller in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' rororo 1958 und öfter. * [[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Das Leben des Friedrich Schiller.'' Insel, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-458-17220-3. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Friedrich Dieckmann]] |Titel=„Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt“ – Der junge Mann Schiller |Verlag=Insel |Ort=Frankfurt am Main |Datum=2005 |ISBN=3-458-17244-0}} * Frank Druffner, Martin Schalhorn: ''Götterpläne und Mäusegeschäfte&nbsp;– Schiller 1759–1805.'' Marbacher Katalog&nbsp;58, Marbach 2005, ISBN 3-937384-11-1 (Katalog der Ausstellung im Schiller-Nationalmuseum Marbach und Schiller-Museum Weimar). * Marie Haller-Nevermann: ''Friedrich Schiller. Ich kann nicht Fürstendiener sein. Eine Biographie.'' Aufbau Verlag, 2004. * [[Helmut Koopmann]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, 2. Auflage 2011. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Friedrich Schiller'' (2 Bände). Metzler, Stuttgart 1966, 2. Auflage 1977. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Schiller und die Folgen.'' Metzler, 2016, ISBN 978-3-476-02650-7. * [[Peter Lahnstein]]: ''Schillers Leben. Biographie.'' List, München 1981. * [[Johannes Lehmann (Journalist)|Johannes Lehmann]]: ''Unser armer Schiller&nbsp;– eine respektlose Annäherung.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-23270-7. * Götz Lothar-Darsow: ''Friedrich Schiller'', Metzler 2000. * [[Norbert Oellers]]: ''Schiller.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1993. * {{NDB|22|759|763|Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller|Norbert Oellers|118607626}} * Claudia Pilling: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2002, ISBN 3-499-50600-9. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Schiller oder Die Erfindung des Deutschen Idealismus.'' Biographie. Hanser, München 2004, ISBN 3-446-20548-9 (auch Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft''. Hanser, München u.&nbsp;a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3. * ''Friedrich Schiller. Eine Dokumentation in Bildern.'' Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach 1979; Lizenzausgabe Insel, Frankfurt am Main. * Helmut Schmiedt: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Literatur Kompakt, Bd. 4. Tectum, Marburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-8288-2970-1. * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Atlantis, Zürich 1967. * [[Gert Ueding]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Beck’sche Reihe, München 1990. * Barbara Wais: ''Die Schiller Chronik.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-458-17245-9. * [[Benno von Wiese]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Metzler/Poeschl, Stuttgart 1959, 3. Auflage 1963. === Altere temas, temas specialisate === * Rostislav Danilevskij: ''Schiller in der russischen Literatur'' (= ''Schriften zur Kultur der Slaven.'' Band 1). Dresden University Press, Dresden 1998, ISBN 3-931828-53-0. * Friedrich Dieckmann: ''„Freiheit ist nur in dem Reich der Träume.“ Schillers Jahrhundertwende.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-458-17455-4. * Thilo Dinkel, Günther Schweizer: ''Vorfahren und Familie des Dichters Friedrich Schiller. Eine genealogische Bestandsaufnahme.'' Südwestdeutsche Ahnenlisten und Ahnentafeln Band.&nbsp;4, Verein für Familien- und Wappenkunde in Württemberg und Baden e.&nbsp;V., Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-934464-08-4. * [[Elmar Dod]]: ''Die Vernünftigkeit der Imagination in Aufklärung und Romantik. Eine komparatistische Studie zu Schillers und Shelleys ästhetischen Theorien in ihrem europäischen Kontext'' (= ''Studien zur deutschen Literatur'', Bd. 84). Max Niemeyer, Tübingen 1985, ISBN 3-484-18084-6<ref>Rezension von [[Ralf Simon]] in: [[Arcadia (Zeitschrift)|Arcadia]], 24, 1 (1989), S. 95–98 [https://edoc.unibas.ch/13992/1/%5Barcadia%5D%20REZENSIONEN.pdf (PDF)].</ref> * Nils Ehlers: ''Zwischen schön und erhaben. Friedrich Schiller als Denker des Politischen. Im Spiegel seiner theoretischen Schriften.'' Cuvillier, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-86955-714-4. * [[Stephan Füssel]]: ''Schiller und seine Verleger.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2005, ISBN 3-458-17243-2. * Georg Günther: ''Friedrich Schillers musikalische Wirkungsgeschichte. Ein Kompendium.'' Teil 1: ''Einleitung und Register.'' Teil 2: ''Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2018, ISBN 978-3-476-04619-2. * Wolfgang Hach, Viola Hach-Wunderle: ''Von Monstern, Pest und Syphilis. Medizingeschichte in fünf Jahrhunderten.'' Schattauer, Stuttgart 2017, ISBN 978-3-7945-3210-0, Kapitel 6: ''Schillers Krankheiten und seine Bestattungen. Neue Erkenntnisse aus der Sicht des Chirurgen,'' S. 91–118 ([https://books.google.de/books?id=Jo5KDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false eingeschränkte Vorschau] bei [[Google Books]]). * [[Leopold Hartmann (Pädagoge)|Leopold Hartmann]]: ''Schillers Jenaer Jahre 1789|1799'' (=Schriften des Stadtmuseums Jena Nr. 24), Stadtmuseum Jena, Jena [1977]. * Jonas Maatsch, Christoph Schmälzle: ''Schillers Schädel – Physiognomie einer fixen Idee.'' Begleitband zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung im Schiller-Museum Weimar, 24. September 2009 bis 31. Januar 2010. Wallstein, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0575-5. * Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit.'' In: ''Hölderlin-Jahrbuch'' 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109. * [[Walter Müller-Seidel]]: ''Friedrich Schiller und die Politik: Nicht das Große, nur das Menschliche geschehe.'' C.&nbsp;H. Beck, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57284-5. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Moralästhetik versus Pflichtethik: Zur Problematik von Schillers Kant-Kritik.'' In: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Schillergesellschaft 65 (2021), ISBN 978-3-8353-5085-4, S. 39–68. * Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schillers Philosophie der Lebenskunst. Zur Ästhetischen Erziehung als einem Projekt der Moderne.'' Turnshare, London 2006, ISBN 1-903343-91-7. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Jörg Noller]] |Titel=Schillers Philosophie des Geistes. Zur ästhetischen Einheit von Vernunft und Natur |Verlag=Nomos |Ort=Baden-Baden |Datum=2022 |ISBN=978-3-495-99938-7}} * Norbert Oellers, Robert Steegers: ''Weimar. Literatur und Leben zur Zeit Goethes'' (= ''Reclam Taschenbuch.'' Nr. 20182). 2., verbesserte Auflage. Reclam, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-020182-4. * [[Georg Ruppelt]]: ''Schiller im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland. Der Versuch einer Gleichschaltung.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 3-476-00410-4. * Georg Ruppelt: ''[[Hitler]] gegen Tell. Die „Gleich- und Ausschaltung“ Friedrich Schillers im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland'' (=&nbsp;''Lesesaal – Erlesenes aus der Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Bibliothek.'' Heft 20). Verlag Niemeyer, Hameln 2005, ISBN 978-3-8271-8820-5. * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Schiller als Philosoph. Eine Anthologie.'' wjs-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-937989-08-0. * [[Heinz Stade]]: ''Unterwegs zu Schiller.'' Aufbau Taschenbuch, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-7466-8117-0. * [[Ferdinand Tönnies]]: ''Schiller als Zeitbürger und Politiker.'' Erstausgabe 1905. In: [[Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe]]. Band.&nbsp;7. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-015840-3, S.&nbsp;3–60 (s.&nbsp;a. ''Tönnies’ Aufsätze über Schiller.'' S.&nbsp;294–321). * [[Torsten Unger]]: ''Freiheitsschwabe und Moraltrompeter – Schillers Kritiker.'' Sutton, Erfurt 2013, ISBN 978-3-95400-300-6. * Andreas Maria Hogrebe: Mein Atem dürstet nach Freiheit – Der Reiseführer zu Friedrich Schiller, Olms Presse, Hildesheim, ISBN 978-3-7582-0803-4 === Super le obra === * [[Georg Bollenbeck]], Lothar Ehrlich (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller: Der unterschätzte Theoretiker.'' 1. Auflage. Böhlau, 2007, ISBN 978-3-412-11906-5. * [[Julius Burggraf]]: ''Schillers Frauengestalten.'' Carl Krabbe, Stuttgart 1897. * {{Literatur |Hrsg=Otto Dann, Norbert Oellers, Ernst Osterkamp |Titel=Schiller als Historiker |Verlag=J. B. Metzler |Ort=Stuttgart |Datum=1995 |ISBN=3-476-01333-2}} * Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018. Print: ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5; E-Book: ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9. * Arnd Meusburger: ''Die bürgerlichen Ideale des 18.&nbsp;Jahrhunderts in Schillers Dramen 1780–1804.'' Dissertation, Universität Innsbruck 1985. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Schillers Moralästhetik als verfehlte Kant-Kritik und die 'Kalokagathia'-Idee.'' (= Literatur und Philosophie, Bd. 6) Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2023, ISBN 978-3-495-99402-3. * [[Ulrich Kittstein]]: ''Das Wagnis der Freiheit. Schillers Dramen in ihrer Epoche''. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2023, ISBN 978-3-534-30010-5. * [[Günter Saße (Germanist)|Günter Saße]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller. Werk-Interpretationen''. Winter, Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 978-3-8253-5037-6. * Gert Sautermeister: ''Idyllik und Dramatik im Werk Friedrich Schillers.'' Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1971. * Karl F. Masuhr: ''Friedrich Schillers Vita, seine Dramen und medizinischen Schriften''. In: Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen. Würzburg 2018, S.&nbsp;45–53. {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] fu975aqehs0700e51zo184mi0iufk04 698998 698997 2026-08-25T13:12:31Z Interlingvisto 60932 698998 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citatania|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{" |Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Annios de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalsocialismo|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) == Litteratura == === Ediciones de obras (selection) === * [[Christian Gottfried Körner]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich von Schillers sämmtliche Werke.'' 12 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Tübingen 1812–1815. * ''Schiller’s sämmtliche Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe in Einem Bande. Mit dem Portrait des Dichters, einem Facsimile seiner Handschrift und einem Anhang.'' Cotta, München/Stuttgart/Tübingen 1830. * [[Karl Goedeke]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers sämmtliche Schriften. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe.'' 17 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart 1867–1876. * [[Fritz Jonas]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe.'' 7 Bände. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart/Leipzig/Berlin/Wien 1892–1896. * [[Eduard von der Hellen]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Säkularausgabe.'' 16 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Berlin 1904/05. * [[Conrad Höfer]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Horenausgabe.'' 22 Bände. Müller, München/Leipzig 1910–1914 (bis Bd.&nbsp;15) und Propyläen, Berlin 1920–1926. * ''Schillers Werke. Nationalausgabe.'' Historisch-Kritische Ausgabe. Im Auftrag des Goethe- und Schiller-Archivs, des Schiller-Nationalmuseums und der Deutschen Akademie; Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Julius Petersen (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Julius Petersen]], [[Gerhard Fricke (Germanist)|Gerhard Fricke]], [[Benno von Wiese]] und [[Norbert Oellers]]. 43 Bände. Böhlau, Weimar ab 1943.<ref>[https://www.dla-marbach.de/shop/historisch-kritische-ausgaben/historisch-kritische-ausgabe-schillers-werke-nationalausgabe/ Zur Nationalausgabe im Literaturarchiv Marbach]</ref> * Gerhard Fricke, [[Herbert G. Göpfert]], [[Herbert Stubenrauch (Bibliothekar)|Herbert Stubenrauch]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Auf Grund der Originaldrucke.'' Fünf Bände. Hanser, München 1958/59. * ''Sämtliche Werke. Nach den Ausgaben letzter Hand unter Hinzuziehung der Erstdrucke und Handschriften.'' Einführung von Benno von Wiese, Anmerkungen von Helmut Koopmann. 5 Bände. Winkler, München 1968. * Hans-Günther Thalheim u.&nbsp;a. (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Berliner Ausgabe.'' 10 Bände. Aufbau, Berlin/Weimar 1980–1990 (bis Bd.&nbsp;5) und Berlin 2005. * ''Schiller. Werke und Briefe in zwölf Bänden.'' Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Gerhard Kluge (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Gerhard Kluge]], [[Otto Dann]] und Norbert Oellers. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1992–2002. * ''Friedrich Schiller, Werke'', CD–ROM, [[Digitale Bibliothek (Produkt)|Digitale Bibliothek]] Band 103, [[Directmedia Publishing]], Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-89853-203-8. * [[Albert Meier (Germanist)|Albert Meier]], Peter-André Alt, [[Wolfgang Riedel (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Wolfgang Riedel]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller. Sämtliche Werke in fünf Bänden.'' dtv, München 2005. === Biographias === * [[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit'' (2&nbsp;Bände). Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6 und ISBN 3-406-46225-1. * [[Jörg Aufenanger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Artemis und Winkler, 2004. * Jörg Aufenanger: ''Schiller und die zwei Schwestern.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 2004, ISBN 3-423-24446-1. * [[Friedrich Burschell]]: ''Friedrich Schiller in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' rororo 1958 und öfter. * [[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Das Leben des Friedrich Schiller.'' Insel, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-458-17220-3. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Friedrich Dieckmann]] |Titel=„Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt“ – Der junge Mann Schiller |Verlag=Insel |Ort=Frankfurt am Main |Datum=2005 |ISBN=3-458-17244-0}} * Frank Druffner, Martin Schalhorn: ''Götterpläne und Mäusegeschäfte&nbsp;– Schiller 1759–1805.'' Marbacher Katalog&nbsp;58, Marbach 2005, ISBN 3-937384-11-1 (Katalog der Ausstellung im Schiller-Nationalmuseum Marbach und Schiller-Museum Weimar). * Marie Haller-Nevermann: ''Friedrich Schiller. Ich kann nicht Fürstendiener sein. Eine Biographie.'' Aufbau Verlag, 2004. * [[Helmut Koopmann]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, 2. Auflage 2011. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Friedrich Schiller'' (2 Bände). Metzler, Stuttgart 1966, 2. Auflage 1977. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Schiller und die Folgen.'' Metzler, 2016, ISBN 978-3-476-02650-7. * [[Peter Lahnstein]]: ''Schillers Leben. Biographie.'' List, München 1981. * [[Johannes Lehmann (Journalist)|Johannes Lehmann]]: ''Unser armer Schiller&nbsp;– eine respektlose Annäherung.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-23270-7. * Götz Lothar-Darsow: ''Friedrich Schiller'', Metzler 2000. * [[Norbert Oellers]]: ''Schiller.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1993. * {{NDB|22|759|763|Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller|Norbert Oellers|118607626}} * Claudia Pilling: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2002, ISBN 3-499-50600-9. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Schiller oder Die Erfindung des Deutschen Idealismus.'' Biographie. Hanser, München 2004, ISBN 3-446-20548-9 (auch Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft''. Hanser, München u.&nbsp;a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3. * ''Friedrich Schiller. Eine Dokumentation in Bildern.'' Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach 1979; Lizenzausgabe Insel, Frankfurt am Main. * Helmut Schmiedt: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Literatur Kompakt, Bd. 4. Tectum, Marburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-8288-2970-1. * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Atlantis, Zürich 1967. * [[Gert Ueding]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Beck’sche Reihe, München 1990. * Barbara Wais: ''Die Schiller Chronik.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-458-17245-9. * [[Benno von Wiese]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Metzler/Poeschl, Stuttgart 1959, 3. Auflage 1963. === Altere temas, temas specialisate === * Rostislav Danilevskij: ''Schiller in der russischen Literatur'' (= ''Schriften zur Kultur der Slaven.'' Band 1). Dresden University Press, Dresden 1998, ISBN 3-931828-53-0. * Friedrich Dieckmann: ''„Freiheit ist nur in dem Reich der Träume.“ Schillers Jahrhundertwende.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-458-17455-4. * Thilo Dinkel, Günther Schweizer: ''Vorfahren und Familie des Dichters Friedrich Schiller. Eine genealogische Bestandsaufnahme.'' Südwestdeutsche Ahnenlisten und Ahnentafeln Band.&nbsp;4, Verein für Familien- und Wappenkunde in Württemberg und Baden e.&nbsp;V., Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-934464-08-4. * [[Elmar Dod]]: ''Die Vernünftigkeit der Imagination in Aufklärung und Romantik. Eine komparatistische Studie zu Schillers und Shelleys ästhetischen Theorien in ihrem europäischen Kontext'' (= ''Studien zur deutschen Literatur'', Bd. 84). Max Niemeyer, Tübingen 1985, ISBN 3-484-18084-6<ref>Rezension von [[Ralf Simon]] in: [[Arcadia (Zeitschrift)|Arcadia]], 24, 1 (1989), S. 95–98 [https://edoc.unibas.ch/13992/1/%5Barcadia%5D%20REZENSIONEN.pdf (PDF)].</ref> * Nils Ehlers: ''Zwischen schön und erhaben. Friedrich Schiller als Denker des Politischen. Im Spiegel seiner theoretischen Schriften.'' Cuvillier, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-86955-714-4. * [[Stephan Füssel]]: ''Schiller und seine Verleger.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2005, ISBN 3-458-17243-2. * Georg Günther: ''Friedrich Schillers musikalische Wirkungsgeschichte. Ein Kompendium.'' Teil 1: ''Einleitung und Register.'' Teil 2: ''Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2018, ISBN 978-3-476-04619-2. * Wolfgang Hach, Viola Hach-Wunderle: ''Von Monstern, Pest und Syphilis. Medizingeschichte in fünf Jahrhunderten.'' Schattauer, Stuttgart 2017, ISBN 978-3-7945-3210-0, Kapitel 6: ''Schillers Krankheiten und seine Bestattungen. Neue Erkenntnisse aus der Sicht des Chirurgen,'' S. 91–118 ([https://books.google.de/books?id=Jo5KDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false eingeschränkte Vorschau] bei [[Google Books]]). * [[Leopold Hartmann (Pädagoge)|Leopold Hartmann]]: ''Schillers Jenaer Jahre 1789|1799'' (=Schriften des Stadtmuseums Jena Nr. 24), Stadtmuseum Jena, Jena [1977]. * Jonas Maatsch, Christoph Schmälzle: ''Schillers Schädel – Physiognomie einer fixen Idee.'' Begleitband zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung im Schiller-Museum Weimar, 24. September 2009 bis 31. Januar 2010. Wallstein, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0575-5. * Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit.'' In: ''Hölderlin-Jahrbuch'' 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109. * [[Walter Müller-Seidel]]: ''Friedrich Schiller und die Politik: Nicht das Große, nur das Menschliche geschehe.'' C.&nbsp;H. Beck, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57284-5. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Moralästhetik versus Pflichtethik: Zur Problematik von Schillers Kant-Kritik.'' In: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Schillergesellschaft 65 (2021), ISBN 978-3-8353-5085-4, S. 39–68. * Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schillers Philosophie der Lebenskunst. Zur Ästhetischen Erziehung als einem Projekt der Moderne.'' Turnshare, London 2006, ISBN 1-903343-91-7. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Jörg Noller]] |Titel=Schillers Philosophie des Geistes. Zur ästhetischen Einheit von Vernunft und Natur |Verlag=Nomos |Ort=Baden-Baden |Datum=2022 |ISBN=978-3-495-99938-7}} * Norbert Oellers, Robert Steegers: ''Weimar. Literatur und Leben zur Zeit Goethes'' (= ''Reclam Taschenbuch.'' Nr. 20182). 2., verbesserte Auflage. Reclam, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-020182-4. * [[Georg Ruppelt]]: ''Schiller im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland. Der Versuch einer Gleichschaltung.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 3-476-00410-4. * Georg Ruppelt: ''[[Hitler]] gegen Tell. Die „Gleich- und Ausschaltung“ Friedrich Schillers im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland'' (=&nbsp;''Lesesaal – Erlesenes aus der Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Bibliothek.'' Heft 20). Verlag Niemeyer, Hameln 2005, ISBN 978-3-8271-8820-5. * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Schiller als Philosoph. Eine Anthologie.'' wjs-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-937989-08-0. * [[Heinz Stade]]: ''Unterwegs zu Schiller.'' Aufbau Taschenbuch, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-7466-8117-0. * [[Ferdinand Tönnies]]: ''Schiller als Zeitbürger und Politiker.'' Erstausgabe 1905. In: [[Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe]]. Band.&nbsp;7. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-015840-3, S.&nbsp;3–60 (s.&nbsp;a. ''Tönnies’ Aufsätze über Schiller.'' S.&nbsp;294–321). * [[Torsten Unger]]: ''Freiheitsschwabe und Moraltrompeter – Schillers Kritiker.'' Sutton, Erfurt 2013, ISBN 978-3-95400-300-6. * Andreas Maria Hogrebe: Mein Atem dürstet nach Freiheit – Der Reiseführer zu Friedrich Schiller, Olms Presse, Hildesheim, ISBN 978-3-7582-0803-4 === Super le obra === * [[Georg Bollenbeck]], Lothar Ehrlich (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller: Der unterschätzte Theoretiker.'' 1. Auflage. Böhlau, 2007, ISBN 978-3-412-11906-5. * [[Julius Burggraf]]: ''Schillers Frauengestalten.'' Carl Krabbe, Stuttgart 1897. * {{Literatur |Hrsg=Otto Dann, Norbert Oellers, Ernst Osterkamp |Titel=Schiller als Historiker |Verlag=J. B. Metzler |Ort=Stuttgart |Datum=1995 |ISBN=3-476-01333-2}} * Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018. Print: ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5; E-Book: ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9. * Arnd Meusburger: ''Die bürgerlichen Ideale des 18.&nbsp;Jahrhunderts in Schillers Dramen 1780–1804.'' Dissertation, Universität Innsbruck 1985. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Schillers Moralästhetik als verfehlte Kant-Kritik und die 'Kalokagathia'-Idee.'' (= Literatur und Philosophie, Bd. 6) Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2023, ISBN 978-3-495-99402-3. * [[Ulrich Kittstein]]: ''Das Wagnis der Freiheit. Schillers Dramen in ihrer Epoche''. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2023, ISBN 978-3-534-30010-5. * [[Günter Saße (Germanist)|Günter Saße]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller. Werk-Interpretationen''. Winter, Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 978-3-8253-5037-6. * Gert Sautermeister: ''Idyllik und Dramatik im Werk Friedrich Schillers.'' Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1971. * Karl F. Masuhr: ''Friedrich Schillers Vita, seine Dramen und medizinischen Schriften''. In: Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen. Würzburg 2018, S.&nbsp;45–53. {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] 9q1x99ffj7xxpvr44fredpdzwbr4kua 698999 698998 2026-08-25T13:13:10Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Annos incertissime 1783–1789 */ 698999 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} '''Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller''', ab 1802 '''von Schiller''' (* [[10 de novembre]] [[1759]] in [[Marbach al Neckar]]; † [[9 de maio]] [[1805]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un poeta, [[historico]], e [[philosopho]] german. Insimul con [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] e [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ille es considerate como le plus importante representante del [[classicismo de Weimar|litteratura classic german]]. == Vita == === Summario === Friedrich Schiller esseva le sol filio de un [[chirurgo]] e [[officiero]] de [[Württemberg]] e cresceva con su cinque sorores in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]] e plus tarde in [[Ludwigsburg]]. [[Friedrich-Schiller-Gymnasium Ludwigsburg|Ibi]] ille frequentava le schola latin e, post haber superate quatro vices le examine national evangelic, comenciava le 16 de januario 1773 le [[formation de juristas in Germania|studio del jurisprudentia]] al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Tres annos plus tarde ille cambiava al [[medicina]] e in 1780<ref>Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller: ''De discrimine febrium inflammatoriarum et putridarum.'' Dissertation medical, Stuttgart 1780; anque (con traduction del latino per A. Engelhardt) in: ''Friedrich Schiller: Scripte medical.'' Edite per le Deutsche Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Grenzach-Wyhlen 1959, p. 63–134.</ref> obteneva su [[doctorato]]. Con su debut theatral, le drama ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate pro le prime vice in 1782, Schiller faceva immediatemente un contribution importante al drama del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e al litteratura mundial. Il fugi in septembre 1782 a causa del duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] ab [[Ducato de Württemberg|Württemberg]], proque il esseva menaciate de incarceration e interdiction de scriber.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Matthias Luserke-Jaqui |Titel=Schiller-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung |Datum=2011 |ISBN=978-3-476-02406-0 |Seiten=607}}</ref> A fin de 1782, ille trovava protection contra ulterior persecution in Bauerbach apud Meiningen. Ibi ille scribeva le obra ''[[Intriga e Amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e comenciava le labores sur ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''. In le estate de 1783, ille retornava a Mannheim. Finalmente, ille esseva employate como poeta theatral al [[Theatro National de Mannheim]]. Quando su empleo in Mannheim terminava, Schiller viagiava in 1785 a [[Leipzig]] apud su futur amico e protector [[Christian Gottfried Körner]]. Durante le annos sequente, ille incontrava [[Christoph Martin Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in [[Weimar]]. Insimul, illes formava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Ultra su debut theatral e le ''Don Karlos'', le dramas historic ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' pertine particularmente al [[repertorio|repertorio standard]] german. Como autor tanto como theorico, ille esseva un modello e un figura de opposition pro le dramaturgos subsequente. Ultra su obra dramatic, Schiller scribeva numerose tractatos [[esthetica|esthetic]], como ''[[Le scena como institution moral considerate]]'', ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', ''[[Super le education esthetic del homine]]'', ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e ''[[Del sublime]]'', in le quales ille exponeva su poetica e aperiva nove vias al litteratura per un profunditate de reflexion usque alora incognite. Su balladas es inter le plus cognoscite [[poema|poemas]] german. A un nivello equal se trova su [[lyrica reflexive]] e le [[poema didactic]]. Friedrich Schiller esseva de nascentia [[Württemberg|württemberges]], e plus tarde deveniva [[citatania|citatan]] de [[Saxe-Weimar]]. In 1792, le [[citatania francese]] honorari esseva conferite a ille e assi ille recipeva additionalmente le [[citatania francese]] – in recognition de su [[drama]] ''[[Le Brigantes]]'', representate in Paris e interpretate como un luta pro le libertate contra le [[tyrannia]].<ref>[[Ingo von Münch]]: ''Die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit: Vergangenheit – Gegenwart – Zukunft.'' [[De Gruyter]], Rechtswissenschaften, 2007, S. 187. [[http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage](http://books.google.de/books?id=U0BVt0eewacC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187#v=onepage) Die Seite bei Google-Books].</ref> === Origine, education e prime successos === ==== Familia ==== [[File:Marbach am Neckar, Niklastorstraße 31, Schillers Geburtshaus-20160917 -002.jpg|thumb|Le casa natal de Schiller in Marbach al Neckar]] Friedrich Schiller esseva nascite in 1759 in Marbach al Neckar como le secunde infante del [[officiero]], [[chirurgo]] e director del jardinage del corte in Marbach al Neckar [[Johann Kaspar Schiller]] e de su sposa [[Elisabetha Dorothea Schiller]], née Kodweiß, qui esseva le filia de un hostiero e panetero. Friedrich esseva duo annos plus juvene que su soror [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine]], con qui ille developpava un relation intime. Quatro altere sorores nasceva solmente post un intervallo de sex annos; duo de illas moriva durante le infantia. Proque le patre obteneva un empleo como officiero de recrutement e laborava in le citate imperial [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], le familia se transferiva in 1764 a [[Lorch (Württemberg)|Lorch]]. Poco post le nascentia in 1766 de Luise, le secunde soror de Friedrich, le familia se moveva a [[Ludwigsburg]]. In le mesme anno, Friedrich entrava in le [[schola latin]] local. Jam a tredece annos, ille scribeva le obras theatral ''Absalon'' e ''Le Christianos'', ambes del quales ha essite perdite. Per ordine del [[duca]] e contra le voluntate de su genitores, Schiller debeva entrar le 16 de januario 1773 al [[Hohe Karlsschule|Schola Karl]]. Al momento de su entrata, le institution portava ancora brevemente le nomine «Schola militar de plantation»; 54 dies plus tarde, desde le 11 de martio 1773, [[academia militar]], e esseva alora installate al [[Castello Solitude]] apud [[Gerlingen]] (Württemberg)<ref>Ecclesiasticamente, le habitantes evangelic-lutheran del Solitude pertineva al communitate ecclesiastic de Gerlingen; solmente ab 1852 usque a 1942 le loco habitate Solitude esseva anque, in le senso secular, parte del village alora appellate Gerlingen. Le 1 april 1942, le loco habitate Solitude esseva incorporate a Stuttgart.</ref> e in Stuttgart. Schiller comenciava primo un [[studio de derecto]]. Le alumnos esseva submittite a un disciplina militar sever, lo que pote haber contribuite al facto que ille ancora a etate de dece-cinque annos esseva [[enuresi|enuretico]]; duo vices ille esseva severemente punite pro isto. Schiller aspirava clandestinemente [[tabaco de aspirar|tabaco]] e legeva con su camaradas obras alora prohibite. [[File:Die Hohe Carlsschule, Stuttgart.jpg|thumb|upright|Le [[Hohe Carlsschule|Schola Karl]] in Stuttgart, gravura colorate in acciaio secundo un designo de [[Karl Philipp Conz]]]] Le plus ancian portrait cognoscite de Schiller es un [[silhouette]], que le representa como studente del Hohe Carlsschule. Le [[ornamento|ornamentation]] artistic circum le silhouette del juvene Friedrich Schiller esseva create per le [[editor musical]] [[Heinrich Philipp Bossler|Heinrich Philipp Boßler]].<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Franziska [[Adelmann von Adelmannsfelden|Gräfin Adelmann]] |Hrsg=Historischer Verein Ludwigsburg |Titel=Bürgerliches Geistesleben im reichsritterschaftlichen Dorf Heutingsheim im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Pfarrer Johann Friedrich Christmann und Oberamtmann Johann Mader |Sammelwerk=[[Ludwigsburger Geschichtsblätter]] |Band=39 |Verlag=Kommissionsverlag Aigner |Ort=Ludwigsburg |Datum=1986 |ISSN=0179-1842 |Seiten=43}}</ref> ==== Studio de medicina e empleo como medico de regimento ==== Le academia militar esseva transferite le 18 de novembre 1775 ab le Castello Solitude al centro de Stuttgart. Schiller cambiava su campo de studio e se dedicava al [[medicina]]. Durante iste periodo, le obras del poetas del ''[[Tempesta e Impetu]]'' e le poemas de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] le fascinava. In particular, [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]] exerceva un influentia formative sur ille.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref> {{Zitat |Text=Il [Klinger] esseva inter illes qui primo e con fortia influentiava mi mente; Iste impressiones del juventute es indelebile. |Autor=Friedrich Schiller |Quelle=''Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie''. |ref=<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ernst Müller |Titel=Schillers Kabale und Liebe. Eine Studie |Sammelwerk=Sonderdruck aus dem Korrespondenz-Blatt für die Gelehrten- und Realschulen |Verlag=Verlag Franz Fues |Ort=Tübingen |Datum=1882 |Seiten=45 |Online={{Google Buch |BuchID=XFTf2Oc42rgC}}}}</ref>}} In le mesme anno ille scribeva le obra theatral (hodie non plus conservate) ''Le studente de Nassau''. In 1776 appareva su prime poema imprimite, ''Le vespere''. Schiller studiava le obras de [[Plutarch]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] e [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]<ref>Vider [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), Heft 3, S. 430–438. Le numero thematic de autumno portava le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref>. Anque in 1776 ille comenciava a laborar al drama de libertate ''[[Le Brigantes]]''. [[File:Philipp Friedrich von Hetsch - Schiller als Regimentarzt (1781-1782).jpg|thumb|Schiller como medico de regimento. Pictura de [[Philipp Friedrich Hetsch]] (1781/1782)]] In 1779 ille superava le prime examenes medical e peteva su dimission del academia militar pro devenir un [[medico militar]]. Su prime [[disputation|disputation scriptural]] super le philosophia del physiologia (1779) esseva completemente rejectate per le evaluatores — professores e medicos personal del duca Carl Eugen, qui esseva presente al [[disputation]] —. Le justification esseva que iste obra monstrava troppo «foco», e que «le integre mundo erudite» debeva sentir se offendite per le [[alumno]] Schiller. Un exemplo relativemente cognoscite de iste obra es su refusal de recognoscer le facto ja provate alora que le canales del [[aure interne]] es plen de liquidos: {{Citation|Qui vorrea creder que le sono, le plus grande producto del elasticitate, pote esser conducite al spirito per aqua, que possede le minor elasticitate. <ref name="Steinhausen 1986 pp. 503–522">{{cite book | last=[[Michael Steinhausen|Steinhausen]] | first=[[Michael Steinhausen|Michael]] | title=Lehrbuch der Animalischen Physiologie | chapter=Gehörsinn | publisher=J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, München | year=1986 | isbn=978-3-642-54188-9 | doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54187-2_8 | pages=503–522}}, hier S. 503.</ref>}} Solmente un anno plus tarde, post un altere tentativa van con un [[dissertation]] super le morbos febril, le [[grado de doctor]] esseva conferite a ille. Ille voleva ora exercer como medico.<ref>Karl F. Masuhr: ''Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen – Psychosomatische Aspekte ihres Wirkens.'' Würzburg 2018, S. 48.</ref> Tamen, isto esseva concedite a ille solmente in decembre 1780, post le publication de su dissertation ''Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner geistigen.'' In illo, le juvene medico reflecteva super le connexion, justificabile [[anthropologia|anthropologicamente]], inter le nascent «[[psychologia experimental|studio del anima basate super le experientia]]» e un «scientia del medicina» orientate [[psychosomatics|somaticamente]]. Pro isto Schiller esseva classificate inter le contemporanee «medicos philosophic», lo que ja indicava su evolution posterior.<ref>Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schiller – Philosoph und Mediziner.'' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Psychosomatik 1/2009. [[http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf](http://www.izpp.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Ausgabe-1-2009/9-Noetzel_Schiller.pdf) PDF], abgerufen am 16. August 2010.</ref> Inter le amicos de Schiller desde su juventute se trovava le medico [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven]],<ref>vgl. etwa T. Stettner: ''Zwei Jugenfreunde Schillers in Franken.'' In: ''Fränkische Heimat.'' Band 15, 1936, S. 267–269.</ref> que ille habeva cognoscite al Academia de Karls in Stuttgart.<ref>[[Andreas Mettenleiter]]: ''Das Juliusspital in Würzburg. Band III: Medizingeschichte.'' Herausgegeben vom Oberpflegeamt der Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg anlässlich der 425jährigen Wiederkehr der Grundsteinlegung. Stiftung Juliusspital Würzburg (Druck: Bonitas-Bauer), Würzburg 2001, ISBN 3-933964-04-0, S. 222.</ref> [[File:InfRgt Augè 1767.jpg|thumb|100px|Uniform original del [[regimento de grenaderos]] de Augé]] Le medico Schiller, qui habeva obtenite su doctorato, entrava ora in le [[armata de Württemberg|Armata Ducal de Württemberg]] como [[medico de truppa|medico de regimento]] in le [[regimento de grenaderos]] Johann Abraham David von Augé<ref>Vider Oliver Auge: Schillers Kommandeur und Carl Eugens Duzfreund. Johann Abraham David von Augé (1698–1784). In: Herrenberger Persönlichkeiten aus acht Jahrhunderten. Ausgewählt und vorgestellt von [[Roman Janssen]]. Hrsg. von der Stadt [[Herrenberg]]. Herrenberg 1999 (Herrenberger historische Schriften 6), S. 279–282.</ref> (formate in 1767 ex le duo companias de grenaderos del ''(5.) Regimento de infantaria de districto Württemberg'', anque con von Augé como [[chef de regimento]], e con effectivos del battaliones de grenaderos 2, 3 e 4, dissolvite inter 1765 e 1767). Ille esseva probabilemente discontento con su situation professional desde le principio: non solmente le reputation de su regimento esseva, secundo le relato, poco brillante, proque, secundo le description de Schiller, illo consisteva solmente de «240 quasi exclusivemente invalide e mutilate». Le [[sold]] comparativemente modeste del medico de regimento correspondeva aproximativemente a illo de un [[prime tenente]] e permitteva, con 18 [[florino|florinos]] per mense (o 15 florinos secundo le [[Convention monetari|pede conventional de 20 florinos]]), solmente un stilo de vita modeste. Proque alora mancava possibilitates de promotion pro le medicos de truppa, non existeva un perspectiva realiste de un melioration futur del situation. In plus, le duca habeva refusate su requesta de meliorar su ingresos per tractar civiles. Tamen, a altere medicos militar de Württemberg esseva occasionalmente permittite exercer un practica civil, assi como portar vestimentos civil, lo que Schiller habeva requestate al duca. Ma anque isto remaneva prohibite pro ille, ben que le patre de Schiller habeva ja facite conficer un costose costume civil pro su filio.<ref>Gisela Seidel: ''Schiller Erinnerungen. Lebensrückblick in autobiographischer Form.'' Engelsdorfer Verlag, zweite, überarbeitete Auflage, 2009. [[http://www.schiller-biografie.de/](http://www.schiller-biografie.de/) ''Schiller Erinnerungen''] Bei: ''Schiller-Biografie.de.''</ref> ==== ''Le Brigantes'' ==== {{AP|Le Brigantes}} In le [[fortalitio Hohenasperg]] Schiller incontrava le poeta [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart]], incarcerate ibi, qui attirava su attention al thema de ''Le Brigantes''. In 1781 Schiller completava su obra theatral, que esseva imprimite anonymemente in le mesme anno. Le 13 de januario 1782, ''Le Brigantes'' esseva representate pro le prime vice con grande successo per le [[Teatro National de Mannheim#Altere Teatro National de Mannheim de 1777|Teatro de Mannheim]], sub le direction de [[Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg]]. Le obra provocava specialmente inter le publico juvene un grande enthusiasm – juvenes entusiasmate per le libertate fundava in le menses sequente multe «bandas de brigantes» in le sud de Germania. Anque Schiller esseva presente al [[premiere]] con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]], e pro isto ille habeva lassate secretemente le Academia de Karl, sin peter permission official. Quando, quatro menses plus tarde, ille viagiava un secunde vice a Mannheim sin permission de absentia, le duca [[Carl Eugen (Württemberg)|Carl Eugen]] faceva incarcerar le poeta disobediente, como punition, durante dece-quatro dies in [[arresto disciplinari|arresto]] al guardia principal de Stuttgart (hodie superedificate, Königstraße 29)<ref>[[Gustav Wais]]: ''Stuttgart im neunzehnten Jahrhundert.'' Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1955, S. 19.</ref> e prohibeva a ille omne contacto ulterior con le [[Electorate Palatinato|exterior del Palatinato]]. ==== Fuga ex Stuttgart ==== [[File:Stieler Flucht Schiller Streicher@Schillerhaus Weimar.jpg|thumb|Schiller in fuga con su amico Andreas Streicher (pictura de Maximilian Stieler)]] Al initio de 1782 appareva le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'' con 83 poemas, le major parte de illos autorate per Schiller. Quando in augusto del mesme anno un complainta esseva presentate al duca, accusante Schiller de haber denigrate le [[Svizzera]] con su ''Brigantes'' (proque ille face dicer a un del brigantes que [[Graubünden]] es le «[[Athenas]] del fraudatores»<ref>Spiegelberg dice in le 2e acto, 3e scena a Razmann: {{" |… zu einem Spitzbuben will’s Grütz – auch gehört dazu ein eignes Nationalgenie, ein gewisses, daß ich so sage, ''Spitzbubenklima'', und da rat’ ich dir, reis’ du ins Graubündner Land, das ist das Athen der heutigen Gauner.}}</ref>), le conflicto inter le sovereign territorial e le autor se aggravava. Schiller esseva menaciate con [[incarceration in un forte]] e omne ulteriore scriptura non-medical esseva prohibite. Assi, pro Schiller, qui usque tunc habeva hesitate a fugir per consideration verso su patre, dependente del duca, remaner in Stuttgart deveniva definitivamente impossibile. In le nocte del 22 al 23 de septembre 1782, durante que le duca organisava un grande festa con pirotechnia in honor de le grande-duca russe [[Paul I (Russia)|Paul]], le futuro tsar, e de su [[Sophie Dorothee de Württemberg|conjuge]], un neptis de Carl Eugen, Schiller profittava del momento favorabile e fugiva del citate con su amico [[Andreas Streicher]]. Con iste passo Schiller assumeva un grande risco personal, nam como medico militar ille habeva devenite officialmente un [[desertor]]. Ille viagiava primo ancora un vice a [[Mannheim]], ubi ille presentava a Dalberg su nove drama ''[[Le Conspiration de Fiesco in Genoa]]''. Sequeva viages a [[Frankfurt del Main]], [[Oggersheim]] e [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]] in Thuringia. Plus tarde Streicher describeva iste periodo in su libro ''Le fuga de Schiller ex Stuttgart e su residentia in Mannheim de 1782 a 1785''. === Annos incertissime 1783–1789 === [[File:Anton Graff - Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Schiller<br /><small>Pictura al oleo de [[Anton Graff]] (1786–1791)</small><ref>Le prime sessiones habeva loco in le primavera de 1786, e le retrato esseva completate in le autumno de 1791. Le mano dextere de Schiller se appoia sur un scatola de tabaco a sumer (Ellen Strittmatter: ''Schillers Porträts – eine europäische Bildsprache? Ein Blick in die Marbacher Bestände.'' In: Peter-André Alt, [[Marcel Lepper]]: ''Schillers Europa.'' De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-044004-1, p. 174–216, hic p. 195.) Pro le collo de camisia aperte, tal como Schiller lo porta hic, se popularisava le denomination ''[[collare Schiller]]''.</ref> ]] Quando se diffundeva rumores que le duca Carl Eugen tentava obtener le [[extradition]] de Schiller, le poeta, per le intercession de su amico de studios [[Wilhelm von Wolzogen]] (qui maritava [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] in 1794), recipeva in decembre 1782 presso le matre de ille, Henriette von Wolzogen, un asylum discrete con le pseudonymo ''Dr. Ritter'' in le thuringian [[Bauerbach (Grabfeld)|Bauerbach]]. Hic ille completava su labor sur ''[[Intriga e amor|Luise Millerin]]'' e initiava le prime abbozzos de ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]''.<ref>In le loco, isto es commemorate per le [[https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/](https://www.klassik-stiftung.de/schiller-museum-bauerbach/) Museo Schiller Bauerbach].</ref> In le vicin citate de residentia [[Meiningen]], del [[ducato de Saxe-Meiningen]], ille incontrava durante su visitas al biblioteca del corte ducal le bibliothecario [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hermann Reinwald|Wilhelm Reinwald]]. Reinwald forniva Schiller con material de labor e, per su medio, cognosceva le seniora soror de ille [[Christophine Reinwald|Christophine Schiller]], qui ille maritava in 1786. Per invitation del intendente del theatro Dalberg, Schiller retornava in julio 1783 a Mannheim e in septembre assumeva ibi le posto de [[dramaturgo|poeta de theatro]]. In le mesme mense ille cadeva malade del «febre nervose» ([[malaria]]), que esseva endemica in le valle del Rheno, alora ancora paludose. In Mannheim ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Kalb]]. In januario 1784 ''Fiesco'' esseva representate pro le prime vice, e in april 1784 le drama ''Luise Millerin'', que intertanto, sur recommendation del actor [[August Wilhelm Iffland]], habeva recipite le titulo plus attractive pro le publico ''[[Intriga e amor]]''. Ante le ''Societate German de le Palatinato Electoral'' in Mannheim, Schiller teneva in junio 1784 un [[lectura|conferentia]] sur le question «[[Le scena theatral como institution moral|Que effecto pote realmente producer un bon scena theatral permanente?]]».<ref>Plus ben cognoscite sub le titulo del publication: ''Le scena theatral considerate como un institution moral.''</ref> In decembre 1784, le duca [[Karl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar]], qui habeva anteriormente assistite al corte de Darmstadt al lectura per Schiller del prime acto de ''Don Karlos'', le conferiva le titulo de consiliero de Weimar. Post un anno como poeta de theatro in Mannheim, le contracto de Schiller non esseva prolongate per Dalberg, lo que faceva que su ja precari situation financiari se aggravava ancora plus e que le autor multo laudate quasi finiva in le [[torre de debitores]]. [[File:J C Reinhart Schiller auf einem Esel 1787.jpg|thumb|Johann Christian Reinhart: Schiller, cavalcante un asino. (1785/87).]] In april 1785 Schiller viagiava a [[Leipzig]] apud [[Christian Gottfried Körner]], qui le adjutava a sortir de su difficultate economic. Le cognoscentia con Körner, qui inter 1812 e 1816 publicava un edition complete del obras de Schiller, habeva comenciate in junio 1784 con un littera anonyme, ma accompaniate de quatro retratos: Körner e su amico [[Ludwig Ferdinand Huber]] esseva fidanzate con [[Minna Körner|Minna]] e [[Dora Stock]], filias del gravator de Leipzig [[Johann Michael Stock]] (1737–1773), e pro iste relation non conforme al lor classe social illes habeva essite criticate per lor patres del grande burguesia, autoritari. Per iste motivo, le duo copulas de fidanzatos poteva particularmente identificar se con le representation del relation non conforme al classe social in le drama de Schiller ''Intriga e amor'' e, in le mentionate littera anonyme a Schiller, habeva exprimite lor admiration sin limites pro su dramas coragiose: «In un epocha in que le arte se degrada sempre plus a serva servile de ric e potente voluptuarios, il es benvenite quando un homine grande appare e monstra lo que le esser human ancora es capabile de facer hodie.» Schiller respondeva solmente un medie anno plus tarde a iste littera: {{Citation|Vostre litteras […] me attingeva in un del dispositiones le plus triste de mi corde.}} [[File:Schillerhaus Dresden.JPG|thumb|Le [[casetta de Schiller]] sur le vigna de Körner in [[Loschwitz]] apud Dresden, ubi Schiller habitava ab le 13 de septembre 1785 usque al estate de 1787]] Post le felice incontro con le futur amico [[Körner]]<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Tempore. Un biographia.'' Band I, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, p. 252.</ref>, nasceva in le estate e autumno de 1785 le [[Ode (poema)|Ode]] ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Durante su soggiorno in Loschwitz incontrava in le villaggio de [[Elbe|Elbe]] situate al altere latere del [[Elbe|Elbe]] in un stabilimento de bibita<ref>Il se tracta del actual [[Jardino de Schiller]].</ref> le filia del hospite, [[Johanne Justine Segedin|Johanne Justine Segedin]], qui ille plus tarde in 1797 in ''[[Campo de Wallenstein]]'' immortalizava como “[[Gustel von Blasewitz|Gustel de Blasewitz]]”.<ref>Vide ''Campo de Wallenstein'', fin del 5e scena.</ref> In 1786 appareva in le secunde edition del revista ''[[Thalia (revista)]]'' le narration ''Verbrecher aus Infamie. Eine wahre Geschichte,'' que plus tarde esseva publicate sub le titulo ''[[Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre|Le criminal ex honor perdite]]''. Durante le periodo del 17 de april al 21 de maio 1787 Schiller soggiornava in [[Tharandt|Tharandt]] apud Dresde e complereva ibi in le ''[[Schillereck (Tharandt)|Schillereck (Tharandt)]]''<ref>Le hospitio se appella hodie ''Schillereck''.</ref> su ''Don Karlos''. Le 21 de julio 1787 viagiava Schiller a [[Weimar]] e ibi faceva le cognoscentia de [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]] e del prime Kantiano [[Carl Leonhard Reinhold]], qui convinceva Schiller a comenciar su studio de [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] con su scriptos del [[Mensile Berlinese|Mensile Berlinese]]. Durante un viage per [[Rudolstadt]] ille cognosceva [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]] e su soror Caroline, qui deveniva cognoscite sub su nomine marital [[Caroline von Wolzogen]], post haber publicate initialmente sub [[pseudonymo]] in le revista de Schiller ''[[Le Hores|Le Hores]]'' le romanzo ''Agnes von Lilien'', que durante un periodo esseva attribuite a Schiller o Goethe<ref>Assi per [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]]. Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 58.</ref>. In le mesme anno le drama ''Don Karlos'' esseva anque imprimite e immediatemente representate. Le prime incontro inter Schiller e Goethe habeva loco le 14 de decembre 1779 durante le festa de fundation del Stuttgarter Karlsschule in le [[Nove Castello|Nove Castello]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3, p. 17.</ref> Post que Goethe retornava in 1788 de su [[Viage in Italia|Viage in Italia]], le duo poetas entrava pro le prime vice in contacto plus proxime le 7 de septembre 1788 [[Casa de Schiller|in le jardin del familia von Lengefeld]] in Rudolstadt, ben que solmente Schiller habeva interesse a cognoscer se plus proxime. === Consolidation economic 1789–1799 === In le anno 1789 Schiller acceptava un [[professura|professura]] extraordinari in [[Universitate de Jena|Jena]] – contra su sperantias, initialmente sin salario – e inseniava ibi como [[historico]], ben que ille esseva professor de philosophia. Ille se habeva qualificate specialmente con su ''[[Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol|Historia del defection del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]''. Le novella que le popular autor del ''Räuber'' comenciava su activitate docente in Jena provocava ver fulgures de entusiasmo. Le citate integre esseva in agitation. Le affluencia de studentes interessate a su lection inaugural ''[[Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?|Que significa e a qual fin studia on historia universal?]]'' le 26 de maio 1789 superava le capacitate del [[sala de conferentias|sala de conferentias]], assi que le innumerabile auditores debeva subitemente transferer se al sala le plus grande del universitate. Quando finalmente se profila un melioration del situation economic de Schiller per medio del professura – a partir de februario 1790 ille recipeva un salario annual de 200 thalers del duca de Weimar –,<ref>Thomas Prüfer: ''Die Bildung der Geschichte. Friedrich Schiller und die Anfänge der modernen Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Köln 2002, p. 77 ff.</ref> ille demandava per littera in decembre 1789 a [[Louise von Lengefeld]] le mano de su filia Charlotte. Louise von Lengefeld acceptava le matrimonio per littera le 22 de decembre 1789.<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben–Werk–Zeit.'' Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck Verlag. München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6, p. 645.</ref> In le mesme anno appareva le prime edition in libro del romanzo [[fragmento (litteratura)|fragmentari]] ''[[Le visionario|Der Geisterseher]]'', e Schiller faceva amicitia con [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. Post le [[publication de bannos matrimonial|publication de bannos matrimonial]] al [[Dominica de Quadragesima#Dominicas del tempore de Quadragesima|dominica ''Invocavit'']], le 21 de februario 1790, Schiller maritava le 22 de februario 1790 [[Charlotte von Lengefeld]]. Le matrimonio esseva celebrato – in le edificio religiose in Wenigenjena desde alora appellate [[Ecclesia de Schiller|Ecclesia de Schiller]] – per le collega del poeta, le professor de philosophia e pastor [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]. Il esseva le prime matrimonio celebrate per le ecclesiastico.<ref>{{ANNO|gfl|24|01|1865|418|Eine Dichter-Hochzeit|AUTOR=[[Friedrich Helbig (Schriftsteller)|Friedrich Helbig]]|anno-plus=ja}}</ref> Durante un visita a su soror Christophine e su cognato Reinwald in Meiningen, le duca [[Georg I (Sachsen-Meiningen)|Georg I]] conferiva a Friedrich Schiller le titulo de [[consiliero del corte|consiliero del corte]]. Multo indicava alora meliorationes professional e felicitate familial. Ma ja verso le fin del anno Schiller cadeva gravemente malade. Le 3 de januario 1791 ille suffreva in Erfurt un collapso, tussa convulsive e perdite de conscientia intermittente.<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [[https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller](https://www.erfurt-web.de/Friedrich_Schiller) ''Le poeta malade. Schiller e Erfurt.''] In: ''Thüringer Allgemeine.'' 17 de novembre 2012.</ref> A fin de januario e in maio sequeva altere attaccos. Probabilemente Schiller esseva malade de [[tuberculose]], del qual ille non se recuperava plus durante su vita. Le rumor de su morte se diffundeva in le pais e attingeva in junio anque [[Copenhague]], ubi le poeta [[Jens Immanuel Baggesen]] habeva reunite circa se un communitate de admiratores de Schiller. Quando on apprendeva que Schiller ancora viveva, in decembre del mesme anno [[Ernst Heinrich Graf von Schimmelmann]] e [[Friedrich Christian von Augustenburg]], membros del circulo danese de amicos, concedeva a Schiller un [[pension|pension]] annual de 1000 thalers, limitate a tres annos – un multo benvenite alleviation del costo del vita, que temporarimente liberava Schiller del obligationes de ganiar su pan, assi que ille poteva concentrar se completemente sur su studios philosophic e aesthetic.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Hanser, München 2009, p. 89–90.</ref> In le anno 1792 Schiller deveniva citatano honorari del [[Prime Republica Francese|Prime Republica Francese]] pro ''Die Räuber'', insimul con [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]], [[Johann Heinrich Campe]], [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]], [[George Washington]] e [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]. Le motivo esseva plus le reputation de Schiller como rebell que su activitate real. Ben que ille al initio habeva un attitude bastante favorabile verso le [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]], ille tamen prevideva le transformation in le [[Grande Terror (Francia)|regime de terror]] que disprezava libertate e humanitate del [[Jacobinos]], e ille detestava profundemente le executiones de massa subsequente in le Francia revolutionari. In le mesme anno ille completava le ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', e appareva le prime volumine del ''[[Nove Thalia|Nove Thalia]]'' e ''[[Sur le arte tragic|Sur le arte tragic]]''. In 1793 sequeva le scripto ''Sur gratia e dignitate''. Le 14 de septembre nasceva su filio [[Karl von Schiller|Karl]]. In 1794 Schiller cognosceva le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]], qui se declarava disposate a continuar publicar le revista mensual ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]'' e plus tarde le ''[[Almanac del Musas|Almanac del Musas]]'', publicate in 1796 in su prime volumine per [[Salomo Michaelis]] in Neustrelitz. === Ligamine amical con Goethe === [[File:Johann Christian Reinhart - Goethe und Schiller im Gespräch.jpg|thumb|Goethe e Schiller in conversation. Caricatura de [[Johann Christian Reinhart]] (1804)]] Ante que [[Johann Wolfgang de Goethe|Goethe]] e Schiller deveniva le legendari par de amicos del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], qui se visitava quasi cata die e se scambiava ideas non solmente litterari, ma anque philosophic e scientific, se adjutava e se motivava reciprocamente, illes esseva rivales. Goethe se sentiva menaciate per le crescente fama del plus juvene. Pro ille, Schiller esseva initialmente nihil altere que un fastidiosa reminiscientia del epocha de [[Le dolores del juvene Werther|Werther]] e del proprie ''[[Tempesta e impeto]]'', jam superate. E Schiller videva in le jam establite Goethe, qui al prime incontro, arrangiate specialmente per [[Charlotte de Lengefeld]] (le 7 de septembre 1788 in Rudolstadt), le pareva inaccessibile e arrogante, un «prudessa superbe, a qui on debe facer un infante pro humiliar la ante le mundo».<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-2-februar-1789/) ''Lettera de Friedrich Schiller a Gottfried Körner.''] Weimar, 2 de februario 1789.</ref> Lo que postea univa le duo rivales esseva le labor commun super lor proprie obras, nam le objectivo declarate de iste amicitia esseva promover e elevar se reciprocamente per un intense intercambio de pensamentos e sentimentos; su historia non esseva minus que un «prova practic del idea de education in le epocha del Classicismo» durante dece annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe e Schiller. Historia de un amicitia.'' München e altere locos, Hanser 2009, p. 14.</ref> Quando Schiller moriva, pro Goethe un epocha terminava. Le relation habeva devenite tanto intime que Goethe, al morte de Schiller — como ille scribeva in un littera a [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] — credeva perder le medietate de su vita.<ref>"Io pensava perder me ipse, e nunc io perde un amico e con ille le medietate de mi existentia." Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi05zeltgoog/page/164/mode/2up) ''Correspondentia inter Goethe e Zelter durante le annos 1796 a 1832, Prime parte''], ed. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1833, littera de Goethe a Zelter, 1 de junio 1805, 63, p. 164 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe mesme esseva gravemente malade quando Schiller moriva.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: [[https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/werkegoet35goetuoft/page/188/mode/2up) ''Diario e annales como complemento de mi altere confessiones, de 1749 a 1806, vol. 35, Obras de Goethe. Publicate per mandato del Grand-Duchessa Sophie de Saxonia.'']; Hermann Böhlau; Weimar 1892; pp. 188, 190 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Post que Schiller se habeva installate in Jena in le primavera de 1794 e in le estate habeva obtenite de Goethe le promissa de collaborar al revista mensual ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'',<ref>Vider [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/2-an-schiller-24-juni-1794/) ''Littera de Goethe a Schiller.''] Weimar, 24 de junio 1794.</ref> se disveloppava le prime correspondentia amical inter le duo. Post que Schiller habeva scribite su secunde littera a Goethe le 23 de augusto 1794, Goethe le invitava in septembre 1794 a Weimar, e Schiller passava duo septimanas in [[Casa de Goethe|su casa]]. Ille manteneva su habitual ritmo quotidian, id es, dormiva usque al mediedie e laborava durante le nocte. Sapiente le conceptiones moral conservative de Schiller, Goethe e su compagna de longe data [[Christiane Vulpius]] dissimulava lor «[[union libere]]». Christiane e su filio de cinque annos [[Augusto de Goethe|Augusto]] remaneva invisibile in lor proprie casa. In un longe littera a [[Charlotte de Schimmelmann]], cuje marito Ernst Heinrich de Schimmelmann, insimul con Friedrich Christian de Augustenburg, habeva pagate a Schiller un pension desde 1791 durante tres annos pro liberar le de preocupationes financiari post un morbo mortal,<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller03schiuoft/page/174/mode/2up) ''Litteras de Schiller. Tertie tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1893, littera de Schiller a Gottfried Körner, 13 de decembre 1791, p. 174 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/briefwechsel-mit-gottfried-koerner/schiller-an-gottfried-koerner-13-dezember-1791/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Schiller lauda Goethe con insistentia. In le amicitia con Goethe, Schiller vide le plus benefic evento de tote su vita. Goethe possede alte qualitate intellectual. Pro Schiller, ancora plus importante: de tote le personas que ille cognosceva, Goethe habeva, per su ver natura como homine, le plus grande valor. Ille deplora solmente que Goethe esseva aggravate e infelicitate per su cohabitation non-marital con Christiane Vulpius. Iste relation tamen esseva anque ligate a «un parte multo nobile de su character».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: [[https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218](https://archive.org/details/briefeschiller06schiuoft/page/218/mode/2up?q=218) ''Litteras de Schiller. Sexto tomo'']; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt; Stuttgart, Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna 1895, littera de Schiller a C. v. Schimmelmann, 23 de novembre 1800, pp. 218 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]; [[https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/](https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefe-schillers/andere-briefe/schiller-an-c-v-schimmelmann-23-november-1800/) schiller-archiv.de]</ref> Pro Goethe, haber Schiller esseva un fortuna. Lor objectivos concordava, e de isto nasceva un ligamine tanto firme que «in fundo, necuno poteva viver sin le altere», ben que illes habeva naturas oposte.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n224/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, p. 195 in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> Goethe citava como exemplo del differentias que Schiller habeva sempre in su scriptoria un casseta plen de pomos putride, proque lor odor le faceva ben, durante que isto causava mal esser a Goethe.<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: [[https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up](https://archive.org/details/gesprchemitgoei00unkngoog/page/n225/mode/2up) ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita, tertie parte'']; Heinrichshofen, Magdeburg 1848, 07.10.1827, pp. 196 ss. in [[Archivo Internet|Internet Archive]]</ref> 1795 ''Le Horen'' appareva pro le prime vice. Le revista contava inter su collaboratores le plus celebre scriptores e philosophos del epocha.<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=Günter Schulz |Titulo=Le Horen de Schiller. Politica e education. Analyse de un revista german |Loco=Heidelberg |Data=1960}}</ref> Inter illes se trovava, inter alteres, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]], [[Johann Heinrich Voß]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], [[Wilhelm de Humboldt]] e su fratre, le naturalista [[Alexander de Humboldt]].<ref>{{Literatura |Autor=[[Andreas W. Daum]] |Redactor= |Titulo=Relationes social, practicas compartite e emotiones: le excursion de Alexander de Humboldt in le classicismo litterari e le desafios al scientia circa 1800 |Publicationen=Journal of Modern History |Tomo=91 |Data=2019 |Paginas=1–37}}</ref> In le mesme anno Schiller anque completava le tractato ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' e su [[Elegia]] ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]''. 1796 moriva tanto le patre de Schiller como su soror Nanette. Su secunde filio [[Ernst de Schiller|Ernst]] nasceva. De 1796 a 1800 Schiller publicava le ''[[Almanac de le Musas|Almanac de le Musas]]'', un revista litterari al qual, inter alteres, collaborava Goethe, Herder, [[Ludwig Tieck|Tieck]], Hölderlin e August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1797 appareva in le ''Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797'' le ''[[Xenias]]'', in le qual Schiller e Goethe ridiculisava insimul le deficitis litterari. [[File:Schillers-Gartenhaus03.JPG|thumb|Tabula de petra al qual Schiller sovente sedeva con Goethe, in le jardin de su casa de jardin in Jena]] In martio 1797 Schiller acquireva un [[Casa de jardin de Schiller|casa de jardin in Jena]]. Ille passava ibi con su familia le estates del annos 1797 a 1799. Le anno 1797 es appellate le «[[Anno del balladas]]», proque in ille anno nasceva multe balladas de Goethe e Schiller. Schiller esseva particularmente productive: ''[[Le plongeator]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'', ''[[Le anulo de Polycrate]]'', ''Cavaliero Toggenburg'', ''[[Le marcha al martello de ferro]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibycus]]''; in 1798 sequeva le balladas ''[[Le fidejussion]]'' e ''[[Le combate con le dracon]]''. Schiller recipeva finalmente in le mesme anno le documento que le conferiva le status de citatano honorari del Republica Francese. === Kant e Schiller === Vers 1791, le influentia del [[Immanuel Kant|philosophia kantian]] — super toto del [[esthetica]] del ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' — deveniva sempre plus evidente in le opera de Schiller. ==== Metaphysica e ethica ==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Kant habeva superate con su ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' le forma [[dogma|dogmatic]] de [[metaphysica]], del qual il diceva que le destino habeva facite le «innamorate». Le metaphysica, si illo voleva presentarse como scientia, poteva esser comprendite solmente como un limitation critic de illo que le ration reflexive habeva cercate desde sempre: le inevitabile questiones concernente [[Deo]], [[libertate]] e [[immortalitate]]. In fin, le ration non poteva, como le metaphysica dogmatic habeva longemente pretendite, dar informationes certe super iste ideas ultra le [[experientia]], sed solmente monstrar le conditiones del possibilitate del experientia — e dunque etiam le limites del cognoscer. Non le [[cosa in se|cosas in se]] es apprehendite, sed lor [[apparentia]]s. Secundo Kant, illo que le homine apporta de se mesme — [[a priori]] — consisteva in ''formas de intuition'' e [[categoria (philosophia)|categorias]] del intellecto. Kant distingueva de isto le ration, plus precisemente le ideas del ration, que habe un function solmente «regulative» e que ergo non es «representate» in le realitate empiric. Solmente in le forma de un [[analogia (philosophia)|analogia]] un representation ''indirecte'' esseva possibile. Ex iste perspectiva se explica le definition de Kant del belle como «symbolo del moralmente bon».<ref>Kindlers: ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 941, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Secundo Kant, un action que se funda super inclination non pote esser moral, proque in iste caso le [[motivo del voluntate]] esseva [[heteronomia|heteronom]], dunque dependente de factores externe e non expression del libertate. In un action libere, le subjecto approba le lege moral del [[imperativo categoric]] per ''comprension'', mediante le sentimento de «respecto pro le lege» producite per le ration. Le ethica kantian se oppone al [[eudaimonia|eudemonismo]], que considera le virtute como fonte de sentimentos de felicitate. On non age moralmente pro sentir se ben; in le conscientia del libertate (del spontaneitate autonome) ante le lege moral, on senti — como consequentia, non como fin — un sentimento de satisfaction e allegressa. Kant appellava iste complacentia in le virtute «autosatisfaction». Quando le homine es consciente del [[maxima|maximas]] moral e les seque — sin inclination — ille senti le «fonte de un […] satisfaction invariabile associate con illo».<ref name="kant247" /> «Le inclination es ceca e servile, sia illo bon de natura o non.»<ref name="kant247" /> Mesmo le [[compassion]] pareva a Kant «moleste», quando illo precedeva le consideration de lo que es deber. ==== Ethica e esthetica ==== In le ''Critica del judicio'', Kant explicava le beltate per su effecto super le subjecto e distingueva duo formas de «complacentia». Le complacentia esseva primo «desinteressate», isto es, non fundate super le representation del existentia del objecto belle, e secundo relationate al complacentia del ''convenientia interne'' del objecto belle, sin associar con illo un intention practic — per exemplo in le uso del objecto. Le ''judicio libere del gusto'' es, secundo Kant, un prestation creative del [[receptor]]. Körner attirava in 1791 le attention de Schiller al facto que Kant describeva le beltate solmente ab le perspective de su effecto super le subjecto, sin examinar le differentias inter objectos belle eationen. Presque duo annos plus tarde, Schiller comenciava a formular su responsas a iste questiones.<ref>[[Matthias Luserke-Jaqui]]: ''Schiller-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' ''Kallias, oder über die Schönheit.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2005, S. 385.</ref> Como «esthetico del contento», ille definiva le beltate etiam como producto del spirito in le forma del ''belle artistic''. In un littera a Körner in 1792, ille scribeva haber trovate le «concepto objective del belle, al qual Kant habeva desperate», ma plus tarde restringeva de novo iste sperantia. In le prime del [[Litteras de Kallias|litteras de Kallias]] del 25 de januario 1793, le difficultate pro Schiller de «stabilir objectivemente un concepto del beltate e de lo legitimar completemente a priori a partir del natura del ration […] era quasi impossibile de abarcar». Le beltate habita «in le campo del apparentias», ubi non existe spatio pro ideas platonic. Le beltate es un proprietate del cosas, del objectos del cognoscentia, e un «cosa sin proprietates» es impossibile.<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 245.</ref> Schiller formulava hic etiam su formula devenite celebre: le beltate es «libertate in le apparentia». In su tractato philosophic ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'', le prime grande reaction a Kant, in le qual ille formulava su pensamentos — ben que in maniera rhapsodic e non systematico-deductive —<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller. Das essayistische Werk.'' 5.7. ''Kallias-Briefe'' und ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen 2005, S. 247.</ref> Schiller scribeva: «In le philosophia moral kantian, le idea del deber es presentate con un severitate que face fugir de illo omne le Gratie e poterea facilemente tentar un intellecto debile a cercar le perfection moral per le via de un ascetismo obscur e monastic. Quamquam le grande philosopho del mundo essayava de proteger se contra iste interpretation erronee, […] ille lo habeva tamen […] per le sever e contrastante opposition de ambe le principios que age super le voluntate human, un forte (ben que forsan in su intention vix evitabile) motivo pro illo.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 262. Sämtliche Werke, Band V, Philosophische Schriften, Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> In contraste con Kant, ille sustineva le ideal de un moralitate que cercava a unir ''inclination'' e [[deber]]. Il videva iste possibilitate in le dominio del esthetic. Per le arte, le fortias spiritual e sensual debeva developpar se harmonicamente. Le esthetica esseva le via per le qual le homine sensual deveniva rational.<ref>[[Volker Spierling]]: ''Kleine Geschichte der Philosophie. Neuzeit. Im Umkreis des Deutschen Idealismus.'' S. 151, Piper, München 2004.</ref> «In un belle anima es ergo ubi sensualitate e ration, deber e inclination harmonisa, e gratia es su expression in le apparentia.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 265. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Libertate in le senso kantian significa pro le subjecto esser libere de determinationes externe e esser su proprie legislator. Pro Schiller, iste autodetermination appare nunc in le ''autonomia del opera de arte''. In su harmonia, illo pare non sequer un fin externe, sed solmente su proprie leges interne. Durante que Kant determina le belle ab le perspectiva del homine observante, Schiller se concentra etiam super le essentia del objecto artistic belle. Schiller voleva establir un concepto del beltate que mediava inter natura e ration, inter le mundo del sensos e le mundo moral.<ref>Kindlers ''Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14. Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' S. 942, Kindler, München 1991.</ref> Le beltate esseva impossibile sin apparentia sensual; le material sensual — le arte — esseva tamen belle solmente quando illo correspondeva al idea del ration. Le beltate debeva ergo esser considerate como le «citadina de duo mundos, a un del quales illa pertine per nativitate, al altere per adoption; illa recipe su existentia del natura sensual e obtene in le mundo del ration le derecto de citatania».<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Über Anmut und Würde.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band V, S. 240. Philosophische Schriften und Vermischte Schriften, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Pro clarificar le relation inter Kant e Schiller, on ha frequentemente recurrite al celebre [[disticho]] «Scrupulo de conscientia»: «Con placer io servi mi amicos, ma io lo face, regrettabilemente, con inclination / E assi isto me tormenta sovente, que io non es virtuose.»<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Gedichte. Klassische Lyrik.'' Sämtliche Werke, Band III., S. 256. Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen, Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart.</ref> Schiller, tamen, non considerava Kant como adversario, sed como alleato, e ipse indicava le «malinterpretationes» del doctrinas de Kant. Super toto, Schiller evaluava differentemente le interaction inter elementos rational e sensual. Durante que Kant videva isto solmente como un inter multe deberes, Schiller lo considerava essential pro le virtute. Le disticho ergo non reflecte seriemente le opinion de Schiller super le ethica de Kant.<ref>L. W. Beck: ''Kants „Kritik der praktischen Vernunft“.'' S. 297, Anmerkungen, XII. ''Die Ästhetik der reinen praktischen Vernunft.'' Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1974.</ref> === Annios de Weimar ab 1799 === [[File:Gedenktafel Windischenstr 8 (Weimar) Friedrich Schiller.jpg|thumb|Placa commemorative al casa in [[Windischenstraße 8]] in Weimar]] Le 11 de octobre 1799 nasceva su filia Caroline Henriette Luise, e le 3 de decembre Schiller se moveva con su familia a Weimar. In iste anno Schiller terminava ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' e ''[[Le canto del campana]]''. In 1800 ille terminava le labor super le drama ''[[Maria Stuart (Drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', e in 1801 ''[[Le Pulcella de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Pulcella de Orléans]]''. Su poema ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' esseva publicate. In 1802 ille comprava un [[Casa de Schiller|casa]] situate al [[Esplanada de Weimar|Esplanada]] de Weimar, in le qual ille entrava le 29 de april 1802. Le mesme die moriva su matre. In le mesme anno le duca de Saxonia-Weimar demandava al corte imperial de Vienna le elevation de Schiller al [[Nobilitate|nobilitate imperial]]. Le demanda esseva acceptate le 7 de septembre 1802.<ref name=":0">Otto von Alberti, Friedrich Freiherr von Gaisberg-Schöckingen, Albert Freiherr von Botzheim: ''Libro de nobilitate e armas de Württemberg''. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1899, p. 686.</ref> Schiller esseva [[Nobilitation|ennobilitate]] per [[Franz II. (HRR)|Imperator Franz II]] e le 16 de novembre 1802 le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]] le esseva remittite.<ref>Expedition del diploma in le Archivos de Stato austriac ({{Literatur |Autor=Zdislava Röhsner |Titel=Nobilitate pro Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller |Sammelwerk=Archivos de Stato austriac: Archivalia del mense – 2006 bis 2008 |Datum=2009 |Seiten=420–421 |Online=[https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20(neu)%20K.pdf](https://www.oesta.gv.at/dam/jcr:68a3af54-adeb-4c28-8d1d-aacb3dc2c833/Archivalien_des_Monats_2006-2018%20%28neu%29%20K.pdf) |Format=PDF |KBytes=}})</ref> A partir de ille momento ille poteva appellar se ''Friedrich von Schiller''. Le armas conferite monstra un scuto dividite de auro e blau, in alto un unicorno argentee erecte, in basso un travo transversal de auro. Un casco de torneo es ornate de un corona de lauro, le altere casco es coronate per un unicorno.<ref name=":0" /> Le costos del ennobilitation ascendeva a 400 florinos e esseva supportate per le thesauro public de Weimar.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Bayerischer Rundfunk |Titel=16 de novembre 1802: Schiller recipe le diploma de nobilitate |Datum=2011-10-18 |Online=[https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html](https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1611-Schiller100.html) |Abruf=2025-01-24}}</ref> [[File:Schiller Weimar.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Schiller in le actual [[Schillerstraße]] in Weimar]] [[File:View from Friedrich Schiller's bedroom window.jpg|thumb|Le vista desde le camera de dormir del poeta.]] In 1803 Schiller terminava su labores super le drama ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]''. Le 18 de februario 1804 ille terminava ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' e comenciava immediatemente su labores super ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'', que tamen ille non haberea le tempore de completar. Le 25 de julio 1804 nasceva su filia [[Emilie von Gleichen-Rußwurm|Emilie Friederike Henriette]]. Durante iste periodo ille cadeva malade con sempre plus frequencia. === Morte in 1805 === Un jornal diffundeva pauc menses ante le morte de Schiller le false information que ille habeva morite. Ma in februario 1805 Schiller deveniva realmente gravemente malade — le 1 de maio ille incontrava Goethe pro le ultime vice super le cammino al [[Teatro de Corte de Weimar]]. Pauc ante su morte Schiller terminava le traduction del tragedia classic de [[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677). Le 9 de maio Friedrich Schiller moriva in Weimar al etate de 45 annos de un [[pneumonia]] acute presumibilemente causate per un infection de [[tuberculose]]. Secundo le [[autopsia]], le [[pulmon|lobo pulmonar]] dextere de Schiller esseva completemente destruite. Le [[ren]]es esseva quasi dissolvite. Le [[musculo cardiac]] habeva involvite, e le [[splen]] e le [[bile]] esseva fortemente augmentate. Le autopsia esseva effectuate per [[Wilhelm Ernst Christian Huschke]] e [[Gottfried von Herder (Mediziner)|Gottfried von Herder]]. [[Ferdinand Jagemann]] faceva un designo de Schiller super le lecto mortuari. [[Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer]] fabricava su [[mascara mortuari]]. [[File:Schiller Begräbnisstätte.jpg|thumb|Durante le nocte del 12 de maio 1805 Friedrich Schiller esseva inhumate al cemeterio del [[ecclesia de San Jacobo in Weimar]].]] Le corpore de Schiller esseva primo inhumate in le [[volta commun]] del [[Cemeterio de Jacob in Weimar]]. In 1826 on voleva recuperar su restos mortal. Tamen, on non poteva plus identificar los. Postea on transfereva le restos que pareva le plus verisimile a esser le sue al [[Bibliotheca ducissa Anna Amalia]]. In le autumno de 1826 Goethe subtraheva secretemente le cranio ab illac. Solmente su amico [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] esseva informate de isto, ma ille lo refereva a alteres. Contemplante le cranio, Goethe scribeva le poema ''[[Al contemplar le cranio de Schiller]]''. Le restos mortal esseva transferite le 16 de decembre 1827 al [[Cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta del principes]] in le nove cemeterio de Weimar, ubi plus tarde Goethe, secundo su proprie desiro, esseva inhumate «al latere de Schiller». === Le restos ossee de Schiller === [[File:Coudr 05.jpg|thumb|Le [[Cripta del principes de Weimar]] al [[Cemeterio historic de Weimar]].<ref>In 1827 esseva inhumate hic restos mortal que erroneemente esseva attribuite a Friedrich Schiller; hodie le sarcophago es vacue.</ref> ]] In 1911 un altere cranio esseva trovate, que igualmente esseva attribuite a Schiller. Durante annos on disputava super qual esseva le ver cranio. Pro clarificar isto, sur le mandato del [[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk|Radiodiffusion Central German]] (MDR) e del [[Klassik Stiftung Weimar|Fundation Classic de Weimar]], esseva initiate le projecto de recerca «Le codice Friedrich-Schiller», in le quadro del qual on voleva determinar si un del duo cranios designate como cranios de Schiller esseva realmente le cranio de Schiller in le cripta del principes de Weimar. In le primavera de 2008 on arrivava al conclusion que necun del duo cranios poteva esser attribuite a Schiller. Isto esseva demonstrate per elaborate [[analyse de ADN|analyses de ADN]] del restos ossee del sorores de Schiller e per le comparation de iste [[acido desoxyribonucleic|ADN]] con illo extrahite del dentes del duo cranios del cripta del principes. Al mesme tempore esseva realisate un [[reconstruction facial]] del cranio considerate usque alora como authentic. Illa monstrava un similaritate con le visage de Schiller, ben que le scientista non cognosceva le objectivo del projecto. Tamen, proque le analyses de ADN effectuate per duo laboratorios independente esseva considerate definitive, le resultato del reconstruction facial recipeva pauc attention. Le [[scheletro]] que se trovava usque alora in le sarcophago de Schiller esseva igualmente examinate. Su partes pote esser attribuite a al minus tres personas differente; le ADN del cranios de Schiller non corresponde al ADN del partes del scheletro. Assi le ''Fundation Classic de Weimar'' decideva lassar vacue le sarcophago de Schiller in le cripta del principes. Secundo le fundation, on non continuara a cercar le ver cranio.<ref>{{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html](http://www.mdr.de/thueringen/mitte-west-thueringen/artikel78690.html) |text=''Le fundation termina le recerca del cranio de Schiller.'' |wayback=20120710005922}} Consultate le 2 de maio 2013.</ref> Scientistas del [[Universitate Albert Ludwig de Friburg|Universitate de Friburg]] anque terminava sin resultato le recerca del cranio authentic post extensive examinationes del collection de cranios del [[Universitate Eberhard Karl de Tübingen]].<ref>Ralf G. Jahn: ''Genealogia de Schiller: Le codice Friedrich-Schiller.'' Grin Verlag. München 2014, ISBN 3-656-70236-5</ref> == Obra == === Lyrica === ==== Evolution ==== Le prime lyrica de Schiller esseva inicialmente influentiate per modellos como [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] e [[Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart|Schubart]]. Le cognoscentia del [[Biblia]], del [[Ossian]] e le lectura del poetas [[Ovidio]], [[Horatio]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] e del juvene Goethe lassava tracias formal e linguistic que es facile a recognoscer. Duo qualitates le rendeva specialmente popular inter le publico juvene e enthusiastic: le gestos linguistic forti e impetuose e su sensibilitate pro le grande themas actual del societate e del humanitate.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991">Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 916.</ref> Su prime collection de poemas es le ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', que, in addition a poemas proprie, contineva etiam poemas de altere juvenes scriptoros de Swabia. Con iste edition ille creava un contraparte rebelliose al ''Almanac musal de Swabia pro le anno 1782'' de Stäudlin, que le pareva epigonal e innocue. Le poesia contemporanee de Swabia deberea in vice esser plus original e provocative. De facto, Schiller realisava in su proprie poemas de iste collection audaciose experimentos lyric — in particular in su poemas de ''Laura''.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018, ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5 (Print); ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9 (E-Book).</ref> Precisemente le poemas de ''Laura'' dava al provocation literari que ille planeava con su ''Anthologie'' un profunditate philosophic. Tres annos plus tarde nasceva le ode de Schiller ''[[Al Joy|An die Freude]]''. Illo es le poema le plus cognoscite de su periodo in Leipzig e Dresda, proseque le conceptiones cosmologic del poemas de ''Laura'' in le ''Anthologie'' e reflecte le periodo comparativemente felice in le circulo de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]. Ultra le celebre version de [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] in le [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven#Quarte movimento|quarte movimento]] del [[9e Sinfonia de Beethoven|9e sinfonia]], illo esseva ponite al musica plus de 100 vices.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Schillers Lyrik.'' In: Helmut Koopmann (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, S. 327.</ref> Ben que multe de su versos classic posterior esseva extrememente popular e influente, ja al initio del 19e seculo appareva voces critic e mesmo negative, que conduceva finalmente a un appreciation ambivalente. Schiller mesme surprendeva per alcun evalutationes de se bastante rigorose, in le quales ille depreciava su proprie obra e questionava su signification. In un littera a Körner, per exemplo, ille scribeva in 1796: „[…] in comparation con Goethe io es e remane un paupere poeta.“<ref>Citate secundo Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 915.</ref> Ille considerava le „campo lyric“ plus tosto como „un exilio, que pro un provincia conquistate“. Illo esseva le „plus mesquin e ingrato inter tote“. Occasionalmente ille scribeva ancora alcun versos, ben que le effortio que le obra ''Le Artistas'' habeva exigite le dissuadeva de altere tentativas, durante que ille ancora planeava scriber alcun dramas.<ref>Citate secundo Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Del altere latere, on videva in multe de su obras frequentemente popular qualcosa de exemplar, minus a causa de lor qualitate poetic proprie que per le facto que illos contineva elementos characteristic del epocha. Le poemas passionate del ''Anthologie pro le anno 1782'', publicate initialmente anonymemente, concludeva le epocha del genio del [[Tempesta e Impeto]]. Alcun del obras sequente, attribuite al ''periodo median'', esseva determinate per le spirito del [[Illuminismo tardive]] e conduceva al poemas del [[Classicismo de Weimar]], le classification del qual como [[lyrica de ideas]] se monstrava problematic pro Schiller: Precisemente illo conduceva, in comparation con le ''poesia de experientia'' de Goethe, a evalutationes negative e influentiava le reception posterior. Multe de su balladas, per le contrario, esseva extrememente popular inter le grande publico e provocava imitationes que tosto cadeva in oblivion. Solmente [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] se distingue hic como un personalitate poetic tanto original como tragic, in le qual le proximitate a Schiller non le limitava, ma al contrario le stimulava fortemente.<ref name="Norbert Oellers 1991" /> Significativemente, Hölderlin se ligava precisemente al prime lyrica de ideas de Schiller e non a su balladas 'classic' e posteriormente multo popular. Ja in su prime poemas Hölderlin entrava deliberatemente in le competition de superation in le qual le prime poemas de ''Laura'' de Schiller habeva essite create, pro sviluppar, in le confronto con le lyrica de Schiller, un position proprie in le poesia swabian.<ref>Vide a iste proposito Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit''. In: Hölderlin-Jahrbuch 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109.</ref> ==== Schiller e Goethe ==== Durante que [[Lyrica de Goethe]] es reducite al perception directe del cosas e le simple beltate de su versos es laudate, criticos vide frequentemente in Schiller le voluntate superexigente de poner principios philosophic e revendicationes social in versos e, per isto, de producer clichés e platitudes. [[File:JohannWolfgangVonGoethe FriedrichBury.jpg|thumb|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe<br /><small>Designo a creta per [[Friedrich Bury]], 1800</small>]] Precisemente le base plus differentiate theoretic de su lyrica essayava Schiller plus tarde facer fructifere in relation a Goethe. Assi, con su ultime grande obra philosophic ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'', ille voleva inter altere cosas reflecter e justificar su proprie poesia. Si ille la considerava ab un latere deficitaria in comparation con Goethe, ab un altere latere ille la considerava plus avantiate a causa de su fundamento philosophic. Le comparation dolorose con le poeta stilisate como un Olympien, quem ille habeva odiate in silentio durante multe annos,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft.'' Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2009, S. 131.</ref> le conduceva assi al question autocritic si, post annos de speculation philosophic, ille forsan poteva esser mesmo le „melior poeta“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 452.</ref> A un poesia reflectite e ''sentimental'', ille opponeva le poesia natural e ''naive''. Durante que le poeta naive, cuje incarnation es Goethe, imita le realitate in le „stato de simplicitate natural“ e se refere al [[beltate]], le poeta sentimental representa le ideal in le „stato de cultura“.<ref>Carsten Zelle: ''Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.'' In: ''Schiller-Handbuch, Leben – Werk – Wirkung.'' Metzler, Hrsg. Matthias Luserke-Jaqui, Stuttgart 2001, S. 468.</ref> [[File:1831 Schlesinger Philosoph Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Jakob Schlesinger]]: ''Portrait de Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'', 1831]] Ja [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] abordava in su ''Lecturas super le estetica'' le differentias inter le lyrica de Goethe e Schiller e arrivava a un judicio multo plus moderate que le parolas posterior de [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] e [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]]. Ille advertiva contra le denigration de Schiller in comparation con Goethe. Ben que ille recognosceva le „intention de reflexiones abstracte e mesmo le interesse del concepto philosophic […] in alcun de su poemas“, il esseva tamen injuste de opponer su versos „al simplicitate sempre identic e non turbate per conceptos de Goethe“.<ref>Citate secundo [[Peter-André Alt]]. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le grande merito de Schiller consisteva in haber superate le subjectivitate e abstraction kantian del pensamento e haber essayate, ultra illos, de apprehender e configurar le [[reconciliation]] como le veritate per medio del pensamento. Si Schiller se immersava in le profunditates del spirito, Goethe sequeva le aspectos natural del arte e se concentrava super le natura con su plantas e animales, cristallos e nubes. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] sublineava in 1830 le „intellectualitate“ de Schiller como un proprietate particular que habeva besonio de un periodo plus longe pro disveloppar se. Retornante ab un perspectiva psychologic al „theoria-pesantezza“ de Schiller, ille ja poneva in question le schema dualistic. Il esseva injuste de vider su grande poemas como simple ''lyrica de ideas'', proque le intense ''experientias'' esseva ligate a su pensamento e assi a su secunde natura. Pro Humboldt, su versos philosophic non esseva dunque minus ''lyrica de experientia'' que le poemas del juvene Goethe.<ref>Norbert Oellers: ''Friedrich von Schiller. Das lyrische Werk.'' In: ''Kindlers Neues Literatur-Lexikon.'' Bd. 14, München, 1991, S. 918.</ref> Anque [[Hans Mayer (studioso de litteratura)|Hans Mayer]] se opponeva al criterio opprimente del poesia de experientia goethian e essayava determinar le valor particular del lyrica de Schiller. Pro ille, in su obra se manifesta le alternation recurrente inter „exuberantia e resignation“. A differentia de Goethe, ille non cognosceva le „plenitude supreme del momento“, ille momento particular del experientia lyric que pote esser comprendite solmente como un felicitate profunde. Schiller, al contrario, discoperiva in le momento „ante toto su fugacitate“ e „le transitorie in illo“. Le acute [[antithese]]s que traversava tote su obra, que dava al su prosa su impeto e a su dramas un passion exacerbate usque al extreme, clarifica iste question central de su vita. Ja su melancolic obra juvene ''Le Vespere'' de 1776 oppone al imagine del sol occidente — „perfecte como le heroe“ — le mundos de altere mundos plus felice, pro le quales le facie del vespere es le facie del matino.<ref>Walter Schaferschik: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Literaturwissen, Friedrich Schiller, Interpretationen, Lyrik.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1999, S. 37.</ref> Secundo [[Peter-André Alt]], il esserea fatal de mantener le usual „orientation que crea le canon super le lyrica de Goethe“ in relation a Schiller. Ben que alcun poemas de Schiller pote apparer estranie o mesmo imbarassante al lector moderne — per exemplo le [[Le Canto del campana|Canto del campana]] como exemplo grat de su derisores — le ration non es le manco de substantia poetic, sed le tendentia de Schiller a formular veritates que „sona banal“, orientate al valores del vita burgese. Le revendicationes frequentemente mediocre de convivialitate Alt explica per le critica de Schiller al consequentias del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Le poemas in le quales ille opponeva le Antiquitate al modernitate esseva plus mature e testimoniava un reflexion plus profunde. Goethe appare regrettabilemente sovente como un stella fixe, quando in le evolution poetic de Schiller on vide nihil plus que un via verso su linguage imagistic.<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009">Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 253.</ref> Le essentia de su lyrica e su qualitate mesmo in comparation con Goethe pote esser recognoscite si on non ignora le signification poetic del [[allegoria]] e le relation inter imagine e concepto. Schiller rendeva le abstracto concrete per primo assecurar se del possibilitates del ration human, un via que, in le senso de Kant, pote esser apreciate como [[Critica del ration pur#Contento|acto critic]].<ref name="Peter-André Alt 2009" /> Le approcho lyric de Goethe es, in vice, le [[symbolo]]. Il mesme se opponeva al procedimento allegoric de Schiller e, annos post le morte de illo, explicava le differentias. Schiller habeva cercate, como poeta, „le particular in le general“, durante que ille habeva vidite le particular in le general, un methodo que corresponde al proprie „natura del poesia“, proque illo exprime „un particular“ „sin pensar al general o monstrar lo“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 254.</ref> Anni ante, Goethe habeva notate que alcun „objectos“ le habeva ponite in un „disposition poetic“. Ille explicava se que non le imagination, sed le cosas mesme suscitava sentimentos, proque illos „como representantes de multe alteres se presenta, include in se un certe totalitate […] e assi reclama ab exterior como ab interior un certe unitate e universalitate“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt. In: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Quando ille communicava iste „felice discoperimento“ a Schiller e iste reagiva de maniera extrememente laconic, ille esseva inicialmente disappointate. Le character symbolic del poesia de Goethe, secundo Schiller, non esseva un proprietate natural del cosa, sed le producto del phantasia e del imagination sentimental. Si le objecto esseva vacue e sin contento poetic, le imagination human debera essayar de dar un senso plus profunde al apparentias. Non le apparentias esseva significative pro Schiller, sed le differente manieras de sentir, que possede lor proprie valor aesthetic.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le radice del symbolismo de Goethe es su supposition que le apparentias del natura es, in maniera ideal e universal, „profundemente significative“.<ref>Citate secundo Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 255.</ref> Le [[elegia]]s de Goethe del [[annos 1790]] como ''[[Alexis e Dora|Alexis und Dora]]'' e ''[[Le Metamorphose del plantas|Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen]]'' testifica de su conception de considerar le apparentias del natura mesme como significative. Si le symbolo resulta de un cultura sublime del perception, le allegoria seque solmente le imagination pro poter attribuer al apparentias un senso plus profunde. Le [[philosophia del natura]] de Goethe es dunque in su nucleo contrari al concepto de allegoria de Schiller.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit.'' Zweiter Band, Siebentes Kapitel, C. H. Beck, München 2009, S. 256.</ref> === Schiller como historiographo === Le occupation de Schiller con le [[historia]] es characterisate per le appropriation e le evolution del spectrum del ideas [[historia universal|historiographic universal]] del [[Illuminismo]], que ille disveloppava ante toto consequentemente in su scriptos aesthetic ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine|Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen]]'' e ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]''. Le aestheticisation del historia como scientia, le giro anthropologic e le accentuation del homine como objecto del historia, le justification del function educative del historia e le proclamation del methodo del [[analogia historic]] serviva como elementos clave non solmente pro le ulterior evolution del pensamento historic de Schiller in su obras historic ''Historia del defection del Paises Unite del governamento espaniol'' e ''Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos'', sed etiam pro le genese de su drama historic classic. === Narrationes === [[File:Schiller-Galerie komplett Bild 49.jpg|thumb|''Le Principe'' ex le [[Le Visionario|Visionario]]<br /><small>[[Gravura in acciaio]] per [[Conrad Geyer]] secundo [[Arthur von Ramberg]], circa 1859</small>]] Le fama de Schiller non se funda super su [[narration]]es — esseva le dramas e su lyrica que inicialmente le rendeva cognoscite. Assi, il existe solmente un parve quantitate de su [[prosa]], lo que contribueva a facer que ille esseva minus estimato, o mesmo ignorate, como narrator de signification stilistic. Solmente durante le ultime decennios le imagine se cambiava. Le recerca assume hodie que anque su scriptos theoretic debe esser includite in iste categoria, un perspectiva que se reflecte per exemplo in le concepto del ''edition de Frankfurt'', in le qual su narrationes e scriptos historic es reunite in un volumine duple.<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005">Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 171.</ref> Proque le texto ''Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminine'' es un traduction de un fonte de [[Denis Diderot]] e ''Haoh-Kiöh-Tschuen'' es un adaptation fragmentari de un roman traducite del chinese, il existe solmente quatro narrationes del penna de Schiller. Le roman fragmentari [[Le Visionario]] pertine al obras le plus influente del [[litteratura de terror]]<ref>[[Rein A. Zondergeld]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' In: ''Lexikon der phantastischen Literatur.'' Suhrkamp, Phantastische Bibliothek, Frankfurt 1983, S. 218.</ref> e evoca, con elementos frequentemente describite in maniera multo concrete como le [[invocation de spirito|invocation de spirito]] e le [[spiritismo]], le timores de un epocha verso le [[inquietante]].<ref>[[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die deutsche Gespenstergeschichte. Motiv, Form, Entwicklung'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 406). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-40601-2, S. 151.</ref> Con le narrationes ''[[Joco del destino]]'', ''[[Un acto magnanime]]'' e ''[[Le criminal que perdeva su honor]]'', Schiller se occupava de eventos real. In textos a vices multo dense, ille se concentrava ante toto super le [[psychologia|evolution psychologic]] del protagonistas e poteva al mesme tempore indicar problemas social, inter le quales figura le [[execution del penas]].<ref name="Matthias Luserke-Jaqui 2005" /> Le ''Acto magnanime'' es un ''narration moral'', un genere que se disveloppava como tal in le 18e seculo. Schiller se refereva al relato del matre de un condiscipulo del tempore de su education al Karlsschule e scribeva ja al initio de su obra que le anecdota habeva „un merito incontestabile — illo es ver“.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Eine großmütige Handlung. Aus der neusten Geschichte.'' In: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III: Gedichte, Erzählungen, Übersetzungen.'' Deutscher Bücherbund, Stuttgart, S. 455.</ref> Como in su prime dramas, Schiller voleva monstrar hic le ''homine'' real e prender le lector affectivemente plus fortemente que le [[sensibilitate|scriptor sentimental]] [[Samuel Richardson]] con su romanes ''[[Pamela (roman)|Pamela]]'' o ''[[Sir Charles Grandison]]''. Ille iva usque al puncto de mentionar explicitemente iste desiro in su breve narration.<ref>Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 172.</ref> In iste contexto se pone etiam le question de ubi traher le limite inter le narration literari e le narration historic o [[historiographia]]. In un littera a [[Caroline von Wolzogen]] del 10/11 decembre 1788, Schiller parlava del facto que le veritate historic pote esser sentite, ben que le cosas non se habeva realiter passate assi. On apprende „per iste via le ''homine'' e non ''le'' homine, le specie e non le individuo que se perde assi facilemente. In iste grande campo, le poeta es maestro e domino.“<ref>Citate secundo Matthias Luserke-Jaqui: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2005, S. 170.</ref> == Signification in le historia del litteratura == Schiller es un contemporaneo del transition ab le [[absolutismo|epocha absolutista]] al epocha burgese e del [[Revolution Francese|Revolution Francese]]. Proque le [[burguesia]] sub le absolutismo — que in Germania esseva sovente dividite in parve statos — non poteva ni se exprimer ni participar politicmente, le litteratura deveniva in le secunde medietate del 18e seculo un medio central pro le fortification del autoconscientia burgese. Le [[pathos]] e le [[sensibilitate]] in le obras de Schiller usque circa 1785 es expressiones del disveloppamento del human, un principio que se oppone al bruta desiro de domination del aristocratia. Le ''[[drama tragic burgese]]'' como elemento formal predominante (o, in le prime dramas usque a ''[[Intriga e amor]]'', su opposition inter humanitate e desiro de domination) reflecte iste situation. Post le periodo inter 1785 e 1795, con obras como ''Don Karlos'' e tractatos fundamental de theoria litterari como ''Super le education aesthetic del homine'' e ''Super poesia naive e sentimental'', surge inter 1795 e 1805 ante toto dramas que pertine al [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. In illos Schiller poneva in practica le programma del education aesthetic del homine — unir intellecto e sentimento. Ille intendeva, per le effecto super le publico mediante le alternation inter idyllic e dramatic, formar le homine [[aesthetica|aesthetic]] — como condition pro le transition [[non-violentia]] verso un stato [[ration|rational]] e como programma alternative tanto al [[Revolution Francese]] como al politica contemporanee, in le quales ille videva solmente le action de fortias crude. Schiller non es dunque solmente le autor de dramas de grande fortia linguistic e imagistic como ''Le Brigantes'', ''Don Karlos'', ''Le Virgine de Orleans'' o ''Wilhelm Tell''. Ille faceva etiam accessibile a su lectores de lingua german le ideales de ration, humanitate e libertate que se disveloppava durante su (le 18e) seculo. Secundo le proprie parolas de Schiller, le „construction de un ver libertate politic“ es le „plus perfecte de tote le obras de arte“ (''Super le education aesthetic del homine.'' Secunde littera). == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|[[Monumento Goethe-Schiller]] de [[Ernst Rietschel]] in Weimar<ref>Inaugurate in 1857</ref>]] Schiller esseva un del plus importante [[dramaturgo|dramaturgos]], [[poeta lyric|poetas lyric]] e [[essay|essayistas]] de lingua german, assi como un del representantes le plus importante del [[Classicismo de Weimar|litteratura german classic]]. Su obras esseva recipite con entusiasmo non solmente in Germania, ma anque in multe altere paises europee, per exemplo in le ancora non unificate e opprimite [[Italia]] (vide [[Giuseppe Verdi]]), in le [[Russia]] tsarista e in Danmark. Illo esseva ibi que le admirator de Schiller, [[Hans Christian Andersen]], erigeva in le racconto fantastic [[Le vetere campana de ecclesia]] un monumento litterari a ille, in le qual le juvene Friedrich es proclamate como „ille qui un die […] habera grande ricchessas, cuje tesoros benedice le mundo“. Pro alteres, Schiller esseva le poeta del libertate, e tosto anque le defensor del moralitate burgese. Le fortia linguistic e le memorabilitate de su versos, assi como le dialogos de scena precise in lor effecto, faceva que multe de illos deveniva [[Parola alata|parolas alate]]. In 1859 su centesime anniversario esseva celebrate in tote [[Europa]], e mesmo in le SUA. Le editor [[Johann Friedrich Cotta]] vendeva usque a 1867 in total 2,4 milliones de exemplares del edition de su obras. Le burguesia german cultivava in le 19e e anque in le prime parte del 20e seculo un relation con le obras de Schiller que deveniva sempre plus [[reification|reificate]]. Depost que le reformatores del scholas del 19e seculo los habeva introducite in le libros de lectura, on apprendeva „su Schiller“ de memoria e le usava plus como „[[capital cultural]]“ que pro cognoscer le como artista e pensator (vide [[semi-education]]). Ille esseva anque appretiate como poeta del libertate in le german [[movimento del laboratores]] e in le [[associationes de education del laboratores]]. Ma circulos de orientation nationalista essayava tamben de appropriar se del poeta secundo lor proprie intention. Assi, in 1906, esseva fundate le [[Liga German de Schiller]]. Le [[Nationalsocialismo|National-socialistas]] essayava post lor accession al poter primo de appropriar se de Schiller como un „poeta german“ in lor senso. In 1941, tamen, le representation de ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' esseva prohibite per ordine de [[Adolf Hitler]]. Hitler videva in illo le glorification de un tirator de emboscada suisse qui habeva committite un tyrannicidio.<ref>Georg Ruppelt: {{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf](http://www.lmz-bw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienbildung_MCO/fileadmin/bibliothek/ruppelt_tellverbot/ruppelt_tellverbot.pdf) |text=''Hitler contra Tell. Ante 200 annos esseva representate pro le prime vice le Wilhelm Tell de Schiller; ante 63 annos Hitler le prohibiva.'' |wayback=20160304084501}} Hannover 2004, in ''mediaculture-online.de.''</ref> Anque ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' non esseva plus representate. In le [[Republica Democratic German|RDA]] on effortiava integrar Schiller ideologicamente. Ibi ille esseva considerate un „burgese progressista“ qui habeva preparate le terreno pro le [[communismo]]. In occasion de su 200e anniversario, in 1959, esseva organisate celebrationes elaborat. Le discurso ''[[Essay super Schiller]]'', que [[Thomas Mann]] pronuntiava pro le 150e anniversario del morte del poeta in maio 1955 (ergo pauc tempore ante su proprie morte) in ambe partes del Germania dividite, esseva un „declaration de amor“ a Schiller e simultaneemente un appello al Germanos, qui pareva non haber apprendite nihil ex le ultime duo guerras. In le anno Schiller 2005 deveniva tamen manifeste que su obra in le reunificate republica german esseva appretiate plus in maniera calendari que con entusiasmo ver. Le scientia litterari concernente Schiller conobbe certo un nove impulsion, ma le [[medios de communication de massa]] tractava le die commemorative principalmente desde le puncto de vista biographic. In manifestationes public, su textos tamen produceva ancora effectos. [[Travestimento (litteratura)|Travestimentos]] o adaptationes actualisante, in contraste, incontrava plus de difficultates. Le originales non esseva plus sufficientemente cognoscite. Le typo del [[burgese erudite|burgese de cultura]], familiar con le obras de Schiller, non pote plus esser presupponite inter le publico de theatro e le lectores del 21e seculo.<ref>Desde le puncto de vista del [[sociologia litterari|sociologia litterari]], [[Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy]] indicava que in le curso del [[cambiamento social|cambiamento social]], post circa 130 annos integre complexes cultural pote disparer del memoria del nove generationes. Considerate sub iste perspectiva, in 2005 le textos de Schiller esseva ancora notabilemente familiar a un parte del [[elite cultural|elite cultural]] german — in omne caso plus familiar que le [[litteratura baroc|litteratura baroc]] german, que al tempore del contemporaneos de Schiller habeva le mesme distantia temporal, ma esseva quasi oblidate.</ref> == Obras (selection) == [[File:Dom Carlos 1787.jpg|thumb|''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (alora ancora sub le titulo ''Dom Karlos''), [[folio de titulo]] e [[frontispicio]] del [[prime edition|prime impression]], 1787]] [[File:Schiller, Friedrich – Kleinere prosaische Schriften vol 1, 1792 – BEIC 3285369.jpg|thumb|''Breve scriptos in prosa. 1'' (1792)]] === Obras dramatic === * ''[[Le Brigantes]]'' (con le ''[[Canto de Hector]]'') (1781) * ''[[Le conjuration de Fiesco a Genua]]'' (1783) * ''[[Intriga e amor]]'' (1784) * ''[[Le matino de Körner]]'' (1787, scherzo scenic, probabilemente representate pro le 31e anniversario de [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]) * ''[[Don Karlos (Schiller)|Don Karlos]]'' (1787) * ''[[Le misanthropo reconciliate]]'' (incomplet, 1790) * Trilogia ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' (1799) * ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le Virgine de Orleans (Schiller)|Le Virgine de Orleans]]'' (1801) * ''[[Le sponsa de Messina]]'' (1803) * ''[[Wilhelm Tell (Schiller)|Wilhelm Tell]]'' (1803/04) * ''[[Le homage al artes]]'' (1804) * ''[[Demetrius (Schiller)|Demetrius]]'' (incomplet, 1805) === Narrativa in prosa === * ''[[Un acto magnanim]]'' * ''[[Le criminal per honor perdite]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le visionario]]'' (fragmento) * ''[[Joco del destino]]'' * ''[[Duca de Alba durante un prandio in le castello de Rudolstadt. In le anno 1547]]'' (1788) === Poesia lyric === * ''[[Le vehiculo de Venus]]'' (1781) * ''Fantasia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''Le mysterio del reminiscientia / a Laura'' (1782) * ''[[A le Allegressa]]'' (1786) * ''[[Resignation (Friedrich Schiller)|Resignation]]'' (1786) * ''[[Le deos de Grecia]]'' (prime version 1788, secunde version 1800) * ''[[Le congedo de Hector]]'' (1790) * ''[[Le imagine velate a Sais]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le promenada (Schiller)|Le promenada]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le division del terra]]'' (1795) * ''[[Le plongeator]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le gruas de Ibycus]]'' (1797) * ''[[Cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le guanto]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le cammino al martello de ferro]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le anulo de Polycrates]]'' (1797) * ''[[Le combate con le dracone]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le fideicommisso]]'' (1798) * ''[[Le canto del campana]]'' (1799) * ''[[Nänie]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le inauguration del nove seculo]]'' (1800) * ''[[Le festa del victoria]]'' (1803) === Scriptos philosophic === * ''Philosophia del physiologia'' (1779) * ''Super le connexion inter le natura animal del homine e su natura spiritual'' (1780) * ''Super le presente theatro german'' (1782) * ''[[Le promenada sub le tilias]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le juvene e le viro vetere]]'' (1782) * ''[[Le scena como institution moral]]'' (1784) * ''[[Litteras philosophic]]'' (1786) * ''[[Super le motivo del placer in objectos tragic]]'' (1792) * ''[[Super le arte tragic]]'' (1792) * ''Super le pathetico'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Augustenburg]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super gratia e dignitate]]'' (1793) * ''[[Litteras de Kallias]]'' (1793) * ''[[Super le education aesthetic del homine]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super poesia naive e sentimental]]'' (1795) * ''[[Super le dilettantismo]]'' (1799; in collaboration con Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) * ''[[Super le sublime]]'' (1801) === Obras historic === * ''[[Historia del secession del Nederlandes unite del governamento espaniol]]'' (1788) * ''[[Que significa e pro qual fin se studia le historia universal?]]'' (discurso inaugural le 26 de maio 1789) * ''[[Historia del Guerra de Trenta Annos]]'' (1790), {{DTAW|schiller_krieg_1792}} === Traductiones e adaptamentos poetic === * [[Euripides]]: ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]'' * [[Euripides]]: ''Scenas ex [[Le Phoenicianas]]'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: ''[[Macbeth (Shakespeare)|Macbeth]]'' (1800) * ''[[Turandot (Schiller)|Turandot]]'' (secundo [[Carlo Gozzi]], 1801) * ''[[Le nepote como oncle]]'' (comedia secundo [[Louis-Benoît Picard]], 1803) * ''[[Le Parasito o le arte de facer su fortuna]]'' (comedia secundo Louis-Benoît Picard, 1803) * [[Jean Racine|Racine]]: ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1805) * [[Denis Diderot]]: [[Jacques le fatalista e su maestro|Jacques le fataliste et son maître]], traduction partial sub le titulo: [[Exemplo remarcabile de un vindicta feminin]] (1785) === Revistas redigite === * ''[[Repertorio wirtembergese]]'' (1782–1783) * ''[[Thalia (revista)|Thalia]]'' (1784–1793) * ''[[Le Horen (Schiller)|Le Horen]]'' (1795–1797) * ''[[Almanach del Musas]]'' (1796–1800) == Litteratura == === Ediciones de obras (selection) === * [[Christian Gottfried Körner]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich von Schillers sämmtliche Werke.'' 12 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Tübingen 1812–1815. * ''Schiller’s sämmtliche Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe in Einem Bande. Mit dem Portrait des Dichters, einem Facsimile seiner Handschrift und einem Anhang.'' Cotta, München/Stuttgart/Tübingen 1830. * [[Karl Goedeke]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers sämmtliche Schriften. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe.'' 17 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart 1867–1876. * [[Fritz Jonas]] (Hrsg.): ''Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe.'' 7 Bände. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart/Leipzig/Berlin/Wien 1892–1896. * [[Eduard von der Hellen]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Säkularausgabe.'' 16 Bände. Cotta, Stuttgart/Berlin 1904/05. * [[Conrad Höfer]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Horenausgabe.'' 22 Bände. Müller, München/Leipzig 1910–1914 (bis Bd.&nbsp;15) und Propyläen, Berlin 1920–1926. * ''Schillers Werke. Nationalausgabe.'' Historisch-Kritische Ausgabe. Im Auftrag des Goethe- und Schiller-Archivs, des Schiller-Nationalmuseums und der Deutschen Akademie; Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Julius Petersen (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Julius Petersen]], [[Gerhard Fricke (Germanist)|Gerhard Fricke]], [[Benno von Wiese]] und [[Norbert Oellers]]. 43 Bände. Böhlau, Weimar ab 1943.<ref>[https://www.dla-marbach.de/shop/historisch-kritische-ausgaben/historisch-kritische-ausgabe-schillers-werke-nationalausgabe/ Zur Nationalausgabe im Literaturarchiv Marbach]</ref> * Gerhard Fricke, [[Herbert G. Göpfert]], [[Herbert Stubenrauch (Bibliothekar)|Herbert Stubenrauch]] (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Auf Grund der Originaldrucke.'' Fünf Bände. Hanser, München 1958/59. * ''Sämtliche Werke. Nach den Ausgaben letzter Hand unter Hinzuziehung der Erstdrucke und Handschriften.'' Einführung von Benno von Wiese, Anmerkungen von Helmut Koopmann. 5 Bände. Winkler, München 1968. * Hans-Günther Thalheim u.&nbsp;a. (Hrsg.): ''Sämtliche Werke. Berliner Ausgabe.'' 10 Bände. Aufbau, Berlin/Weimar 1980–1990 (bis Bd.&nbsp;5) und Berlin 2005. * ''Schiller. Werke und Briefe in zwölf Bänden.'' Hrsg. waren unter anderen [[Gerhard Kluge (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Gerhard Kluge]], [[Otto Dann]] und Norbert Oellers. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1992–2002. * ''Friedrich Schiller, Werke'', CD–ROM, [[Digitale Bibliothek (Produkt)|Digitale Bibliothek]] Band 103, [[Directmedia Publishing]], Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-89853-203-8. * [[Albert Meier (Germanist)|Albert Meier]], Peter-André Alt, [[Wolfgang Riedel (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Wolfgang Riedel]] (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller. Sämtliche Werke in fünf Bänden.'' dtv, München 2005. === Biographias === * [[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Schiller. Leben – Werk – Zeit'' (2&nbsp;Bände). Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2000, ISBN 3-406-45905-6 und ISBN 3-406-46225-1. * [[Jörg Aufenanger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Artemis und Winkler, 2004. * Jörg Aufenanger: ''Schiller und die zwei Schwestern.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 2004, ISBN 3-423-24446-1. * [[Friedrich Burschell]]: ''Friedrich Schiller in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' rororo 1958 und öfter. * [[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Das Leben des Friedrich Schiller.'' Insel, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-458-17220-3. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Friedrich Dieckmann]] |Titel=„Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt“ – Der junge Mann Schiller |Verlag=Insel |Ort=Frankfurt am Main |Datum=2005 |ISBN=3-458-17244-0}} * Frank Druffner, Martin Schalhorn: ''Götterpläne und Mäusegeschäfte&nbsp;– Schiller 1759–1805.'' Marbacher Katalog&nbsp;58, Marbach 2005, ISBN 3-937384-11-1 (Katalog der Ausstellung im Schiller-Nationalmuseum Marbach und Schiller-Museum Weimar). * Marie Haller-Nevermann: ''Friedrich Schiller. Ich kann nicht Fürstendiener sein. Eine Biographie.'' Aufbau Verlag, 2004. * [[Helmut Koopmann]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller-Handbuch.'' Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, 2. Auflage 2011. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Friedrich Schiller'' (2 Bände). Metzler, Stuttgart 1966, 2. Auflage 1977. * Helmut Koopmann: ''Schiller und die Folgen.'' Metzler, 2016, ISBN 978-3-476-02650-7. * [[Peter Lahnstein]]: ''Schillers Leben. Biographie.'' List, München 1981. * [[Johannes Lehmann (Journalist)|Johannes Lehmann]]: ''Unser armer Schiller&nbsp;– eine respektlose Annäherung.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-23270-7. * Götz Lothar-Darsow: ''Friedrich Schiller'', Metzler 2000. * [[Norbert Oellers]]: ''Schiller.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1993. * {{NDB|22|759|763|Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller|Norbert Oellers|118607626}} * Claudia Pilling: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Biographie. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2002, ISBN 3-499-50600-9. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Schiller oder Die Erfindung des Deutschen Idealismus.'' Biographie. Hanser, München 2004, ISBN 3-446-20548-9 (auch Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft''. Hanser, München u.&nbsp;a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3. * ''Friedrich Schiller. Eine Dokumentation in Bildern.'' Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach 1979; Lizenzausgabe Insel, Frankfurt am Main. * Helmut Schmiedt: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Literatur Kompakt, Bd. 4. Tectum, Marburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-8288-2970-1. * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Atlantis, Zürich 1967. * [[Gert Ueding]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Beck’sche Reihe, München 1990. * Barbara Wais: ''Die Schiller Chronik.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-458-17245-9. * [[Benno von Wiese]]: ''Friedrich Schiller.'' Metzler/Poeschl, Stuttgart 1959, 3. Auflage 1963. === Altere temas, temas specialisate === * Rostislav Danilevskij: ''Schiller in der russischen Literatur'' (= ''Schriften zur Kultur der Slaven.'' Band 1). Dresden University Press, Dresden 1998, ISBN 3-931828-53-0. * Friedrich Dieckmann: ''„Freiheit ist nur in dem Reich der Träume.“ Schillers Jahrhundertwende.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-458-17455-4. * Thilo Dinkel, Günther Schweizer: ''Vorfahren und Familie des Dichters Friedrich Schiller. Eine genealogische Bestandsaufnahme.'' Südwestdeutsche Ahnenlisten und Ahnentafeln Band.&nbsp;4, Verein für Familien- und Wappenkunde in Württemberg und Baden e.&nbsp;V., Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-934464-08-4. * [[Elmar Dod]]: ''Die Vernünftigkeit der Imagination in Aufklärung und Romantik. Eine komparatistische Studie zu Schillers und Shelleys ästhetischen Theorien in ihrem europäischen Kontext'' (= ''Studien zur deutschen Literatur'', Bd. 84). Max Niemeyer, Tübingen 1985, ISBN 3-484-18084-6<ref>Rezension von [[Ralf Simon]] in: [[Arcadia (Zeitschrift)|Arcadia]], 24, 1 (1989), S. 95–98 [https://edoc.unibas.ch/13992/1/%5Barcadia%5D%20REZENSIONEN.pdf (PDF)].</ref> * Nils Ehlers: ''Zwischen schön und erhaben. Friedrich Schiller als Denker des Politischen. Im Spiegel seiner theoretischen Schriften.'' Cuvillier, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-86955-714-4. * [[Stephan Füssel]]: ''Schiller und seine Verleger.'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2005, ISBN 3-458-17243-2. * Georg Günther: ''Friedrich Schillers musikalische Wirkungsgeschichte. Ein Kompendium.'' Teil 1: ''Einleitung und Register.'' Teil 2: ''Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2018, ISBN 978-3-476-04619-2. * Wolfgang Hach, Viola Hach-Wunderle: ''Von Monstern, Pest und Syphilis. Medizingeschichte in fünf Jahrhunderten.'' Schattauer, Stuttgart 2017, ISBN 978-3-7945-3210-0, Kapitel 6: ''Schillers Krankheiten und seine Bestattungen. Neue Erkenntnisse aus der Sicht des Chirurgen,'' S. 91–118 ([https://books.google.de/books?id=Jo5KDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false eingeschränkte Vorschau] bei [[Google Books]]). * [[Leopold Hartmann (Pädagoge)|Leopold Hartmann]]: ''Schillers Jenaer Jahre 1789|1799'' (=Schriften des Stadtmuseums Jena Nr. 24), Stadtmuseum Jena, Jena [1977]. * Jonas Maatsch, Christoph Schmälzle: ''Schillers Schädel – Physiognomie einer fixen Idee.'' Begleitband zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung im Schiller-Museum Weimar, 24. September 2009 bis 31. Januar 2010. Wallstein, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0575-5. * Marlene Meuer: ''Hölderlin und der Schwäbische Dichtungswettstreit.'' In: ''Hölderlin-Jahrbuch'' 43 (2022–2023), S. 85–109. * [[Walter Müller-Seidel]]: ''Friedrich Schiller und die Politik: Nicht das Große, nur das Menschliche geschehe.'' C.&nbsp;H. Beck, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57284-5. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Moralästhetik versus Pflichtethik: Zur Problematik von Schillers Kant-Kritik.'' In: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Schillergesellschaft 65 (2021), ISBN 978-3-8353-5085-4, S. 39–68. * Wilfried Noetzel: ''Friedrich Schillers Philosophie der Lebenskunst. Zur Ästhetischen Erziehung als einem Projekt der Moderne.'' Turnshare, London 2006, ISBN 1-903343-91-7. * {{Literatur |Autor=[[Jörg Noller]] |Titel=Schillers Philosophie des Geistes. Zur ästhetischen Einheit von Vernunft und Natur |Verlag=Nomos |Ort=Baden-Baden |Datum=2022 |ISBN=978-3-495-99938-7}} * Norbert Oellers, Robert Steegers: ''Weimar. Literatur und Leben zur Zeit Goethes'' (= ''Reclam Taschenbuch.'' Nr. 20182). 2., verbesserte Auflage. Reclam, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-020182-4. * [[Georg Ruppelt]]: ''Schiller im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland. Der Versuch einer Gleichschaltung.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 3-476-00410-4. * Georg Ruppelt: ''[[Hitler]] gegen Tell. Die „Gleich- und Ausschaltung“ Friedrich Schillers im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland'' (=&nbsp;''Lesesaal – Erlesenes aus der Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Bibliothek.'' Heft 20). Verlag Niemeyer, Hameln 2005, ISBN 978-3-8271-8820-5. * Rüdiger Safranski: ''Schiller als Philosoph. Eine Anthologie.'' wjs-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-937989-08-0. * [[Heinz Stade]]: ''Unterwegs zu Schiller.'' Aufbau Taschenbuch, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-7466-8117-0. * [[Ferdinand Tönnies]]: ''Schiller als Zeitbürger und Politiker.'' Erstausgabe 1905. In: [[Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe]]. Band.&nbsp;7. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-015840-3, S.&nbsp;3–60 (s.&nbsp;a. ''Tönnies’ Aufsätze über Schiller.'' S.&nbsp;294–321). * [[Torsten Unger]]: ''Freiheitsschwabe und Moraltrompeter – Schillers Kritiker.'' Sutton, Erfurt 2013, ISBN 978-3-95400-300-6. * Andreas Maria Hogrebe: Mein Atem dürstet nach Freiheit – Der Reiseführer zu Friedrich Schiller, Olms Presse, Hildesheim, ISBN 978-3-7582-0803-4 === Super le obra === * [[Georg Bollenbeck]], Lothar Ehrlich (Hrsg.): ''Friedrich Schiller: Der unterschätzte Theoretiker.'' 1. Auflage. Böhlau, 2007, ISBN 978-3-412-11906-5. * [[Julius Burggraf]]: ''Schillers Frauengestalten.'' Carl Krabbe, Stuttgart 1897. * {{Literatur |Hrsg=Otto Dann, Norbert Oellers, Ernst Osterkamp |Titel=Schiller als Historiker |Verlag=J. B. Metzler |Ort=Stuttgart |Datum=1995 |ISBN=3-476-01333-2}} * Marlene Meuer: ''Der "Laura"-Zyklus in Schillers "Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782"''. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2018. Print: ISBN 978-3-8253-6871-5; E-Book: ISBN 978-3-8253-7793-9. * Arnd Meusburger: ''Die bürgerlichen Ideale des 18.&nbsp;Jahrhunderts in Schillers Dramen 1780–1804.'' Dissertation, Universität Innsbruck 1985. * [[Barbara Neymeyr]]: ''Schillers Moralästhetik als verfehlte Kant-Kritik und die 'Kalokagathia'-Idee.'' (= Literatur und Philosophie, Bd. 6) Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2023, ISBN 978-3-495-99402-3. * [[Ulrich Kittstein]]: ''Das Wagnis der Freiheit. Schillers Dramen in ihrer Epoche''. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2023, ISBN 978-3-534-30010-5. * [[Günter Saße (Germanist)|Günter Saße]] (Hrsg.): ''Schiller. Werk-Interpretationen''. Winter, Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 978-3-8253-5037-6. * Gert Sautermeister: ''Idyllik und Dramatik im Werk Friedrich Schillers.'' Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1971. * Karl F. Masuhr: ''Friedrich Schillers Vita, seine Dramen und medizinischen Schriften''. In: Ärzte, Dichter und Rebellen. Würzburg 2018, S.&nbsp;45–53. {{Ref}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schiller, Friedrich}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] sriffrt2tfsaqnis1df89kvcd6jrmzl 0 40572 699016 698475 2026-08-26T04:06:54Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699016 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P580 ?dtstart . ?item wdt:P582 ?dtend . FILTER (?dtstart < "1942-06-01T00:00:00Z"^^xsd:dateTime) FILTER (?dtstart > "1942-05-01T00:00:00Z"^^xsd:dateTime) } |wdq= |columns=item,P580,P582,label,P31,description |sort=P580 |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! data de initio ! data de fin ! label ! instantia de ! description |- | [[:d:Q155620|Q155620]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-12<ref name="ref_7bd66a01e53712b3809adc376ee60abee77bc2385caa6eec737227f91d1d4016">''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-29 | ''[[:d:Q155620|Second Battle of Kharkov]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q207165|Q207165]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-04<ref name="ref_7bd66a01e53712b3809adc376ee60abee77bc2385caa6eec737227f91d1d4016">''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-08<ref name="ref_7bd66a01e53712b3809adc376ee60abee77bc2385caa6eec737227f91d1d4016">''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q207165|Battle of the Coral Sea]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1261499|naval battle]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q327035|Q327035]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-26 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-21 | ''[[:d:Q327035|Battle of Gazala]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q530976|Q530976]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-10 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-07-04 | ''[[:d:Q530976|1942 German football championship]]'' | ''[[:d:Q27020041|sports season]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q700499|Q700499]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-09-06 | ''[[:d:Q700499|Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign]]'' | ''[[:d:Q831663|military campaign]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q836128|Q836128]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-26 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-11 | ''[[:d:Q836128|Battle of Bir Hakeim]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q863371|Q863371]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-06 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-11 | ''[[:d:Q863371|Biltmore Conference]]'' | ''[[:d:Q625994|conferentia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1000594|Q1000594]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-14 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-08-08 | ''[[:d:Q1000594|1941–42 Cupa României]]'' | ''[[:d:Q27020041|sports season]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1052651|Q1052651]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-05 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-11-06 | ''[[:d:Q1052651|Battle of Madagascar]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q1439207|Q1439207]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-17<ref name="ref_d3abe7ef2a915ac45b7bbd674df462ab27ac7269bcf6ebcd8bd12208d42039c3">https://prensacr.info/data/5d835f280ddacf407084569f</ref><ref name="ref_a0c98ad6d3dfddee95ca20633d4cff1fc4d9db125b554310a56840fc294f4f7c">https://prensacr.info/data/5db5bc250ddacf73d2543b29</ref><ref name="ref_fa49bcba9f230d60113291d18cdf0a44def7dea98ed68bfd89591d305400e298">https://prensacr.info/data/5daa38470ddacf73098bf7af</ref> | data-sort-value="1943" | 1943-01-31<ref name="ref_4a65758ea9dbf21ab31049926f2e2d715083e322da4dccc848379a067bc7dbe5">https://prensacr.info/data/611f4145445c2c6addcd0f7d</ref><ref name="ref_f9daba4c905a208ba30a712ac9085946f0b2a9c4dc3f200ac6cbdcf34dfc3bb1">https://prensacr.info/data/5d836cc20ddacf4070845fbb</ref> | ''[[:d:Q1439207|Primera División de Costa Rica 1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q27020041|sports season]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1984212|Q1984212]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-16 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-11-30 | ''[[:d:Q1984212|Defense of the Adzhimushkay quarry]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q2659473|Q2659473]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-31 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-08 | ''[[:d:Q2659473|Attack on Sydney Harbour]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2001676|offensive]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2673191|Q2673191]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-03 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-04 | ''[[:d:Q2673191|Invasion of Tulagi]]'' | ''[[:d:Q467011|invasion]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3175954|Q3175954]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-08 | data-sort-value="1945" | 1945-07-05 | ''[[:d:Q3175954|Japanese occupation of the Philippines]]'' | ''[[:d:Q188686|military occupation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q109473326|country in World War II]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q10605678|Q10605678]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-06 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-21 | ''[[:d:Q10605678|Convoy ON 92]]'' | ''[[:d:Q131656428|military convoy]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30888944|Q30888944]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-13 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-10-07 | ''[[:d:Q30888944|Evacuation of Soviet 2nd Strike Army]]'' | ''[[:d:Q645883|military operation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q606332|evacuation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q57903691|Q57903691]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-05 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-26 | ''[[:d:Q57903691|1942 Tour de Luxembourg]]'' | ''[[:d:Q505810|Tour de Luxembourg]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q65303340|Q65303340]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-16 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-10 | ''[[:d:Q65303340|massacre à Prijedor]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3199915|massacre]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q76356515|Q76356515]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-03<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-06<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356515|Transport von Breslau nach Ghetto Lublin am 03.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356520|Q76356520]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-08<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-09<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356520|Transport von Frankfurt am Main nach Ghetto Izbica am 08.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356524|Q76356524]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-06<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-11<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356524|Transport von Wien nach Ghetto Minsk am 06.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356535|Q76356535]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-12<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356535|Transport von Wien nach Ghetto Izbica am 12.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356539|Q76356539]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-18<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356539|Transport von Wien nach Ghetto Izbica am 15.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356543|Q76356543]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-20<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-20<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356543|Transport von Gleiwitz nach KZ Auschwitz-Birkenau am 20.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356549|Q76356549]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-17<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref><ref name="ref_f6f9068b9ee774619c1ad6596ed2df4039beae49b819774990b1750dd875195c">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-transportu-z-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-20<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356549|Transport von Ghetto Theresienstadt nach Ghetto Lublin am 17.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356554|Q76356554]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-24<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-26<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356554|Transport von Frankfurt am Main nach Ghetto Izbica am 24.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356558|Q76356558]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-28<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-28<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356558|Transport von Gleiwitz nach KZ Auschwitz-Birkenau am 28.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356561|Q76356561]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-25<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref><ref name="ref_f6f9068b9ee774619c1ad6596ed2df4039beae49b819774990b1750dd875195c">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-transportu-z-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-28<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356561|Transport von Ghetto Theresienstadt nach Ghetto Lublin am 25.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356566|Q76356566]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-27<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-01<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356566|Transport von Wien nach Ghetto Minsk am 27.05.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name="ref_7b1183257f39b3dee61f7783f5c7a145857d224a4d048622238e38ea6a306c16">https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79479017|Q79479017]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-05<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-18<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79479017|Charles Howard]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79479021|Q79479021]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-06<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-31<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79479021|6th Annual Watercolor Exhibition of the San Francisco Art Association]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79479026|Q79479026]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-12<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-18<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79479026|Local Ceramics]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79479032|Q79479032]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-15<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79479032|Joe Cannon Watercolors]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79479037|Q79479037]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-19<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-01<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79479037|Claire Falkenstein]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79479043|Q79479043]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-19<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-14<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79479043|Mexican Painting]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79479047|Q79479047]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-19<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-31<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79479047|San Francisco Bay Area Council of Camera Clubs: Spring Salon 1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_1da1b651f7c6fa668c1f665c76d63b465fda7fea3bf32310cc260bbb1ae72267">https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q104055188|Q104055188]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-07 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-07<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055188|Transport At]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055189|Q104055189]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-12 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-12<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055189|Transport Au]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055190|Q104055190]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-14 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-14<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055190|Transport Ez-St 13]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055191|Q104055191]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055191|Transport Au 1]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055193|Q104055193]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055193|Transport Ez-St 14]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055194|Q104055194]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-17 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-17<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055194|Transport Ez]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055196|Q104055196]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-18 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-18<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055196|Transport Av]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055197|Q104055197]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-18 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-18<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055197|Transport Ez-St 16]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055199|Q104055199]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-22 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-22<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055199|Transport Aw]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055201|Q104055201]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-22 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-22<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055201|Transport Ez-St 17]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055203|Q104055203]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-26 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-26<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055203|Transport Ez-St 18]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055204|Q104055204]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-27 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-27<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055204|Transport AAa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055206|Q104055206]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-30 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-30<ref name="ref_539c032e8c96e0e20e824614057698a501c100248f6a46d270a25897f322c51d">https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055206|Transport Ez-St 19]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109467704|Q109467704]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-21<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-10<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q109467704|Spansk konst ur offentliga och enskilda samlingar i Sverige]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q109467705|Q109467705]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-29<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-09-20<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q109467705|Barnteckningar ”Vad skall jag bli när jag blir stor”]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]''<ref name="ref_9c6ee20ee40713c8a9dbc9569bd26a08e9f55191f15c9357073e62a8680134a5">https://www.nationalmuseum.se/assets/Dokument/Utst%C3%A4llningar-1866-2017.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890692|Q110890692]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-06 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-16 | ''[[:d:Q110890692|Art Sale for the Armed Services]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890693|Q110890693]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-13 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-08 | ''[[:d:Q110890693|Anti-Hoarding Pictures by New York School Children]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890694|Q110890694]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-13 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-24 | ''[[:d:Q110890694|Mexican Costumes by Carlos Mérida]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890695|Q110890695]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-21 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-10-04 | ''[[:d:Q110890695|Road to Victory]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q110890696|Q110890696]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-25 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-31 | ''[[:d:Q110890696|Paintings from the Class for Members' Children]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1656682|evento]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q126046683|Q126046683]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-16 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-15<br/>1942-06-14 | ''[[:d:Q126046683|Jumādā al-ʾŪlā 1361 AH]]'' | ''[[:d:Q125390868|hijri month of a given year]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q131468303|Q131468303]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-15 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-16 | ''[[:d:Q131468303|Рыга (карная аперацыя)]]'' | ''[[:d:Q582956|punitive expedition]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q645883|military operation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q133040522|Q133040522]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-05-09 | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-06-14 | ''[[:d:Q133040522|150 schilderijen, aquarellen enz. uit de verzameling H. Nijgh te Rotterdam]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]'' | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 1tongjx8bp4ioj1uaa5xuv6kr8o9nx6 0 44806 699040 619557 2026-08-26T11:39:36Z Interlingvisto 60932 699040 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox persona}} '''Francesco Petrarca''' ([[Arezzo]], {{data|20|7|1304}} – [[Arquà Petrarca]], {{data|30|6|1374}}) esseva un [[Scriptor|scriptor]], [[Poeta|poeta]], [[Philosopho|philosopho]] e [[Philologo|philologo]] italian. Il es considerate un del figuras central del cultura europee del [[XIV seculo]] e un del principal initiatores del [[Humanismo italian]]. Il contribueva al redescoperta e al studio del classic latine, promovente un nove relation con le cultura antique per medio del ''studia humanitatis''. Autor de obras tanto in [[Lingua latin|lingua latin]] como in [[Lingua vulgar|lingua vulgar]], il es cognoscite principalmente pro le ''[[Canzoniere (Petrarca)|Canzoniere]]'', collection poetic dedicate principalmente al amor pro [[Laura de Noves|Laura]], que habeva un vaste influentia sur le lyrica europee e dava origine al phenomeno del ''[[petrarchismo]]''. In 1341 ille recipeva in [[Roma]] le [[Incoronation poetic|corona poetic]]. [[Categoria:Poetas]] [[Categoria:Renascentia]] [[Categoria:Gente italian]] 09p24cny6nmydnluh4aeexpyhviu16g 699041 699040 2026-08-26T11:39:51Z Interlingvisto 60932 699041 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox persona}} '''Francesco Petrarca''' ([[Arezzo]], {{data|20|7|1304}} – [[Arquà Petrarca]], {{data|30|6|1374}}) esseva un [[Scriptor|scriptor]], [[Poeta|poeta]], [[Philosopho|philosopho]] e [[Philologo|philologo]] italian. Il es considerate un del figuras central del cultura europee del [[14e seculo]] e un del principal initiatores del [[Humanismo italian]]. Il contribueva al redescoperta e al studio del classic latine, promovente un nove relation con le cultura antique per medio del ''studia humanitatis''. Autor de obras tanto in [[Lingua latin|lingua latin]] como in [[Lingua vulgar|lingua vulgar]], il es cognoscite principalmente pro le ''[[Canzoniere (Petrarca)|Canzoniere]]'', collection poetic dedicate principalmente al amor pro [[Laura de Noves|Laura]], que habeva un vaste influentia sur le lyrica europee e dava origine al phenomeno del ''[[petrarchismo]]''. In 1341 ille recipeva in [[Roma]] le [[Incoronation poetic|corona poetic]]. [[Categoria:Poetas]] [[Categoria:Renascentia]] [[Categoria:Gente italian]] 1d57w19cezri6w9k572rna8ny6ym4dr 699042 699041 2026-08-26T11:40:06Z Interlingvisto 60932 699042 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox persona}} '''Francesco Petrarca''' ([[Arezzo]], {{data|20|7|1304}} – [[Arquà Petrarca]], {{data|30|6|1374}}) esseva un [[Scriptor|scriptor]], [[Poeta|poeta]], [[Philosopho|philosopho]] e [[Philologo|philologo]] italian. Il es considerate un del figuras central del cultura europee del [[Seculo XIV|14e seculo]] e un del principal initiatores del [[Humanismo italian]]. Il contribueva al redescoperta e al studio del classic latine, promovente un nove relation con le cultura antique per medio del ''studia humanitatis''. Autor de obras tanto in [[Lingua latin|lingua latin]] como in [[Lingua vulgar|lingua vulgar]], il es cognoscite principalmente pro le ''[[Canzoniere (Petrarca)|Canzoniere]]'', collection poetic dedicate principalmente al amor pro [[Laura de Noves|Laura]], que habeva un vaste influentia sur le lyrica europee e dava origine al phenomeno del ''[[petrarchismo]]''. In 1341 ille recipeva in [[Roma]] le [[Incoronation poetic|corona poetic]]. [[Categoria:Poetas]] [[Categoria:Renascentia]] [[Categoria:Gente italian]] g47520g1nl4tvvhxd13xr0k7zsldjc2 2 61141 698993 698982 2026-08-25T12:47:53Z Interlingvisto 60932 698993 wikitext text/x-wiki == Articulos facite == * [[Figura de collina]] * [[Interdisciplinaritate]] * [[San Marino]] * [[Solutionismo]] * [[Organisation de recerca per contracto]] * [[Michel Foucault]] * [[Del bon salvage al bon revolutionario]] * [[Confederation de Nationalitates Indigene de Ecuador]] * [[Universitate de Madrid]] * [[Philosophia continental]] * [[Philosophia occidental]] * [[Philosophia oriental]] * [[Niendorfer Gehege]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] * [[Castello de Ahrensburg]] * [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] * [[Immanuel Kant]] * [[Friedrich Schiller]] [[io:Uzanto:Interlingvisto]] 32cv1jsk8yghr87qexwp6l7j53tvwc7 699003 698993 2026-08-25T14:13:58Z Interlingvisto 60932 699003 wikitext text/x-wiki == Articulos facite == * [[Figura de collina]] * [[Interdisciplinaritate]] * [[San Marino]] * [[Solutionismo]] * [[Organisation de recerca per contracto]] * [[Michel Foucault]] * [[Del bon salvage al bon revolutionario]] * [[Confederation de Nationalitates Indigene de Ecuador]] * [[Universitate de Madrid]] * [[Philosophia continental]] * [[Philosophia occidental]] * [[Philosophia oriental]] * [[Niendorfer Gehege]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] * [[Castello de Ahrensburg]] * [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] * [[Immanuel Kant]] * [[Friedrich Schiller]] * [[Logistica]] [[io:Uzanto:Interlingvisto]] ff3s42n44lrsf2bqym7zfghfpdskiz5 699011 699003 2026-08-25T16:23:42Z Interlingvisto 60932 699011 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Babel|ia-2}} == Articulos facite == * [[Figura de collina]] * [[Interdisciplinaritate]] * [[San Marino]] * [[Solutionismo]] * [[Organisation de recerca per contracto]] * [[Michel Foucault]] * [[Del bon salvage al bon revolutionario]] * [[Confederation de Nationalitates Indigene de Ecuador]] * [[Universitate de Madrid]] * [[Philosophia continental]] * [[Philosophia occidental]] * [[Philosophia oriental]] * [[Niendorfer Gehege]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] * [[Castello de Ahrensburg]] * [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] * [[Immanuel Kant]] * [[Friedrich Schiller]] * [[Logistica]] [[io:Uzanto:Interlingvisto]] 2vo6awzltmwx3d5nzl6tssvyad63wz9 699012 699011 2026-08-25T16:45:13Z Interlingvisto 60932 699012 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Babel|ia-2}} Mi objectivo es ameliorar le qualitate del articulos del Wikipedia in interlingua. Como interlingua es un lingua international facile a comprender, io me propone contribuer a ameliorar le qualitate e le fiabilitate del information presentate hic. == Articulos facite == * [[Figura de collina]] * [[Interdisciplinaritate]] * [[San Marino]] * [[Solutionismo]] * [[Organisation de recerca per contracto]] * [[Michel Foucault]] * [[Del bon salvage al bon revolutionario]] * [[Confederation de Nationalitates Indigene de Ecuador]] * [[Universitate de Madrid]] * [[Philosophia continental]] * [[Philosophia occidental]] * [[Philosophia oriental]] * [[Niendorfer Gehege]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] * [[Castello de Ahrensburg]] * [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] * [[Immanuel Kant]] * [[Friedrich Schiller]] * [[Logistica]] [[io:Uzanto:Interlingvisto]] q1xidk8xjatd9br63co160p5tnqd3le 699031 699012 2026-08-26T07:03:55Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Articulos facite */ 699031 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Babel|ia-2}} Mi objectivo es ameliorar le qualitate del articulos del Wikipedia in interlingua. Como interlingua es un lingua international facile a comprender, io me propone contribuer a ameliorar le qualitate e le fiabilitate del information presentate hic. == Articulos facite == * [[Figura de collina]] * [[Interdisciplinaritate]] * [[San Marino]] * [[Solutionismo]] * [[Organisation de recerca per contracto]] * [[Michel Foucault]] * [[Del bon salvage al bon revolutionario]] * [[Confederation de Nationalitates Indigene de Ecuador]] * [[Universitate de Madrid]] * [[Philosophia continental]] * [[Philosophia occidental]] * [[Philosophia oriental]] * [[Niendorfer Gehege]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] * [[Castello de Ahrensburg]] * [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] * [[Immanuel Kant]] * [[Friedrich Schiller]] * [[Logistica]] * [[Jaime Roldós Aguilera]] [[io:Uzanto:Interlingvisto]] qvacy2llivi2duyodffglijswtoel8n 0 61178 699000 2026-08-25T13:42:13Z Interlingvisto 60932 Pagina redirigite verso [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] 699000 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] snotyktmxpyr5lfyw60fh3jhcsgrywc 0 61179 699001 2026-08-25T14:09:43Z Interlingvisto 60932 Pagina create con “'''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and...” 699001 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ](https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ) |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=[https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X) |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 0fc5vec5c0vjmj280mknydrdbalufhg 699002 699001 2026-08-25T14:10:12Z Interlingvisto 60932 699002 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 417bcjoqzkwmod4txi1tsp45ilmszx8 699017 699002 2026-08-26T06:10:26Z Interlingvisto 60932 699017 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == {{Anchor|Origine}} [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''{{wikt-lang|en|logistics}}'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de {{langx|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|logis}}|lit=allogiamento}} (cognate con le angles {{wikt-lang|en|lodge}}), in le expressiones {{langx|fr|[[maréchal des logis]]|lit=maresciallo de allogiamentos}} e {{langx|fr|major-général des logis|lit=major-general de allogiamento}}: {{quote|{{langx|fr|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.|label=none|italics=no}}<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per {{ill|Georges de Chambray|fr|Georges de Chambray}}:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == {{Original research|section|date=January 2019}} [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == {{Business logistics}} [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{A|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 8yrl5bkueiqpepqotzvssyhposmr79i 699018 699017 2026-08-26T06:10:56Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Automatisation del logistica */ 699018 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == {{Anchor|Origine}} [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''{{wikt-lang|en|logistics}}'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de {{langx|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|logis}}|lit=allogiamento}} (cognate con le angles {{wikt-lang|en|lodge}}), in le expressiones {{langx|fr|[[maréchal des logis]]|lit=maresciallo de allogiamentos}} e {{langx|fr|major-général des logis|lit=major-general de allogiamento}}: {{quote|{{langx|fr|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.|label=none|italics=no}}<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per {{ill|Georges de Chambray|fr|Georges de Chambray}}:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == {{Original research|section|date=January 2019}} [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == {{Business logistics}} [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] n6hpzd2r5h1mrgxbtkoh7841wdgqy7u 699019 699018 2026-08-26T06:11:41Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Logistica commercial */ 699019 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == {{Anchor|Origine}} [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''{{wikt-lang|en|logistics}}'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de {{langx|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|logis}}|lit=allogiamento}} (cognate con le angles {{wikt-lang|en|lodge}}), in le expressiones {{langx|fr|[[maréchal des logis]]|lit=maresciallo de allogiamentos}} e {{langx|fr|major-général des logis|lit=major-general de allogiamento}}: {{quote|{{langx|fr|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.|label=none|italics=no}}<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per {{ill|Georges de Chambray|fr|Georges de Chambray}}:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == {{Original research|section|date=January 2019}} [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == {{Logistica commercial}} [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 0a5k6fk0dl2ps0o2y1yps9ploblzh3v 699020 699019 2026-08-26T06:12:00Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Logistica commercial */ 699020 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == {{Anchor|Origine}} [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''{{wikt-lang|en|logistics}}'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de {{langx|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|logis}}|lit=allogiamento}} (cognate con le angles {{wikt-lang|en|lodge}}), in le expressiones {{langx|fr|[[maréchal des logis]]|lit=maresciallo de allogiamentos}} e {{langx|fr|major-général des logis|lit=major-general de allogiamento}}: {{quote|{{langx|fr|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.|label=none|italics=no}}<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per {{ill|Georges de Chambray|fr|Georges de Chambray}}:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == {{Original research|section|date=January 2019}} [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 3lm34qp0vl82rs8wivwnv23f227cw78 699021 699020 2026-08-26T06:12:11Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Activitates logistic */ 699021 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == {{Anchor|Origine}} [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''{{wikt-lang|en|logistics}}'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de {{langx|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|logis}}|lit=allogiamento}} (cognate con le angles {{wikt-lang|en|lodge}}), in le expressiones {{langx|fr|[[maréchal des logis]]|lit=maresciallo de allogiamentos}} e {{langx|fr|major-général des logis|lit=major-general de allogiamento}}: {{quote|{{langx|fr|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.|label=none|italics=no}}<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per {{ill|Georges de Chambray|fr|Georges de Chambray}}:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 3ibapmwj33uhngie2mylnbw3zet9pte 699022 699021 2026-08-26T06:13:10Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Nomenclatura */ 699022 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == {{Anchor|Origine}} [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''{{wikt-lang|en|logistics}}'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de {{langx|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|logis}}|lit=allogiamento}} (cognate con le angles {{wikt-lang|en|lodge}}), in le expressiones {{langx|fr|[[maréchal des logis]]|lit=maresciallo de allogiamentos}} e {{langx|fr|major-général des logis|lit=major-general de allogiamento}}: {{quote|{{langx|fr|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.|label=none|italics=no}}<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per Georges de Chambray:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 7k4wr7m8qolqz36j3k81ts8j7xga83w 699023 699022 2026-08-26T06:13:41Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Nomenclatura */ 699023 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''logistics'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de {{langx|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|logis}}|lit=allogiamento}} (cognate con le angles {{wikt-lang|en|lodge}}), in le expressiones {{langx|fr|[[maréchal des logis]]|lit=maresciallo de allogiamentos}} e {{langx|fr|major-général des logis|lit=major-general de allogiamento}}: {{Citation|{{langx|fr|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.|label=none|italics=no}}<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per Georges de Chambray:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] toxvxp5kmgyq7inesla3sfqiyc3a5a8 699024 699023 2026-08-26T06:15:09Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Nomenclatura */ 699024 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''logistics'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de ''logis'' (allogiamento) (cognate con le angles ''lodge''), in le expressiones ''maréchal des logis'' (maresciallo de allogiamentos) e ''major-général des logis'' (major-general de allogiamento): {{Citation|Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.<br /> In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per Georges de Chambray:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{quote|{{langx|fr|italic=unset|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …|label=none}}<br /> ''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] l927b43m0r627c635xbkb7zazptd5zw 699025 699024 2026-08-26T06:15:55Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Nomenclatura */ 699025 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''logistics'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de ''logis'' (allogiamento) (cognate con le angles ''lodge''), in le expressiones ''maréchal des logis'' (maresciallo de allogiamentos) e ''major-général des logis'' (major-general de allogiamento): {{Citation|''Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.''<br />:In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per Georges de Chambray:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{Citation|''''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …''<br />:''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] 7xrilpuucbczjiexdg8rdmwthxm8w82 699026 699025 2026-08-26T06:16:11Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Nomenclatura */ 699026 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''logistics'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de ''logis'' (allogiamento) (cognate con le angles ''lodge''), in le expressiones ''maréchal des logis'' (maresciallo de allogiamentos) e ''major-général des logis'' (major-general de allogiamento): {{Citation|''Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.''<br />:In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per Georges de Chambray:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{Citation|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …''<br />:''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino {{langx|fr|label=none|logistique}} esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de {{langx|grc|λογῐστῐκός|logistikós}}, un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[logistic growth]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= [http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=](http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=](https://web.archive.org/web/20190309153711/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status=) dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de {{langx|fr|label= none |logis}}, o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] qfudasu47dj2ptdb8b775xptb6mkv06 699027 699026 2026-08-26T06:17:26Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Nomenclatura */ 699027 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Logistica''' es le parte del [[gestion del catena de fornitura]] que tracta del fluxo efficace, in direction avant e [[logistica inverse]], de merces, servicios e informationes relate, desde le puncto de origine usque al [[puncto de consumption]] secundo le necessitates del clientes,<ref name="Ghiani 2004">{{cite book |last1=Ghiani |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Laporte |first2=Gilbert |last2=Musmanno |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction to Logistics Systems Planning and Control |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470849170 |page=1, 5, 10–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KudTAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kozlenkovam2015"/> e un '''logisticista''' es un professionista qui labora in le campo del gestion de logistica. Le gestion de logistica es un componente que mantene insimul le [[catena de fornitura]].<ref name="Kozlenkovam2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Kozlenkova |first1=Irina V. |last2=Hult |first2=G. Tomas M. |last3=Lund |first3=Donald J. |last4=Mena |first4=Jeannette A. |last5=Kekec |first5=Pinar |date=December 2015 |title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002243591500024X |journal=Journal of Retailing |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=586–609 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|quote= Logistics refers to 'that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements'|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le recursos gerite in le campo logistic include benes physic como materiales, equipamento e productos alimentari, ma etiam elementos intangibile como tempore e information. [[Logistica militar]] se ocupa de mantener le lineas de abastecimento del armea con alimentos, armamentos, munition e pecias de recambio, a parte le transporte del truppas mesme. Le logistica civil tracta del acquisition, movement e immagazinamento de materias prime, productos semi-fabricate e productos finite. Pro organisationes que provide [[collecta de ruidos]], livraison de posta, [[servicios public]], e servicios post-vendita, le problemas logistic debe esser resolvite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica tracta del movement de materiales o productos ab un installation a un altere; illo non include le fluxo de materiales intra plantas de production o de assemblage, como le [[planification de production]] o le [[programmazione de un sol machina]].<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le logistica representa un parte importante del custos operational del un organisation o pais. Un [[software de simulation]] specialisate pote modelar, analysar, visualisar e optimisar le complexitates logistic. Minimisar le uso de recursos es un motivation commun in tote le campos del logistica. == Nomenclatura == [[File:Modern warehouse with pallet rack storage system.jpg|thumb|Un magazin que implemente un systema de immagazinage con palletes]] [[File:Logistics Specialist aboard USS George H.W. Bush.jpg|thumb|Un [[specialista in logistica]] face le inventario del provisiones in un magazin a bordo del portaaviones [[USS George H.W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] durante [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in le [[Golfo Persico]] in octobre 2011.]] Le termino ''logistics'' es attestato in angles desde 1846. Il deriva del francese ''logistique'', que esseva o coniate o popularisate per un [[Swiss Armed Forces|official del armea suisse]] e autor militar, [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]], qui lo definiva in su ''Summary of the Art of War'' ({{lang|fr|Précis de l'Art de la Guerre}}). Le termino appare in le edition de 1830, alora tituliate ''Analytic Table'' (''Tableau Analytique''),<ref name="Jomini1830">{{cite book |title=Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires |author=Baron de Jomini |author-link=Antoine-Henri Jomini |year=1830 |page= [[https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ofAcWX9UsIUC&q=logistique&pg=PA74) 74]}}</ref> e Jomini explica que illo deriva de ''logis'' (allogiamento) (cognate con le angles ''lodge''), in le expressiones ''maréchal des logis'' (maresciallo de allogiamentos) e ''major-général des logis'' (major-general de allogiamento): {{Citation|''Autrefois les officiers de l’état-major se nommaient: maréchal des logis, major-général des logis; de là est venu le terme de logistique, qu’on emploie pour désigner ce qui se rapporte aux marches d’une armée.''<br />:In le passato, le officiales del stato-major esseva nominate: maresciallo de allogiamentos, major-general de allogiamentos; de ibi proveniva le termino logistica [''logistique''], que nos usa pro designar lo que se refere al movimentos de un armea.}} Le termino e su etymologia esseva criticate in 1832 per Georges de Chambray:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Observation sur Le Tableau Analytique des principales combinaisons De La Guerre, Et De Leurs Rapports Avec La Politique Des États: Pour Servir D'Introduction Au Traité Des Grandes Opérations Militaires par le général Jomini. |author-link=:fr:Georges de Chambray |author=Chambray |journal=Le Spectateur militaire: Recueil de science, d'art et d'histoire militaires |year=1832 |language=fr|volume=13 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19](https://books.google.com/books?id=N5s8AAAAYAAJ&q=logistique&pg=PA19) |page =19}}</ref> {{Citation|''Logistique'': Ce mot me paraît être tout-à-fait nouveau, car je ne l'avais encore vu nulle part dans la littérature militaire. … il paraît le faire dériver du mot ''logis'', étymologie singulière …''<br />:''Logistica'': Iste parola me pare esser completemente nove, nam io non la habeva ancora vidite in ulle loco in le litteratura militar. … il pare facer la derivar del parola ''logis'', un etymologia singular …}} Chambray nota etiam que le termino ''logistique'' esseva presente in le ''[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]'' como synonymo de [[algebra]]. Le {{langx|fr|logistique|label=parola francese}} es un [[homonym]]o del existente termino mathematic, que veni de λογῐστῐκός (''logistikós''), un division traditional del [[mathematica grec]]. Le termino mathematic es presumibilemente le origine del termino ''logistic'' in [[crescimento logistic]] e altere expressiones affine. Alcun fontes indica isto in vice como le fonte de ''logistics'',<ref>{{cite journal|first1= J.|last1=Tepic|first2= I.|last2=Tanackov|first3=Gordan|last3= Stojić |title = Ancient logistics – historical timeline and etymology|journal = Technical Gazette |volume =18|year =2011 |url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|archive-url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb9f/f927aa0472a4df2635b8b221c4c67d567046.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 2019-03-09|issue =3 |s2cid=42097070}}</ref> o per ignorantia del assertion de Jomini que illo esseva derivate de ''logis'', o per dubita e le opinion que illo esseva in facto de origine grec, o influentiate per le termino existente de origine grec. == Definition == Jomini defineva originalmente le logistica como<ref name="Jomini1830"/> {{quote |... l'art de bien ordonner les marches d'une armée, de bien combiner l'ordre des troupes dans les colonnes, les tems [temps] de leur départ, leur itinéraire, les moyens de communications nécessaires pour assurer leur arrivée à point nommé ... ... le arte de ben ordinar le operationes de un armea, de ben combinar le ordine del tropas in le columnas, le momentos de lor partida, lor itinerario, le medios de communication necessari pro assecurar lor arrivata al momento juste ... }} Le ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le branca del [[scientia militar]] concernente le acquisition, le mantenimento e le transporto de material, personal e installationes». Tamen, le ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' define le logistica como «le coordination detaliate de un operation complexe implicante multe personas, installationes o provisiones», e le Oxford Dictionary in linea lo define como «le organisation e implementation detaliate de un operation complexe».<ref>{{Deprecated archive|url=[https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford](https://archive.today/20120712045058/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/logistics?q=logistics|title=Oxford) Dictionaries}}. Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref> Assi, le logistica es communmente considerate como un branca del ingenieria que crea «systemas de personas» in vice de «systemas de machinas». Secundo le Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (antea le Council of Logistics Management),<ref>Material Handling & Logistics News [http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional](http://mhlnews.com/global-supply-chain/council-logistics-management-become-council-supply-chain-management-professional)</ref> le logistica es le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar proceduras pro le transporte e immagazinage eficiente e efficace de merces, includente servicios e informationes associate, ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumption, con le fin de satisfacer le exigentias del clientes, e illo include movimentos in entrata, in exito, interne e externe.<ref name="CSCMP glossary">{{cite web |url=[http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |title=CSCMP glossary |access-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522172303/http://cscmp.org/sites/default/files/user_uploads/resources/downloads/glossary-2013.pdf) |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}</ref> Academicos e practicantes refere traditonalmente al terminos [[management del operationes|operationes]] o [[production|management del production]] quando illes parla del transformationes physic que ha loco in un singule loco de un interprisa (fabrica, restaurante o mesmo un banco), e reserva le termino logistica pro le activitates associate al distribution, id es, le movimento de productos super le territorio. Le gestion de un centro de distribution es ergo considerate como pertinente al dominio del logistica, nam, ben que in theoria le productos fabricate per un fabrica es ja preste pro le consumption, illos debe ancora esser movite per le rete de distribution secundo un certe logica, e le centro de distribution aggrega e tracta commandas proveniente de differente areas del territorio. Isto dicite, desde un perspectiva de modelisation, il existe similaritates inter [[management del operationes]] e le logistica, e le interprisas usa aliquando professionales hybride, per exemplo un «Director del Operationes» o un «Official de Logistica», qui labora super problemas similar. In plus, le termino «[[supply chain management]]» se refereva originalmente, inter altere cosas, al facto de haber un vision integrate del production e del logistica ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de production.<ref>V. Misra, M.I. Kahn, U.K. Singh, Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision, North American Business Press 2010 [http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf](http://www.na-businesspress.com/jsis/misraweb.pdf)</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Freight transportation |url=[https://reysas.com/](https://reysas.com/) |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> == Activitates logistic == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[forklift]] impila merces in un magazin super mercantias sur palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] [[File:RAF Delivers Aid to Flood Hit Pakistan MOD 45151688.jpg|thumb|Un [[forklift]] carga un pallete de auxilio humanitari a [[Pakistan]] a bordo de un [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] post le [[2010 Pakistan floods|devastante inundationes]] in le pais in augusto 2010.]] [[File:Punainen Risti logistiikkakeskus Kalkku (61).jpg|thumb|Le Centro logistic del [[Finnish Red Cross|Cruce Rubie Finlandese]] in [[Tampere]], Finlandia]] Le activitates logistic pote esser dividite in tres areas principal: tractamento del ordines, gestion del inventario, e [[transporto de mercantias]]. Le moderne transporto de mercantias depende multo de [[gestion de flotte]] pro meliorar le efficacia e le securitate. Traditionalmente, le tractamento del ordines esseva un activitate que consumeva multo tempore, ma con nove technologias como le lectura de codices de barras e le computatores, le disponibilitate del stocks pote esser verificate in tempore real. Le proposito de haber un inventario es reducer le costo logistic total durante que on meliora le servicio al clientes. Haber anticipatemente un stock de productos finite pote reducer le frequentia del transporto e affrontar le aleatorietate del demandas del clientes. Tamen, le mantenimento de un inventario require investimento de capital e le mantenimento de un magazin. Le transporto de mercantias es un parte central del logistica e permitte accesso a grande mercados. Le politicas de transporto e le gestion de magazzino es intimemente interconnectite.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le augmento del [[commercio electronic]] ha conducite al disveloppamento del «e-logistica». Comparate con le logistica traditional, le e-logistica tracta colis con un valor de minus de cento dollars statounitese e los livra a clientes disperse trans varie destinationes in tote le mundo. In le e-logistica, le demanda del clientes tende a venir in undas, al contrario del logistica traditional, ubi le demanda es plus constante.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le ''logistica entrante'' es un del processus logistic principal, concentrate sur le compra e le disposition del movimento entrante de materiales, partes o inventario non finite ab le fornitores verso le fabricas o stabilimentos de assemblage, magazzinos o magazinos de vendita. Le ''logistica exiente'' es le processo associate con le immagazinage e le movimento del producto final. Le informationes correspondente circula ab le fin del linea de production verso le usator final. Date le servicios executate per le logisticistas, le campos principal del logistica pote esser repartite como sequente: * ''[[logistica de approvisionamento]]'', que consiste de [[recerca de mercato]], planification del requisitos, decisiones de fabricar o comprar, gestion del fornitores, commandas e controlo del ordines. Le objectivos del logistica de approvisionamento pote esser contradictori: maximisar le efficacia concentrante se sur le competentias central, externalisar activitates durante que on mantene le autonomia del compania, o minimisar le custos de approvisionamento durante que on maximisa le securitate intra le processo de approvisionamento. * ''Logistica anticipative'' concerne le activitates necessari pro establir o installar un base de approvisionamento ante que altere recursos arriva. Le termino es usate, per exemplo, in le logistica militar pro le assemblage de recursos ante le arrivata de tropas o le livration de componentes de infrastructura.<ref>Vide le articulos super le [[USS O'Brien (DD-725)]] e le [[USS Victoria (AO-46)]] durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial</ref> * ''Logistica global'' es technicamente le processo de gerer le «fluxo» de mercantias trans un [[catena de approvisionamento]] ab lor loco de production verso altere partes del mundo. Isto require sovente un systema de [[transporto intermodal]] per mar, aere, ferrovias e camion. Le efficacia del logistica global es mesurate per le [[Indice de Performance Logistic]]. * ''Logistica de distribution'' ha como principal carga le livration del productos finite al cliente. Illa consiste de tractamento del ordines, immagazinage e transporto. Le distribution moderne include sovente le uso de un [[systema de traciamento de vehiculos]] pro monitorar le expeditions per medio del collecta de [[datos de localisation de vehiculos]] in tempore real. Le logistica de distribution es necessari proque le tempore, loco e quantitate de production differe del tempore, loco e quantitate de consumo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hofmann |first=Sebastian |title=Distribution logistics - definition, basics, examples |language=en |url=[https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/](https://www.maschinenmarkt.international/distribution-logistics--definition-basics-examples-a-865509/) |access-date=2022-03-03}}</ref> * ''Logistica de elimination'' ha le function de reducer le costo(s) logistic e meliorar le servicio(s) concernente le elimination del residuos producite durante le operation de un empresa. * ''[[Logistica inverse]]'' designa tote le operationes concernente le reuso de productos e materiales. Le processo de logistica inverse include le gestion e le vendita del surpluses, assi como le productos retornate al venditores per le compradores. Illa es «le processo de planificar, implementar e controlar le fluxo efficace e economic de materias prime, inventario in processo, productos finite e informationes associate ab le puncto de consumo verso le puncto de origine pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte».<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agrawal |first1=Saurabh |last2=Singh |first2=Rajesh K. |last3=Murtaza |first3=Qasim |date=2015-04-01 |title=A literature review and perspectives in reverse logistics |url=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344915000403) |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=97 |pages=76–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.02.009 |bibcode=2015RCR....97...76A |issn=0921-3449|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Plus precisemente, le logistica inverse es le processo de transportar mercantias ab lor destination final habitual pro recapturar valor o proceder a un elimination correcte. Le contrario del logistica inverse es le ''logistica directe''. * ''[[Logistica verde]]'' describe tote le tentativas de mesurar e minimisar le impacto ecologic del activitates logistic, includente tote le activitates del fluxos directe e inverse. Isto pote esser supportate per initiative de [[digitalisation de flotte]] destinate a optimisar le rutas e reducer le consumo de combustibile. * ''Logistica RAM'' (vide etiam [[ingenieria logistic]]) combina le logistica commercial e le logistica militar, proque illa concerne systemas technologic multo complexe pro le quales le [[fiabilitate]], le [[disponibilitate]] e le [[mantenibilitate]] es essential, per exemplo [[systema de armas]] e supercomputatores militar. * ''Logistica de controlo del activos'': le companias in le canales de vendita al detalio, tanto le venditores organisate como le fornitores, deploya sovente activos necessari pro le presentation, conservation e promotion de lor productos. Isto pote implicar le uso de un [[systema de traciamento]] pro monitorar le loco e le stato de iste activos. * ''[[Logistica humanitari]]'' o ''logistica de emergentia'': iste terminos es usate per le industrias del logistica, del catena de approvisionamento e manufactura pro designar modos de transporto specific e critic per le tempore, usate pro mover rapidemente mercantias in caso de un [[emergentia]].<ref name="Cozzolino">Cozzolino Alessandra, Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, In ''Humanitarian Logistics'', Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2012</ref> Le ration pro recquirer servicios de logistica de emergentia pote esser un retardo de production o un retardo anticipate del production, o un besonio urgente de equipamento specialisate pro impedir eventos como le immobilisation de un aeronave (anque cognoscite como «[[aeronave al solo]]» — AOG), le retardo de naves, o le fallimento del telecommunicationes. Le logistica humanitari involve le governamentos, le militares, le [[agencia de auxilio|agencias de auxilio]], le donatores, le [[organisations non-governamental|organisationes non governamental]], e le servicios de logistica de emergentia es typicamente procurate de un fornitor specialisate.<ref name="Cozzolino" /><ref>{{cite web |url=[https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources](https://knowledge.fleetforum.org/knowledge-base/article/pooling-logistics-resources) |title=Pooling Logistics Resources |website=Fleet Forum |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=September 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>L. Torre, I.S. Dolinskaya, K.R. Smilowitz, Disaster relief routing: Integrating research and practice Socio-Economic Planning Sciences vol46, March 2012</ref> In plus, le termino ''logistica de production'' describe le processos logistic intra un systema con addition de valor (per exemplo, un fabrica o un mina). Le logistica de production ha como objectivo assecurar que cata machina e station de labor recipe le producto correcte in le quantitate e qualitate correcte al tempore correcte. Le concernimento es le production, testation, transporto, immagazinage e approvisionamento. Le logistica de production pote operar tanto in plantas existente como in nove plantas. Proque le fabrication in un planta existente es un processo in constante cambiamento, le machinas es cambiate e nove machinas es addite, lo que permitte meliorar le systema de logistica de production correspondente.<ref>Nyhuis P., Wiendahi Hans-Peter, Fundamentals of Production Logistics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2009</ref> Le logistica de production forni le medios pro obtener un responsa al cliente e efficacia del capital. Le solutiones de [[traciamento e sequentia]], que forni visibilitate del productos trans le linea de production, es un parte importante del logistica de production moderne, specialmente in le industrias [[industria automobile|automobilistic]] e [[industria medical|medical]]. Le termino ''logistica de construction'' ha essite empleate etiam per civilisationes durante milles de annos. Hodie, le logistica de construction es un parte importante del sector. In le annos recente, illa ha emergite como un campo distincte de studio intra le gestion del catena de approvisionamento e le logistica. Le moderne logistica de construction usa le [[localisation automatic de vehiculos|localisation automatic de vehiculos (AVL)]] pro gerer le movimento de equipamento pesante e materiales. == Logistica commercial == [[File:Allentown Project 042.jpg|thumb|Un operator de [[carro elevatori]] impilante mercantias in un magazin super palletes in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]], in april 2004]] Un definition del logistica commercial parla de «haber le articulo correcte in le quantitate correcte, al tempore correcte, in le loco correcte, al precio correcte, in le condition correcte e pro le cliente correcte».<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Technology Management: Supply Chain Management, Marketing and Advertising, and Global Management, vol 2|year=2010|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-470-24948-2|author-last1= Mallik|author-first1= Susan |edition=1|chapter=Customer Service in Supply Chain Management|editor=Hossein Bidgoil|page=104}}</ref> Le logistica commercial include tote le [[sector industrial|sectores industrial]] e ha como objectivo gerer le realisation de [[ciclo de vita de un projecto|ciclos de vita de projectos]], [[catena de approvisionamento|catenas de approvisionamento]], e le efficacias resultante. Le termino ''logistica commercial'' ha evolvite desde le annos 1960<ref>McGinnis M. A., Military Logistics: Insights for Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol 22, 1992</ref> a causa del complexitate crescente de fornir materiales al empresas e expedier productos in un catena de approvisionamento sempre plus globalisate, lo que ha conducite al demanda de professionales appellate logisticistas de catena de approvisionamento. In le negotio, le logistica pote haber o un orientation interne (logistica entrante) o un orientation externe (logistica exiente), copriente le fluxo e le immagazinage de materiales ab le puncto de origine usque al puncto de consumo, un factor clave in le [[gestion del catena de approvisionamento]]. Le functiones principal de un logisticista qualificate include le [[gestion del inventario]], le [[compra]], le transporto, le [[immagazinage]], le consultation, e le organisation e [[planification]] de iste activitates. Le logisticistas combina le cognoscentia professional de cata un de iste functiones pro coordinar le recursos in un organisation. Il ha duo formas fundamentalmente differente de logistica: un optimisa un fluxo constante de materiales trans un rete de ligamines de transporto e nodos de immagazinage, durante que le altere coordina un [[sequentia]] de recursos pro exequer un [[projecto]], como le restructuration de un magazin. Un software de '''[[planificator de viages]]''' o de '''optimisation de rutas''' es sovente usate pro resolver le problema logistic complexe de determinar le vias de livration le plus efficace pro un flotte de vehiculos. Iste systemas, que es un componente clave de un '''[[systema intelligente de transporto]]''', analysa factores como le traffico, le fenestras de livration e le capacitate del vehiculos pro crear rutas optimisate que reduce le consumo de combustibile e meliora le punctualitate del livration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Ahmed |first1=S. |last2=Al-Marridi |first2=H. A. |last3=Al-Merri |first3=Z. |last4=El-Saadany |first4=M. |date=2021 |title=Optimization of Vehicle Transportation Route Based on IoT |journal=Journal of Advanced Transportation |volume=2021 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2021/1312058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Nodos de un rete de distribution === Un rete de distribution requirerea plure intermediarios pro transportar benes de consumo o industrial ab le fabricantes usque a un usator. Le intermediarios augmentarea le costos del productos durante le distribution, ma beneficiarerea le usatores per provider custos de transporto plus basse que le fabricantes. Le numero de intermediarios requirite per le rete de distribution depende del typos de benes distribuite. Per exemplo, benes de consumo como cosmeticos e artesanatos pote non requirer alcun intermediario, proque illos pote esser vendite de porta a porta o obtenite in mercados local al aere libere. Pro benes industrial como materias prime e equipamento, intermediarios non es necessari, proque le fabricantes pote vender un grande numero de benes directemente a un usator. In general, il ha tres typos de intermediarios: agente/courtor, grossista e detalista.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le nodos de un rete de distribution include: * Fabricas ubi le productos es fabricate o assemblate * Un [[magazin|deposito]], un typo standard de magazin pro conservar mercantias (alto nivello de inventario) * [[centros de distribution]] pro le [[tractamento del ordines]] e le [[satisfaction del ordines]] (nivello plus basse de inventario), e etiam pro reciper articulos retornate per clientes. Typicamente, le centros de distribution es punctos de transito pro productos que debe esser distribuite plus avant in le catena de approvisionamento. Illos normalmente non expedia inventario directemente al clientes, durante que le centros de satisfaction lo face. * Punctos de transito pro activitates de [[cross-docking]], que consiste in reassemblar unidades de carga secundo le livrationes planificate (solmente mover mercantias) * Magazinos de vendita al detalio traditional de typo «[[mom-and-pop]]», supermercados moderne, [[hypermercatos]], [[magazinos de disconto]], o etiam catenas voluntari, [[cooperativa de consumidores|cooperativas de consumidores]], e gruppos de consumidores con [[potere collective de compra]]. Nota que le [[filiales]] es in general possedite per un altere compania e que le [[franchisores]], ben que illos usa marcas de altere companias, es in facto proprietarios del puncto de vendita. === Familias logistic e metricas === Un familia logistic es un conjunto de productos que comparti un characteristic commun: peso e characteristicas volumetric, besonios physic de immagazinage (temperatura, radiation, etc.), besonios de manipulation, frequentia de ordines, dimension del emballage, etc. Le sequente metricas pote esser usate per le compania pro organisar su productos in differente familias:<ref name="RuPe">{{cite book|first1=R.|last1= Ruggeri|first2= A. |last2=Perego|title= Esercitazioni e temi d'esame di Logistica Industriale |publisher= CUSL |date=2001|language = it|isbn = 8881320150}}</ref> * Le metricas physic usate pro evalutar systemas de inventario include le capacitate de stockage, le selectivitate, le uso superficial, le uso volumetric, le capacitate de transporto e le uso del capacitate de transporto. * Le metricas monetari include le custos de occupation del spatio, como le edificio, le estagerias e le servicios, e le custos de manipulation, como le personal, le machinas de manipulation, le energia e le mantenimento. Altere metricas pote presentar se in forma tanto physic como monetari, como le standard [[rotation del inventario]]. === Manipulation e tractamento del ordines === [[File:Unit Load Device 003.JPG|thumb|Le [[unitates de carga]], que servi un function protective, pro le transporto de bagages al aeroporto]] Le [[unitates de carga]] es combinationes de articulos individual que es movite per systemas de manipulation, normalmente usante un [[pallet]] de dimensiones normalisate.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=30524|title=ISO 6780:2003 – Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling – Principal dimensions and tolerances}}</ref> Le systemas de manipulation include: manipulatores de trans-pallet, manipulatores a contrapeso, manipulatores con mast retrahibile, manipulatores bilateral, manipulatores trilateral, [[vehiculo automatic guidate|VAG]] e altere manipulatores. Le systemas de immagazinage include: stockage in pilas, [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias a cellulas]] (static o mobile), estagerias a console e estagerias a gravitate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lambert D., Stock J., Ellram L., Fundamentals of Logistics, McGraw-Hill 1998</ref> Le [[tractamento del ordines]] es un processo sequential que include: tractamento del lista de retirada, selection (remotion selective de articulos ab unitates de carga), selection per destination (assemblage de articulos secundo le destination), formation del pacco (pesage, etiquettage e emballage), consolidation del ordine (aggregation de paccos in unitates de carga pro le transporto, le controlo e le [[conoscentia de carga]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">D.F. Bozutti, M.A. Bueno-Da-Costa, R. Ruggeri, Logística: Visão Global e Picking, EdUFSCar 2010</ref> Le [[selection de ordines|selection]] pote esser manual o automatic. Le selection manual pote esser o «homine-verso-mercantia», i.e. un operator usante un carrello o un banda transportator, o «mercantia-verso-homine», i.e. le operator beneficiando del presentia de un [[systema automatic de immagazinage e recuperation|SAIR]] de mini-carga, un [[carousel vertical]] o [[carousel horizontal]], o de un Systema Automatic Vertical de Immagazinage (SAVI). Le selection automatic es effectuate o con [[dispensatores]] o con robots de depalletisation. Le [[selection per destination|classification]] pote esser effectuate manualmente per medio de carrellos o bandas transportatores, o automaticamente per medio de [[classificatores a bandeja inclinabile|classificatores]]. === Transporto === {{AP|Carga}} Consolidar parve expeditiones in grande expeditiones pote adjutar a economisar costos de transporto. Il existe tres methodos pro facer isto: consolidation de installationes, consolidation a multe stationes, e consolidation temporal. Le consolidation de installationes usa le [[economias de scala]] per transportar parve expeditiones sur curte distantias e grande expeditiones sur longe distantias. Le consolidation a multe stationes face plure stationes pro consolidar parve expeditiones in le caso de [[transporto de mercantias in minus que un carga complete]]. Le consolidation temporal adapta le horarios de expedition verso avante o retro, assi que un sol grande expedition es facite in vice de plure parve expeditiones durante le tempore.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser consolidate in pallets o containers. Il existe cinque modos basic de transporto, a saper, nave, via ferrate, camion, aere, e conducto, operate per differente [[carrier|transportatores]]. Iste methodos de expedition pote esser combinate in varie manieras, como [[transporto intermodal]] (sin manipulation), [[transporto multimodal]], e [[transporto combinate]] (con un minimo de transporto routier). Un expeditor selige un transportator considerando le costo total del expedition e le tempore de transito. Le transporte per aere es le plus costose forma de transporto, sequite per camion, via ferrate, conducto, e nave.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Le carga pote esser organisate in differente [[categorias de expedition]]. Le [[cargas unitari]] es usualmente assemblate in unitates plus standardisate como: [[containers ISO]], [[corpos intercambiabile]] o [[semi-remorques]]. Specialmente sur distantias multo longe, le transporte de productos probabilemente beneficia del uso de differente medios de transporto. Durante le movimento de carga, le restrictiones typic es le peso maximal e le [[volume]]. Le operadores implicate in le transporto include: tote le companias de trains, vehiculos routier, barcos e aviones, [[messageros]], [[expeditores de carga]] e [[operatores de transporto multimodal]]. Le mercantias transportate internationalmente es usualmente submittite al normas de [[Incoterms]] publicate per le [[Camera International de Commercio]]. === Configuration e gestion === [[File:Push-Back-Rack.jpg|thumb|Un systema de estagerias [[contabilitate FIFO e LIFO|LIFO]] pro le immagazinage de motociclos]] [[File:Airline hub-1995.svg|thumb|In iste particular rete logistic de un compania aeree, [[Denver]] servi como [[hub e radios|hub]] del rete pro le [[Midwestern United States|Statos Unite del centro-occidente]]]] In le negotio logistic, un systema logistic es designate a costo minimal basate sur le nivello de servicio expectate pro le clientes. Quando le servicio meliora, le numero de ventas etiam cresce. Quando le servicio es meliorate ancora, plus ventas es capturate ab le proveedores concurrente. Un augmento ulterior del nivello de servicio al clientes post iste puncto augmenta le ventas solmente marginalmente.<ref name="Ghiani 2004"/> Como le systemas de production, le systemas logistic debe esser correctemente configurate e gerite. De facto, un numero de methodologias ha essite directemente prendite de [[gestion del operationes]], como le uso de modellos de [[quantitate economic de ordine]] pro gerer le inventario in le nodos del rete.<ref>Waters D., ''Logistics: An Introduction to Supply Chain Management'', Palgrave Macmillan 2003</ref> Le [[planification del ressources de distribution]] (DRP) es simile a [[planification del besonios de materiales|MRP]], excepto que illo non concerne le activitates intra le nodos del rete, ma le planification del distribution durante le movimento de benes trans le ligamines del rete. Tradicionalmente in le logistica, le configuration pote esser al nivello del magazin ([[nodo (theoria del graphos)|nodo]]) o al nivello del systema de distribution ([[rete de fluxo|rete]]). Concernente un sol magazin, ultra le question del conception e construction del magazin, le configuration significa resolver un numero de problemas technico-economic interrelationate: dimensionar le cellulas de [[estagerias pro palletes|estagerias]], eliger un methodo de [[palletisation]] (manual o per medio de [[robots]]), dimensionar e designar le estagerias, determinar le numero de estagerias, e determinar le numero e le typo de systemas de recuperation (per exemplo, [[grua (machina)#Grue de impilation|gruas impilatores]]). Alcun restrictiones importante debe esser satisfacte: le resistentia del furcas e del traves de carga al [[flexion]], e le correcte positionamento del [[sprinkler anti-incendio|sprinklers]]. Ben que le [[selection de ordines|selection]] es plus un decision de planification tactic que un problema de configuration, il es importante prender lo in consideration quando se decide le disposition del estagerias intra le magazin e le compra de instrumentos como manipulatores e carrellos motorisate, proque, un vice prendite, iste decisiones functionara como restrictiones durante le gestion del magazin. Le mesme ration vale pro le [[selection per destination|classification]] quando on designa le systema de transportatores o installa [[dispensatores]] automatic. Le configuration al nivello del systema de distribution concerne primarimente le problema del [[localisation (geographia)|localisation]] del nodos in le spatio geographic e le distribution del [[capacitate productive|capacitate]] inter le nodos. Le prime pote esser appellate [[localisation optimal de installation|localisation de installation]], con le caso special del [[selection del sito]], durante que le secunde es appellate allocation de capacitate. Le problema del externalisation normalmente surge a iste nivello: le nodos de un [[catena de approvisionamento]] es multo rarmente possedite per un sol interprisa. Le retes de distribution pote esser characterisate per lor numero de nivellos, id es, le numero de nodos intermediari inter le [[fornitor (catena de approvisionamento)|fornitor]] e le consumator: * [[livration directe al magazin]], i.e. zero nivellos * Rete a un nivello: magazin central * Rete a duo nivellos: magazinos central e peripheral Iste distinction es plus utile pro fines de modellisation, ma illo concerne etiam un decision tactic relative al [[inventarios de securitate]]: considerando un rete a duo nivellos, si le inventario de securitate es conservate solmente in le magazinos peripheral, illo es appellate un systema dependente (del fornitores); si le inventario de securitate es distribuite inter le magazinos central e peripheral, illo es appellate un systema independente (del fornitores).<ref name="RuPe" /> Le transporto ab le productor al secunde nivello es appellate transporto primari, e ab le secunde nivello a un consumator, transporto secundari. Ben que configurar un rete de distribution desde zero es possibile, le logisticistas debe normalmente occupar se del restructuration de retes existente a causa del presentia de un serie de factores: cambiamento del demanda, innovation de productos o processos, opportunitates de externalisation, cambiamento del politica governamental concernente le [[barrieras commercial]], innovation in le medios de transporto (tanto [[vehiculos]] como [[vias de communication]]), le introduction de [[regulationes]] (notabilemente illos concernente le pollution) e le disponibilitate de systemas ICT de supporto, como [[planification del ressources de interprisa|ERP]] o [[commercio electronic|commercio electronic]]. Un vice que un systema logistic es configurate, le gestion, i.e. le decisiones tactic, occurre ancora al nivello del magazin e del rete de distribution. Le decisiones debe esser prendite sub un conjunto de [[restriction (mathematica)|restrictiones]]: interne, como le uso del infrastructura disponibile, o externe, como le conformitate con le [[durata de conservation]] e le [[dates de expiration]] del productos. Al nivello del magazin, le logisticista debe decider como distribuer le mercantias super le estagerias. Tres situationes basic es traditionalmente considerate: immagazinage compartite, immagazinage dedicate (spatio de estageria reservate pro mercantias specific) e immagazinage per classes (classe significante mercantias organisate in differente areas secundo lor indice de accesso). Le efficacia del [[selection de ordines|selection]] varia multo secundo le situation.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In un situation «homine-verso-mercantia», on distingue inter selection a alto nivello (componente vertical significative) e selection a basse nivello (componente vertical insignificante). Un numero de decisiones tactic concernente le selection debe esser prendite: * Itinerario: le alternativas standard include itinerario transversal, itinerario de retorno, itinerario per puncto medie, e itinerario de retorno per le plus grande intervallo * Methodo de replenimento: le alternativas standard include provision de spatio equal pro cata classe de productos e provision de tempore equal pro cata classe de productos. * Logica de selection: selection per ordine versus selection per lotte Al nivello del rete de distribution, le decisiones tactic concerne principalmente le [[controlo del inventario]] e le optimisation del percurso de [[livration (commercio)|livration]]. Il es a notar que le logisticista pote esser obligate a gerer le [[logistica inverse|flux inverse]] insimul con le fluxo directe. === Systema e controlo del gestion de magazin === Le [[systema de gestion de magazin]]s (WMS) pote differer significativemente del [[systema de controlo de magazin]]s (WCS), ben que il ha alcun superposition in lor functiones. Un WMS planifica un predicto del activitates semanal basate sur factores como statisticas e [[estimation de tendentias|tendentias]], durante que un WCS age como un supervisor del area de labor, operante in tempore real pro compler le labor per le medios le plus efficace. Per exemplo, un WMS pote informar le systema que illo habera besonio de cinque unitates de conservation de stock (SKU) A e cinque de SKU B plure horas in avant, ma al momento quando illo age, altere considerationes pote haber surgite o pote haber un congestion sur un transportator. Un WCS pote prevenir iste problema per operer in tempore real e adaptar se al situation, prendente un decision al ultime minuta basate sur le activitate actual e le stato operational. Operante [[synergisticamente]], le WMS e le WCS pote resolver iste problemas e maximisar le [[efficacia economic|efficacia]] pro companias que depende del operation efficace de lor magazin o centro de distribution.<ref name="sdcexec">{{cite book |author-first1=John T. Jr. |author-last1=Phelan |title=[[Supply & Demand Chain Executive]] |publisher=Enom, Inc }}</ref> === Externalisation del logistica === {{morerefs|section|date=October 2025}} Le externalisation del logistica implica un relation inter un compania e un FPL (fornitor de servicios logistic), qui, comparate con servicios logistic basic, offere plus de servicios personalisate, include un grande numero de activitates de servicio, e es characterisate per un orientation a longe termino; assi, le relation ha un natura strategic.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01008.x|title = Commitment and Trust as Drivers of Loyalty in Logistics Outsourcing Relationships: Cultural Differences Between the United States and Germany| journal=Journal of Business Logistics| volume=32| pages=83–98|year = 2011|last1 = Wallenburg|first1 = Carl Marcus| last2=Cahill| first2=David L.| last3=Michael Knemeyer| first3=A.| last4=Goldsby| first4=Thomas J.}}</ref> Le externalisation non debe esser un externalisation complete a un FPL, ma pote etiam esser partial: * Un contracto unic pro fornir un servicio specific in un occasion * Creation de un [[escission de un compania|compania derivate]] * Creation de un [[empresa commun]] Le [[logistica de tertie parte]] (3PL) implica le uso de organisationes externe pro exequer activitates logistic que traditionalmente esseva executate intra le mesme organisation.<ref name="Bazio.">{{cite thesis |author=Baziotopoulos |year=2008 |title=An Investigation of Logistics Outsourcing Practices in the Greek Manufacturing Sector |degree=PhD}}</ref> Secundo iste definition, le logistica de tertie parte include omne forma de externalisation de activitates logistic que esseva anteriormente executate internemente. Per exemplo, si un compania con su proprie [[installationes de immagazinage|installationes de magazin]] decide emplear un transporto externe, isto esserea un exemplo de logistica de tertie parte. Le logistica es un area commercial emergente in multe paises. Le fornitores externe de 3PL ha evoluite ab provider solmente capacitates logistic usque a devenir ver orchestratores de catenas de approvisionamento que crea e mantene un avantage competitive, assi portante nove nivellos de externalisation logistic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zacharia|first1=Zach G.|last2=Sanders|first2=Nada R.|last3=Nix|first3=Nancy W.|date=2011-04-01|title=The Emerging Role of the Third-Party Logistics Provider (3PL) as an Orchestrator|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|journal=Journal of Business Logistics|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–54|doi=10.1111/j.2158-1592.2011.01004.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Le concepto de un fornitor de '''logistica de quarte parte''' (4PL) esseva definite primo per Andersen Consulting (ora [[Accenture]]) como un integrator que assemble le ressources, le capacitates de planification e le technologia de su proprie organisation e de altere organisationes pro designar, construer e operar solutiones complete pro le catena de approvisionamento. Durante que un fornitor de servicios de logistica de tertie parte (3PL) se concentra sur un singule function, un 4PL se concentra sur le gestion del processo complete. Alcunos ha describite un 4PL como un contractor general que gere altere 3PL, transportatores routier, expeditores, agentes de dogana e alteres, assumente in essentia le responsabilitate de un processo complete pro le cliente. === Alianças horizontal inter fornitores de servicios logistic === Le [[alliantia commercial|alliantiças commercial]] horizontal occurre frequentemente inter fornitores de servicios logistic, i.e. le cooperation inter duo o plus companias logistic que pote esser concurrentes.<ref name="rauewieland">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|doi = 10.1108/IJLM-08-2012-0083|title = The interplay of different types of governance in horizontal cooperations|year = 2015|last1 = Raue|first1 = Jan Simon|last2 = Wieland|first2 = Andreas|journal = The International Journal of Logistics Management|volume = 26|issue = 2|pages = 401–423| s2cid=166497725 |hdl = 10398/4de0953a-3920-409a-b63a-60342c976528|hdl-access = free}}</ref> In un alliança horizontal, iste socios pote obtener un duple beneficio. De un latere, illes pote «acceder a ressources tangibile que es directemente utilisabile». In iste exemplo, le extension de retes de transporto commun, lor infrastructura de magazin e le capacitate de fornir pacchettos de servicios plus complexe pote esser obtenite combinante le ressources. Del altere latere, le socios pote «acceder a ressources intangibile que non es directemente utilisabile». Isto include typicamente le saper-facer e le information e, per consequentia, le innovation.<ref name="rauewieland" /> == Automatisation del logistica == {{AP|Automatisation del logistica}} [[File:Automated Storage and Retrieval System - Defense Visual Information Center · DD-ST-96-00253.JPEG|thumb|Un [[systema automatica de immagazinage e recuperation]] usate tanto per le [[Forças armate del Statos Unite|militari del Statos Unite]] al [[March Air Reserve Base]] in [[Riverside County, California]], in decembre 1995]] [[Automatisation del logistica]] es le application de software informatic o de machinas [[Automatisation|automatizate]] pro meliorar le efficacitate del operationes logistic. Isto refere se typicamente al operationes intra un magazin o centro de distribution, con labores plus large executate per systemas de [[ingenieria del catena de approvisionamento]] e systemas de [[planification del ressources del interprisa]]. Le machinas industrial pote typicamente identificar productos per le uso de technologias de [[codice a barras]] o [[RFID]]. Le information in le codices a barras traditional es immagazinate como un sequentia de barras nigre e blanc de varie largor, que, quando legite per un laser, es convertite in un sequentia digital que, secundo regulas fixe, pote esser convertite in un numero decimal o altere datos. In alcun casos, le information in un codice a barras pote esser transmittite per radiofrequentia; plus frequentemente, le transmission radio es usate in etiquetas RFID. Un etiqueta RFID es un carta continente un chip de memoria e un antenna que transmite signalos a un lector. RFID pote esser trovate sur mercantias, animales, vehiculos e etiam personas. == Professiones e organisationes == === Personal === Un logisticista es un professionista que practica le logistica. Le logisticistas professional es frequentemente certificate per associationes professional. On pote laborar in un compania purmente logistic, tal como un linea de navigation, aeroporto, o [[expeditor de mercantias]], o intra le departamento logistic de un compania. Tamen, como mentionate supra, le logistica es un campo vaste, que comprende activitates de approvisionamento, production, distribution e disposal. Ergo, le perspectivas de carriera es anque vaste. Un nove tendentia in le industria es le firmas de 4PL, o logistica de quarte parte, companias de consultation que offere servicios logistic. === Institutiones academic === Alcun universitates e institutiones academic forma studentes como logisticistas, offerente programas de grado e postgrado. Un universitate con un foco principal sur le logistica es [[Kühne Logistics University]] in Hamburg, Germania. Illo es non-profit e supportate per le Kühne-Foundation del entrepreneur logistic [[Klaus Michael Kühne]]. === Organisationes === Le [[Instituto Chartered de Logistica e Transporto]] (CILT), establite in le Regno Unite in 1919, recipeva un [[Carta Regal]] in 1926. Le Instituto Chartered es un del [[corporationes professional|organismos professional]] o institutiones pro le sectores de logistica e transporto que offere [[qualification professional|qualificationes professional]] o grados in gestion logistic. Le programas de CILT pote esser studiate in centros trans le Regno Unite, de que alcun anque offere optiones de studio a distantia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) – Professional Logistics Programs|website=EduMaritime|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113642/https://www.edumaritime.net/england-shipping-logistics-professional-certifications/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport|url-status=dead}}</ref> Le instituto ha anque sectiones foranee, namely le Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) in Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/queensland/chartered-institute-of-logistics-transport-australia|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport Australia (CILTA) – Certification & Training|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> e le Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edumaritime.net/hong-kong/chartered-institute-of-logistics-and-transport-in-hong-kong|title=Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in Hong Kong (CILTHK) – PQE Programs|website=EduMaritime}}</ref> In le Regno Unite, le programas de gestion logistic es organisate per multe universitates e organismos professional tal como CILT. Iste programas es generalmente offerite al nivello de postgrado. Le Global Institute of Logistics,<ref name="gil-home">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globeinst.org/|title=GIL HOME|website=Global Institute of Logistics|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> establite in New York in 2003, es un [[gruppo de reflection]] pro le profession e se occupa principalmente de logistica maritime intercontinental. Illo es particularmente interessate per le logistica de [[Containerisation|containers]] e le rolo del [[autoritate portuari]] in le catena logistic maritime. Le International Association of Public Health Logisticians (IAPHL)<ref name="iaphl">{{Cite web|url=https://iaphl.org/|title=International Association of Public Health Logisiticians|website=IAPHL|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref> es un rete professional que promove le disveloppamento professional de gestores del catena de approvisionamento e de alteres qui labora in le campo del logistica de sanitate public e del securitate de mercantias, con un foco particular sur le paises in disveloppamento. Le association supporta logisticistas in tote le mundo per fornir un communitate de practica, ubi le membros pote connecter se, excambiar ideas e meliorar lor competentias professional. === Museos === Il ha multe museos in le mundo que presenta varie aspectos del logistica practic. Illos include museos de transporto, dogana, imballage e logistica industrial. In particular, le sequente museos es completemente dedicate al logistica: ;Logistica general * Museo del Logistica ([[Saint Petersburg]], Russia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|title=Logistics Museum|website=logistics-museum.ru|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011333/http://logistics-museum.ru/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica (Tokyo, Japon)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lmuse.or.jp/english/|title=Museum of Logistics {{!}} 物流博物館|website=[www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20](http://www.lmuse.or.jp|access-date=20) June 2019}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica de [[Universitate Beijing Wuzi]] (Beijing, China) ;Logistica militar * Museo del [[Royal Logistic Corps]] ([[Hampshire]], Anglaterra, Regno Unite) * Museo del Logistica del Forces Canadese ([[Montreal]], Quebec, Canada)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|title=Canadian Forces Logistics Museum|website=Montreal Museums|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://web.archive.org/web/20190620011335/http://museesmontreal.org/en/museums/canadian-forces-logistics-museum|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Museo del Logistica ([[Hanoi]], Vietnam) {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Logistica| ]] [[Categoria:Terminos de negotio]] [[Categoria:Ingenieria de systemas]] ds30k4quvl93cbh1vlcjh6i67y4th3y 0 61180 699004 2026-08-25T16:08:48Z Interlingvisto 60932 Pagina create con “{{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''La Casa de Aspre Vento'''<ref group="N">Titulo date per [[Sylvère Monod]]. Iste titulo es controversate, ben que il ha essite largemente adoptate in Francia, sin dubita proque illo veni de un universitario specialisate in Charles Dickens e proque su traduction esseva publicate in le collection [[Bibliothèque de la Pléiade|La Pléiade]]. ''{{Langue|en|Bleak}}'', in angles, significa «desolate», «austere», lo que rende conto de ce...” 699004 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''La Casa de Aspre Vento'''<ref group="N">Titulo date per [[Sylvère Monod]]. Iste titulo es controversate, ben que il ha essite largemente adoptate in Francia, sin dubita proque illo veni de un universitario specialisate in Charles Dickens e proque su traduction esseva publicate in le collection [[Bibliothèque de la Pléiade|La Pléiade]]. ''{{Langue|en|Bleak}}'', in angles, significa «desolate», «austere», lo que rende conto de certe aspectos del domo, ma non del calor del sentimentos de su proprietario, Sr. Jarndyce, ni precipue del personalitate de Esther Summerson, responsabile de un parte del narration. Le selection de Monod es debite al constante referentia de Sr. Jarndyce al vento del est (''{{Langue|en|east wind}}''), que ille evoca cata vice que su humor se obscura, e que deveni un ''leitmotiv'' in le roman. Del resto, le traduction de Henriette Loreau, disponibile sur Wikisource, ha conservate le titulo angles.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{harvsp|Charles Dickens|1979|p=41 del catalogo}}.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak](https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak)'' in francese, dictionario Larousse|consulté le=11 april 2013}}.</ref>, in angles '''''{{Langue|en|Bleak House}}''''', es le noven [[Roman (litteratura)|roman]] publicate per [[Charles Dickens]], primo in vinte [[Roman-feuilleton|folietones]] inter {{date||martio|1852|en litteratura}} e {{date||septembre|1853|en litteratura}}, postea in un volumine in 1853. ''Bleak House'', le prime del grande panoramico romanes de Dickens<ref>Doreen Roberts, Introduction a ''Bleak House'', Ware, Wordsworth Classics, 1993, {{p.|V}}.</ref>, describe le Anglaterra como un ''{{lang|en|bleak house}}'', id es un «habitation de desolation», devastate per un systema juridic irresponsabile e venal<ref name="Paul Davis-31">{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=31}}.</ref>, incarnate per le Chancellero (''{{lang|en|Chancellor}}''), includite in su gloria «nebulate» del Chancellaria (''{{lang|en|Court of Chancery}}'')<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Le historia describe un succession contestate ante le tribunal, le affaire {{citation|Jarndyce contra Jarndyce}}<ref group="N">Le caso «Jarndyce contra Jarndyce» se inspirava de un affaire que habeva realmente occurrite e que habeva comenciate con le morte ''{{lang|la|ab intestat}}'' de un certe William Jennings, in 1798, a [[Birmingham]]: ille lassava un fortuna estimate a plure milliones.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le](https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le) affaire del succession Jennings|consulté le=26 august 2013}}.</ref>, que affice de proxime o de lontan tote le personas e concerne un testamento obscur e grande summas de moneta. Le attaccos dirigite per le autor contra le apparato juridic se basa super le experientia que Dickens habeva acquirite como clerico. Su representation sin complacentia del tarditate, del character byzantin del lege e del corte de justitia reflecte le exasperation crescente de su epocha verso le systema, e on ha aliquando judicate que le roman habeva preparate le mentes pro le reformas del annos 1870. Ma Dickens scribe in un momento in le qual le systema ja es in transformation: si le {{citation|sex clericos e magistros}} mentionate in le prime capitulo esseva respectivemente supprimite in 1842 e 1852, le question de un reforma ancora plus radical esseva ja al ordine del die. Iste contexto pone le problema del periodo in le qual le action de ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' es supponite occurrer; si on se limita al sol factos historic, illo se situarea ante 1842, lo que alcun lectores haberea recognoscite, ma iste datation se confronta con altere aspectos, de maniera que le debate remane aperte. Un del grande originalitates de iste roman es que illo usa duo narratores, un al tertie persona, qui relata le conflictos del lege e del alte societate, e le altere al prime persona, incarnate per Esther Summerson, qui conta su historia personal<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Per le stratagema del narration duple, un procedura que Paul Schlicke considera «audace»<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45">{{harvsp|Paul Schlicke|2000|p=45}}.</ref>, Dickens liga, toto opponente los, le experientia domestic de Esther con le grande problemas social. Le narration de Esther culmina con le discoperta de su origines: infante illegitime de un aristocrate, Lady Dedlock, abandonate al nascentia e educate per un tante maligne, iste juvene femina resta incerta de se mesme, accipiente con gratitudine le parve consideration que illa recipe del societate patriarcal que la circumda. Su situation reflecte illo del communitate integre, que es minate per privilegios ancestral que ignora su aspirationes e necessitates, con institutiones sclerotic condemnante le infantes al orfanotrofio e le habitantes al tugurios, dum un pretese philanthropia asservi plus tosto que illo libera su beneficiarios<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' face echo a [[Aspectos del vita de Charles Dickens relative a La Casa de Aspre Vento|numerose evenimentos marcante del vita de Dickens e reflecte le major parte de su preoccupationes personal, politic e social]]. Illo es etiam un libro innovative per su conception, su organisation e certe aspectos de su stilo. A iste titulo, illo constitue un etapa importante in le evolution de su obra, lo que le angles denomina un ''{{lang|en|watershed novel}}'' (un «roman de transition»), frequentemente considerate como le prime de un serie pertinente a su maniera ultime<ref>{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=30}}.</ref>. De plus, le criticos concorda super iste puncto: illo es un del obras de Dickens le plus remarquabilemente complete<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45"/>. {{Ref}} [[Categoria:Roman britan]] [[Categoria:Roman]] [[Categoria:Romanes]] [[Categoria:Charles Dickens]] 20trnbcvl2fqwkgaytzbon8xv7bsggj 699005 699004 2026-08-25T16:09:10Z Interlingvisto 60932 699005 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''Le Casa de Aspre Vento'''<ref group="N">Titulo date per [[Sylvère Monod]]. Iste titulo es controversate, ben que il ha essite largemente adoptate in Francia, sin dubita proque illo veni de un universitario specialisate in Charles Dickens e proque su traduction esseva publicate in le collection [[Bibliothèque de la Pléiade|La Pléiade]]. ''{{Langx|en|Bleak}}'', in angles, significa «desolate», «austere», lo que rende conto de certe aspectos del domo, ma non del calor del sentimentos de su proprietario, Sr. Jarndyce, ni precipue del personalitate de Esther Summerson, responsabile de un parte del narration. Le selection de Monod es debite al constante referentia de Sr. Jarndyce al vento del est (''{{Langx|en|east wind}}''), que ille evoca cata vice que su humor se obscura, e que deveni un ''leitmotiv'' in le roman. Del resto, le traduction de Henriette Loreau, disponibile sur Wikisource, ha conservate le titulo angles.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{harvsp|Charles Dickens|1979|p=41 del catalogo}}.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak](https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak)'' in francese, dictionario Larousse|consulté le=11 april 2013}}.</ref>, in angles '''''{{Langx|en|Bleak House}}''''', es le noven [[Roman (litteratura)|roman]] publicate per [[Charles Dickens]], primo in vinte [[Roman-feuilleton|folietones]] inter {{date||martio|1852|en litteratura}} e {{date||septembre|1853|en litteratura}}, postea in un volumine in 1853. ''Bleak House'', le prime del grande panoramico romanes de Dickens<ref>Doreen Roberts, Introduction a ''Bleak House'', Ware, Wordsworth Classics, 1993, {{p.|V}}.</ref>, describe le Anglaterra como un ''{{lang|en|bleak house}}'', id es un «habitation de desolation», devastate per un systema juridic irresponsabile e venal<ref name="Paul Davis-31">{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=31}}.</ref>, incarnate per le Chancellero (''{{lang|en|Chancellor}}''), includite in su gloria «nebulate» del Chancellaria (''{{lang|en|Court of Chancery}}'')<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Le historia describe un succession contestate ante le tribunal, le affaire {{citation|Jarndyce contra Jarndyce}}<ref group="N">Le caso «Jarndyce contra Jarndyce» se inspirava de un affaire que habeva realmente occurrite e que habeva comenciate con le morte ''{{lang|la|ab intestat}}'' de un certe William Jennings, in 1798, a [[Birmingham]]: ille lassava un fortuna estimate a plure milliones.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le](https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le) affaire del succession Jennings|consulté le=26 august 2013}}.</ref>, que affice de proxime o de lontan tote le personas e concerne un testamento obscur e grande summas de moneta. Le attaccos dirigite per le autor contra le apparato juridic se basa super le experientia que Dickens habeva acquirite como clerico. Su representation sin complacentia del tarditate, del character byzantin del lege e del corte de justitia reflecte le exasperation crescente de su epocha verso le systema, e on ha aliquando judicate que le roman habeva preparate le mentes pro le reformas del annos 1870. Ma Dickens scribe in un momento in le qual le systema ja es in transformation: si le {{citation|sex clericos e magistros}} mentionate in le prime capitulo esseva respectivemente supprimite in 1842 e 1852, le question de un reforma ancora plus radical esseva ja al ordine del die. Iste contexto pone le problema del periodo in le qual le action de ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' es supponite occurrer; si on se limita al sol factos historic, illo se situarea ante 1842, lo que alcun lectores haberea recognoscite, ma iste datation se confronta con altere aspectos, de maniera que le debate remane aperte. Un del grande originalitates de iste roman es que illo usa duo narratores, un al tertie persona, qui relata le conflictos del lege e del alte societate, e le altere al prime persona, incarnate per Esther Summerson, qui conta su historia personal<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Per le stratagema del narration duple, un procedura que Paul Schlicke considera «audace»<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45">{{harvsp|Paul Schlicke|2000|p=45}}.</ref>, Dickens liga, toto opponente los, le experientia domestic de Esther con le grande problemas social. Le narration de Esther culmina con le discoperta de su origines: infante illegitime de un aristocrate, Lady Dedlock, abandonate al nascentia e educate per un tante maligne, iste juvene femina resta incerta de se mesme, accipiente con gratitudine le parve consideration que illa recipe del societate patriarcal que la circumda. Su situation reflecte illo del communitate integre, que es minate per privilegios ancestral que ignora su aspirationes e necessitates, con institutiones sclerotic condemnante le infantes al orfanotrofio e le habitantes al tugurios, dum un pretese philanthropia asservi plus tosto que illo libera su beneficiarios<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' face echo a [[Aspectos del vita de Charles Dickens relative a La Casa de Aspre Vento|numerose evenimentos marcante del vita de Dickens e reflecte le major parte de su preoccupationes personal, politic e social]]. Illo es etiam un libro innovative per su conception, su organisation e certe aspectos de su stilo. A iste titulo, illo constitue un etapa importante in le evolution de su obra, lo que le angles denomina un ''{{lang|en|watershed novel}}'' (un «roman de transition»), frequentemente considerate como le prime de un serie pertinente a su maniera ultime<ref>{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=30}}.</ref>. De plus, le criticos concorda super iste puncto: illo es un del obras de Dickens le plus remarquabilemente complete<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45"/>. {{Ref}} [[Categoria:Roman britan]] [[Categoria:Roman]] [[Categoria:Romanes]] [[Categoria:Charles Dickens]] fqdeou1hp59lk4gu1pm832l8z4jdmby 699006 699005 2026-08-25T16:09:49Z Interlingvisto 60932 699006 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''Le Casa de Aspre Vento'''<ref group="N">Titulo date per [[Sylvère Monod]]. Iste titulo es controversate, ben que il ha essite largemente adoptate in Francia, sin dubita proque illo veni de un universitario specialisate in Charles Dickens e proque su traduction esseva publicate in le collection [[Bibliothèque de la Pléiade|La Pléiade]]. ''{{Langx|en|Bleak}}'', in angles, significa «desolate», «austere», lo que rende conto de certe aspectos del domo, ma non del calor del sentimentos de su proprietario, Sr. Jarndyce, ni precipue del personalitate de Esther Summerson, responsabile de un parte del narration. Le selection de Monod es debite al constante referentia de Sr. Jarndyce al vento del est (''{{Langx|en|east wind}}''), que ille evoca cata vice que su humor se obscura, e que deveni un ''leitmotiv'' in le roman. Del resto, le traduction de Henriette Loreau, disponibile sur Wikisource, ha conservate le titulo angles.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{harvsp|Charles Dickens|1979|p=41 del catalogo}}.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak](https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak)'' in francese, dictionario Larousse|consulté le=11 april 2013}}.</ref>, in angles '''''{{Langx|en|Bleak House}}''''', es le noven [[Roman (litteratura)|roman]] publicate per [[Charles Dickens]], primo in vinte [[Roman-feuilleton|folietones]] inter martio 1852 e septembre 1853, postea in un volumine in 1853. ''Bleak House'', le prime del grande panoramico romanes de Dickens<ref>Doreen Roberts, Introduction a ''Bleak House'', Ware, Wordsworth Classics, 1993, {{p.|V}}.</ref>, describe le Anglaterra como un ''{{lang|en|bleak house}}'', id es un «habitation de desolation», devastate per un systema juridic irresponsabile e venal<ref name="Paul Davis-31">{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=31}}.</ref>, incarnate per le Chancellero (''{{lang|en|Chancellor}}''), includite in su gloria «nebulate» del Chancellaria (''{{lang|en|Court of Chancery}}'')<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Le historia describe un succession contestate ante le tribunal, le affaire {{citation|Jarndyce contra Jarndyce}}<ref group="N">Le caso «Jarndyce contra Jarndyce» se inspirava de un affaire que habeva realmente occurrite e que habeva comenciate con le morte ''{{lang|la|ab intestat}}'' de un certe William Jennings, in 1798, a [[Birmingham]]: ille lassava un fortuna estimate a plure milliones.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le](https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le) affaire del succession Jennings|consulté le=26 august 2013}}.</ref>, que affice de proxime o de lontan tote le personas e concerne un testamento obscur e grande summas de moneta. Le attaccos dirigite per le autor contra le apparato juridic se basa super le experientia que Dickens habeva acquirite como clerico. Su representation sin complacentia del tarditate, del character byzantin del lege e del corte de justitia reflecte le exasperation crescente de su epocha verso le systema, e on ha aliquando judicate que le roman habeva preparate le mentes pro le reformas del annos 1870. Ma Dickens scribe in un momento in le qual le systema ja es in transformation: si le {{citation|sex clericos e magistros}} mentionate in le prime capitulo esseva respectivemente supprimite in 1842 e 1852, le question de un reforma ancora plus radical esseva ja al ordine del die. Iste contexto pone le problema del periodo in le qual le action de ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' es supponite occurrer; si on se limita al sol factos historic, illo se situarea ante 1842, lo que alcun lectores haberea recognoscite, ma iste datation se confronta con altere aspectos, de maniera que le debate remane aperte. Un del grande originalitates de iste roman es que illo usa duo narratores, un al tertie persona, qui relata le conflictos del lege e del alte societate, e le altere al prime persona, incarnate per Esther Summerson, qui conta su historia personal<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Per le stratagema del narration duple, un procedura que Paul Schlicke considera «audace»<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45">{{harvsp|Paul Schlicke|2000|p=45}}.</ref>, Dickens liga, toto opponente los, le experientia domestic de Esther con le grande problemas social. Le narration de Esther culmina con le discoperta de su origines: infante illegitime de un aristocrate, Lady Dedlock, abandonate al nascentia e educate per un tante maligne, iste juvene femina resta incerta de se mesme, accipiente con gratitudine le parve consideration que illa recipe del societate patriarcal que la circumda. Su situation reflecte illo del communitate integre, que es minate per privilegios ancestral que ignora su aspirationes e necessitates, con institutiones sclerotic condemnante le infantes al orfanotrofio e le habitantes al tugurios, dum un pretese philanthropia asservi plus tosto que illo libera su beneficiarios<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' face echo a [[Aspectos del vita de Charles Dickens relative a La Casa de Aspre Vento|numerose evenimentos marcante del vita de Dickens e reflecte le major parte de su preoccupationes personal, politic e social]]. Illo es etiam un libro innovative per su conception, su organisation e certe aspectos de su stilo. A iste titulo, illo constitue un etapa importante in le evolution de su obra, lo que le angles denomina un ''{{lang|en|watershed novel}}'' (un «roman de transition»), frequentemente considerate como le prime de un serie pertinente a su maniera ultime<ref>{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=30}}.</ref>. De plus, le criticos concorda super iste puncto: illo es un del obras de Dickens le plus remarquabilemente complete<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45"/>. == Notas == <references group="N"/> {{Ref}} [[Categoria:Roman britan]] [[Categoria:Roman]] [[Categoria:Romanes]] [[Categoria:Charles Dickens]] l4f7lyipp7srjbj0lcgev5svu5l2zrh 699007 699006 2026-08-25T16:10:41Z Interlingvisto 60932 699007 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''Le Casa de Aspre Vento'''<ref group="N">Titulo date per [[Sylvère Monod]]. Iste titulo es controversate, ben que il ha essite largemente adoptate in Francia, sin dubita proque illo veni de un universitario specialisate in Charles Dickens e proque su traduction esseva publicate in le collection [[Bibliothèque de la Pléiade|La Pléiade]]. ''{{Langx|en|Bleak}}'', in angles, significa «desolate», «austere», lo que rende conto de certe aspectos del domo, ma non del calor del sentimentos de su proprietario, Sr. Jarndyce, ni precipue del personalitate de Esther Summerson, responsabile de un parte del narration. Le selection de Monod es debite al constante referentia de Sr. Jarndyce al vento del est (''{{Langx|en|east wind}}''), que ille evoca cata vice que su humor se obscura, e que deveni un ''leitmotiv'' in le roman. Del resto, le traduction de Henriette Loreau, disponibile sur Wikisource, ha conservate le titulo angles.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{harvsp|Charles Dickens|1979|p=41 del catalogo}}.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak'' in francese, dictionario Larousse|consulté le=11 april 2013}}.</ref>, in angles '''''{{Langx|en|Bleak House}}''''', es le noven [[Roman (litteratura)|roman]] publicate per [[Charles Dickens]], primo in vinte [[Roman-feuilleton|folietones]] inter martio 1852 e septembre 1853, postea in un volumine in 1853. ''Bleak House'', le prime del grande panoramico romanes de Dickens<ref>Doreen Roberts, Introduction a ''Bleak House'', Ware, Wordsworth Classics, 1993, {{p.|V}}.</ref>, describe le Anglaterra como un ''{{lang|en|bleak house}}'', id es un «habitation de desolation», devastate per un systema juridic irresponsabile e venal<ref name="Paul Davis-31">{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=31}}.</ref>, incarnate per le Chancellero (''{{lang|en|Chancellor}}''), includite in su gloria «nebulate» del Chancellaria (''{{lang|en|Court of Chancery}}'')<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Le historia describe un succession contestate ante le tribunal, le affaire "Jarndyce contra Jarndyce"<ref group="N">Le caso «Jarndyce contra Jarndyce» se inspirava de un affaire que habeva realmente occurrite e que habeva comenciate con le morte ''{{lang|la|ab intestat}}'' de un certe William Jennings, in 1798, a [[Birmingham]]: ille lassava un fortuna estimate a plure milliones.</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le](https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le) affaire del succession Jennings|consulté le=26 august 2013}}.</ref>, que affice de proxime o de lontan tote le personas e concerne un testamento obscur e grande summas de moneta. Le attaccos dirigite per le autor contra le apparato juridic se basa super le experientia que Dickens habeva acquirite como clerico. Su representation sin complacentia del tarditate, del character byzantin del lege e del corte de justitia reflecte le exasperation crescente de su epocha verso le systema, e on ha aliquando judicate que le roman habeva preparate le mentes pro le reformas del annos 1870. Ma Dickens scribe in un momento in le qual le systema ja es in transformation: si le "sex clericos e magistros" mentionate in le prime capitulo esseva respectivemente supprimite in 1842 e 1852, le question de un reforma ancora plus radical esseva ja al ordine del die. Iste contexto pone le problema del periodo in le qual le action de ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' es supponite occurrer; si on se limita al sol factos historic, illo se situarea ante 1842, lo que alcun lectores haberea recognoscite, ma iste datation se confronta con altere aspectos, de maniera que le debate remane aperte. Un del grande originalitates de iste roman es que illo usa duo narratores, un al tertie persona, qui relata le conflictos del lege e del alte societate, e le altere al prime persona, incarnate per Esther Summerson, qui conta su historia personal<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Per le stratagema del narration duple, un procedura que Paul Schlicke considera «audace»<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45">{{harvsp|Paul Schlicke|2000|p=45}}.</ref>, Dickens liga, toto opponente los, le experientia domestic de Esther con le grande problemas social. Le narration de Esther culmina con le discoperta de su origines: infante illegitime de un aristocrate, Lady Dedlock, abandonate al nascentia e educate per un tante maligne, iste juvene femina resta incerta de se mesme, accipiente con gratitudine le parve consideration que illa recipe del societate patriarcal que la circumda. Su situation reflecte illo del communitate integre, que es minate per privilegios ancestral que ignora su aspirationes e necessitates, con institutiones sclerotic condemnante le infantes al orfanotrofio e le habitantes al tugurios, dum un pretese philanthropia asservi plus tosto que illo libera su beneficiarios<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' face echo a [[Aspectos del vita de Charles Dickens relative a La Casa de Aspre Vento|numerose evenimentos marcante del vita de Dickens e reflecte le major parte de su preoccupationes personal, politic e social]]. Illo es etiam un libro innovative per su conception, su organisation e certe aspectos de su stilo. A iste titulo, illo constitue un etapa importante in le evolution de su obra, lo que le angles denomina un ''{{lang|en|watershed novel}}'' (un «roman de transition»), frequentemente considerate como le prime de un serie pertinente a su maniera ultime<ref>{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=30}}.</ref>. De plus, le criticos concorda super iste puncto: illo es un del obras de Dickens le plus remarquabilemente complete<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45"/>. == Notas == <references group="N"/> {{Ref}} [[Categoria:Roman britan]] [[Categoria:Roman]] [[Categoria:Romanes]] [[Categoria:Charles Dickens]] 5nfdc72adtccopbivyompj5656iq3px 699008 699007 2026-08-25T16:11:24Z Interlingvisto 60932 699008 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''Le Casa de Aspre Vento'''<ref>{{harvsp|Charles Dickens|1979|p=41 del catalogo}}.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak'' in francese, dictionario Larousse|consulté le=11 april 2013}}.</ref>, in angles '''''{{Langx|en|Bleak House}}''''', es le noven [[Roman (litteratura)|roman]] publicate per [[Charles Dickens]], primo in vinte [[Roman-feuilleton|folietones]] inter martio 1852 e septembre 1853, postea in un volumine in 1853. ''Bleak House'', le prime del grande panoramico romanes de Dickens<ref>Doreen Roberts, Introduction a ''Bleak House'', Ware, Wordsworth Classics, 1993, {{p.|V}}.</ref>, describe le Anglaterra como un ''{{lang|en|bleak house}}'', id es un «habitation de desolation», devastate per un systema juridic irresponsabile e venal<ref name="Paul Davis-31">{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=31}}.</ref>, incarnate per le Chancellero (''{{lang|en|Chancellor}}''), includite in su gloria «nebulate» del Chancellaria (''{{lang|en|Court of Chancery}}'')<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Le historia describe un succession contestate ante le tribunal, le affaire "Jarndyce contra Jarndyce"<ref group="N">Le caso «Jarndyce contra Jarndyce» se inspirava de un affaire que habeva realmente occurrite e que habeva comenciate con le morte ''{{lang|la|ab intestat}}'' de un certe William Jennings, in 1798, a [[Birmingham]]: ille lassava un fortuna estimate a plure milliones.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le](https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le) affaire del succession Jennings|consulté le=26 august 2013}}.</ref>, que affice de proxime o de lontan tote le personas e concerne un testamento obscur e grande summas de moneta. Le attaccos dirigite per le autor contra le apparato juridic se basa super le experientia que Dickens habeva acquirite como clerico. Su representation sin complacentia del tarditate, del character byzantin del lege e del corte de justitia reflecte le exasperation crescente de su epocha verso le systema, e on ha aliquando judicate que le roman habeva preparate le mentes pro le reformas del annos 1870. Ma Dickens scribe in un momento in le qual le systema ja es in transformation: si le "sex clericos e magistros" mentionate in le prime capitulo esseva respectivemente supprimite in 1842 e 1852, le question de un reforma ancora plus radical esseva ja al ordine del die. Iste contexto pone le problema del periodo in le qual le action de ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' es supponite occurrer; si on se limita al sol factos historic, illo se situarea ante 1842, lo que alcun lectores haberea recognoscite, ma iste datation se confronta con altere aspectos, de maniera que le debate remane aperte. Un del grande originalitates de iste roman es que illo usa duo narratores, un al tertie persona, qui relata le conflictos del lege e del alte societate, e le altere al prime persona, incarnate per Esther Summerson, qui conta su historia personal<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Per le stratagema del narration duple, un procedura que Paul Schlicke considera «audace»<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45">{{harvsp|Paul Schlicke|2000|p=45}}.</ref>, Dickens liga, toto opponente los, le experientia domestic de Esther con le grande problemas social. Le narration de Esther culmina con le discoperta de su origines: infante illegitime de un aristocrate, Lady Dedlock, abandonate al nascentia e educate per un tante maligne, iste juvene femina resta incerta de se mesme, accipiente con gratitudine le parve consideration que illa recipe del societate patriarcal que la circumda. Su situation reflecte illo del communitate integre, que es minate per privilegios ancestral que ignora su aspirationes e necessitates, con institutiones sclerotic condemnante le infantes al orfanotrofio e le habitantes al tugurios, dum un pretese philanthropia asservi plus tosto que illo libera su beneficiarios<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' face echo a [[Aspectos del vita de Charles Dickens relative a La Casa de Aspre Vento|numerose evenimentos marcante del vita de Dickens e reflecte le major parte de su preoccupationes personal, politic e social]]. Illo es etiam un libro innovative per su conception, su organisation e certe aspectos de su stilo. A iste titulo, illo constitue un etapa importante in le evolution de su obra, lo que le angles denomina un ''{{lang|en|watershed novel}}'' (un «roman de transition»), frequentemente considerate como le prime de un serie pertinente a su maniera ultime<ref>{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=30}}.</ref>. De plus, le criticos concorda super iste puncto: illo es un del obras de Dickens le plus remarquabilemente complete<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45"/>. == Notas == <references group="N"/> {{Ref}} [[Categoria:Roman britan]] [[Categoria:Roman]] [[Categoria:Romanes]] [[Categoria:Charles Dickens]] rzsunxmxgdjo9x4cms2oesa2tyhayaw 699009 699008 2026-08-25T16:16:05Z Interlingvisto 60932 Interlingvisto ha renominate le pagina [[La Casa de Aspre Vento]] a [[Le Casa de Aspre Vento]] 699008 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/generic}} '''Le Casa de Aspre Vento'''<ref>{{harvsp|Charles Dickens|1979|p=41 del catalogo}}.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/anglais-francais/bleak/566016|titre=''Bleak'' in francese, dictionario Larousse|consulté le=11 april 2013}}.</ref>, in angles '''''{{Langx|en|Bleak House}}''''', es le noven [[Roman (litteratura)|roman]] publicate per [[Charles Dickens]], primo in vinte [[Roman-feuilleton|folietones]] inter martio 1852 e septembre 1853, postea in un volumine in 1853. ''Bleak House'', le prime del grande panoramico romanes de Dickens<ref>Doreen Roberts, Introduction a ''Bleak House'', Ware, Wordsworth Classics, 1993, {{p.|V}}.</ref>, describe le Anglaterra como un ''{{lang|en|bleak house}}'', id es un «habitation de desolation», devastate per un systema juridic irresponsabile e venal<ref name="Paul Davis-31">{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=31}}.</ref>, incarnate per le Chancellero (''{{lang|en|Chancellor}}''), includite in su gloria «nebulate» del Chancellaria (''{{lang|en|Court of Chancery}}'')<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Le historia describe un succession contestate ante le tribunal, le affaire "Jarndyce contra Jarndyce"<ref group="N">Le caso «Jarndyce contra Jarndyce» se inspirava de un affaire que habeva realmente occurrite e que habeva comenciate con le morte ''{{lang|la|ab intestat}}'' de un certe William Jennings, in 1798, a [[Birmingham]]: ille lassava un fortuna estimate a plure milliones.</ref><ref>{{lien web|url=[https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le](https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01p8hrw/QI_Series_J_Justice|titre=Le) affaire del succession Jennings|consulté le=26 august 2013}}.</ref>, que affice de proxime o de lontan tote le personas e concerne un testamento obscur e grande summas de moneta. Le attaccos dirigite per le autor contra le apparato juridic se basa super le experientia que Dickens habeva acquirite como clerico. Su representation sin complacentia del tarditate, del character byzantin del lege e del corte de justitia reflecte le exasperation crescente de su epocha verso le systema, e on ha aliquando judicate que le roman habeva preparate le mentes pro le reformas del annos 1870. Ma Dickens scribe in un momento in le qual le systema ja es in transformation: si le "sex clericos e magistros" mentionate in le prime capitulo esseva respectivemente supprimite in 1842 e 1852, le question de un reforma ancora plus radical esseva ja al ordine del die. Iste contexto pone le problema del periodo in le qual le action de ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' es supponite occurrer; si on se limita al sol factos historic, illo se situarea ante 1842, lo que alcun lectores haberea recognoscite, ma iste datation se confronta con altere aspectos, de maniera que le debate remane aperte. Un del grande originalitates de iste roman es que illo usa duo narratores, un al tertie persona, qui relata le conflictos del lege e del alte societate, e le altere al prime persona, incarnate per Esther Summerson, qui conta su historia personal<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. Per le stratagema del narration duple, un procedura que Paul Schlicke considera «audace»<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45">{{harvsp|Paul Schlicke|2000|p=45}}.</ref>, Dickens liga, toto opponente los, le experientia domestic de Esther con le grande problemas social. Le narration de Esther culmina con le discoperta de su origines: infante illegitime de un aristocrate, Lady Dedlock, abandonate al nascentia e educate per un tante maligne, iste juvene femina resta incerta de se mesme, accipiente con gratitudine le parve consideration que illa recipe del societate patriarcal que la circumda. Su situation reflecte illo del communitate integre, que es minate per privilegios ancestral que ignora su aspirationes e necessitates, con institutiones sclerotic condemnante le infantes al orfanotrofio e le habitantes al tugurios, dum un pretese philanthropia asservi plus tosto que illo libera su beneficiarios<ref name="Paul Davis-31"/>. ''La Casa de Aspre Vento'' face echo a [[Aspectos del vita de Charles Dickens relative a La Casa de Aspre Vento|numerose evenimentos marcante del vita de Dickens e reflecte le major parte de su preoccupationes personal, politic e social]]. Illo es etiam un libro innovative per su conception, su organisation e certe aspectos de su stilo. A iste titulo, illo constitue un etapa importante in le evolution de su obra, lo que le angles denomina un ''{{lang|en|watershed novel}}'' (un «roman de transition»), frequentemente considerate como le prime de un serie pertinente a su maniera ultime<ref>{{harvsp|Paul Davis|1999|p=30}}.</ref>. De plus, le criticos concorda super iste puncto: illo es un del obras de Dickens le plus remarquabilemente complete<ref name="Paul Schlicke-45"/>. == Notas == <references group="N"/> {{Ref}} [[Categoria:Roman britan]] [[Categoria:Roman]] [[Categoria:Romanes]] [[Categoria:Charles Dickens]] rzsunxmxgdjo9x4cms2oesa2tyhayaw 0 61181 699010 2026-08-25T16:16:06Z Interlingvisto 60932 Interlingvisto ha renominate le pagina [[La Casa de Aspre Vento]] a [[Le Casa de Aspre Vento]] 699010 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Le Casa de Aspre Vento]] g6ep5792p5ln9pl3up3rrl4xfnyanly 699032 699010 2026-08-26T07:04:36Z Interlingvisto 60932 Redirection a [[Le Casa de Aspre Vento]] removite 699032 wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete}} 35r2j9t4ectnt1cmb7mlgcqvwz6h5k6 0 61182 699028 2026-08-26T07:01:31Z Interlingvisto 60932 Pagina create con “{{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente del Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante pe...” 699028 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente del Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante periodo studential, il se formava como dirigente, essente al testa de organisationes studential. In 1967, il ja entrava in le parlamento, essente deputato usque in 1970. In le electiones de 1978, il deberea esser candidate al [[alcaldia de Guayaquil]] per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular]] (CFP); ma, ante le impedimento del leader del CFP, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]], de candidatar se al presideantia, il esseva candidate in su loco. In le prime turno, il obteneva le prime loco, passante al secunde turno, le qual esseva retardate per nove menses per le dictatura, pro impedir su victoria. Nonobstante, Roldós esseva electe con 68,49 % del votos, le plus alte percentage obtenite in un secunde turno in le historia national. Il assumeva le poter in augusto 1979. Il governava sub un blocage parlamentar; nonobstante, il succedeva a realisar alcun importante obras de infrastructura e certe reformas economic. Inter januario e februario 1981, il debeva affrontar un nove conflicto frontalier con Peru, le [[Conflicto del Falso Paquisha|conflicto de Paquisha]]. Il gaudeva de grande sympathia pro su alte qualitates human, moral, social e civic, assi como pro su alte preparation academic. Roldós moriva durante su mandato, le 24 de maio 1981, in un mysteriose accidente aerian. Un grande parte del opinion public considera su morte como un [[magnicidio]], le principal suspectos essente le alte commandamento militar e le governamento statounitese.<ref name="dup-0-13">http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/05/24/1/1355/treinta-anos-sin-respuesta-sobre-muerte-jaime-roldos.html</ref><ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=23 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=18 de febrero de 2014 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223916/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Il esseva al poter durante solmente un anno, nove menses e quattuordeci dies; e, nonobstante su breve tempore in le cargo, il es considerate como un del melior presidentes in le historia de Ecuador.<ref>https://confirmado.net/2021/05/13/segun-encuesta-lenin-moreno-es-considerado-por-los-ecuatorianos-como-el-peor-presidente-de-la-historia/</ref> {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Politicos del seculo XX]] [[Categoria:Politicos del Guerra Frigide]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite in Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Causa de morte non elucidate]] [[Categoria:Grandes Magistros del Ordine de San Lorenzo]] [[Categoria:Cavalleros del collar del Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]] [[Categoria:Chefes de stato assassinate]] [[Categoria:Professores de universitates de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Professores del Universitate Catholic de Santiago de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Advocatos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Alumnos del Universitate de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Dirigentes studentesc de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Decedite in accidentes de aviation in Ecuador]] 6hm0pbsf020jxonkakznvfm6audlh93 699029 699028 2026-08-26T07:02:07Z Interlingvisto 60932 699029 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente de Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante periodo studential, il se formava como dirigente, essente al testa de organisationes studential. In 1967, il ja entrava in le parlamento, essente deputato usque in 1970. In le electiones de 1978, il deberea esser candidate al [[alcaldia de Guayaquil]] per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular]] (CFP); ma, ante le impedimento del leader del CFP, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]], de candidatar se al presideantia, il esseva candidate in su loco. In le prime turno, il obteneva le prime loco, passante al secunde turno, le qual esseva retardate per nove menses per le dictatura, pro impedir su victoria. Nonobstante, Roldós esseva electe con 68,49 % del votos, le plus alte percentage obtenite in un secunde turno in le historia national. Il assumeva le poter in augusto 1979. Il governava sub un blocage parlamentar; nonobstante, il succedeva a realisar alcun importante obras de infrastructura e certe reformas economic. Inter januario e februario 1981, il debeva affrontar un nove conflicto frontalier con Peru, le [[Conflicto del Falso Paquisha|conflicto de Paquisha]]. Il gaudeva de grande sympathia pro su alte qualitates human, moral, social e civic, assi como pro su alte preparation academic. Roldós moriva durante su mandato, le 24 de maio 1981, in un mysteriose accidente aerian. Un grande parte del opinion public considera su morte como un [[magnicidio]], le principal suspectos essente le alte commandamento militar e le governamento statounitese.<ref name="dup-0-13">http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/05/24/1/1355/treinta-anos-sin-respuesta-sobre-muerte-jaime-roldos.html</ref><ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=23 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=18 de febrero de 2014 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223916/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Il esseva al poter durante solmente un anno, nove menses e quattuordeci dies; e, nonobstante su breve tempore in le cargo, il es considerate como un del melior presidentes in le historia de Ecuador.<ref>https://confirmado.net/2021/05/13/segun-encuesta-lenin-moreno-es-considerado-por-los-ecuatorianos-como-el-peor-presidente-de-la-historia/</ref> {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Politicos del seculo XX]] [[Categoria:Politicos del Guerra Frigide]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite in Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Causa de morte non elucidate]] [[Categoria:Grandes Magistros del Ordine de San Lorenzo]] [[Categoria:Cavalleros del collar del Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]] [[Categoria:Chefes de stato assassinate]] [[Categoria:Professores de universitates de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Professores del Universitate Catholic de Santiago de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Advocatos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Alumnos del Universitate de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Dirigentes studentesc de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Decedite in accidentes de aviation in Ecuador]] elkfgm8wsmm0op3lvs7rq4y67omqfqo 699033 699029 2026-08-26T07:12:31Z Interlingvisto 60932 699033 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente de Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante periodo studential, il se formava como dirigente, essente al testa de organisationes studential. In 1967, il ja entrava in le parlamento, essente deputato usque in 1970. In le electiones de 1978, il deberea esser candidate al [[alcaldia de Guayaquil]] per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular]] (CFP); ma, ante le impedimento del leader del CFP, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]], de candidatar se al presideantia, il esseva candidate in su loco. In le prime turno, il obteneva le prime loco, passante al secunde turno, le qual esseva retardate per nove menses per le dictatura, pro impedir su victoria. Nonobstante, Roldós esseva electe con 68,49 % del votos, le plus alte percentage obtenite in un secunde turno in le historia national. Il assumeva le poter in augusto 1979. Il governava sub un blocage parlamentar; nonobstante, il succedeva a realisar alcun importante obras de infrastructura e certe reformas economic. Inter januario e februario 1981, il debeva affrontar un nove conflicto frontalier con Peru, le [[Conflicto del Falso Paquisha|conflicto de Paquisha]]. Il gaudeva de grande sympathia pro su alte qualitates human, moral, social e civic, assi como pro su alte preparation academic. Roldós moriva durante su mandato, le 24 de maio 1981, in un mysteriose accidente aerian. Un grande parte del opinion public considera su morte como un [[magnicidio]], le principal suspectos essente le alte commandamento militar e le governamento statounitese.<ref name="dup-0-13">http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/05/24/1/1355/treinta-anos-sin-respuesta-sobre-muerte-jaime-roldos.html</ref><ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=23 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=18 de febrero de 2014 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223916/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Il esseva al poter durante solmente un anno, nove menses e quattuordeci dies; e, nonobstante su breve tempore in le cargo, il es considerate como un del melior presidentes in le historia de Ecuador.<ref>https://confirmado.net/2021/05/13/segun-encuesta-lenin-moreno-es-considerado-por-los-ecuatorianos-como-el-peor-presidente-de-la-historia/</ref> == Biographia == Nascite in Guayaquil le 5 de novembre 1940, provincia de Guayas, tertie de tres fratres. Il pertineva a un del ramos ecuatorian del familia Roldós<ref>[http://www.ecuadorprofundo.com/tomos/tomo3/l24.htm] Vider le articulo “Los Roldós eran marinos” in le [[Diccionario biográfico del Ecuador]] de R. Pérez Pimentel</ref> de origine [[Catalanes|catalan]], radicate in [[Vilasar de Mar|Vilassar de Mar]] (Catalonia) desde seculos. Nepote del vilasaran Jaime Roldós Baleta (1861-1927)<ref> Vider le biographia de [[Jaime Roldós Baleta]] in le libro “El Vilassar dels indians”, Pagès editors, 2012 </ref>, qui arrivava al porto de Guayaquil in le anno 1875 e se establi definitivamente in Ecuador. Il faceva su studios secundari in le [[Colegio Nacional Vicente Rocafuerte]] de Guayaquil, ubi il recipeva le Grande Premio "Vicente Rocafuerte" e le distinction de melior studente del Collegio Vicentino. Ja tunc il pronunciava discursos e dirigeva classes studential, essente eligite presidente del [[Federación de Estudiantes Secundarios del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Secundari]]. Postea il se inscribeva in le studio de Jurisprudentia e Scientias Social in le [[Universidad de Guayaquil]], ubi il esseva eligite presidente del [[Federación de Estudiantes Universitarios del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]]. Durante tote le annos de studio, su nomine esseva considerate pro le premio "La Filantrópica", assi como pro le Premio Contenta. In su facultate anque, il recipeva cata anno le premios attribuite al melior studentes. Su oratoria habeva antecedentes. Su prime discursos non esseva politic, sed concernente reginas. Le timbre de su voce le permitteva visitar collegios feminine e participar in galas de beltate. Al comando del Federation de Studentes Secundari (FESE) in le Collegio Vicente Rocafuerte, il fortificava su participation in mitings e disveloppava le charisma que postea le esserea necessari, quando, un vice in le Universitate de Guayaquil, il deveniva presidente del [[Federación de Estudiantes Universitarios del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]] (FEUE). A 38 annos de etate, il ja esseva installate in Carondelet. Durante le secunde anno de su mandato, le avion in le qual il viagiava, secundo suspiciones, esseva manipulate e se accidentava in le colle de Huayrapungo (Loja), a 3500 metros super le nivello del mar. Il moriva ibi con su sposa e le comitiva que le accompagnava le 24 de maio 1981. Le 11 de octobre 1979, Roldós poneva in execution le decreto que reduceva a 40 horas le jornada de labor septimanal. Le 1 de novembre 1979, le decreto que duplicava le salario minimo vital del laboratores esseva approbate, elevante lo a 4 000 sucres mensual (US$ 160 al taxa de cambio vigente a ille tempore). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, denominante "Patriarchas del Componenda" le leaders del opposition in le organo legislative: León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra, Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, Otto Arosemena, Jaime Hurtado e Assad Bucaram. Le 8 de martio 1980, il poneva in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980, un junta de notabiles del pais esseva constituite pro cercar un solution al conflicto inter le poter executive e le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia pro contrabalançar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam disaffiliar se de iste partido. Le anno 1981 il annunciava como "le anno del progresso". A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, il habeva un confrontation bellic con Peru in le Cordillera del Cóndor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial ante le OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Le intervention de su ministro del relationes exterior, Alfonso Barrera Valverde, se distingueva particularmente. Un del plus feroce adversarios de Roldós esseva le deputato social-cristian de ille tempore, Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un famose affaire in le caso cognoscite como le "pupas de pannol", durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin de su carriera politic, que le conduceva al presideantia in 1984. In le obras physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como illo de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Il promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjuno Escolar, pro le infantes del sectores le plus povre. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human, in un epocha quando le majoritate del paises latinoamerican esseva governate per dictaturas militar, como le regime de Pinochet in Chile e, antea, in Ecuador. Post le election de Ronald Reagan como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le opportunitate de manifestar lor opposition, de que derivava un conflicto subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortiava su ligamines con le governamento sandinista de Nicaragua e con le Fronte Democratic de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su motto esseva sempre le pais ante tote le cosas. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Politicos del seculo XX]] [[Categoria:Politicos del Guerra Frigide]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite in Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Causa de morte non elucidate]] [[Categoria:Grandes Magistros del Ordine de San Lorenzo]] [[Categoria:Cavalleros del collar del Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]] [[Categoria:Chefes de stato assassinate]] [[Categoria:Professores de universitates de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Professores del Universitate Catholic de Santiago de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Advocatos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Alumnos del Universitate de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Dirigentes studentesc de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Decedite in accidentes de aviation in Ecuador]] s95z3uprm4njk2nneoi3ocnrbwd3r6w 699034 699033 2026-08-26T07:13:42Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Biographia */ 699034 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente de Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante periodo studential, il se formava como dirigente, essente al testa de organisationes studential. In 1967, il ja entrava in le parlamento, essente deputato usque in 1970. In le electiones de 1978, il deberea esser candidate al [[alcaldia de Guayaquil]] per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular]] (CFP); ma, ante le impedimento del leader del CFP, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]], de candidatar se al presideantia, il esseva candidate in su loco. In le prime turno, il obteneva le prime loco, passante al secunde turno, le qual esseva retardate per nove menses per le dictatura, pro impedir su victoria. Nonobstante, Roldós esseva electe con 68,49 % del votos, le plus alte percentage obtenite in un secunde turno in le historia national. Il assumeva le poter in augusto 1979. Il governava sub un blocage parlamentar; nonobstante, il succedeva a realisar alcun importante obras de infrastructura e certe reformas economic. Inter januario e februario 1981, il debeva affrontar un nove conflicto frontalier con Peru, le [[Conflicto del Falso Paquisha|conflicto de Paquisha]]. Il gaudeva de grande sympathia pro su alte qualitates human, moral, social e civic, assi como pro su alte preparation academic. Roldós moriva durante su mandato, le 24 de maio 1981, in un mysteriose accidente aerian. Un grande parte del opinion public considera su morte como un [[magnicidio]], le principal suspectos essente le alte commandamento militar e le governamento statounitese.<ref name="dup-0-13">http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/05/24/1/1355/treinta-anos-sin-respuesta-sobre-muerte-jaime-roldos.html</ref><ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=23 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=18 de febrero de 2014 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223916/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Il esseva al poter durante solmente un anno, nove menses e quattuordeci dies; e, nonobstante su breve tempore in le cargo, il es considerate como un del melior presidentes in le historia de Ecuador.<ref>https://confirmado.net/2021/05/13/segun-encuesta-lenin-moreno-es-considerado-por-los-ecuatorianos-como-el-peor-presidente-de-la-historia/</ref> == Biographia == Nascite in Guayaquil le 5 de novembre 1940, provincia de Guayas, tertie de tres fratres. Il pertineva a un del ramos ecuatorian del familia Roldós<ref>[http://www.ecuadorprofundo.com/tomos/tomo3/l24.htm] Vider le articulo “Los Roldós eran marinos” in le [[Diccionario biográfico del Ecuador]] de R. Pérez Pimentel</ref> de origine [[Catalanes|catalan]], radicate in [[Vilasar de Mar|Vilassar de Mar]] (Catalonia) desde seculos. Nepote del vilasaran Jaime Roldós Baleta (1861-1927)<ref> Vider le biographia de [[Jaime Roldós Baleta]] in le libro “El Vilassar dels indians”, Pagès editors, 2012 </ref>, qui arrivava al porto de Guayaquil in le anno 1875 e se establi definitivamente in Ecuador. Il faceva su studios secundari in le [[Colegio National Vicente Rocafuerte]] de Guayaquil, ubi il recipeva le Grande Premio "Vicente Rocafuerte" e le distinction de melior studente del Collegio Vicentino. Ja tunc il pronunciava discursos e dirigeva classes studential, essente eligite presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Secundari del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Secundari]]. Postea il se inscribeva in le studio de Jurisprudentia e Scientias Social in le [[Universitate de Guayaquil]], ubi il esseva eligite presidente del [[Federación de Estudiantes Universitarios del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]]. Durante tote le annos de studio, su nomine esseva considerate pro le premio "La Filantrópica", assi como pro le Premio Contenta. In su facultate anque, il recipeva cata anno le premios attribuite al melior studentes. Su oratoria habeva antecedentes. Su prime discursos non esseva politic, sed concernente reginas. Le timbre de su voce le permitteva visitar collegios feminine e participar in galas de beltate. Al comando del Federation de Studentes Secundari (FESE) in le Collegio Vicente Rocafuerte, il fortificava su participation in mitings e disveloppava le charisma que postea le esserea necessari, quando, un vice in le Universitate de Guayaquil, il deveniva presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Universitari de Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]] (FEUE). A 38 annos de etate, il ja esseva installate in Carondelet. Durante le secunde anno de su mandato, le avion in le qual il viagiava, secundo suspiciones, esseva manipulate e se accidentava in le colle de Huayrapungo (Loja), a 3500 metros super le nivello del mar. Il moriva ibi con su sposa e le comitiva que le accompagnava le 24 de maio 1981. Le 11 de octobre 1979, Roldós poneva in execution le decreto que reduceva a 40 horas le jornada de labor septimanal. Le 1 de novembre 1979, le decreto que duplicava le salario minimo vital del laboratores esseva approbate, elevante lo a 4 000 sucres mensual (US$ 160 al taxa de cambio vigente a ille tempore). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, denominante "Patriarchas del Componenda" le leaders del opposition in le organo legislative: León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra, Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, Otto Arosemena, Jaime Hurtado e Assad Bucaram. Le 8 de martio 1980, il poneva in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980, un junta de notabiles del pais esseva constituite pro cercar un solution al conflicto inter le poter executive e le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia pro contrabalançar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam disaffiliar se de iste partido. Le anno 1981 il annunciava como "le anno del progresso". A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, il habeva un confrontation bellic con Peru in le Cordillera del Cóndor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial ante le OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Le intervention de su ministro del relationes exterior, Alfonso Barrera Valverde, se distingueva particularmente. Un del plus feroce adversarios de Roldós esseva le deputato social-cristian de ille tempore, Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un famose affaire in le caso cognoscite como le "pupas de pannol", durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin de su carriera politic, que le conduceva al presideantia in 1984. In le obras physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como illo de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Il promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjuno Escolar, pro le infantes del sectores le plus povre. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human, in un epocha quando le majoritate del paises latinoamerican esseva governate per dictaturas militar, como le regime de Pinochet in Chile e, antea, in Ecuador. Post le election de Ronald Reagan como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le opportunitate de manifestar lor opposition, de que derivava un conflicto subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortiava su ligamines con le governamento sandinista de Nicaragua e con le Fronte Democratic de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su motto esseva sempre le pais ante tote le cosas. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Politicos del seculo XX]] [[Categoria:Politicos del Guerra Frigide]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite in Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Causa de morte non elucidate]] [[Categoria:Grandes Magistros del Ordine de San Lorenzo]] [[Categoria:Cavalleros del collar del Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]] [[Categoria:Chefes de stato assassinate]] [[Categoria:Professores de universitates de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Professores del Universitate Catholic de Santiago de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Advocatos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Alumnos del Universitate de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Dirigentes studentesc de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Decedite in accidentes de aviation in Ecuador]] a36aekitllxkqidjpbo5sfqchbflu5t 699036 699034 2026-08-26T11:14:34Z Interlingvisto 60932 699036 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente de Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante periodo studential, il se formava como dirigente, essente al testa de organisationes studential. In 1967, il ja entrava in le parlamento, essente deputato usque in 1970. In le electiones de 1978, il deberea esser candidate al [[alcaldia de Guayaquil]] per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular]] (CFP); ma, ante le impedimento del leader del CFP, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]], de candidatar se al presideantia, il esseva candidate in su loco. In le prime turno, il obteneva le prime loco, passante al secunde turno, le qual esseva retardate per nove menses per le dictatura, pro impedir su victoria. Nonobstante, Roldós esseva electe con 68,49 % del votos, le plus alte percentage obtenite in un secunde turno in le historia national. Il assumeva le poter in augusto 1979. Il governava sub un blocage parlamentar; nonobstante, il succedeva a realisar alcun importante obras de infrastructura e certe reformas economic. Inter januario e februario 1981, il debeva affrontar un nove conflicto frontalier con Peru, le [[Conflicto del Falso Paquisha|conflicto de Paquisha]]. Il gaudeva de grande sympathia pro su alte qualitates human, moral, social e civic, assi como pro su alte preparation academic. Roldós moriva durante su mandato, le 24 de maio 1981, in un mysteriose accidente aerian. Un grande parte del opinion public considera su morte como un [[magnicidio]], le principal suspectos essente le alte commandamento militar e le governamento statounitese.<ref name="dup-0-13">http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/05/24/1/1355/treinta-anos-sin-respuesta-sobre-muerte-jaime-roldos.html</ref><ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=23 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=18 de febrero de 2014 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223916/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Il esseva al poter durante solmente un anno, nove menses e quattuordeci dies; e, nonobstante su breve tempore in le cargo, il es considerate como un del melior presidentes in le historia de Ecuador.<ref>https://confirmado.net/2021/05/13/segun-encuesta-lenin-moreno-es-considerado-por-los-ecuatorianos-como-el-peor-presidente-de-la-historia/</ref> == Biographia == Nascite in Guayaquil le 5 de novembre 1940, provincia de Guayas, tertie de tres fratres. Il pertineva a un del ramos ecuatorian del familia Roldós<ref>[http://www.ecuadorprofundo.com/tomos/tomo3/l24.htm] Vider le articulo “Los Roldós eran marinos” in le [[Diccionario biográfico del Ecuador]] de R. Pérez Pimentel</ref> de origine [[Catalanes|catalan]], radicate in [[Vilasar de Mar|Vilassar de Mar]] (Catalonia) desde seculos. Nepote del vilasaran Jaime Roldós Baleta (1861-1927)<ref> Vider le biographia de [[Jaime Roldós Baleta]] in le libro “El Vilassar dels indians”, Pagès editors, 2012 </ref>, qui arrivava al porto de Guayaquil in le anno 1875 e se establi definitivamente in Ecuador. Il faceva su studios secundari in le [[Colegio National Vicente Rocafuerte]] de Guayaquil, ubi il recipeva le Grande Premio "Vicente Rocafuerte" e le distinction de melior studente del Collegio Vicentino. Ja tunc il pronunciava discursos e dirigeva classes studential, essente eligite presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Secundari del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Secundari]]. Postea il se inscribeva in le studio de Jurisprudentia e Scientias Social in le [[Universitate de Guayaquil]], ubi il esseva eligite presidente del [[Federación de Estudiantes Universitarios del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]]. Durante tote le annos de studio, su nomine esseva considerate pro le premio "La Filantrópica", assi como pro le Premio Contenta. In su facultate anque, il recipeva cata anno le premios attribuite al melior studentes. Su oratoria habeva antecedentes. Su prime discursos non esseva politic, sed concernente reginas. Le timbre de su voce le permitteva visitar collegios feminine e participar in galas de beltate. Al comando del Federation de Studentes Secundari (FESE) in le Collegio Vicente Rocafuerte, il fortificava su participation in mitings e disveloppava le charisma que postea le esserea necessari, quando, un vice in le Universitate de Guayaquil, il deveniva presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Universitari de Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]] (FEUE). A 38 annos de etate, il ja esseva installate in Carondelet. Durante le secunde anno de su mandato, le avion in le qual il viagiava, secundo suspiciones, esseva manipulate e se accidentava in le colle de Huayrapungo (Loja), a 3500 metros super le nivello del mar. Il moriva ibi con su sposa e le comitiva que le accompagnava le 24 de maio 1981. Le 11 de octobre 1979, Roldós poneva in execution le decreto que reduceva a 40 horas le jornada de labor septimanal. Le 1 de novembre 1979, le decreto que duplicava le salario minimo vital del laboratores esseva approbate, elevante lo a 4 000 sucres mensual (US$ 160 al taxa de cambio vigente a ille tempore). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, denominante "Patriarchas del Componenda" le leaders del opposition in le organo legislative: León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra, Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, Otto Arosemena, Jaime Hurtado e Assad Bucaram. Le 8 de martio 1980, il poneva in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980, un junta de notabiles del pais esseva constituite pro cercar un solution al conflicto inter le poter executive e le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia pro contrabalançar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam disaffiliar se de iste partido. Le anno 1981 il annunciava como "le anno del progresso". A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, il habeva un confrontation bellic con Peru in le Cordillera del Cóndor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial ante le OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Le intervention de su ministro del relationes exterior, Alfonso Barrera Valverde, se distingueva particularmente. Un del plus feroce adversarios de Roldós esseva le deputato social-cristian de ille tempore, Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un famose affaire in le caso cognoscite como le "pupas de pannol", durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin de su carriera politic, que le conduceva al presideantia in 1984. In le obras physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como illo de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Il promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjuno Escolar, pro le infantes del sectores le plus povre. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human, in un epocha quando le majoritate del paises latinoamerican esseva governate per dictaturas militar, como le regime de Pinochet in Chile e, antea, in Ecuador. Post le election de Ronald Reagan como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le opportunitate de manifestar lor opposition, de que derivava un conflicto subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortiava su ligamines con le governamento sandinista de Nicaragua e con le Fronte Democratic de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su motto esseva sempre le pais ante tote le cosas. == Vita politic == [[File:Votos Presidente por Provincia Ecuador segunda vuelta 1979.svg|dextera|miniatur|Resultatos del electiones presidential de Ecuador de 1979 in secunde torno per [[Provincias de Ecuador|provincias]]. Jaime Roldós, candidato del Concentration de Fortias Popular (color nigre), e [[Sixto Durán-Ballén]], del Fronte National Constitutionista (color jalne).]] Roldós esseva deputado inter 1967 e 1970. Il faceva parte del Commission convocate per le dictatura militar inter 1978 e 1979 pro reformar le Constitution de 1945. Post le promulgation del [[Constitution de Ecuador de 1979|constitution de 1978]], ille esseva candidate per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular|CFP]] al magistratura municipal de [[Guayaquil]] e pro presidente, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]]. Vidente in le sondages le grande possibilitate de victoria de Bucaram, le dictatura includeva in le Lege de Electiones un articulo "ad hoc" in le qual il esseva prohibite a Bucaram de candidatar se al presidentia, igualmente como a [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] e [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy]]. Ante isto, Roldós esseva candidate al presidentia, con le motto "Roldós presidente, Bucaram al poder". Il esseva eligite in le [[Electiones presidential de Ecuador de 1979]] per le CFP. Il vinceva in le secunde torno electoral contra le socialcristiano [[Sixto Durán Ballén]], de tendentia conservator, in un secunde torno electoral controverse, habente loco 6 menses post le prime torno, in un tentativa del dictatura de obtener le victoria de Durán Ballén. == Presidente del Ecuador == Le 11 de octobre 1979 Roldós pone in vigor le decreto que reduce a 40 horas le jornada del labor in le septimana. Le 1 de novembre 1979 se approba le decreto que duplicava le salario minimal vital del laboratores, a 4.000 sucres per mense (US$ 160 al cambio vigente a ille data). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, appellante «Patriarcas de le Componenda» le leaders del opposition in le legislativo: [[León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra]], [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy]], [[Otto Arosemena]], [[Jaime Hurtado]] e [[Assad Bucaram]]. Le 8 de martio 1980 ille pone in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980 se formava un junta de notabiles del pais pro cercar un solution al conflicto de poteres con le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partito Pueblo, Cambio e Democratia pro contracarar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam desaffiliate se de iste partito. In 1979 ille restaurava le relationes con Cuba, tamen illos se tensionava a causa del [[Asalto al ambasciata de Ecuador in Cuba]] in 1981; mesmo assi, ille non arrivava a rumper le relationes con Cuba.<ref>{{Cita web|url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/el-mundo/crisis-entre-mexico-y-ecuador-el-dia-que-fidel-castro-ordeno-la-incursion-a-una-embajada-en-la-nid06042024/|título=Crisis entre México y Ecuador: el día que Fidel Castro ordenó la incursión a una embajada en La Habana|fechaacceso=2025-04-13|fecha=2024-04-06|sitioweb=LA NACION|idioma=es}}</ref> Le anno 1981 ille annunciava como «le anno del progresso». A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, occurreva le [[Conflict de Fals Paquisha|conflict de Paquisha]] con Peru, in le Cordillera del Condor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial al OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Se distingueva le intervention de su ministro de affaires externe [[Alfonso Barrera Valverde]]. Un de su plus feroces oppositores esseva le alora deputato social-christian Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un celebre affaire de corruption in le caso cognoscite como le «pupas de pannos», durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin in su carriera politic, que le conduceva al Presiden­cia in 1984. In le obra physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como le de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Ille promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjeuner Scolastic, pro le infantes del sectores le plus paupere. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human in un epocha in le qual le majoritate del paises latino-american esseva governate per dictaturas militar como celle de [[Augusto Pinochet]] in Chile e anteriormente in Ecuador. A partir del election de [[Ronald Reagan]] como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le occasion de manifestar lor opposition, del qual resultava un pugna subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortificava le ligamines con le [[Revolution Sandinista|governo sandinista]] de Nicaragua e con le [[Front Democratic Revolutionari]] de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su lema esseva sempre le pais super tote le cosas. === Carta de Conducta de Riobamba o Doctrina Roldós === {{AP|Doctrina Roldós}} Sub le mandato de Roldós, Ecuador proponeva ante le [[Pacto Andino]], un doctrina de respecto del derectos human que veniva a concretisar se in le Carta de Conducta de Riobamba signate le 11 de septembre 1980.<ref>Carta de Conducta de Riobamba (synthese)</ref> == Morte e funerale de Stato == Le postmeridie del dominica {{fecha|24|05|1981}}, le avion del [[Fortia Aeree Ecuadorian]] (FAE) que transportava le presidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera, un [[Beechcraft King Air]] (FAE 001A) que habeva essite acquirite recentemente pro servir como avion presidencial, collidiva con le monte Huayrapungo ("Porta del Ventos", in [[Lingua quichua|quichua]]), in le [[Provincia de Loja|provincia de Loja]]. In addition al presidente, moriva tote le altere passageros del aeronave: su sposa [[Martha Bucaram]]; le ministro del Defensa Marco Subía Martínez, e su sposa Irlanda Sarango; le tenentes-colonellos Héctor Torres e Armando Navarrete; le pilota e aide-de-camp del presidente, tenente-colonello Marco Andrade; le copilota tenente Galo Romo e le stewardessa Soledad Rosero. Le aeronave habeva partite de Quito poco post un ceremonia civic-militar al [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa]], ubi le combatentes del [[Conflict de Falso Paquisha|Guerra de Paquisha]] esseva decorate. Su destination esseva le localitate frontalier de [[Macará]], ubi le presidente deberea prender un helicoptero que le transportarea al proxime village de Zapotillo, ubi ille habeva planate participar in un altere ceremonia. Ille deberea retornar a Quito le mesme vespere, pro le session solemne del [[Consilio Provincial de Pichincha]]. Pauc minutas ante le atterrage, e durante le trajectoria de descense verso le pista de Macará, del qual illo ancora esseva distante circa 60 kilometros, le parve avion presidencial collidiva con un grande rocca sur le cresta del monte Huayrapungo, que illo habeva superate de pauc metros. Quando le aeronave non arrivava e le contacto con illo se perdeva, le helicoptero que attendeva in Macará le presidente decollava pro cercar le aeronave, trovante le restos del avion sur le pendio de Huayrapungo. Del vicin [[Cantón Celica|cantón de Celica]], distante 10 kilometros del loco del impacto, tropas del [[Exercito de Ecuador|Exercito]] e del [[Policia National del Ecuador|policia]] ascendeva le montania pro recuperar le restos del presidente e de su comitiva. De Celica, le restos del mandatario e de su comitiva esseva transportate a [[Machala]], ubi un avion C-130 del Fortia Aeree attendeva pro transportar los a Quito. Roldós esseva recognoscite per le cravate rubie que ille portava ille die. Le autopsia confirmava que le presidente moriva instantaneemente per politraumatismos causate per le impacto. Habitantes del zona indicava in 2006 al canal lojano Ecotel que le restos del presidente e de su sposa esseva le sol recognoscibile al loco del tragedia. Le exalcalde de [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]], [[José Bolívar Castillo]], declarava que le accidente "habeva respectate le cadavere del presidente".<ref>{{Obra citada|título=TESTIMONIOS MUERTE DE JAIME ROLDOS|apellidos=nilo valarezo|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J04Q0jFAyXs|fechaacceso=2026-07-02|fecha=2011-05-24}}</ref> Appena confirmate le morte de Roldós, assumeva le poter, per decreto executive, su vice-presidente, Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea, qui se adressava al Nation in un transmission televisate.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20130909022649/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Portada-COMERCIO-despues-Jaime-Roldos_ECMFIL20120524_0002.pdf</ref> In le capital habeva loco un funerale de Stato, al [[Palatio de Carondelet]] e in le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito|Catedral Metropolitana]]. Milles de quitenses sortiva al stratas pro exprimer lor dolor pro le morte inattendite e tragic del presidente. Participava como invitatos special alcun presidentes latino-american, como [[Rodrigo Carazo Odio]] de [[Costa Rica]], [[Arístides Royo|Arístides Royo Sánchez]] de [[Panama]], [[Luis Herrera Campins|Luis Herrera Campíns]] de [[Venezuela]], [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] del [[Peru]] e [[Julio César Turbay|Julio César Turbay Ayala]] de [[Colombia]]. Post le ceremonias in Quito, le restos del presidente e de su sposa esseva transportate a Guayaquil, ubi habeva loco un missa de requiem in le [[Catedral de Guayaquil|Catedral]]. Le cortege funerari in Guayaquil esseva etiam multitudinari. [[File:Tumba de Jaime Roldós Aguilera y su esposa.JPG|thumb|Tumba del ex-presidente de Ecuador, Jaime Roldós Aguilera, e de su sposa, Martha Bucaram, in le [[Cimiterio General de Guayaquil]].|270px]] Roldós e su sposa esseva inhumate in le [[Cimiterio General de Guayaquil|Cimiterio General]] de iste citate. Duo cruces de marmore blanc, al Porta 14 del cimiterio, marca lor tumbas.<ref>{{Enlace roto|1=http://ediciones.expreso.ec/ediciones/2011/05/25/nacional/actualidad/familia-roldos-cumple-30-anos-de-dolor-y-duda// |2=http://ediciones.expreso.ec/ediciones/2011/05/25/nacional/actualidad/familia-roldos-cumple-30-anos-de-dolor-y-duda// |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Desde le Papa [[Juan Paulo II]] usque al governantes del continente e de tote le mundo esseva inviate lor notas de condolentia pro iste fatal evento. Su ultime discurso esseva pronunciate pauc horas ante su morte, durante le ceremonia del [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa|Estadio Olímpico]], e ille recipeva ululationes del publico presente, a causa de mesuras economic que ille habeva prendite le septimana precedente:<ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEPcwuO4j_0 |título=Programa La Televisión - Historia Presidencial del Ecuador |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2007 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLCKpzs7hGw |título=Ecuavisa 40 años - Reportaje Especial de Televistazo sobre los 40 años de la Política Ecuatoriana y el Salto a la Democracia |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTiXod2_Vv8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205093533/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTiXod2_Vv8 |fechaarchivo=5 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Ecuavisa 40 años - José Mª Velasco Ibarra y Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=giW3Gyn2ltk |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216141252/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=giW3Gyn2ltk |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Ecuador TV - Los Reporteros: Perú y Ecuador 11 años de paz parte 1 de 2 |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-04-28 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2009 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCnfYVo-4Mc |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216151801/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCnfYVo-4Mc |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=2- Jaime Roldos |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2010 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgZRy8Yn5Ms |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216160533/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgZRy8Yn5Ms |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=CRÓNICA DE LA MUERTE DE JAIME ROLDÓS AGUILERA |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2009 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=205w7Ah_n-A |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216144549/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=205w7Ah_n-A |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Documental Alfaro Vive Carajo Del Sueño al Caos Parte 1 |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPO9fLodM9g |título=Excelente documental "25 años de Democracia en el Ecuador" (Odysea Producciones Culturales, Teleamazonas y Ecuavisa Con el apoyo académico de la UNESCO, Université de Paris 8 (Francia), Centre de Recherche et Documentation sur l'Amérique Latine (CREDAL) (Francia) y Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts de Paris-Cergy (Francia), 2004) |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qkzm0An5nNE |título=Perfil de Jaime Roldós en La TV |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJPNff4f_I8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216144211/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJPNff4f_I8 |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=tvecuador.com |año=2005 |url=http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&id=31&view=showcanal&Itemid=27 |título=Política en el Ecuador |editor=Programa La Televisión |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619162818/http://tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=31&Itemid=27 |fechaarchivo=2013-06-19 }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=explored.com.ec |año=2001 |url=http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/desde-siempre-y-hasta-siempre-121141-121141.html |título=DESDE SIEMPRE Y HASTA SIEMPRE |editor=Explored |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721055802/http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/desde-siempre-y-hasta-siempre-121141-121141.html |fechaarchivo=2010-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{enlace roto|1={{Cita web |autor=iaen.edu.ec |año=2010 |url=http://repositorio.iaen.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/362/1/IAEN-054-2005.pdf |título=PRESIDENCIA DEL AB. JAIME ROLDÓS AGUILERA 10 DE AGOSTO DE 1979 - 24 DE MAYO DE 1981 |editor=Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}} |2=http://repositorio.iaen.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/362/1/IAEN-054-2005.pdf |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=ecuavisa.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.ecuavisa.com/noticias-nacionales/36919-hoy-se-cumplen-tres-decadas-de-la-muerte-del-expresidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera.html |título=Ecuavisa - Hoy se cumplen tres décadas de la trágica muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=[[Ecuavisa]] |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628035526/http://www.ecuavisa.com/noticias-nacionales/36919-hoy-se-cumplen-tres-decadas-de-la-tragica-muerte-del-expresidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera.html |fechaarchivo=2011-06-28 }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=teleamazonas.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.teleamazonas.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11685:treinta-anos-de-la-muerte-del-ex-presidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera&catid=50:noticias-nacionales&Itemid=88 |título=Teleamazonas - Treinta años de la muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Teleamazonas |fechaacceso=2011-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Yh8nZRoquc |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216160748/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Yh8nZRoquc |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Aniversario de la muerte de Roldós |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5CS5PkQvB8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216161803/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5CS5PkQvB8 |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Discursos de Roldós |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c52dM7bBaQU&feature=channel_video_title |título=Treinta años de la muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=tvecuador.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=1699&Itemid=27 |título=30 años de la Muerte de Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Programa La Televisión |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105003312/http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=1699&Itemid=27 |fechaarchivo=2013-11-05 }}</ref> {{cita|"Nos ha progressate 21 menses, sub un governamento constitutional, quando isto significa in paises como le nostre, in le qual ganiar le stabilitate democratic implica conquistar lo die post die. Ecuadorianos, nos esseva seriose e honeste. Nos continua esser seriose e honeste in tote e cata un de nostre propositiones. Que non sia le parolas ma le obras, le melior testimonio de nostre intentiones. Es le hora del labor, del effortio e del solidaritate, non del paros, strikes, menacias, incomprehension o rumores. Proba le amor al Patria, complente cata uno su deber. Nostre grande passion es e debe esser le Ecuador. Nostre grande passion, ascolta me; es e debe esser le Ecuador. Iste Ecuador que nos non vole inbricate in lo insignificante, ma in le valiente, luctator, infatigabile, forjante un destino de grandor. Le Ecuador heroic que triumphava in Pichincha, le Ecuador del valientes de hodie, heroic luctatores de Paquisha, Machinaza e Mayaicu, immolate in iste legendari trenchas. Le Ecuador heroic del Cordillera del Cóndor. Le Ecuador eterne, unite in le defensa de su hereditate territorial. Le Ecuador democratic, capace de dar lectiones historic de humanismo, labor e libertate. Iste Ecuador Amazonic, ab sempre e usque sempre. Viva le Patria!". |Jaime Roldós Aguilera in le [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa|Estadio Olímpico Atahualpa]]}} == Investigation official super le morte de Jaime Roldós: Le antecedente == Le Junta Investigatori de Accidentes (QTI) del Fortia Aeree Ecuadorian attribueva le responsabilitate a un error del pilota, submittite a un carga de travalio excessive. Le pilota del avion esseva etiam le aide-de-camp del presidente, e habeva essite tote le matino del fatal die in pede durante le ceremonia al Stadio Olimpic. Secundo le FAE, ille descendite troppo tosto in su approximation a Macará e prendeva un ruta periculose pro evitar entrar in le spatio aeree peruvian, a causa del relationes tense del Ecuador con ille pais. Le commission parlamentar que se formava menses plus tarde ante le insistenti de sectores politic affin al presidente e de familiares del victimas, revelava contradictiones e inconsistencias in le reporto del JIA, ma non poteva arrivar a conclusiones definitive. Iste commission esseva dirigite per le ex-presidente Otto Arosemena Gómez. Durante le investigation, le commission demandava un peritia al departamento de investigation de accidentes de aviation del policia de Zurich que, in 1982, establiva que le motores del nave habeva essite inactive quando le apparato impactava le montania. Iste peritia, que contradiceva le reporto del Fortia Aeree, non meriteva ulle investigation ulterior per parte del Governo o del fiscalia Ecuadorian; altere peritias technic non esseva possibile proque iste aeronave habeva essite acquirite per le Fortia Aeree pro le mission specific de «avion presidencial» con matricula militar, proque illo non habeva un registrator de parametros de volo ni un registrator de voce del cabina, cognoscite como «cassa nigre». == Theorias de conspiration == Le version official acceptate per le Governo del Ecuador es celle de un accidente de aviation. Le familia e sectores del sinistra sustene le theoria que esseva un attentate executate per le Statos Unite o Argentina. Pro le filios del parella presidential, Martha e Santiago Roldós Bucaram, le circumstantias e le causas del accidente non ha essite clarificate definitivemente. Altere, como le ex-presidente Hurtado Larrea, affirma usque hodie que illo esseva un accidente.<ref>{{Enlace roto|1=http://radioprimavera.com.ec/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1402:osvaldo-hurtado-la-muerte-de-jaime-roldos-aguilera-fue-un-accidente&catid=31:primavera-noticias&Itemid=27 |2=http://radioprimavera.com.ec/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1402:osvaldo-hurtado-la-muerte-de-jaime-roldos-aguilera-fue-un-accidente&catid=31:primavera-noticias&Itemid=27 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> === Theoria del attentate === Le activista american [[John Perkins (escritor)|John Perkins]], in su libro ''Confessions of an Economic Hit Man'' (''[[Confessiones de un sicario economic]]'', 2004), se adjungeva al version que Roldós haberea essite assassinate, proque su plano pro reorganisar le sector del hydrocarburos haberea menaciate le interesses del Statos Unite. Iste version, tamen, esseva presente ja desde le initio mesme del investigationes, e ha essite publicate in altere libros e documentos. Iste version relaciona le tragedia con le morte in ille mesme anno del general peruvian [[Rafael Hoyos Rubio]], qui commandava le Fortias Armate Peruvian in le [[Conflict de Fals Paquisha]] inter Peru e Ecuador al initio de ille mesme anno, e con celle del general [[Omar Torrijos Herrera]] de [[Panama]], in circumstantias similar e cuje action igualmente comprometteva fortemente le interesses del Statos Unite. Le journalist Ecuadorian [[Jaime Galarza Zavala]] involve le Fortias Armate e sustene que le avion presidential esseva abattite per un rocchetto lanceate per un avion militar Ecuadorian, e que le Exercito cognosceva le operation al puncto que il habeva patrulias in le sector preste a colliger le restos del avion del presidente. Il sustene que illes haberea agite sub pressiones de Israel, proque Roldós non haberea volite authorisar le compra de un lote de aviones de combate [[IAI Kfir]].<ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.ecuadorinmediato.com/index.php?module=Noticias&func=news_user_view&id=150430&umt=existen_elementos_que_reafirman_tesis_de_que_jaime_roldf3s_fue_asesinado2c_dice_jaime_galarza_28audio29 |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=25 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=5 de marzo de 2016 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305122311/http://ecuadorinmediato.com/index.php?func=news_user_view&id=150430&module=noticias&umt=existen_elementos_que_reafirman_tesis_de_que_jaime_roldf3s_fue_asesinado2c_dice_jaime_galarza_28audio29 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> No obstante, le presidente Roldós sí authorisava le compra del jets hebree, proque le contracto esseva signate le 21 de maio, tres dies ante su morte.<ref>[[Kfir]]</ref> Nonobstante, le theoria del attentate non documenta le maniera in que illo haberea essite committite, si esseva per medio de un bomba — cuje vestigios non esseva trovate — o si le avion esseva abattite. Qui defende iste these sustene que personas qui affirmava haber vidite exploder le avion in le aere e non como consequentia del impacto moriva in circumstantias mysteriose o dispareva. Illes affirma etiam que officiales del Fortia Aeree qui cognosceva detalios del volo de ille die etiam moriva in circumstantias poco clar. Generalmente, qui sustene iste theoria nunquam ha implicate oppositores o collaboratores del presidente Roldós in le supposite attentate, que illes attribue sempre a governamentos estranier, como le del Statos Unite o le dictatura militar de Argentina, in le quadro del [[Plan Condor|Operation Condor]]. == Legato historic == [[File:Coat of Arms of Jaime Roldós Aguilera (Order of Isabella the Catholic).svg|thumb|Escuto attribuite como cavallero del [[Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]].]] Post le decesso de Jaime Roldós, le Congresso National del Ecuador nominava su fratre, [[León Roldós]], como Vice-presidente del Republica, pro completar le periodo constitutional con [[Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea]], del [[Democratia Popular (Ecuador)|Democratia Popular]]. Nonobstante, León Roldós manteneva un relation difficile con Hurtado, opponente se a plure de su politicas economic, inter illos le «sucretisation» del debito externe private (per le qual le Stato assumeva le risco cambial del debito contrahite per interprenditores private). Como tributo postume, le pictor Marco Salas livrava un retrato del presidente Roldós, que esseva placiate pauc tempore post su morte in le galeria del presidentes del Salon Flave del [[Palatio de Carondelet]]. Le Municipio del Canton Celica construeva un via usque al mesme loco del tragedia, ubi in 2006 esseva annunciate le construction de un monumento commemorative.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.etvtelerama.com/index.php?codigo=NozrFZv4ur|titulo=|sitioweb=ETV Telerama|fechaacceso=}}</ref> [[Abdalá Bucaram]], cognato de Jaime Roldós Aguilera, fundava le populista [[Partito Roldosista Ecuadorian]], e esseva eligite como Presidente del Ecuador. Il governava ab augusto de 1996 usque a februario de 1997, quando le Congresso National le destitueva, allegante «incapacitate mental». Su fratre León Roldós Aguilera, ex-vice-presidente (1981-1984), esseva candidato al Presidencia in 1992, 2002, e novemente in le electiones de 2006 (como candidato del alliance inter le movimento «Red Ethica e Democratia (RED)» e le partito social-democratic [[Sinistra Democratic (Ecuador)|Sinistra Democratic]]. Le filia de Jaime Roldós e Martha Bucaram, [[Martha Roldós]], esseva deputata per le mesme gruppo RED e in le anno 2009 candidata al presiden­tia del Ecuador. Le filio minor del matrimonio Roldós-Bucaram, Santiago Roldós Bucaram, es journalist e dramaturgo. [[Martha Roldós]] denunciava que le Partito Roldosista Ecuadorian (PRE) ha destruite le ideales que durante su vita su patre transmitteva e manteneva. «Es un partito que corrumpe tote le ideales que esseva illos que mi patre susteneva», secundo su declaration. Decenas de stratas, avenidas, pontes e unitates educative in varie citates trans le pais porta su nomine, inclusive le Terminal Terrestre de Guayaquil, assi como etiam le iconic «Ecuador Amazonic», de su discurso final. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Politicos del seculo XX]] [[Categoria:Politicos del Guerra Frigide]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite in Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Causa de morte non elucidate]] [[Categoria:Grandes Magistros del Ordine de San Lorenzo]] [[Categoria:Cavalleros del collar del Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]] [[Categoria:Chefes de stato assassinate]] [[Categoria:Professores de universitates de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Professores del Universitate Catholic de Santiago de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Advocatos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Alumnos del Universitate de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Dirigentes studentesc de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Decedite in accidentes de aviation in Ecuador]] tgbarvp6e3g17y79y9etk0sknlstk5z 699037 699036 2026-08-26T11:14:47Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Vita politic */ 699037 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente de Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante periodo studential, il se formava como dirigente, essente al testa de organisationes studential. In 1967, il ja entrava in le parlamento, essente deputato usque in 1970. In le electiones de 1978, il deberea esser candidate al [[alcaldia de Guayaquil]] per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular]] (CFP); ma, ante le impedimento del leader del CFP, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]], de candidatar se al presideantia, il esseva candidate in su loco. In le prime turno, il obteneva le prime loco, passante al secunde turno, le qual esseva retardate per nove menses per le dictatura, pro impedir su victoria. Nonobstante, Roldós esseva electe con 68,49 % del votos, le plus alte percentage obtenite in un secunde turno in le historia national. Il assumeva le poter in augusto 1979. Il governava sub un blocage parlamentar; nonobstante, il succedeva a realisar alcun importante obras de infrastructura e certe reformas economic. Inter januario e februario 1981, il debeva affrontar un nove conflicto frontalier con Peru, le [[Conflicto del Falso Paquisha|conflicto de Paquisha]]. Il gaudeva de grande sympathia pro su alte qualitates human, moral, social e civic, assi como pro su alte preparation academic. Roldós moriva durante su mandato, le 24 de maio 1981, in un mysteriose accidente aerian. Un grande parte del opinion public considera su morte como un [[magnicidio]], le principal suspectos essente le alte commandamento militar e le governamento statounitese.<ref name="dup-0-13">http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/05/24/1/1355/treinta-anos-sin-respuesta-sobre-muerte-jaime-roldos.html</ref><ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=23 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=18 de febrero de 2014 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223916/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Il esseva al poter durante solmente un anno, nove menses e quattuordeci dies; e, nonobstante su breve tempore in le cargo, il es considerate como un del melior presidentes in le historia de Ecuador.<ref>https://confirmado.net/2021/05/13/segun-encuesta-lenin-moreno-es-considerado-por-los-ecuatorianos-como-el-peor-presidente-de-la-historia/</ref> == Biographia == Nascite in Guayaquil le 5 de novembre 1940, provincia de Guayas, tertie de tres fratres. Il pertineva a un del ramos ecuatorian del familia Roldós<ref>[http://www.ecuadorprofundo.com/tomos/tomo3/l24.htm] Vider le articulo “Los Roldós eran marinos” in le [[Diccionario biográfico del Ecuador]] de R. Pérez Pimentel</ref> de origine [[Catalanes|catalan]], radicate in [[Vilasar de Mar|Vilassar de Mar]] (Catalonia) desde seculos. Nepote del vilasaran Jaime Roldós Baleta (1861-1927)<ref> Vider le biographia de [[Jaime Roldós Baleta]] in le libro “El Vilassar dels indians”, Pagès editors, 2012 </ref>, qui arrivava al porto de Guayaquil in le anno 1875 e se establi definitivamente in Ecuador. Il faceva su studios secundari in le [[Colegio National Vicente Rocafuerte]] de Guayaquil, ubi il recipeva le Grande Premio "Vicente Rocafuerte" e le distinction de melior studente del Collegio Vicentino. Ja tunc il pronunciava discursos e dirigeva classes studential, essente eligite presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Secundari del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Secundari]]. Postea il se inscribeva in le studio de Jurisprudentia e Scientias Social in le [[Universitate de Guayaquil]], ubi il esseva eligite presidente del [[Federación de Estudiantes Universitarios del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]]. Durante tote le annos de studio, su nomine esseva considerate pro le premio "La Filantrópica", assi como pro le Premio Contenta. In su facultate anque, il recipeva cata anno le premios attribuite al melior studentes. Su oratoria habeva antecedentes. Su prime discursos non esseva politic, sed concernente reginas. Le timbre de su voce le permitteva visitar collegios feminine e participar in galas de beltate. Al comando del Federation de Studentes Secundari (FESE) in le Collegio Vicente Rocafuerte, il fortificava su participation in mitings e disveloppava le charisma que postea le esserea necessari, quando, un vice in le Universitate de Guayaquil, il deveniva presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Universitari de Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]] (FEUE). A 38 annos de etate, il ja esseva installate in Carondelet. Durante le secunde anno de su mandato, le avion in le qual il viagiava, secundo suspiciones, esseva manipulate e se accidentava in le colle de Huayrapungo (Loja), a 3500 metros super le nivello del mar. Il moriva ibi con su sposa e le comitiva que le accompagnava le 24 de maio 1981. Le 11 de octobre 1979, Roldós poneva in execution le decreto que reduceva a 40 horas le jornada de labor septimanal. Le 1 de novembre 1979, le decreto que duplicava le salario minimo vital del laboratores esseva approbate, elevante lo a 4 000 sucres mensual (US$ 160 al taxa de cambio vigente a ille tempore). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, denominante "Patriarchas del Componenda" le leaders del opposition in le organo legislative: León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra, Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, Otto Arosemena, Jaime Hurtado e Assad Bucaram. Le 8 de martio 1980, il poneva in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980, un junta de notabiles del pais esseva constituite pro cercar un solution al conflicto inter le poter executive e le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia pro contrabalançar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam disaffiliar se de iste partido. Le anno 1981 il annunciava como "le anno del progresso". A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, il habeva un confrontation bellic con Peru in le Cordillera del Cóndor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial ante le OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Le intervention de su ministro del relationes exterior, Alfonso Barrera Valverde, se distingueva particularmente. Un del plus feroce adversarios de Roldós esseva le deputato social-cristian de ille tempore, Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un famose affaire in le caso cognoscite como le "pupas de pannol", durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin de su carriera politic, que le conduceva al presideantia in 1984. In le obras physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como illo de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Il promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjuno Escolar, pro le infantes del sectores le plus povre. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human, in un epocha quando le majoritate del paises latinoamerican esseva governate per dictaturas militar, como le regime de Pinochet in Chile e, antea, in Ecuador. Post le election de Ronald Reagan como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le opportunitate de manifestar lor opposition, de que derivava un conflicto subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortiava su ligamines con le governamento sandinista de Nicaragua e con le Fronte Democratic de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su motto esseva sempre le pais ante tote le cosas. == Vita politic == [[File:Votos Presidente por Provincia Ecuador segunda vuelta 1979.svg|right|thumb|Resultatos del electiones presidential de Ecuador de 1979 in secunde torno per [[Provincias de Ecuador|provincias]]. Jaime Roldós, candidato del Concentration de Fortias Popular (color nigre), e [[Sixto Durán-Ballén]], del Fronte National Constitutionista (color jalne).]] Roldós esseva deputado inter 1967 e 1970. Il faceva parte del Commission convocate per le dictatura militar inter 1978 e 1979 pro reformar le Constitution de 1945. Post le promulgation del [[Constitution de Ecuador de 1979|constitution de 1978]], ille esseva candidate per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular|CFP]] al magistratura municipal de [[Guayaquil]] e pro presidente, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]]. Vidente in le sondages le grande possibilitate de victoria de Bucaram, le dictatura includeva in le Lege de Electiones un articulo "ad hoc" in le qual il esseva prohibite a Bucaram de candidatar se al presidentia, igualmente como a [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] e [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy]]. Ante isto, Roldós esseva candidate al presidentia, con le motto "Roldós presidente, Bucaram al poder". Il esseva eligite in le [[Electiones presidential de Ecuador de 1979]] per le CFP. Il vinceva in le secunde torno electoral contra le socialcristiano [[Sixto Durán Ballén]], de tendentia conservator, in un secunde torno electoral controverse, habente loco 6 menses post le prime torno, in un tentativa del dictatura de obtener le victoria de Durán Ballén. == Presidente del Ecuador == Le 11 de octobre 1979 Roldós pone in vigor le decreto que reduce a 40 horas le jornada del labor in le septimana. Le 1 de novembre 1979 se approba le decreto que duplicava le salario minimal vital del laboratores, a 4.000 sucres per mense (US$ 160 al cambio vigente a ille data). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, appellante «Patriarcas de le Componenda» le leaders del opposition in le legislativo: [[León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra]], [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy]], [[Otto Arosemena]], [[Jaime Hurtado]] e [[Assad Bucaram]]. Le 8 de martio 1980 ille pone in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980 se formava un junta de notabiles del pais pro cercar un solution al conflicto de poteres con le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partito Pueblo, Cambio e Democratia pro contracarar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam desaffiliate se de iste partito. In 1979 ille restaurava le relationes con Cuba, tamen illos se tensionava a causa del [[Asalto al ambasciata de Ecuador in Cuba]] in 1981; mesmo assi, ille non arrivava a rumper le relationes con Cuba.<ref>{{Cita web|url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/el-mundo/crisis-entre-mexico-y-ecuador-el-dia-que-fidel-castro-ordeno-la-incursion-a-una-embajada-en-la-nid06042024/|título=Crisis entre México y Ecuador: el día que Fidel Castro ordenó la incursión a una embajada en La Habana|fechaacceso=2025-04-13|fecha=2024-04-06|sitioweb=LA NACION|idioma=es}}</ref> Le anno 1981 ille annunciava como «le anno del progresso». A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, occurreva le [[Conflict de Fals Paquisha|conflict de Paquisha]] con Peru, in le Cordillera del Condor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial al OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Se distingueva le intervention de su ministro de affaires externe [[Alfonso Barrera Valverde]]. Un de su plus feroces oppositores esseva le alora deputato social-christian Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un celebre affaire de corruption in le caso cognoscite como le «pupas de pannos», durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin in su carriera politic, que le conduceva al Presiden­cia in 1984. In le obra physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como le de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Ille promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjeuner Scolastic, pro le infantes del sectores le plus paupere. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human in un epocha in le qual le majoritate del paises latino-american esseva governate per dictaturas militar como celle de [[Augusto Pinochet]] in Chile e anteriormente in Ecuador. A partir del election de [[Ronald Reagan]] como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le occasion de manifestar lor opposition, del qual resultava un pugna subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortificava le ligamines con le [[Revolution Sandinista|governo sandinista]] de Nicaragua e con le [[Front Democratic Revolutionari]] de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su lema esseva sempre le pais super tote le cosas. === Carta de Conducta de Riobamba o Doctrina Roldós === {{AP|Doctrina Roldós}} Sub le mandato de Roldós, Ecuador proponeva ante le [[Pacto Andino]], un doctrina de respecto del derectos human que veniva a concretisar se in le Carta de Conducta de Riobamba signate le 11 de septembre 1980.<ref>Carta de Conducta de Riobamba (synthese)</ref> == Morte e funerale de Stato == Le postmeridie del dominica {{fecha|24|05|1981}}, le avion del [[Fortia Aeree Ecuadorian]] (FAE) que transportava le presidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera, un [[Beechcraft King Air]] (FAE 001A) que habeva essite acquirite recentemente pro servir como avion presidencial, collidiva con le monte Huayrapungo ("Porta del Ventos", in [[Lingua quichua|quichua]]), in le [[Provincia de Loja|provincia de Loja]]. In addition al presidente, moriva tote le altere passageros del aeronave: su sposa [[Martha Bucaram]]; le ministro del Defensa Marco Subía Martínez, e su sposa Irlanda Sarango; le tenentes-colonellos Héctor Torres e Armando Navarrete; le pilota e aide-de-camp del presidente, tenente-colonello Marco Andrade; le copilota tenente Galo Romo e le stewardessa Soledad Rosero. Le aeronave habeva partite de Quito poco post un ceremonia civic-militar al [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa]], ubi le combatentes del [[Conflict de Falso Paquisha|Guerra de Paquisha]] esseva decorate. Su destination esseva le localitate frontalier de [[Macará]], ubi le presidente deberea prender un helicoptero que le transportarea al proxime village de Zapotillo, ubi ille habeva planate participar in un altere ceremonia. Ille deberea retornar a Quito le mesme vespere, pro le session solemne del [[Consilio Provincial de Pichincha]]. Pauc minutas ante le atterrage, e durante le trajectoria de descense verso le pista de Macará, del qual illo ancora esseva distante circa 60 kilometros, le parve avion presidencial collidiva con un grande rocca sur le cresta del monte Huayrapungo, que illo habeva superate de pauc metros. Quando le aeronave non arrivava e le contacto con illo se perdeva, le helicoptero que attendeva in Macará le presidente decollava pro cercar le aeronave, trovante le restos del avion sur le pendio de Huayrapungo. Del vicin [[Cantón Celica|cantón de Celica]], distante 10 kilometros del loco del impacto, tropas del [[Exercito de Ecuador|Exercito]] e del [[Policia National del Ecuador|policia]] ascendeva le montania pro recuperar le restos del presidente e de su comitiva. De Celica, le restos del mandatario e de su comitiva esseva transportate a [[Machala]], ubi un avion C-130 del Fortia Aeree attendeva pro transportar los a Quito. Roldós esseva recognoscite per le cravate rubie que ille portava ille die. Le autopsia confirmava que le presidente moriva instantaneemente per politraumatismos causate per le impacto. Habitantes del zona indicava in 2006 al canal lojano Ecotel que le restos del presidente e de su sposa esseva le sol recognoscibile al loco del tragedia. Le exalcalde de [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]], [[José Bolívar Castillo]], declarava que le accidente "habeva respectate le cadavere del presidente".<ref>{{Obra citada|título=TESTIMONIOS MUERTE DE JAIME ROLDOS|apellidos=nilo valarezo|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J04Q0jFAyXs|fechaacceso=2026-07-02|fecha=2011-05-24}}</ref> Appena confirmate le morte de Roldós, assumeva le poter, per decreto executive, su vice-presidente, Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea, qui se adressava al Nation in un transmission televisate.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20130909022649/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Portada-COMERCIO-despues-Jaime-Roldos_ECMFIL20120524_0002.pdf</ref> In le capital habeva loco un funerale de Stato, al [[Palatio de Carondelet]] e in le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito|Catedral Metropolitana]]. Milles de quitenses sortiva al stratas pro exprimer lor dolor pro le morte inattendite e tragic del presidente. Participava como invitatos special alcun presidentes latino-american, como [[Rodrigo Carazo Odio]] de [[Costa Rica]], [[Arístides Royo|Arístides Royo Sánchez]] de [[Panama]], [[Luis Herrera Campins|Luis Herrera Campíns]] de [[Venezuela]], [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] del [[Peru]] e [[Julio César Turbay|Julio César Turbay Ayala]] de [[Colombia]]. Post le ceremonias in Quito, le restos del presidente e de su sposa esseva transportate a Guayaquil, ubi habeva loco un missa de requiem in le [[Catedral de Guayaquil|Catedral]]. Le cortege funerari in Guayaquil esseva etiam multitudinari. [[File:Tumba de Jaime Roldós Aguilera y su esposa.JPG|thumb|Tumba del ex-presidente de Ecuador, Jaime Roldós Aguilera, e de su sposa, Martha Bucaram, in le [[Cimiterio General de Guayaquil]].|270px]] Roldós e su sposa esseva inhumate in le [[Cimiterio General de Guayaquil|Cimiterio General]] de iste citate. Duo cruces de marmore blanc, al Porta 14 del cimiterio, marca lor tumbas.<ref>{{Enlace roto|1=http://ediciones.expreso.ec/ediciones/2011/05/25/nacional/actualidad/familia-roldos-cumple-30-anos-de-dolor-y-duda// |2=http://ediciones.expreso.ec/ediciones/2011/05/25/nacional/actualidad/familia-roldos-cumple-30-anos-de-dolor-y-duda// |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Desde le Papa [[Juan Paulo II]] usque al governantes del continente e de tote le mundo esseva inviate lor notas de condolentia pro iste fatal evento. Su ultime discurso esseva pronunciate pauc horas ante su morte, durante le ceremonia del [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa|Estadio Olímpico]], e ille recipeva ululationes del publico presente, a causa de mesuras economic que ille habeva prendite le septimana precedente:<ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEPcwuO4j_0 |título=Programa La Televisión - Historia Presidencial del Ecuador |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2007 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLCKpzs7hGw |título=Ecuavisa 40 años - Reportaje Especial de Televistazo sobre los 40 años de la Política Ecuatoriana y el Salto a la Democracia |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTiXod2_Vv8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205093533/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTiXod2_Vv8 |fechaarchivo=5 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Ecuavisa 40 años - José Mª Velasco Ibarra y Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=giW3Gyn2ltk |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216141252/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=giW3Gyn2ltk |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Ecuador TV - Los Reporteros: Perú y Ecuador 11 años de paz parte 1 de 2 |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-04-28 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2009 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCnfYVo-4Mc |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216151801/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCnfYVo-4Mc |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=2- Jaime Roldos |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2010 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgZRy8Yn5Ms |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216160533/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgZRy8Yn5Ms |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=CRÓNICA DE LA MUERTE DE JAIME ROLDÓS AGUILERA |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2009 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=205w7Ah_n-A |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216144549/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=205w7Ah_n-A |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Documental Alfaro Vive Carajo Del Sueño al Caos Parte 1 |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPO9fLodM9g |título=Excelente documental "25 años de Democracia en el Ecuador" (Odysea Producciones Culturales, Teleamazonas y Ecuavisa Con el apoyo académico de la UNESCO, Université de Paris 8 (Francia), Centre de Recherche et Documentation sur l'Amérique Latine (CREDAL) (Francia) y Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts de Paris-Cergy (Francia), 2004) |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qkzm0An5nNE |título=Perfil de Jaime Roldós en La TV |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJPNff4f_I8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216144211/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJPNff4f_I8 |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=tvecuador.com |año=2005 |url=http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&id=31&view=showcanal&Itemid=27 |título=Política en el Ecuador |editor=Programa La Televisión |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619162818/http://tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=31&Itemid=27 |fechaarchivo=2013-06-19 }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=explored.com.ec |año=2001 |url=http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/desde-siempre-y-hasta-siempre-121141-121141.html |título=DESDE SIEMPRE Y HASTA SIEMPRE |editor=Explored |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721055802/http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/desde-siempre-y-hasta-siempre-121141-121141.html |fechaarchivo=2010-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{enlace roto|1={{Cita web |autor=iaen.edu.ec |año=2010 |url=http://repositorio.iaen.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/362/1/IAEN-054-2005.pdf |título=PRESIDENCIA DEL AB. JAIME ROLDÓS AGUILERA 10 DE AGOSTO DE 1979 - 24 DE MAYO DE 1981 |editor=Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}} |2=http://repositorio.iaen.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/362/1/IAEN-054-2005.pdf |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=ecuavisa.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.ecuavisa.com/noticias-nacionales/36919-hoy-se-cumplen-tres-decadas-de-la-muerte-del-expresidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera.html |título=Ecuavisa - Hoy se cumplen tres décadas de la trágica muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=[[Ecuavisa]] |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628035526/http://www.ecuavisa.com/noticias-nacionales/36919-hoy-se-cumplen-tres-decadas-de-la-tragica-muerte-del-expresidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera.html |fechaarchivo=2011-06-28 }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=teleamazonas.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.teleamazonas.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11685:treinta-anos-de-la-muerte-del-ex-presidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera&catid=50:noticias-nacionales&Itemid=88 |título=Teleamazonas - Treinta años de la muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Teleamazonas |fechaacceso=2011-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Yh8nZRoquc |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216160748/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Yh8nZRoquc |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Aniversario de la muerte de Roldós |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5CS5PkQvB8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216161803/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5CS5PkQvB8 |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Discursos de Roldós |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c52dM7bBaQU&feature=channel_video_title |título=Treinta años de la muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=tvecuador.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=1699&Itemid=27 |título=30 años de la Muerte de Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Programa La Televisión |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105003312/http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=1699&Itemid=27 |fechaarchivo=2013-11-05 }}</ref> {{cita|"Nos ha progressate 21 menses, sub un governamento constitutional, quando isto significa in paises como le nostre, in le qual ganiar le stabilitate democratic implica conquistar lo die post die. Ecuadorianos, nos esseva seriose e honeste. Nos continua esser seriose e honeste in tote e cata un de nostre propositiones. Que non sia le parolas ma le obras, le melior testimonio de nostre intentiones. Es le hora del labor, del effortio e del solidaritate, non del paros, strikes, menacias, incomprehension o rumores. Proba le amor al Patria, complente cata uno su deber. Nostre grande passion es e debe esser le Ecuador. Nostre grande passion, ascolta me; es e debe esser le Ecuador. Iste Ecuador que nos non vole inbricate in lo insignificante, ma in le valiente, luctator, infatigabile, forjante un destino de grandor. Le Ecuador heroic que triumphava in Pichincha, le Ecuador del valientes de hodie, heroic luctatores de Paquisha, Machinaza e Mayaicu, immolate in iste legendari trenchas. Le Ecuador heroic del Cordillera del Cóndor. Le Ecuador eterne, unite in le defensa de su hereditate territorial. Le Ecuador democratic, capace de dar lectiones historic de humanismo, labor e libertate. Iste Ecuador Amazonic, ab sempre e usque sempre. Viva le Patria!". |Jaime Roldós Aguilera in le [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa|Estadio Olímpico Atahualpa]]}} == Investigation official super le morte de Jaime Roldós: Le antecedente == Le Junta Investigatori de Accidentes (QTI) del Fortia Aeree Ecuadorian attribueva le responsabilitate a un error del pilota, submittite a un carga de travalio excessive. Le pilota del avion esseva etiam le aide-de-camp del presidente, e habeva essite tote le matino del fatal die in pede durante le ceremonia al Stadio Olimpic. Secundo le FAE, ille descendite troppo tosto in su approximation a Macará e prendeva un ruta periculose pro evitar entrar in le spatio aeree peruvian, a causa del relationes tense del Ecuador con ille pais. Le commission parlamentar que se formava menses plus tarde ante le insistenti de sectores politic affin al presidente e de familiares del victimas, revelava contradictiones e inconsistencias in le reporto del JIA, ma non poteva arrivar a conclusiones definitive. Iste commission esseva dirigite per le ex-presidente Otto Arosemena Gómez. Durante le investigation, le commission demandava un peritia al departamento de investigation de accidentes de aviation del policia de Zurich que, in 1982, establiva que le motores del nave habeva essite inactive quando le apparato impactava le montania. Iste peritia, que contradiceva le reporto del Fortia Aeree, non meriteva ulle investigation ulterior per parte del Governo o del fiscalia Ecuadorian; altere peritias technic non esseva possibile proque iste aeronave habeva essite acquirite per le Fortia Aeree pro le mission specific de «avion presidencial» con matricula militar, proque illo non habeva un registrator de parametros de volo ni un registrator de voce del cabina, cognoscite como «cassa nigre». == Theorias de conspiration == Le version official acceptate per le Governo del Ecuador es celle de un accidente de aviation. Le familia e sectores del sinistra sustene le theoria que esseva un attentate executate per le Statos Unite o Argentina. Pro le filios del parella presidential, Martha e Santiago Roldós Bucaram, le circumstantias e le causas del accidente non ha essite clarificate definitivemente. Altere, como le ex-presidente Hurtado Larrea, affirma usque hodie que illo esseva un accidente.<ref>{{Enlace roto|1=http://radioprimavera.com.ec/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1402:osvaldo-hurtado-la-muerte-de-jaime-roldos-aguilera-fue-un-accidente&catid=31:primavera-noticias&Itemid=27 |2=http://radioprimavera.com.ec/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1402:osvaldo-hurtado-la-muerte-de-jaime-roldos-aguilera-fue-un-accidente&catid=31:primavera-noticias&Itemid=27 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> === Theoria del attentate === Le activista american [[John Perkins (escritor)|John Perkins]], in su libro ''Confessions of an Economic Hit Man'' (''[[Confessiones de un sicario economic]]'', 2004), se adjungeva al version que Roldós haberea essite assassinate, proque su plano pro reorganisar le sector del hydrocarburos haberea menaciate le interesses del Statos Unite. Iste version, tamen, esseva presente ja desde le initio mesme del investigationes, e ha essite publicate in altere libros e documentos. Iste version relaciona le tragedia con le morte in ille mesme anno del general peruvian [[Rafael Hoyos Rubio]], qui commandava le Fortias Armate Peruvian in le [[Conflict de Fals Paquisha]] inter Peru e Ecuador al initio de ille mesme anno, e con celle del general [[Omar Torrijos Herrera]] de [[Panama]], in circumstantias similar e cuje action igualmente comprometteva fortemente le interesses del Statos Unite. Le journalist Ecuadorian [[Jaime Galarza Zavala]] involve le Fortias Armate e sustene que le avion presidential esseva abattite per un rocchetto lanceate per un avion militar Ecuadorian, e que le Exercito cognosceva le operation al puncto que il habeva patrulias in le sector preste a colliger le restos del avion del presidente. Il sustene que illes haberea agite sub pressiones de Israel, proque Roldós non haberea volite authorisar le compra de un lote de aviones de combate [[IAI Kfir]].<ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.ecuadorinmediato.com/index.php?module=Noticias&func=news_user_view&id=150430&umt=existen_elementos_que_reafirman_tesis_de_que_jaime_roldf3s_fue_asesinado2c_dice_jaime_galarza_28audio29 |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=25 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=5 de marzo de 2016 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305122311/http://ecuadorinmediato.com/index.php?func=news_user_view&id=150430&module=noticias&umt=existen_elementos_que_reafirman_tesis_de_que_jaime_roldf3s_fue_asesinado2c_dice_jaime_galarza_28audio29 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> No obstante, le presidente Roldós sí authorisava le compra del jets hebree, proque le contracto esseva signate le 21 de maio, tres dies ante su morte.<ref>[[Kfir]]</ref> Nonobstante, le theoria del attentate non documenta le maniera in que illo haberea essite committite, si esseva per medio de un bomba — cuje vestigios non esseva trovate — o si le avion esseva abattite. Qui defende iste these sustene que personas qui affirmava haber vidite exploder le avion in le aere e non como consequentia del impacto moriva in circumstantias mysteriose o dispareva. Illes affirma etiam que officiales del Fortia Aeree qui cognosceva detalios del volo de ille die etiam moriva in circumstantias poco clar. Generalmente, qui sustene iste theoria nunquam ha implicate oppositores o collaboratores del presidente Roldós in le supposite attentate, que illes attribue sempre a governamentos estranier, como le del Statos Unite o le dictatura militar de Argentina, in le quadro del [[Plan Condor|Operation Condor]]. == Legato historic == [[File:Coat of Arms of Jaime Roldós Aguilera (Order of Isabella the Catholic).svg|thumb|Escuto attribuite como cavallero del [[Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]].]] Post le decesso de Jaime Roldós, le Congresso National del Ecuador nominava su fratre, [[León Roldós]], como Vice-presidente del Republica, pro completar le periodo constitutional con [[Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea]], del [[Democratia Popular (Ecuador)|Democratia Popular]]. Nonobstante, León Roldós manteneva un relation difficile con Hurtado, opponente se a plure de su politicas economic, inter illos le «sucretisation» del debito externe private (per le qual le Stato assumeva le risco cambial del debito contrahite per interprenditores private). Como tributo postume, le pictor Marco Salas livrava un retrato del presidente Roldós, que esseva placiate pauc tempore post su morte in le galeria del presidentes del Salon Flave del [[Palatio de Carondelet]]. Le Municipio del Canton Celica construeva un via usque al mesme loco del tragedia, ubi in 2006 esseva annunciate le construction de un monumento commemorative.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.etvtelerama.com/index.php?codigo=NozrFZv4ur|titulo=|sitioweb=ETV Telerama|fechaacceso=}}</ref> [[Abdalá Bucaram]], cognato de Jaime Roldós Aguilera, fundava le populista [[Partito Roldosista Ecuadorian]], e esseva eligite como Presidente del Ecuador. Il governava ab augusto de 1996 usque a februario de 1997, quando le Congresso National le destitueva, allegante «incapacitate mental». Su fratre León Roldós Aguilera, ex-vice-presidente (1981-1984), esseva candidato al Presidencia in 1992, 2002, e novemente in le electiones de 2006 (como candidato del alliance inter le movimento «Red Ethica e Democratia (RED)» e le partito social-democratic [[Sinistra Democratic (Ecuador)|Sinistra Democratic]]. Le filia de Jaime Roldós e Martha Bucaram, [[Martha Roldós]], esseva deputata per le mesme gruppo RED e in le anno 2009 candidata al presiden­tia del Ecuador. Le filio minor del matrimonio Roldós-Bucaram, Santiago Roldós Bucaram, es journalist e dramaturgo. [[Martha Roldós]] denunciava que le Partito Roldosista Ecuadorian (PRE) ha destruite le ideales que durante su vita su patre transmitteva e manteneva. «Es un partito que corrumpe tote le ideales que esseva illos que mi patre susteneva», secundo su declaration. Decenas de stratas, avenidas, pontes e unitates educative in varie citates trans le pais porta su nomine, inclusive le Terminal Terrestre de Guayaquil, assi como etiam le iconic «Ecuador Amazonic», de su discurso final. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Politicos del seculo XX]] [[Categoria:Politicos del Guerra Frigide]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite in Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Causa de morte non elucidate]] [[Categoria:Grandes Magistros del Ordine de San Lorenzo]] [[Categoria:Cavalleros del collar del Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]] [[Categoria:Chefes de stato assassinate]] [[Categoria:Professores de universitates de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Professores del Universitate Catholic de Santiago de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Advocatos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Alumnos del Universitate de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Dirigentes studentesc de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Decedite in accidentes de aviation in Ecuador]] aiqvapfw9w6rccqohfuynbt35u5m15e 699038 699037 2026-08-26T11:15:34Z Interlingvisto 60932 699038 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Jaime Roldós Aguilera''' ([[Guayaquil]], 5 de novembre 1940-Cerro Huayrapungo, [[Cantón Celica|Celica]], 24 de maio 1981) esseva un [[avocato]] e [[politico]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]]. Il exerceva como [[presidente de Ecuador]] ab le 10 de augusto 1979 usque a su morte, le 24 de maio 1981. Il dirigeva le processo de retorno al systema democratic in Ecuador, post quasi un decennio de dictaturas civil e militar. Durante su brillante periodo studential, il se formava como dirigente, essente al testa de organisationes studential. In 1967, il ja entrava in le parlamento, essente deputato usque in 1970. In le electiones de 1978, il deberea esser candidate al [[alcaldia de Guayaquil]] per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular]] (CFP); ma, ante le impedimento del leader del CFP, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]], de candidatar se al presideantia, il esseva candidate in su loco. In le prime turno, il obteneva le prime loco, passante al secunde turno, le qual esseva retardate per nove menses per le dictatura, pro impedir su victoria. Nonobstante, Roldós esseva electe con 68,49 % del votos, le plus alte percentage obtenite in un secunde turno in le historia national. Il assumeva le poter in augusto 1979. Il governava sub un blocage parlamentar; nonobstante, il succedeva a realisar alcun importante obras de infrastructura e certe reformas economic. Inter januario e februario 1981, il debeva affrontar un nove conflicto frontalier con Peru, le [[Conflicto del Falso Paquisha|conflicto de Paquisha]]. Il gaudeva de grande sympathia pro su alte qualitates human, moral, social e civic, assi como pro su alte preparation academic. Roldós moriva durante su mandato, le 24 de maio 1981, in un mysteriose accidente aerian. Un grande parte del opinion public considera su morte como un [[magnicidio]], le principal suspectos essente le alte commandamento militar e le governamento statounitese.<ref name="dup-0-13">http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/05/24/1/1355/treinta-anos-sin-respuesta-sobre-muerte-jaime-roldos.html</ref><ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=23 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=18 de febrero de 2014 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223916/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Familiares-Jaime-Roldos-explicacion-muerte_0_486551401.html |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Il esseva al poter durante solmente un anno, nove menses e quattuordeci dies; e, nonobstante su breve tempore in le cargo, il es considerate como un del melior presidentes in le historia de Ecuador.<ref>https://confirmado.net/2021/05/13/segun-encuesta-lenin-moreno-es-considerado-por-los-ecuatorianos-como-el-peor-presidente-de-la-historia/</ref> == Biographia == Nascite in Guayaquil le 5 de novembre 1940, provincia de Guayas, tertie de tres fratres. Il pertineva a un del ramos ecuatorian del familia Roldós<ref>[http://www.ecuadorprofundo.com/tomos/tomo3/l24.htm] Vider le articulo “Los Roldós eran marinos” in le [[Diccionario biográfico del Ecuador]] de R. Pérez Pimentel</ref> de origine [[Catalanes|catalan]], radicate in [[Vilasar de Mar|Vilassar de Mar]] (Catalonia) desde seculos. Nepote del vilasaran Jaime Roldós Baleta (1861-1927)<ref> Vider le biographia de [[Jaime Roldós Baleta]] in le libro “El Vilassar dels indians”, Pagès editors, 2012 </ref>, qui arrivava al porto de Guayaquil in le anno 1875 e se establi definitivamente in Ecuador. Il faceva su studios secundari in le [[Colegio National Vicente Rocafuerte]] de Guayaquil, ubi il recipeva le Grande Premio "Vicente Rocafuerte" e le distinction de melior studente del Collegio Vicentino. Ja tunc il pronunciava discursos e dirigeva classes studential, essente eligite presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Secundari del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Secundari]]. Postea il se inscribeva in le studio de Jurisprudentia e Scientias Social in le [[Universitate de Guayaquil]], ubi il esseva eligite presidente del [[Federación de Estudiantes Universitarios del Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]]. Durante tote le annos de studio, su nomine esseva considerate pro le premio "La Filantrópica", assi como pro le Premio Contenta. In su facultate anque, il recipeva cata anno le premios attribuite al melior studentes. Su oratoria habeva antecedentes. Su prime discursos non esseva politic, sed concernente reginas. Le timbre de su voce le permitteva visitar collegios feminine e participar in galas de beltate. Al comando del Federation de Studentes Secundari (FESE) in le Collegio Vicente Rocafuerte, il fortificava su participation in mitings e disveloppava le charisma que postea le esserea necessari, quando, un vice in le Universitate de Guayaquil, il deveniva presidente del [[Federation de Studentes Universitari de Ecuador|Federation de Studentes Universitari]] (FEUE). A 38 annos de etate, il ja esseva installate in Carondelet. Durante le secunde anno de su mandato, le avion in le qual il viagiava, secundo suspiciones, esseva manipulate e se accidentava in le colle de Huayrapungo (Loja), a 3500 metros super le nivello del mar. Il moriva ibi con su sposa e le comitiva que le accompagnava le 24 de maio 1981. Le 11 de octobre 1979, Roldós poneva in execution le decreto que reduceva a 40 horas le jornada de labor septimanal. Le 1 de novembre 1979, le decreto que duplicava le salario minimo vital del laboratores esseva approbate, elevante lo a 4 000 sucres mensual (US$ 160 al taxa de cambio vigente a ille tempore). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, denominante "Patriarchas del Componenda" le leaders del opposition in le organo legislative: León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra, Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, Otto Arosemena, Jaime Hurtado e Assad Bucaram. Le 8 de martio 1980, il poneva in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980, un junta de notabiles del pais esseva constituite pro cercar un solution al conflicto inter le poter executive e le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia pro contrabalançar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam disaffiliar se de iste partido. Le anno 1981 il annunciava como "le anno del progresso". A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, il habeva un confrontation bellic con Peru in le Cordillera del Cóndor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial ante le OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Le intervention de su ministro del relationes exterior, Alfonso Barrera Valverde, se distingueva particularmente. Un del plus feroce adversarios de Roldós esseva le deputato social-cristian de ille tempore, Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un famose affaire in le caso cognoscite como le "pupas de pannol", durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin de su carriera politic, que le conduceva al presideantia in 1984. In le obras physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como illo de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Il promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjuno Escolar, pro le infantes del sectores le plus povre. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human, in un epocha quando le majoritate del paises latinoamerican esseva governate per dictaturas militar, como le regime de Pinochet in Chile e, antea, in Ecuador. Post le election de Ronald Reagan como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le opportunitate de manifestar lor opposition, de que derivava un conflicto subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortiava su ligamines con le governamento sandinista de Nicaragua e con le Fronte Democratic de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su motto esseva sempre le pais ante tote le cosas. == Vita politic == [[File:Votos Presidente por Provincia Ecuador segunda vuelta 1979.svg|right|thumb|Resultatos del electiones presidential de Ecuador de 1979 in secunde torno per [[Provincias de Ecuador|provincias]]. Jaime Roldós, candidato del Concentration de Fortias Popular (color nigre), e [[Sixto Durán-Ballén]], del Fronte National Constitutionista (color jalne).]] Roldós esseva deputado inter 1967 e 1970. Il faceva parte del Commission convocate per le dictatura militar inter 1978 e 1979 pro reformar le Constitution de 1945. Post le promulgation del [[Constitution de Ecuador de 1979|constitution de 1978]], ille esseva candidate per le [[Concentration de Fortias Popular|CFP]] al magistratura municipal de [[Guayaquil]] e pro presidente, su oncle per matrimonio [[Assad Bucaram]]. Vidente in le sondages le grande possibilitate de victoria de Bucaram, le dictatura includeva in le Lege de Electiones un articulo "ad hoc" in le qual il esseva prohibite a Bucaram de candidatar se al presidentia, igualmente como a [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] e [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy]]. Ante isto, Roldós esseva candidate al presidentia, con le motto "Roldós presidente, Bucaram al poder". Il esseva eligite in le [[Electiones presidential de Ecuador de 1979]] per le CFP. Il vinceva in le secunde torno electoral contra le socialcristiano [[Sixto Durán Ballén]], de tendentia conservator, in un secunde torno electoral controverse, habente loco 6 menses post le prime torno, in un tentativa del dictatura de obtener le victoria de Durán Ballén. == Presidente del Ecuador == Le 11 de octobre 1979 Roldós pone in vigor le decreto que reduce a 40 horas le jornada del labor in le septimana. Le 1 de novembre 1979 se approba le decreto que duplicava le salario minimal vital del laboratores, a 4.000 sucres per mense (US$ 160 al cambio vigente a ille data). Le presidente combatteva le Congresso desde le prime die, appellante «Patriarcas de le Componenda» le leaders del opposition in le legislativo: [[León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneyra]], [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy]], [[Otto Arosemena]], [[Jaime Hurtado]] e [[Assad Bucaram]]. Le 8 de martio 1980 ille pone in vigor le Plan National de Disveloppamento. Le 15 de april 1980 se formava un junta de notabiles del pais pro cercar un solution al conflicto de poteres con le Congresso National. Roldós fundava le partito Pueblo, Cambio e Democratia pro contracarar le opposition del CFP, sin unquam desaffiliate se de iste partito. In 1979 ille restaurava le relationes con Cuba, tamen illos se tensionava a causa del [[Asalto al ambasciata de Ecuador in Cuba]] in 1981; mesmo assi, ille non arrivava a rumper le relationes con Cuba.<ref>{{Cita web|url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/el-mundo/crisis-entre-mexico-y-ecuador-el-dia-que-fidel-castro-ordeno-la-incursion-a-una-embajada-en-la-nid06042024/|título=Crisis entre México y Ecuador: el día que Fidel Castro ordenó la incursión a una embajada en La Habana|fechaacceso=2025-04-13|fecha=2024-04-06|sitioweb=LA NACION|idioma=es}}</ref> Le anno 1981 ille annunciava como «le anno del progresso». A fin de januario e initio de februario 1981, occurreva le [[Conflict de Fals Paquisha|conflict de Paquisha]] con Peru, in le Cordillera del Condor. Le affrontamentos occurreva in le zonas de Paquisha, Mayaycu e Machinaza. Roldós, con habilitate e diplomatia in le medio del crise tense, portava le problema territorial al OEA, ubi remaneva le evidentia que le problema existeva, nonobstante le negationes de Peru. Se distingueva le intervention de su ministro de affaires externe [[Alfonso Barrera Valverde]]. Un de su plus feroces oppositores esseva le alora deputato social-christian Febres Cordero, qui denunciava un celebre affaire de corruption in le caso cognoscite como le «pupas de pannos», durante un processo politic contra le ministro del obras public. Le opposition de Febres Cordero a Roldós e postea a Hurtado esseva le principal trampolin in su carriera politic, que le conduceva al Presiden­cia in 1984. In le obra physic e social, Roldós construeva plure importante pontes, como le de El Juncal, al limite inter le provincias de Imbabura e Carchi. Ille promoveva le Plan National de Disveloppamento e le programma de Desjeuner Scolastic, pro le infantes del sectores le plus paupere. Le contribution le plus significative de Jaime Roldós esseva su politica international in materia de Derectos Human in un epocha in le qual le majoritate del paises latino-american esseva governate per dictaturas militar como celle de [[Augusto Pinochet]] in Chile e anteriormente in Ecuador. A partir del election de [[Ronald Reagan]] como presidente del Statos Unite de America le 4 de novembre 1980, iste sectores conservator habeva le occasion de manifestar lor opposition, del qual resultava un pugna subterran. In januario 1981, Roldós declinava le invitation a assister al inauguration de Reagan a causa de su discrepantias in materia de Derectos Human e fortificava le ligamines con le [[Revolution Sandinista|governo sandinista]] de Nicaragua e con le [[Front Democratic Revolutionari]] de El Salvador, que se opponeva al regime militar in ille pais. Su lema esseva sempre le pais super tote le cosas. === Carta de Conducta de Riobamba o Doctrina Roldós === {{AP|Doctrina Roldós}} Sub le mandato de Roldós, Ecuador proponeva ante le [[Pacto Andino]], un doctrina de respecto del derectos human que veniva a concretisar se in le Carta de Conducta de Riobamba signate le 11 de septembre 1980.<ref>Carta de Conducta de Riobamba (synthese)</ref> == Morte e funerale de Stato == Le postmeridie del dominica {{fecha|24|05|1981}}, le avion del [[Fortia Aeree Ecuadorian]] (FAE) que transportava le presidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera, un [[Beechcraft King Air]] (FAE 001A) que habeva essite acquirite recentemente pro servir como avion presidencial, collidiva con le monte Huayrapungo ("Porta del Ventos", in [[Lingua quichua|quichua]]), in le [[Provincia de Loja|provincia de Loja]]. In addition al presidente, moriva tote le altere passageros del aeronave: su sposa [[Martha Bucaram]]; le ministro del Defensa Marco Subía Martínez, e su sposa Irlanda Sarango; le tenentes-colonellos Héctor Torres e Armando Navarrete; le pilota e aide-de-camp del presidente, tenente-colonello Marco Andrade; le copilota tenente Galo Romo e le stewardessa Soledad Rosero. Le aeronave habeva partite de Quito poco post un ceremonia civic-militar al [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa]], ubi le combatentes del [[Conflict de Falso Paquisha|Guerra de Paquisha]] esseva decorate. Su destination esseva le localitate frontalier de [[Macará]], ubi le presidente deberea prender un helicoptero que le transportarea al proxime village de Zapotillo, ubi ille habeva planate participar in un altere ceremonia. Ille deberea retornar a Quito le mesme vespere, pro le session solemne del [[Consilio Provincial de Pichincha]]. Pauc minutas ante le atterrage, e durante le trajectoria de descense verso le pista de Macará, del qual illo ancora esseva distante circa 60 kilometros, le parve avion presidencial collidiva con un grande rocca sur le cresta del monte Huayrapungo, que illo habeva superate de pauc metros. Quando le aeronave non arrivava e le contacto con illo se perdeva, le helicoptero que attendeva in Macará le presidente decollava pro cercar le aeronave, trovante le restos del avion sur le pendio de Huayrapungo. Del vicin [[Cantón Celica|cantón de Celica]], distante 10 kilometros del loco del impacto, tropas del [[Exercito de Ecuador|Exercito]] e del [[Policia National del Ecuador|policia]] ascendeva le montania pro recuperar le restos del presidente e de su comitiva. De Celica, le restos del mandatario e de su comitiva esseva transportate a [[Machala]], ubi un avion C-130 del Fortia Aeree attendeva pro transportar los a Quito. Roldós esseva recognoscite per le cravate rubie que ille portava ille die. Le autopsia confirmava que le presidente moriva instantaneemente per politraumatismos causate per le impacto. Habitantes del zona indicava in 2006 al canal lojano Ecotel que le restos del presidente e de su sposa esseva le sol recognoscibile al loco del tragedia. Le exalcalde de [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]], [[José Bolívar Castillo]], declarava que le accidente "habeva respectate le cadavere del presidente".<ref>{{Obra citada|título=TESTIMONIOS MUERTE DE JAIME ROLDOS|apellidos=nilo valarezo|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J04Q0jFAyXs|fechaacceso=2026-07-02|fecha=2011-05-24}}</ref> Appena confirmate le morte de Roldós, assumeva le poter, per decreto executive, su vice-presidente, Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea, qui se adressava al Nation in un transmission televisate.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20130909022649/http://www.elcomercio.com/politica/Portada-COMERCIO-despues-Jaime-Roldos_ECMFIL20120524_0002.pdf</ref> In le capital habeva loco un funerale de Stato, al [[Palatio de Carondelet]] e in le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito|Catedral Metropolitana]]. Milles de quitenses sortiva al stratas pro exprimer lor dolor pro le morte inattendite e tragic del presidente. Participava como invitatos special alcun presidentes latino-american, como [[Rodrigo Carazo Odio]] de [[Costa Rica]], [[Arístides Royo|Arístides Royo Sánchez]] de [[Panama]], [[Luis Herrera Campins|Luis Herrera Campíns]] de [[Venezuela]], [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] del [[Peru]] e [[Julio César Turbay|Julio César Turbay Ayala]] de [[Colombia]]. Post le ceremonias in Quito, le restos del presidente e de su sposa esseva transportate a Guayaquil, ubi habeva loco un missa de requiem in le [[Catedral de Guayaquil|Catedral]]. Le cortege funerari in Guayaquil esseva etiam multitudinari. [[File:Tumba de Jaime Roldós Aguilera y su esposa.JPG|thumb|Tumba del ex-presidente de Ecuador, Jaime Roldós Aguilera, e de su sposa, Martha Bucaram, in le [[Cimiterio General de Guayaquil]].|270px]] Roldós e su sposa esseva inhumate in le [[Cimiterio General de Guayaquil|Cimiterio General]] de iste citate. Duo cruces de marmore blanc, al Porta 14 del cimiterio, marca lor tumbas.<ref>{{Enlace roto|1=http://ediciones.expreso.ec/ediciones/2011/05/25/nacional/actualidad/familia-roldos-cumple-30-anos-de-dolor-y-duda// |2=http://ediciones.expreso.ec/ediciones/2011/05/25/nacional/actualidad/familia-roldos-cumple-30-anos-de-dolor-y-duda// |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Desde le Papa [[Juan Paulo II]] usque al governantes del continente e de tote le mundo esseva inviate lor notas de condolentia pro iste fatal evento. Su ultime discurso esseva pronunciate pauc horas ante su morte, durante le ceremonia del [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa|Estadio Olímpico]], e ille recipeva ululationes del publico presente, a causa de mesuras economic que ille habeva prendite le septimana precedente:<ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEPcwuO4j_0 |título=Programa La Televisión - Historia Presidencial del Ecuador |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2007 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLCKpzs7hGw |título=Ecuavisa 40 años - Reportaje Especial de Televistazo sobre los 40 años de la Política Ecuatoriana y el Salto a la Democracia |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTiXod2_Vv8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205093533/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTiXod2_Vv8 |fechaarchivo=5 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Ecuavisa 40 años - José Mª Velasco Ibarra y Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=giW3Gyn2ltk |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216141252/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=giW3Gyn2ltk |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Ecuador TV - Los Reporteros: Perú y Ecuador 11 años de paz parte 1 de 2 |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-04-28 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2009 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCnfYVo-4Mc |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216151801/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCnfYVo-4Mc |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=2- Jaime Roldos |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2010 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgZRy8Yn5Ms |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216160533/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgZRy8Yn5Ms |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=CRÓNICA DE LA MUERTE DE JAIME ROLDÓS AGUILERA |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2009 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=205w7Ah_n-A |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216144549/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=205w7Ah_n-A |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Documental Alfaro Vive Carajo Del Sueño al Caos Parte 1 |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPO9fLodM9g |título=Excelente documental "25 años de Democracia en el Ecuador" (Odysea Producciones Culturales, Teleamazonas y Ecuavisa Con el apoyo académico de la UNESCO, Université de Paris 8 (Francia), Centre de Recherche et Documentation sur l'Amérique Latine (CREDAL) (Francia) y Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts de Paris-Cergy (Francia), 2004) |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qkzm0An5nNE |título=Perfil de Jaime Roldós en La TV |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJPNff4f_I8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216144211/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJPNff4f_I8 |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-09-04 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=tvecuador.com |año=2005 |url=http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&id=31&view=showcanal&Itemid=27 |título=Política en el Ecuador |editor=Programa La Televisión |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619162818/http://tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=31&Itemid=27 |fechaarchivo=2013-06-19 }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=explored.com.ec |año=2001 |url=http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/desde-siempre-y-hasta-siempre-121141-121141.html |título=DESDE SIEMPRE Y HASTA SIEMPRE |editor=Explored |fechaacceso=2011-03-29 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721055802/http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/desde-siempre-y-hasta-siempre-121141-121141.html |fechaarchivo=2010-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{enlace roto|1={{Cita web |autor=iaen.edu.ec |año=2010 |url=http://repositorio.iaen.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/362/1/IAEN-054-2005.pdf |título=PRESIDENCIA DEL AB. JAIME ROLDÓS AGUILERA 10 DE AGOSTO DE 1979 - 24 DE MAYO DE 1981 |editor=Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales |fechaacceso=2011-03-29}} |2=http://repositorio.iaen.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/362/1/IAEN-054-2005.pdf |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=ecuavisa.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.ecuavisa.com/noticias-nacionales/36919-hoy-se-cumplen-tres-decadas-de-la-muerte-del-expresidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera.html |título=Ecuavisa - Hoy se cumplen tres décadas de la trágica muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=[[Ecuavisa]] |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628035526/http://www.ecuavisa.com/noticias-nacionales/36919-hoy-se-cumplen-tres-decadas-de-la-tragica-muerte-del-expresidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera.html |fechaarchivo=2011-06-28 }}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=teleamazonas.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.teleamazonas.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11685:treinta-anos-de-la-muerte-del-ex-presidente-jaime-roldos-aguilera&catid=50:noticias-nacionales&Itemid=88 |título=Teleamazonas - Treinta años de la muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Teleamazonas |fechaacceso=2011-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Yh8nZRoquc |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216160748/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Yh8nZRoquc |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Aniversario de la muerte de Roldós |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5CS5PkQvB8 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216161803/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5CS5PkQvB8 |fechaarchivo=16 de diciembre de 2011 |título=Discursos de Roldós |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |deadurl= }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=[www.youtube.com](http://www.youtube.com) |año=2011 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c52dM7bBaQU&feature=channel_video_title |título=Treinta años de la muerte del expresidente Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Youtube |fechaacceso=2011-07-09}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web |autor=tvecuador.com |año=2011 |url=http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=1699&Itemid=27 |título=30 años de la Muerte de Jaime Roldós Aguilera |editor=Programa La Televisión |fechaacceso=2011-07-09 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105003312/http://www.tvecuador.com/index.php?option=com_reportajes&view=showcanal&id=1699&Itemid=27 |fechaarchivo=2013-11-05 }}</ref> {{cita|"Nos ha progressate 21 menses, sub un governamento constitutional, quando isto significa in paises como le nostre, in le qual ganiar le stabilitate democratic implica conquistar lo die post die. Ecuadorianos, nos esseva seriose e honeste. Nos continua esser seriose e honeste in tote e cata un de nostre propositiones. Que non sia le parolas ma le obras, le melior testimonio de nostre intentiones. Es le hora del labor, del effortio e del solidaritate, non del paros, strikes, menacias, incomprehension o rumores. Proba le amor al Patria, complente cata uno su deber. Nostre grande passion es e debe esser le Ecuador. Nostre grande passion, ascolta me; es e debe esser le Ecuador. Iste Ecuador que nos non vole inbricate in lo insignificante, ma in le valiente, luctator, infatigabile, forjante un destino de grandor. Le Ecuador heroic que triumphava in Pichincha, le Ecuador del valientes de hodie, heroic luctatores de Paquisha, Machinaza e Mayaicu, immolate in iste legendari trenchas. Le Ecuador heroic del Cordillera del Cóndor. Le Ecuador eterne, unite in le defensa de su hereditate territorial. Le Ecuador democratic, capace de dar lectiones historic de humanismo, labor e libertate. Iste Ecuador Amazonic, ab sempre e usque sempre. Viva le Patria!". |Jaime Roldós Aguilera in le [[Stadio Olimpic Atahualpa|Estadio Olímpico Atahualpa]]}} == Investigation official super le morte de Jaime Roldós: Le antecedente == Le Junta Investigatori de Accidentes (QTI) del Fortia Aeree Ecuadorian attribueva le responsabilitate a un error del pilota, submittite a un carga de travalio excessive. Le pilota del avion esseva etiam le aide-de-camp del presidente, e habeva essite tote le matino del fatal die in pede durante le ceremonia al Stadio Olimpic. Secundo le FAE, ille descendite troppo tosto in su approximation a Macará e prendeva un ruta periculose pro evitar entrar in le spatio aeree peruvian, a causa del relationes tense del Ecuador con ille pais. Le commission parlamentar que se formava menses plus tarde ante le insistenti de sectores politic affin al presidente e de familiares del victimas, revelava contradictiones e inconsistencias in le reporto del JIA, ma non poteva arrivar a conclusiones definitive. Iste commission esseva dirigite per le ex-presidente Otto Arosemena Gómez. Durante le investigation, le commission demandava un peritia al departamento de investigation de accidentes de aviation del policia de Zurich que, in 1982, establiva que le motores del nave habeva essite inactive quando le apparato impactava le montania. Iste peritia, que contradiceva le reporto del Fortia Aeree, non meriteva ulle investigation ulterior per parte del Governo o del fiscalia Ecuadorian; altere peritias technic non esseva possibile proque iste aeronave habeva essite acquirite per le Fortia Aeree pro le mission specific de «avion presidencial» con matricula militar, proque illo non habeva un registrator de parametros de volo ni un registrator de voce del cabina, cognoscite como «cassa nigre». == Theorias de conspiration == Le version official acceptate per le Governo del Ecuador es celle de un accidente de aviation. Le familia e sectores del sinistra sustene le theoria que esseva un attentate executate per le Statos Unite o Argentina. Pro le filios del parella presidential, Martha e Santiago Roldós Bucaram, le circumstantias e le causas del accidente non ha essite clarificate definitivemente. Altere, como le ex-presidente Hurtado Larrea, affirma usque hodie que illo esseva un accidente.<ref>{{Enlace roto|1=http://radioprimavera.com.ec/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1402:osvaldo-hurtado-la-muerte-de-jaime-roldos-aguilera-fue-un-accidente&catid=31:primavera-noticias&Itemid=27 |2=http://radioprimavera.com.ec/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1402:osvaldo-hurtado-la-muerte-de-jaime-roldos-aguilera-fue-un-accidente&catid=31:primavera-noticias&Itemid=27 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> === Theoria del attentate === Le activista american [[John Perkins (escritor)|John Perkins]], in su libro ''Confessions of an Economic Hit Man'' (''[[Confessiones de un sicario economic]]'', 2004), se adjungeva al version que Roldós haberea essite assassinate, proque su plano pro reorganisar le sector del hydrocarburos haberea menaciate le interesses del Statos Unite. Iste version, tamen, esseva presente ja desde le initio mesme del investigationes, e ha essite publicate in altere libros e documentos. Iste version relaciona le tragedia con le morte in ille mesme anno del general peruvian [[Rafael Hoyos Rubio]], qui commandava le Fortias Armate Peruvian in le [[Conflict de Fals Paquisha]] inter Peru e Ecuador al initio de ille mesme anno, e con celle del general [[Omar Torrijos Herrera]] de [[Panama]], in circumstantias similar e cuje action igualmente comprometteva fortemente le interesses del Statos Unite. Le journalist Ecuadorian [[Jaime Galarza Zavala]] involve le Fortias Armate e sustene que le avion presidential esseva abattite per un rocchetto lanceate per un avion militar Ecuadorian, e que le Exercito cognosceva le operation al puncto que il habeva patrulias in le sector preste a colliger le restos del avion del presidente. Il sustene que illes haberea agite sub pressiones de Israel, proque Roldós non haberea volite authorisar le compra de un lote de aviones de combate [[IAI Kfir]].<ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.ecuadorinmediato.com/index.php?module=Noticias&func=news_user_view&id=150430&umt=existen_elementos_que_reafirman_tesis_de_que_jaime_roldf3s_fue_asesinado2c_dice_jaime_galarza_28audio29 |título=Copia archivada |fechaacceso=25 de julio de 2011 |fechaarchivo=5 de marzo de 2016 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305122311/http://ecuadorinmediato.com/index.php?func=news_user_view&id=150430&module=noticias&umt=existen_elementos_que_reafirman_tesis_de_que_jaime_roldf3s_fue_asesinado2c_dice_jaime_galarza_28audio29 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> No obstante, le presidente Roldós sí authorisava le compra del jets hebree, proque le contracto esseva signate le 21 de maio, tres dies ante su morte.<ref>[[Kfir]]</ref> Nonobstante, le theoria del attentate non documenta le maniera in que illo haberea essite committite, si esseva per medio de un bomba — cuje vestigios non esseva trovate — o si le avion esseva abattite. Qui defende iste these sustene que personas qui affirmava haber vidite exploder le avion in le aere e non como consequentia del impacto moriva in circumstantias mysteriose o dispareva. Illes affirma etiam que officiales del Fortia Aeree qui cognosceva detalios del volo de ille die etiam moriva in circumstantias poco clar. Generalmente, qui sustene iste theoria nunquam ha implicate oppositores o collaboratores del presidente Roldós in le supposite attentate, que illes attribue sempre a governamentos estranier, como le del Statos Unite o le dictatura militar de Argentina, in le quadro del [[Plan Condor|Operation Condor]]. == Legato historic == [[File:Coat of Arms of Jaime Roldós Aguilera (Order of Isabella the Catholic).svg|thumb|Escuto attribuite como cavallero del [[Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]].]] Post le decesso de Jaime Roldós, le Congresso National del Ecuador nominava su fratre, [[León Roldós]], como Vice-presidente del Republica, pro completar le periodo constitutional con [[Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea]], del [[Democratia Popular (Ecuador)|Democratia Popular]]. Nonobstante, León Roldós manteneva un relation difficile con Hurtado, opponente se a plure de su politicas economic, inter illos le «sucretisation» del debito externe private (per le qual le Stato assumeva le risco cambial del debito contrahite per interprenditores private). Como tributo postume, le pictor Marco Salas livrava un retrato del presidente Roldós, que esseva placiate pauc tempore post su morte in le galeria del presidentes del Salon Flave del [[Palatio de Carondelet]]. Le Municipio del Canton Celica construeva un via usque al mesme loco del tragedia, ubi in 2006 esseva annunciate le construction de un monumento commemorative.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.etvtelerama.com/index.php?codigo=NozrFZv4ur|titulo=|sitioweb=ETV Telerama|fechaacceso=}}</ref> [[Abdalá Bucaram]], cognato de Jaime Roldós Aguilera, fundava le populista [[Partito Roldosista Ecuadorian]], e esseva eligite como Presidente del Ecuador. Il governava ab augusto de 1996 usque a februario de 1997, quando le Congresso National le destitueva, allegante «incapacitate mental». Su fratre León Roldós Aguilera, ex-vice-presidente (1981-1984), esseva candidato al Presidencia in 1992, 2002, e novemente in le electiones de 2006 (como candidato del alliance inter le movimento «Red Ethica e Democratia (RED)» e le partito social-democratic [[Sinistra Democratic (Ecuador)|Sinistra Democratic]]. Le filia de Jaime Roldós e Martha Bucaram, [[Martha Roldós]], esseva deputata per le mesme gruppo RED e in le anno 2009 candidata al presiden­tia del Ecuador. Le filio minor del matrimonio Roldós-Bucaram, Santiago Roldós Bucaram, es journalist e dramaturgo. [[Martha Roldós]] denunciava que le Partito Roldosista Ecuadorian (PRE) ha destruite le ideales que durante su vita su patre transmitteva e manteneva. «Es un partito que corrumpe tote le ideales que esseva illos que mi patre susteneva», secundo su declaration. Decenas de stratas, avenidas, pontes e unitates educative in varie citates trans le pais porta su nomine, inclusive le Terminal Terrestre de Guayaquil, assi como etiam le iconic «Ecuador Amazonic», de su discurso final. {{Referentias}} == Bibliographia == * [[Efrén Avilés Pino|Avilés Pino, Efrén]]: [http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/personajes-historicos/ab-jaime-roldos-aguilera/ ''Enciclopedia del Ecuador- Aguilera Ab. Jaime Roldós – Personajes históricos''. Guayaquil – Ecuador] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Politicos del seculo XX]] [[Categoria:Politicos del Guerra Frigide]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite in Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Causa de morte non elucidate]] [[Categoria:Grandes Magistros del Ordine de San Lorenzo]] [[Categoria:Cavalleros del collar del Ordine de Isabella la Catholica]] [[Categoria:Chefes de stato assassinate]] [[Categoria:Professores de universitates de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Professores del Universitate Catholic de Santiago de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Advocatos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Alumnos del Universitate de Guayaquil]] [[Categoria:Dirigentes studentesc de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Decedite in accidentes de aviation in Ecuador]] t007xxjn69a8xh2g3s49myt5x2qhx3p 14 61183 699030 2026-08-26T07:03:03Z Interlingvisto 60932 Pagina create con “[[Categoria:Chefes de stato de America del Sud|Ecuadorianos]] [[Categoria:Chefes de governamento|Ecuadorianos]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes per pais|Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentia de Ecuador| ]]” 699030 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Categoria:Chefes de stato de America del Sud|Ecuadorianos]] [[Categoria:Chefes de governamento|Ecuadorianos]] [[Categoria:Politicos de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes per pais|Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentia de Ecuador| ]] l97fjrrqkwxtuo6ap7m0ywtjki6vyqk 1 61184 699039 2026-08-26T11:16:19Z Interlingvisto 60932 Pagina create con “{{Traduction|es|Jaime Roldós Aguilera|174210898}} ~~~~” 699039 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Traduction|es|Jaime Roldós Aguilera|174210898}} [[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 11:16, 26 augusto 2026 (UTC) 8j0hgd49aza9h7ndh11ui3cmh6lmb59