Wikipedia iawiki https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagina_principal MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.18 first-letter Multimedia Special Discussion Usator Discussion Usator Wikipedia Discussion Wikipedia File Discussion File MediaWiki Discussion MediaWiki Patrono Discussion Patrono Adjuta Discussion Adjuta Categoria Discussion Categoria Portal Discussion Portal Appendice Discussion Appendice TimedText TimedText talk Modulo Discussion Modulo Evento Discussion Evento 0 793 699490 696283 2026-09-02T19:45:12Z Gmillernd 20128 699490 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} {{infobox/articulo/instantia de entitate territorial}} '''Canada'''{{linfo}} es le pais le plus septentrional de [[America del Nord]] e le secunde le plus grande pais del mundo in terminos de area territorial, sed illo ha un inferior densitate de population, con circa 31 milliones de habitantes (canadianos). Le citate capital es [[Ottawa]]. Canada es un pais moderne e technologicamente progressate; illo es independente in energia e es sovente prendite in error pro esser un del poc paises disveloppate que ha un economia fortemente dependente del abundantia de su ressources natural. Su '''limites''' es: * a sud le [[Statos Unite de America]] (le plus longe frontiera non defendite in le mundo), * a west le [[Oceano Pacific]], * a nord-west le [[Alaska]], * a est le [[Oceano Atlantic]] e * a nord le [[Oceano Arctic]] (le pretension territorial de Canada se extende al [[Polo Nord]]). Le insula de [[Groenlandia]] es solmente al nord-est del plus septentrional insulas de Canada, e le possession francese de Saint-Pierre e Miquelon es solmente apud le costa. Su '''population''' actual supera le 31 milliones de habitantes, del quales: * 66% es de descendentia europee, * 26% es de fundo mixte e * 6% es unicamente de descendentia non europee, principalmente de [[Asia]]. Solmente 2% del population total es constituite per le population indigena. Le duo linguas official de Canada es le [[lingua anglese|anglese]] e le [[lingua francese|francese]]. Le francese es principalmente parlate in [[Québec]], [[Ontario]] e [[Nove Brunswick]]. Le '''religion''' le plus diffundite es le [[Christianismo|christian]], con 42% de [[Catholicismo|catholicos]] e 38% de [[Protestantismo|protestantes]]. == Historia == === Populos indigene === [[File:Indigenous population by census division.svg|197px|right|thumb|Un mappa de Canada monstrante le percentual de identitate indigene auto-reportate (Prime Nationes, Inuit, Métis) per division de censos, secundo le censos canadian de 2021.]] Le prime habitantes de [[America del Nord]] es generalmente hypothesate haber migrate ab [[Siberia]] per le ponte de terra de Bering e haber arrivate al minus 14,000 annos retro. Le sitos archeologic Paleo-Indian a Old Crow Flats e Bluefish Caves es duo del plus ancian sitos de habitation human in Canada. Le characteristicas del societates indigene includeva stabil colonias, agricultura, hierarchias social complexe e rete de commercio. Alcun de iste culturas habeva colapsate quando le exploratores europee arrivava al fin del seculo 15 e initio del seculo 16 e ha solmente essite scoperite per investigationes archeologic. Le populos indigene in le Canada contemporanee include le Prime Nationes, le Inuit e le Métis, iste ultime essente de descendentia mixte, originate in le medio del seculo 17 quando personas de Prime Nationes se maritava con colonos europee e lor descendentes posteriormente disveloppava lor proprie identitate. Le population indigene al tempore del prime colonias europee es estimate inter 200,000 e duo milliones, con un cifra de 500,000 acceptate per le Commission Royal de Canada sur le Populos Aboriginal. Como consequentia del colonisation europee, le population indigene diminuiva per quaranta a octanta percento. Le declino es attribuite a plure factores, includente le transmission de maladias europee, al quales illes non habeva immunitate natural, conflictos super le commercio de peles, conflictos con le autoritates colonial e le colonos, e le perdita de terras indigene al colonos, lo que causava le colapso del autosufficientia de plure nationes. Ben que non sin conflictos, le interactiones initial inter le europee-canadianos e le populationes de Prime Nationes e Inuit esseva relativemente pacific. Le populos del Prime Nationes e Métis habeva un rolo critic in le disveloppamento del colonias europee in Canada, particularmente per lor appoio al exploratores europee (coureurs des bois e voyageurs) durante le commercio de peles in America del Nord. Iste prime interactiones europee con le Prime Nationes cambiava eventualemente de amicita e tractatos de pace a spoliation del terras indigene per tractatos. Ab le fin del seculo 18, le europeos-canadianos forciava le populos indigene a assimilar se in un societate occidental-canadese. Le colonialismo attingeva su apice inter le fin del seculo 19 e le initio del seculo 20. Un periodo de reparation comenciava con le formation de un commission de reconciliation per le Governo de Canada in 2008. Isto includeva le recognition de genocidio cultural, accordos de compensation, e melioration del problemas de discrimination racial, tal como le tractamento del question del feminas indigene disparite e assassinate. === Colonisation europee === [[File:Nouvelle-France map-en.svg|197px|right|thumb|Mappa de revendicationes territorial in America del Nord in 1750. Possessiones de America Britannic (rosa), Nove Francia (blue), e Nove Hispania (orange); California, Northwest Pacifico, e Basin Grande non indicate.]] On crede que le prime europee documentate que explorava le costa oriental de Canada esseva le explorator norse [[Leif Erikson]]. Circa le anno 1000 EC, le norse construiva un parve campamento de breve duration, que esseva occupate sporadicamente per forsan 20 annos a L'Anse aux Meadows, in le punta nord de Terranova. Nulle ulterior exploration europee occurreva usque a 1497, quando le navigator John Cabot explorava e reclamava le costa atlantic de Canada in le nomine de [[Henrico VII de Anglaterra]]. In 1534, le explorator francese Jacques Cartier explorava le Golfo de Sancto Laurentio, ubi, le 24 de julio, ille plantava un cruce de 10 metros (33 pedes) con le parolas "Vive le Roy de France", prendente possession del territorio de Nove Francia in nomine de Rege Francisco I. Le initio del seculo XVI videva marineros europee, con technicas de navigation avantiate per le bascos e le portugeses, establir postos de chasse a le balena e de pesca stagional lungo le costa atlantic. In general, le prime tentativas de colonisation durante le Era del Discoperimento pare esser de breve duration a causa de un combination de climate dur, problemas de navigation del routes commercial e competition de [[Scandinavia]]. In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, per le prerogativa royal de Regina [[Elisabeth I de Anglaterra|Elisabeth I]], fundava St John's, Terranova, como le prime campamento stagional anglo-american. In 1600, le franceses establiva lor prime posto commercial stagional a Tadoussac, lungo le Sancto Laurentio. Le explorator francese [[Samuel de Champlain]] arrivava in 1603 e fundava le prime colonias europee permanente a Port Royal (in 1605) e Quebec (in 1608). Inter le colonos de Nove Francia, le canadeses se establiva extensivemente in le valle del Fluvio Sancto Laurentio, e le Acadians se installava in le Maritimes moderne, durante que commerciantes de peles e missionarios catholic explorava le Region del Grand Lacs, le Baia de Hudson e le basin fluvial del [[Mississippi]] usque a [[Louisiana]]. Le Guerras del Castor eruptava in le medio del seculo XVII super le controlo del commercio de peles in America del Nord. Le angleses establiva additional colonias in Terranova in 1610, insimul con colonias in le Dece-tres Colonias al sud. Un serie de quatro guerras occurreva in America colonial inter 1689 e 1763; le guerras plus tarde de iste periodo formava le theatro nord-american del Guerra de Septe Annos. Le territorio continental de Nova Scotia cadeva sub dominio britannic con le Tractato de Utrecht in 1713, e Canada insimul con le major parte de Nove Francia veniva sub controlo britannic in 1763 post le Guerra de Septe Annos. === America del Nord Britannic === Le Proclamation Royale de 1763 stabiliva le derechos de tractatos del Prime Nationes, creava le Provincia de Quebec ex Nove Francia, e annexava l'Illa Cape Breton a Nova Scotia. L'Illa de St John's (nunc Prince Edward Island) deveniva una colonia separate in 1769. Per evitar conflicto in Quebec, le Parlamento Britannic passava le Acto de Quebec in 1774, expandente le territorio de Quebec usque al Grand Lacs e Valle de Ohio. Plus importante, le Acta de Quebec conferiva a Quebec autonomia special e derechos de auto-administration in un tempore quando le Dece-tres Colonias esseva sempre plus agitante contra le dominio britannic. Illo re-establiva le lingua francese, le fide catholic, e le lege civil francese ibi, retardante le crescimento de un movimento de independentia in contrasto con le Tredic Colonias. Le Proclamation e le Acto de Quebec in su vice irritava multe habitatores de le Tredic Colonias, alimentante ancora le sentimentos anti-britannic in le annos ante le Revolution Americana. Post le successo del [[Guerra de Independentia del Statos Unite]], le Tractato de Paris de 1783 recognosceva le independentia del nove formate Statos Unite e establiva le terminos de pace, cedente territorios de America Britannic del sud de Grands Lacs e orientale del [[Fluvio Mississippi]] al nove nation. Le Guerra de Independentia del Statos Unite etiam causava un grande emigration de Loyalistes, le colonos qui luctava contra le independentia americana. Multos se moveva a Canada, particularmente a Canada Atlantic, ubi lor arrivata cambiava le distribution demographic del territorios existente. New Brunswick esseva de facto separato de Nova Scotia como parte de un reorganisation de colonias de Loyalistes in le Maritimes, lo que portava al incorporation de Saint John, New Brunswick, como le prime citate de Canada. Pro accomodar le influxo de Loyalistes de lingua anglese in Canada Central, le Acto Constitucional de 1791 divideva le provincia de Canada in Canada Inferiore (posteriormente [[Québec]]), de lingua francese, e Canada Superior (posteriormente [[Ontario]]), de lingua anglese, otorgante a cata uno su proprie asamblea legislativa electe. Le Canadas esseva le front principale in le Guerra de 1812 inter le Statos Unite e le Regno Unite. Pace veniva in 1815; nulle limites esseva cambiate. Immigration recomenciava a un nivello plus alte, con super 960,000 arrivantes de [[Grande Britannia]] inter 1815 e 1850. Novos arrivantes includava refugiatos escapante del Grande Famine Irlandese e Scots de lingua gaelica desplazate per le Highland Clearances. Maladies infectiose assassinava inter 25 e 33 percento de Europeos qui immigrava a Canada ante 1891. Le desiderio pro un governo responsabile resultava in le abortive Rebelliones de 1837. Le Reporte Durham subsequentemente recommendava un governo responsabile e le assimilation de los Canadiens francese in le cultura anglese. Le Acto de Unione de 1840 univa le Canadas in un unite Provincia de Canada e un governo responsabile esseva establishite pro omne provincias de America Britannic oriental de Lago Superior entro 1855. Le signatura del Tractato de Oregon de Britannia e le Statos Unite in 1846 finiva le disputa de limites de Oregon, extendente le fronteira occidentale longo le 49° parallel. Isto paviva le via pro colonias britannic in l'Isla Vancouver (1849) e in Columbia Britannic (1858). Le Tractato Anglo-Russe de Saint Petersburg (1825) establiva le fronteira longo le costa Pacific, ma, mesmo post le Compra de Alaska de 1867 per le Statos Unite, disputas continuava super le demarcation exacte del fronteira Alaska–Yukon e Alaska–Columbia Britannic. === Confederation e expansion === [[File:Canada provinces evolution 2.gif|197px|right|thumb|Mappa animate del evolution del provincias e territorios de Canada ab le Confederation in 1867.]] Post tres conferentias constitutional, le Acto de America Britannic de 1867 proclamava officialmente le Confederation Canadese le 1 de julio de 1867, initialmente con quatro provincias: [[Ontario]], [[Québec|Quebec]], Nova Scotia, e New Brunswick. Canada assumebat le control de Rupert's Land e del Territorio North-Western pro formar le Territorios del Nord-Oeste, ubi le querelas del Métis incendiva le Rebellion de Red River e le creation del provincia de Manitoba in julio de 1870. Columbia Britannic e le Isla Vancouver (que habeva essite unite in 1866) se univa al confederation in 1871 con le promissa de un ferrocarril transcontinentale extendente usque a Victoria in le provincia intra 10 annos, mentre Prince Edward Island se univa in 1873. In 1898, durante le Klondike Gold Rush in le Territorios del Nord-Oeste, le Parlamento creava le Territorio de Yukon. Alberta e Saskatchewan deveniva provincias in 1905. Inter 1871 e 1896, casi un quart de population canadese emigrava al sud verso le US. Pro aperir le Occidente e encoragiar immigration europee, le Governo de Canada promoveva le construction de tres ferrocarriles transcontinentales (includente le Canadian Pacific Railway), passava le Dominion Lands Act pro regolar le colonisation e establiva le Policia Montate Nord-West pro affirmar autoritate super le territorio. Iste periodo de expansion verso oest e construction del nation resultava in le desplazamento de multe povos indigene de le Praries Canadese a "reservas indian". Isto liberava le terra pro colonias ethnic europae. Isto causava le collapso del Bisonte de las Praries in Canada occidental e le introduction de fermas de bovinos europee e campos de trigo dominante le terra. Le povos indigene experiebat famine e maladie expansive a causa de le perdita del bisonte e de lor terras traditional de caza. Le govierno federal provideva reliefa de emergentia, sub condition que le povos indigene se movera a le reservas. Durante iste tempore, Canada introduceva le Acto Indian extendente su control super le Prime Nationes a education, governamento e derechos legale. === Initio del seculo 20 === Proque le Britannia ancora manteva le controlle del affaires exterior de Canada sub le Acto de America del Nord Britanica, 1867, su declaration de guerra in 1914 automaticamente portava Canada in le Prima Guerra Mundial.[79] Voluntarios inviate al Front Occidental se faceva parte del Corpo Canadian, que ha giocato un rolo substantial in le Batalla de Vimy Ridge e altere engagementes importantes del guerra.[80] Le Crisi de Conscription de 1917 erupte quando le proposal del Gabinete Unionista de augmentar le numero decrescente de membra active del militar con conscriptione esseva affrontate con objectiones vehementes de Quebecois francofonos.[81] In 1919, Canada se univa al [[Liga de Nationes]] independentemente de Britannia,[80] e le Statuto de Westminster, 1931, affirmava le independentia de Canada.[82] Le Grande Depression in Canada durante le prime annos 1930 videva un receso economic, conducente a difficultates per tote le pais.[83] In responsa al receso, le Federation Commonwealth Cooperative (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduciva multe elementos de un stato de benessere (como esseva pionierate per Tommy Douglas) in le annos 1940 e 1950.[84] Secundo le consilio del Prime Ministro William Lyon Mackenzie King, le guerra con Germania esseva declarate effective le 10 de septembre 1939, per Rege George VI, septem dies post le Regno Unite. Le retard underscorava le independentia de Canada.[80] Le prime unitates del Armata Canadese arrivava in Britannia in decembre 1939. In total, plus que un million de Canadian serviva in le fortias armate durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]].[85] Troppes canadianes ha giocato rolos importante in multe batallas clave del guerra, includente le fallite Raid de Dieppe in 1942, le invasione alliate de Italia, le disbarco de Normandia, le Batalla de Normandia, e le Batalla de Scheldt in 1944.[80] Canada provideva asilo al monarchia Holandese durante le occupation de ille pais e es creditate per le Nederlandes pro contributos major a su liberation ab Nazi Germania.[86] Nonobstante un altere crisia de conscription in Quebec in 1944, Canada finalisava le guerra con un grande armata e un forte economia.[87] === Era contemporanee === Le crisis financial del [[Grande Depression]] conduceva le Dominion de Newfoundland a relinquer le governo responsabile in 1934 e devenir un colonia de Corona governate per un governator britanico.[88] Post duo referendos, le habitantes de Newfoundland votava pro unir se a Canada in 1949 como un provincia.[89] Le crescimento economic post-guerra de Canada, combinate con le politicas de successive governos Liberal, conduceva al emergentia de un nove identitate canadese, marcate per le adoption del bandera del folio de arce in 1965,[90] le implementation de bilinguisme official (anglese e francese) in 1969,[91] e le institution de multiculturalismo official in 1971.[92] Programmas social-democraticos etiam esseva institute, tal como Medicare, le Canada Pension Plan, e Canada Student Loans; tamen, le governos provincial, in particular Quebec e Alberta, se opposava a multe de istos como incursiones in lor jurisdictiones.[93] Finalmente, un altere serie de conferentias constitutional resultava in le Canada Act 1982, le patriation de le constitution de Canada ab le [[Regno Unite]], concurrente con le creation de le Carta Canadian de Diritto e Libertates.[95] Canada establiva completa souveranitate como un pais independent sub su proprie monarchia.[96] In 1999, Nunavut deveniva le tertie territorio de Canada post un serie de negotiationes con le governo federal.[97] Simultaneamente, Quebec experimentava cambios profunde social e economic per le Revolution Silentiose del annos 1960, dando vita a un movimento nationalist secular.[98] Le radicante Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) incendiava le Crisi de Octobre con un serie de explosion e rapto in 1970,[99] e le partito sovereigntiste Parti Québécois esseva elegite in 1976, organisante un referendo non-successive sobre association-soverenitate in 1980. Tentativas de accomodar le nationalism de Quebec constitutionalmente per le Meech Lake Accord falliva in 1990.[100] Isto conduceva al formation del Bloc Québécois in Quebec e al invigoration del Reform Party of Canada in le West.[101] Un secunde referendo sequiva in 1995, in le qual sovereanitate esseva rejectate per un margine smal de 50.6 contra 49.4 percento.[102] In 1997, le Corte Suprema declarava que secession unilateral de un provincia esserea unconstitutional, e le Clarity Act esseva passate per le Parlamento, delineante le conditiones de un partentia negociate de Confederation.[100] In addition a le questiones de sovereanitate de Quebec, un numero de crisis agitateva le societate canadese in le late 1980s e le early 1990s. Isto includeva le explosion de Air India Flight 182 in 1985, le plus grande homicidio massale in le historia de Canada;[103] le massacreo de École Polytechnique in 1989, un homicidio universitari mirante studentes feminine;[104] e le Crisi de Oka de 1990,[105] le prime de un numero de confrontos violente inter governos provincial e grupos Indigene.[106] Canada se univa al Guerra del Golf in 1990 e esseva active in multe missiones de mantento de pace durante le 1990s, includente operationes in le Balcanos durante e post le Guerra Yugoslav,[107] e in Somalia, resultante in un incidentia que esseva descrite como "le plus tenebrose era in le historia del militar canadese".[108] Canada inviava troppes a [[Afghanistan]] in 2001, resultante in le plus grande numero de mortes canadese per un mission militar singulare desde le Guerra Corean in le early 1950s.[109] In 2011, fortias canadese participava in le intervention conducite per NATO in le Guerra Civil Libyan[110] e etiam deveniva implicate in le combatte contra le insurgentia del Estado Islamic in Iraq in le medio del 2010s.[111] Le pais celebrava su sesquicentenario in 2017; tres annos post, le pandemia COVID-19 in Canada comenciava le 27 de janvier 2020, causando disruption social e economic vastate.[112] In 2021, un annuncio de le descoperta de possible sepulturas de plus de 200 infantes Indigene trovate vicino un former schola residential canadese Indian, que mirava a assimilar infantes Indigene per le major parte del 20esimo seculo, refocava le attention mediatica e public a le genocidio cultural exercite contra le populos Indigene de Canada.[113][114] Un guerra commercial involucrante le Statos Unite, Canada, e Mexico comenciava le 1 de febbraio 2025, quando le presidente US Donald Trump signava ordines imponente tarifas sur productes ab le du paises entrante in le Statos Unite.[115] ==Geographia== [[File:Canada topo.jpg|416px|right|thumb|Un carta topographica de Canada, in projection polar (pro 90° W), monstrante le elevatios colorate de verde a brun (plus alte).]] Per area total (incluse su aquas), Canada es le secunde plus grande pais in le mundo.[116] Solmente per area de terra, Canada se classa quarta, a causa de haber le plus grande area de lacos de aqua dulce del mundo.[117] Extendite desde le [[Oceano Atlantic]] in le est, per le [[Oceano Arctic]] al nord, e al [[Oceano Pacific]] in le vest, le pais comprende 9,984,670 kilometros quadrate (3,855,100 mi²) de territorio.[118] Canada ha etiam vaste terran maritime, con le plus long linea costal del mundo de 243,042 kilometros (151,019 mi).[119] In addition a compartir le plus grande frontiera terrestrial del mundo con le Statos Unite —extendente se 8,891 kilometros— Canada comparte un frontiera de terra con [[Groenlandia]] (e ergo con le [[Danmark|Regno de Danmark]]) al nordeste, in Insula Hans,[120] e un limite maritime con le ''collectivité d'outre-mer'' de Francia, Saint Pierre et Miquelon, al sudeste.[121] Canada es etiam casa del settlemente le plus septentrional del mundo, Canadian Forces Station Alert, in le punta septentrional de Insula Ellesmere—latitude 82.5°N—which se trova 817 kilometros (508 mi) a partir del Polo Nord.[122] In latitude, le punto de terra le plus septentrional de Canada es Cape Columbia in Nunavut a 83°6′41″N, con su extremo meridional in Middle Island in Lago Erie a 41°40′53″N. In longitude, le terra de Canada se extende de Cape Spear, Newfoundland, a 52°37'W, a Mount St. Elias, Territorio Yukon, a 141°W.[123] Canada pote esser dividite in septem regiones physiographic: le Canadian Shield, le planitie interior, le Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, le regione Appalachian, le Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, e le Archipelago Arctic.[124] Le foreste boreale prevale per tote le pais, glacie es prominente in le regiones nordicas Arctic e trans le Montanias Rocciosa, e le relative flatitudin de le Prairies Canadian in le sudwest facilita agricultura productiva.[118] Le Great Lakes alimenta le River St. Lawrence (in le sudeste) ubi le lowlands hospita multo del output economic de Canada.[118] Canada ha plus que 2,000,000 lacos—563 de illos maior que 100 kilometros quadrate (39 mi²)—contenente multe de le aqua dulce del mundo.[125] Il existe etiam glaciares de aqua dulce in le [[Montanias Roccose]] canadese, le Montanias de Coast, e le Arctic Cordillera.[126] Canada es geologicemente active, habente multe terremotos e volcanos potentialmente active.[127] == Governamento e politica == Canada es describite como un "democratia complete",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=2021 Democracy Index |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q |website=Economist Intelligence Unit |archive-date=December 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220221533/https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q |url-status=live |accessdate=March 24, 2025 |archivedate=December 20, 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220221533/https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q }}</ref> con un tradition de [[liberalismo]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Westhues |first1=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chTaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |title=Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives |last2=Wharf |first2=Brian |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-55458-409-3 |pages=10–11}}</ref> e un ideologia politica egalitariste,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bickerton |first1=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1jd6oqRHxLYC&pg=PA56 |title=Canadian Politics |last2=Gagnon |first2=Alain |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-0121-5 |page=56}}</ref> e moderate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |edition=4th |pages=13–23}}</ref> Un emphasis sur le justitia social ha essite un elemento distincte del cultura politica de Canada.<ref>{{multiref2 | {{cite book |last=McQuaig |first=L. |title=Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire |publisher=Doubleday Canada |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-385-67297-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT14 |page=14}} | {{cite book |last=Fierlbeck |first=Katherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bZBHlF4V8EC&pg=PA87 |title=Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55111-711-9 |page=87}} }}</ref> Pace, ordine, e bon governo, junto con un Bill de Diritto Implicite, son principes fundational del federalismo canadese.<ref>{{multiref2 | {{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npzDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries |last2=P. Scheurell |first2=Robert |date=March 17, 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-36677-5 |page=48}} | {{cite book |last=Boughey |first=Janina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgK-DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 |title=Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada: The Newest Despotism? |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5099-0788-5 |page=105}} | {{cite web | last=McLachlin | first=Beverly |authorlink=Beverley McLachlin| title=Human Rights Protection in Canada | publisher= " Osgoode Hall Review of Law and Policy | date=Jun 30, 2014 | url=https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=ohrlp |quote=Le experientia de Canada con los derechos humanes pote esser dividite in tres fases: 1) Derechos implicate judicialmente; 2) Derechos protegite legislative; e 3) Derechos humanes protegite constitutionalmente. Ante le legislation de derechos humanes e le Carta, le cortes in Canada dependerea del teoria de un "bill de derechos implicite" pro proteger libertates civil traditional como le libertate de expression e de association. Le fundamento theoretic pro iste derechos era le importantia de un expression politica libere e discussion in un democratia.}}}}</ref> A nivel federal, Canada ha essite dominate per duo partitos relativemente centristas que practica "politica de mediatores":[b] le partito Liberal de Canada, inclinante al centro-sinistra,[157] e le partito Conservatore de Canada (ou su predecessores), inclinante al centro-dextra.[158] Le Liberales, historicamente predominante, se positiona al centro del scala politica.[158] Cinque partitos habeva representantes elegite al Parlamento in le election de 2021—le Liberales, que formava un governo minoritari; le Conservatores, qui deveniva le Opposition Official; le New Democratic Party (occupante le sinistra[159]); le Bloc Québécois; e le Green Party.[160] Politica de extrema-dextra e extrema-sinistra non ha essite un forza prominente in le societate canadese.[161] Canada ha un systema parlamentar in le contexto de un monarchia constitutional—le monarchia de Canada essente le fundamento del ramos executive, legislative, e judicial.[162] Le monarca regnante es etiam monarca de 14 altere paises sovrane del Commonwealth[163] e de le 10 provincias de Canada. Le monarca appunta un representante, le governator general, secundo le consilio del prime ministro, pro exercitar la major parte de su deberes ceremonial royal.[164] Le monarchia es le fonte de souveranitate e autoritate in Canada.[165] Tamen, mentre que le governator general o monarca pote exercitar lor poder sin consilio ministerial in rare situationes de crisis,[166] le uso del poteres executive (ou prerogativa royal) es altrimenti dirigite per le Cabinetto, un comitato de ministros de la Corona responsabile al Camera de Communes electe e seligite e guidate per le prime ministro,[167] le capite del governo. Pro assegurar le stabilitate del governo, le governator general usalmente appunta como prime ministro le individuo qui es le currente leader del partito politic que pote obtener le confidente de un majoritate de membra in le Camera.[168] Le Office del Prime Ministro (PMO) es un del institutiones le plus potente in le governo, initiando le major parte de le legislation pro approbation parlamentar e seligente pro appointment per le Corona le governator general, governatores lieutenantes, senatores, judices del corte federal, e capites de corporations de la Corona e agensias governamental.[166] Le leader del partito con le secunde-mayor numero de locos usualmente deveni le leader de le Opposition Official e es parte de un systema parlamentar adversarial intendite pro mantener le governo in control.[169] Le Camera de Communes Le Camera de Communes in su location temporari, le West Block[170] Le Parlamento de Canada passa tote le leges federal. Il comprende le monarca, le Camera de Communes, e le Senate. Mentre que Canada ha hereditar le concepto britannic de suprematia parlamentar, isto esseva posteriori, con le enactamento del Constitution Act, 1982, casi completemente supersedite per le concept de suprematia del lege in le maniera american.[171] Cata de le 338 membros del Parlamento in le Camera de Communes es elegite per simplici pluralitate in un districto electoral. Le Constitution Act, 1982, requere que non plus de cinque annos passe inter electiones, mesmo si le Canada Elections Act limita isto a quatro annos con un data de election "fixe" in octobre; electiones general debe tamen esser annunciate per le governator general e pote esser initiate per le consilio del prime ministro o un voto de perdita de confidente in le Camera.[172] Le 105 membros del Senate, cuje locos son apportionate sur un base regional, serve usque a 75 annos de aetate.[173] Le federalismo canadese divide responsibilitates de governo inter le governo federal e le 10 provincias. Le legislaturas provincial es unicameral e opera in maniera parlamentar simile al Camera de Communes.[174] Le tres territorios de Canada etiam habe legislaturas, ma illos non son sovrane, habe menos responsabilitates constitutional que le provincias,[175] e differe structuralmente de lor counterpartes provincial.[176] === Provincias de territorios === [[File:Political map of Canada.svg|497px|right|thumb|Mappa del territorios e provincias de Canada.]] Canada comprende dece provincias e tres territorios. Le provincias e lor capitales es: * [[Alberta]] - [[Edmonton]] * [[Columbia Britannic]] - [[Victoria]] * [[Manitoba]] - [[Winnipeg]] * [[Nove Brunswick]] - [[Fredricton]] * [[Terra Nove e Labrador]] - [[St. John's]] * [[Nove Scotia]] - [[Halifax]] * [[Ontario]] - [[Toronto]] * Le [[Insula Prince Edward]] - [[Charlottetown]] * [[Québec]] - [[Ville de Québec]] * [[Saskatchewan]] - [[Regina]] Le territorios e lor capitales es: * Le [[Territorios del nord-west]] - [[Yellowknife]] * [[Nunavut]] - [[Iqaluit]] * [[Yukon]] - [[Whitehorse]] ===Locos in Canada=== * [[Airdrie (Alberta)]] * [[Amqui]] * [[Ardrossan (Alberta)]] * [[Beaumont (Alberta)]] * [[Black Diamond (Alberta)]] * [[Bowden (Alberta)]] * [[Bowness (Alberta)]] * [[Brooks (Alberta)]] * [[Camrose (Alberta)]] * [[Montreal]] * [[Sayabec]] * [[Toronto]] * [[Turner Valley (Alberta)]] * [[Vancouver]] ==Vide etiam== * [[Jim Carrey]] * [[Brian Drummond]] ==Ligamines externe== * [http://www.gc.ca/ sito del governamento] {{refer}} {{elem|paises del mundo}} {{Paises de America}} [[Categoria:Canada| ]] 5fxtrjtpqqp1qt1fah7o2gy5bpvogcb 0 1240 699510 698434 2026-09-03T05:12:37Z Interlingvisto 60932 699510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} Le '''Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies''' o '''Ecclesia SUD''' es un communitate [[Christianismo|christian]] con 12.300.000 de membros in tote le mundo e un crescite medie annue de 300.000 (estimation de 2005). Le termino ''mormon'', generalmente usate pro referer se al membros de iste ecclesia, deriva del nomine del [[propheta Mormon]] un del autores del [[Libro de Mormon]]. == Historia == {{AP|Historia del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies}} [[File:Joseph Smith, Jr. portrait owned by Joseph Smith III.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|Joseph Smith, le prime presidente del Ecclesia de Christo.]] === Initio === {{AP|Historia del movimento del Sanctos del Ultime Dies}} [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] formalmente organisava le ecclesia como le Ecclesia de Christo le 6 april 1830 in le west de New York; le nomine del ecclesia esseva plus tarde cambiate a Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies. Le prime convertitos esseva attrahite in parte per le nove libro [[Libro de Mormon]], que se describeva como un chronica de prophetas indigene american que Smith diceva haber traducite ex tabulas de auro. Smith intendeva establir le Nove Jerusalem in [[America del Nord]], appellate Sion. In 1831, le ecclesia se moveva a Kirtland, Ohio, e comenciava a establir un colonia in le comitate de Jackson, Missouri, ubi Smith planava eventualmente transferer le sede del ecclesia. Totevia, in 1833, habitantes de [[Missouri]] expelleva violentemente le Sanctos del Ultime Dies de Jackson County. Le ecclesia essayava recuperar le terra per un expedition quasi-militar, ma sin successo. Malgrado isto, le ecclesia prosperava in Kirtland durante que Smith publicava nove revelationes e le ecclesia construeva le Templo de Kirtland, le qual esseva dedicate con un ceremonia comparabile al Die de Pentecoste. Le era de Kirtland terminava in 1838 post un scandalo fiscal que causava multe disertiones. Smith se reuniva con le restos del ecclesia in Far West, Missouri, ma tensiones con le habitantes de Missouri tosto escalava in conflictos violent. Credente que le Sanctos del Ultime Dies preparava un insurrection, le governator de Missouri ordinava que illes essera "exterminate o expulsate del Stato." In 1839, le Sanctos del Ultime Dies transformava un regione de palude juxta le fluvio Mississippi in Nauvoo, Illinois, que deveniva le nove sede del ecclesia. [[File:Carthage Jail from southwest.jpg|thumb|left|Prision de Carthage, ubi Joseph Smith esseva occidite in 1844.]] Nauvoo cresceva rapidemente, durante que missionarios in [[Europa]] e altere locos portava nove convertitos a Nauvoo. Durante iste tempore, Smith introduceva le polygamia a su plus proxime socios. Ille etiam establiva ceremonias revelate, secundo ille, per le Senior, pro permitir que le justos deveniva deos in le vita post mortem, e un institution secular pro governar le Regno Millennari. Smith tamben divulgava su Prime Vision, in le qual ille diceva que duo “personas celeste” appareva a ille quando ille habeva 14 annos. Iste vision deveniva, pro le ecclesia SUD, le evento le plus importante in le historia human post le resurrection de Jesus. Le 27 de junio 1844, Smith e su fratre Hyrum esseva occidite per un turba in Carthage, Illinois, durante que illes esseva detenite per accusationes de tradimento. Como Hyrum esseva designate successor de Joseph, lor mortes causava un crise de succession. [[Brigham Young]] prendeva le direction del majoritate del membros del ecclesia. Altere gruppos dissidente se univa a altere chefes. Iste gruppos non ha affiliation con le Ecclesia SUD, ma illes participa in commun le hereditage del prime historia ecclesiastic. In insimul, illes es appellate le Movimento del Sanctos del Ultime Dies. Le plus grande de iste gruppos minoritari es le [[Communitate de Christo]], con sede in Independence, Missouri, sequite per le Ecclesia de Jesus Christo, con sede in Monongahela, Pennsylvania. Como le Ecclesia SUD, iste fides crede in Joseph Smith como propheta e fundador, accepta le Libro de Mormon, e generalmente accepta alicun forma del Doctrina e Pactos. Totevia, illes ha differentias doctrinal e de governo ecclesiastic in comparation con le Ecclesia SUD. === Era pioniere === [[File:BrighamYoung1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Brigham Young dirigeva le Ecclesia SUD de 1844 usque su morte in 1877.]] Durante duo annos post le morte de Smith, conflictos cresceva inter Mormones e altere habitantes de Illinois. Brigham Young conduceva su sequitores — plus tarde appellate pionieros mormones — verso Nebraska e in 1847 a lo que postea deveniva le Territorio de Utah, qui alora esseva parte del terras del nationes Ute, Goshute e Shoshone, e clamate per [[Mexico]] usque 1848. Circa 80,000 colonos arrivava inter 1847 e 1869, e illes se disveloppava in un large region appellate hodie le Corridor Mormon. Missionarios esseva inviate a insulas Sandwich (hodie Hawaii), India, Chile, Australia, China, Sud Africa, e tote Europa. Young legalmente incorporava le Ecclesia SUD e governava ecclesia e stato como leader theocratic. In 1852, ille publicava le practica del matrimonio plural. Recerca moderne suggere que circa 20% del familias Mormon participava in iste practica. [[File:Pioneers Crossing the Plains of Nebraska by C.C.A. Christensen.png|thumb|left|Pintura del 19e seculo: pionieros mormon traversante le planas de Nebraska.]] Per 1857, tensiones de novo cresceva inter Mormon e altere Americanos, in parte a causa del polygamia e le dominio theocratic de Utah per Young. Le Guerra Mormon de Utah occurreva inter 1857 e 1858, resultante in le invasion relativemente pacific de Utah per le Exercito del Statos Unite. Le plus notabile acto de violentia Mormon durante iste periodo esseva le Massacre de Mountain Meadows, in le qual le militia local Mormon occideva un gruppo de emigrantes civil. Post le revelation del massacre, le ecclesia esseva fortemente criticate in le medios. Post que le armea se retrahava, Young concordava a ceder le poter e esser replaciate per un governator non-Mormon, Alfred Cumming. Tamen, le Ecclesia SUD retineva grande potentia politic in Utah. Simultanemente, tensiones con tribos indigene cresceva como le colonos Mormon expandiva lor territorio. Malgrado tentativas de coexistencia pacific, conflictos armate occurreva inter 1849 e 1873, culminante in le Guerra de Wakara, le Massacre del Fluvio Urso, e le Guerra de Black Hawk. Post le morte de Young in 1877, John Taylor e Wilford Woodruff le succedeva, resistente le effortios del Congresso pro prohibir le matrimonios polygamic. In 1878, le Corte Supreme declarava in Reynolds v. United States que "deber religiose" pro practicar le polygamia non esseva un justification legal. Le tensiones culminava in 1890, quando le Congresso disincorporava le Ecclesia SUD e confiscava su proprietates. Woodruff tunc emiteva un manifesto suspendente le nove matrimonios plural in le Statos Unite. Le relationes con le governo american meliorava post 1890, e Utah esseva admitite como stato in 1896. In 1904, presidente Joseph F. Smith reaffirmava le rejection del polygamia con un Secunde Manifesto. Le ecclesia comenciava a excommunicar membros practicante polygamia. Gruppos fundamentalista se separava e continuava le practica, ma le ecclesia se distanzia de illes. === Tempore moderne === [[File:Washington_D.C._Temple_At_Dusk.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Completate in 1974, le Templo de Washington D.C. esseva le prime construite in le est del Statos Unite desde 1846.]] Durante le seculo 20, le ecclesia cresceva considerabilemente e deveniva un organisation international. In 2000, le ecclesia reportava plus de 60,000 missionarios e un total de membros global lige super 11 milliones. Le membros mundialmente superava 16 milliones in 2018, quasi le medietate vive in le [[Statos Unite de America|Statos Unite]]. Studiosos ha appellate le denomination un ecclesia restaurational, un movimento religiose nove, e un religion mundial in potentia. Le ecclesia ha promovite fortemente le familia nuclear e ha prendite positiones politic prominente, opponente pro exemplo le missiles MX in [[Utah]] e [[Nevada]], le Equal Rights Amendment, le joco legal, le matrimonio inter personas del mesme sexo, e le morte assistite. In le era moderne, multe cambios ha essite implementate: * In 1978, le politica que prohibeva homines nigre de origine african de obtener le sacerdotio esseva revocate. * Le Programma de Correlation del Sacerdotio esseva instituite pro centralisar operationes. * Durante le Grande Depressione, le ecclesia initiava su systema de benesser ecclesiastic. * Le ecclesia ha cooperato in actiones humanitari con organisationes religiose e secular. * De 1913 a 2020, le ecclesia esseva sponsor major del Boy Scouts of America, ma cessava su relation in 2020, substituente lo con un programma religiose pro juventute. * Durante le ultime decennios, le ecclesia ha affrontate criticas e desafios, includente secularisation, dubitas super le Libro de Abraham, e documentos false producite per Mark Hofmann que contradiceva elementos del historia ecclesiastic official. == Credentias == {{AP|Credentias e practicas del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies}} {{Vide anque|Articulos de Fide (Sanctos del Ultime Dies)|Lista de proclamationes del Prime Presidentia}} Le Sanctos del Ultime Dies crede in le resurrection de Jesus, como es representate in iste replica del statua Christus de Bertel Thorvaldsen, situate in le Centro del Visitantes del Nord in Temple Square in Salt Lake City. === Natura de Deo === {{Vide anque|Deo in le mormonismo|Matre Celestial (Mormonismo)}} Le theologia del Ecclesia SUD include le credentia in un Deitate composte per Deo le Patre, su Filio Jesus Christo, e le Spirito Sancte como tres personas separate qui comparte un unitate de scopo o voluntate; tamen, illes es considerate tres esseres distincte. Isto es in contrasto con le opinion predominante christian, que considera Deo como un Trinitate de tres personas in un sol essentia. Le conception del Deitate del Sanctos del Ultime Dies es similar al que le theologos christian moderne nomina trinitarismo social. Le ecclesia crede etiam que Deo le Patre e su Filio, Jesus Christo, es esseres con corpos de carne e osso, durante que le Spirito Sancte non ha un tal corporeitate. Secundo le declarationes del dirigentes ecclesiastic, Deo es al capite del familia human e es maritate con un Matre Celeste, qui es le matre del spiritos human. Tamen, le dirigentes ecclesiastic ha etiam fortemente discouragiate orationes a illa e consiliate contra speculation super illa. === Jesus Christo === Le membros del ecclesia crede in [[Jesus Christo]] como le Filio literal de [[Deo]] e le [[Messia]], su crucifixion como completion de un offerta pro peccatos, e su resurrection subsequente. Tamen, le Sanctos del Ultime Dies rejecta le credos ecumenic e le definition del [[Trinitate]]. Jesus es etiam considerate como le fratre major de tote qui vive in iste mundo. Le ecclesia ensenia que Jesus realisava un expiation vicari. In contrasto con altere denominationes christian, le ecclesia ensenia que iste expiation comenciava in le jardin de Getsemani e continuava usque su crucifixion (in vice del opinion orthodoxe que solo le crucifixion esseva le expiation physic). Le ecclesia etiam ensenia que Jesus appareva a altere populos post su morte, includente spiritos del defunctos in le mundo spiritual e le Americanos indigene. Le ecclesia etiam ensenia que Jesus es le ver fundator e dirigente del ecclesia. Le fundation physic del ecclesia per Smith in 1830 es considerate como le re-establimento del mesme ecclesia primitive que existeva sub Jesus e su apostolos. Similarmente, le ecclesia ensenia que Jesus dirige actualmente le ecclesia per medio de su apostolos e prophetas, specialmente su presidente actual. ==== Comparation con Christianismo Nicean ==== {{AP|Mormonismo e Christianismo Nicean}} Le Ecclesia SUD comparte multe doctrinas con altere ramos del [[christianismo]]. Isto include le credentia in le [[Biblia]], le divinitate de [[Jesus]], su expiation e resurrection, e un forma de succession apostolic. Totevia, le Ecclesia SUD differe in multe aspectos ab le [[christianismo]] traditional. Le differentias include opiniones distincte super le natura de [[Deo]], credentia in tres celos, un doctrina de exaltation que permitte que le humanos deveni deos in le vita post morte, credentia in revelation continue e un canon scriptural aperte, e ceremonias unic in templos, tal como le dotation e le sigillation. Multe denominationes christian major considera le Ecclesia SUD como distincte del christianismo credal. Tamen, le membros del ecclesia se identifica como christianos. Le fide mesme considera le altere fides christian moderne como habente deviato del ver christianismo per medio de un apostasia general, e mantiene que illo es un restauration del christianismo del prime seculo e le sol ver ecclesia christian autorisate. Le dirigentes ecclesiastic affirma que es le sol ecclesia ver e que le altere ecclesias non ha le autoritate de actuar in nomine de Jesus. === Cosmologia e plano de salvation === {{AP|Cosmologia mormon|Plano de Salvation in mormonismo}} {{Vide anque|Grados de Gloria|Exaltation|Vita premortal}} Le cosmologia e plano de salvation del ecclesia include le doctrina de un existentia pre-terrenal, un vita mortal sur le terra, tres grados de gloria, e exaltation. Secundo iste doctrinas, cata spirito human es un filio spiritual de un Patre Celeste, e ha le potential de continuar apprender, crescer e progreder in le eternitate, finalmente attingente le vita eternal—lo que significa devenir un con Deo in le mesme maniera que Jesus es un con le Patre—permittente assi que le filios de Deo deveni esseres divin, o deos, mesme. Iste doctrina de theosis es etiam appellate devenir un “herede con Christo.” Le processo pro attinger isto es appellate exaltation, que include le reunification del familia mortal post le resurrection, le habilitate de generar filios spiritual in le vita post morte, e heredar un portion del regno de Deo. Secundo le theologia SUD, homines e feminas pote esser sigillate le un al altere pro que lor union marital continua in le eternitate. Filios pote etiam esser sigillate a lor parentes biologic o adoptive, formando ligamines familiar permanente que dura post le morte. Le ordinantias plus significative del ecclesia pote esser facite per procura in behalf de illes que ha morite, como le baptismo pro le mortos. Le ecclesia ensenia que tote personas habera le opportunitate de audir e acceptar (o rejectar) le evangelio de [[Jesus Christo]], in iste vita o in le vita ulterior. In le cosmologia ecclesiastic, le casata de Adam e Eva es considerate positive. Le ecclesia ensenia que isto esseva essential pro permitter al humanitate experimentar separation de Deo e exercitar plen libertate in prendrer le decision pro su proprie felicitate. === Restaurationismo === [[File:Joseph Smith first vision stained glass.jpg|upright=0.75|thumb|Le aderentes crede que Joseph Smith esseva appellate como propheta moderne per un visitation de Deo le Patre e Jesus Christo.]] Le Ecclesia SUD ensenia que, post le morte de Jesus e su apostolos original, su ecclesia—juntemente con le autoritate de agir in su nomine e le dones spiritual associate—esseva perdite, a causa de persecution externe e heresias interne. Le "Restaurar", como initiate per Joseph Smith, representa un retorno al potentia authentic del sacerdotio, dones spiritual, ordinantias, prophetas vivente e revelation del Ecclesia primitive de Christo. Iste restauration es associate con plure eventos considerate necessari pro re-establir le ecclesia christian del Nove Testamento e preparar le mundo pro le Secunde Advento de Jesus. === Direction ecclesiastic === Le ecclesia es dirigite per un presidente, appellate “le Propheta”. Ille es considerate como propheta, vidente e revelator, e es le sol persona autorizate a reciper revelation in nomine del ecclesia integre. Il se considera que ille es essentialmente infallibile quando parla in nomine de Deo—ben que le circumstantias exacte es discurrite intra le ecclesia. Declarations moderne con implicationes doctrinal large es sovente emittite per declarationes commun del Prime Presidium e le Quorum del Dotze Apostolos. Le membros del ecclesia crede que Joseph Smith esseva le prime prophet moderne. Post le morte del presidente Thomas S. Monson (2 de januario 2018), Russell M. Nelson esseva annunciate como presidente (16 de januario). Le presidente generalmente selige duo altere apostolos como consiliarios, e ensemble illes forma le Prime Presidium. Doce altere apostolos forma le Quorum del Dotze Apostolos. Quando un presidente mori, su successor es seligite ab le apostolos remanente—normalmente le apostolo con le plus longe tenure. Nove apostolos es seligite per le presidente post le morte de un apostolo existente. Le Prime Presidium, le Quorum del Dotze, le prime duo Quorums del Setanta, e le Episcopato Presidente forma le autoritate general del ecclesia. Le presidentias general del Societate de Soccorso, Schola Dominical, Juvenes Feminas, Juvenes Homines e Primaria forma le officiarios general. Feminas servi como presidentes e consiliarias in le Societate de Soccorso, Juvenes Feminas e Primaria, durante que homines servi in Schola Dominical e Juvenes Homines. === Casa e familia === Le ecclesia e su membros considera le matrimonio e familia como altamente importante, con emphase in grande familias nuclear. In 1995, le Prime Presidium e le Quorum del Dece-Duo emitteva ''Le Familia: Un Proclamation al Mundo'', que declara le importantia del familia heterosexual nuclear. Le proclamation defini le matrimonio como union inter un homine e un femina, e dice que le unitate familiar es "central al plano del Creator pro le destino eternal de Su filios". Le documento etiam affirma que "le genere es un characteristic essential del identitate e scopo individual pre-mortal, mortal e eternal", e que le patre e matre ha rolos differente como “partnarios equal” in educar le filios. Le proclamation invita a promover medidas pro mantener e fortificar le familia como unitate fundamental del societate. Le dirigentes ecclesiastic ha continuate a reemphasar un postura conservative super matrimonio e genere. Le membros es incoragiate a reservar un vespere cata septimana—normalmente le lune—pro Vespere Familiar in le Domo (FHE), que consiste in studio del evangelio e activitates familiar. Le oration familiar quotidian es etiam incoragiate. === Fontes del doctrina === [[File:Latter-day Saint Scripture Quadruple Combination.jpg|upright=0.6|thumb|Le canon scribite del ecclesia es appellate su ''operas standard''.]] Le theologia del ecclesia consiste in un combination de doctrinas biblic, revelationes moderne e commentarios de dirigentes SUD, specialmente Joseph Smith. Le fontes plus autoritose es le quatro textos sacre appellate opere standard: le [[Biblia]], le [[Libro de Mormon]], le Doctrina e Pactos, e le Perla de Gran Pretio. Le Libro de Mormon es un libro sacre fundamental; le terminos mormon e mormonismo proveni de illo. Le ecclesia ensenia que un angelo appellate Moroni monstrava a Smith tabulas auree con un registro sacre, le guidava a trovar los e le dava le medios pro traducer los del egyptian reformat. Illo contine le historia de un populo antique in le continente american con doctrina judeo-christian. Le libro es considerate per le SUD como le libro plus correcte del mundo. Le Biblia, etiam parte del canon, es considerate como le parola de Deo, con le cognoscentia que traductiones pote esser incorrecte o partes perdite. Le ecclesia usa typicamente le Version Autorisate King James. Excerptos del traduction de Joseph Smith del Biblia es canonisate. Altere revelationes de Smith es in Doctrina e Pactos e in Perla de Gran Pretio. Un altere fonte de doctrina es le declarationes del apostolos e del Prime Presidentia. Illes es considerate prophetas e professores autoritate del parola de Deo. Le ecclesia etiam ensenia que cata persona pote reciper revelation personal de Deo, specialmente super questiones spiritual, per medio del Spirito Sancte e oration. == Practicas == {{AP|Credentias e practicas del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Ultime Dies}} === Rituales === Baptismo per immersion es considerate altamente importante in le Ecclesia SUD. Iste representation circa 1850 monstra le vestimentas totalmente blanc usate in le ordinantia. In le ecclesia, un ordinantia es un rite sacre o ceremonie que ha significatos spiritual e symbolic, e es executate sub autoritate del sacerdotio.[153] Pro alcun ordinantias, le acto es connectite con un pacte inter le recipiente del ordinantia e Deo.[154] Le ordinantia de baptismo es credite vincular su participatores a [[Jesus Christo]], qui los salva in lor imperfection si illes continua mantener lor promissas a ille.[155] Le baptismo es executate per immersion, e usualmente es date a infantes a partir del octavo anno de edad.[111] Le membros del ecclesia crede que per le ordinantias de sigillation e dotation del templo, alcuno pote attinger le plus alte nivello de salvation in le regno celestial e viver eternamente in le praesentia de Deo, continuar como familias, devenir deos, crear mundos, e facer infantes spiritual sub lor governation.[113][98][99] Altre ordinantias in le ecclesia include confirmation, le sacramento (analog al [[Eucharistia]] o communione sancte[156]), ordination del sacerdotio, benediction patriarcal, unction del infirme, e benedictiones del sacerdotio.[157][158] === Dieta e sanitate === {{AP|Parola del Sapientia (Ultime Dies)}} Le Ecclesia SUD demanda a su membros adherer a un codice dietetic appellate le Parola del Sapientia, in le qual illes abstine se del consumo de [[alcohol]], [[caffe]], te, tabacco, e substancias illicite o nocive.[159] Le Parola del Sapientia tamben encourage le consumo de herbas e cereales con un consumo moderate de carne.[3] Quando Joseph Smith publicava le Parola del Sapientia in 1833, illo esseva considerate solmente un consilio; violation non restringeva le appartenentia al ecclesia. Durante le annos 1890, tamen, le dirigentes ecclesial comenciava a emphasisar plus le Parola del Sapientia. In 1921, le presidente ecclesial Heber J. Grant faceva le obediantia al Parola del Sapientia un requisito pro participar in le cultos dentro del templos del fide. Desde illo tempore, le dirigeantia ecclesial ha emphasiso le prohibition de caffe, te, tabacco, e alcohol, ma non le altere regulas concernente carne, cereales, e herbas.[3] In 2019, le ecclesia clarificava ulterioremente que le uso de marijuana e opioides es prohibit, salvo si prescrite per un medico competente pro scopo medical.[160] === Sexualitate === Le membros del ecclesia es expectate a se adherer a un codice moral appellate le lege del chastitate, que prohibe adulterio, comportamento homosexual, e relationes sexual ante o extra matrimonio.[94]: 1  Como parte del lege del chastitate, le ecclesia se oppone fortemente al pornografia, e considera masturbation un acto immorale.[161] Violationes del lege del chastitate pote esser causa de disciplina ecclesial; le sanctiones pote includer revocation del accesso al templo e al sacramento, assi como excommunication.[162] Le ecclesia dissuade le dates romantic usque circa le etate de 16 annos.[163][164] === Decime e altere donationes === Le membros del ecclesia es expectate donar un decime de lor ingreso pro supportar le operationes del ecclesia. Post initialmente usar un stile communal appellate le lege del consecration durante le major parte del annos 1830, le ecclesia creava le lege del decime in julio 1838, quando le membros esseva concentrate in [[Missouri]].[165] Le membros frequentemente dava decime per donar decem percento de lor bestiame e productos; ora donationes generalemente es facite con moneta.[165] Le donationes annual era estimate a totalisar de 7 millardos[166][167] a 33 millardos[168] de dollares US donate in 2012 (equivalente a 9.6 millardos a 45.2 millardos in 2024[169]). Pro qualificar pro participar in le ordinantias del templo (que le Ultime Dies crede esserea necessario pro lor salvation), pagar le decime complet es un requisito, independentemente del condition temporal de alcuno.[173] Membros es etiam encourage a jejuar (abstener se de cibo e bevanda) le prime domingo de cata mense per duo pastos consecutive. Illes dona al minus le costo del duo pastos saltate como "offerita de jejuno", que le ecclesia usa pro assister personas in necessitate e expandir su effortos humanitari.[174] Le dirigeantia local non es remunerate, e es expectate tamben pagar decime. Missionarios a tempore complet, tamen, non es expectate pagar decime, proque illes usualmente paga pro esser missionarios.[175] === Servicio missionari === [[File:MISSIONNAIRES MORMONS.JPG|thumb|upright=0.75|Missionarios generalmente compromitte se a un servicio a tempore complet de 18 a 24 meses.]] Tote le joves mormon in bon stato de salute es expectate servir un mission de proselitismo a tempore complet de duo annos.[176][177][178] Missionarios non selige ubi illes servira o le lingua in le qual illes proselytisa, e es expectate financiar lor missiones mesme o con adjuta de lor familias.[3] Missionarios prospective debe esser inter 18 e 25 annos e haber completate le studio secundari.[179] Tote le missionarios proselitizantes es organisate geograficamente in areas administrative appellate missiones. Le effortios in cata mission es dirigi per un mission-presidente adulto de sexo masculo. A julio 2024, il ha 450 missiones del ecclesia SUD.[180] Tamen, le servicio missionari es expectate pro homines, ma non es compulsorie e non es un requisito pro mantener le appartenentia ecclesial.[181][182][183] Feminas non maritate inter 19 e 29 annos pote tamben servir como missionarios,[176][184] generalmente pro un termino de 18 meses. Copias jubilate es encourage servir missiones, con terminos que varia de 6 a 23 meses.[185] Altere homines e feminas que vole servir un mission ma non pote prestar servicio a tempore complet pro causas de sanitate pote servir in missiones non proselytizante. Illes pote assister in Temple Square in Salt Lake City o adjutar in le systema de seminario in scholas.[186] === Observantia del die Sabbate === Le membros del ecclesia es expectate reservar le dies dominical como un die de reposo e culto. Usualmente, le reunion de cultos hebdomadari occurre solmente le dies dominical. Comprar e recreation es dissuadite le dies dominical. == Culto e reunion == {{AP|Servitios de culto del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Ultime Dies}} === Reuniones hebdomadari === [[File:LDS Church services (33407609075).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Vista interior de un typic reunion hebdomadari del sacramento le die de dominica in Provo, Utah.]] Le reuniones pro culto e studio ha lugar in casas de reunion, que generalmente ha un caracter utilitari.[3] Le foco principal del culto le die de dominica es le reunion del sacramento, ubi le sacramento es distribuite al membros del ecclesia; le reuniones del sacramento include tamben preces, le canto de hymnos per le congregation o coro, e sermones spontaneos o preparate per membros del ecclesia.[187] In le reuniones hebdomadari, il ha tamben tempore pro le scola dominical o reuniones instructional separate basate super etate e sexo, includente le Societate de Relief pro feminas.[188] Le congregations ecclesial es organisate geograficamente.[5]: 150  Le membros generalmente es expectate a assister al congregation in lor area geographic assignate; tamen, alcun areas geographic offere tamben congregations separate pro joves solteros, adultos solteros plus vetule, o pro parlatores de altere linguas.[5]: 151  Pro le servitios del die de dominica, le ecclesia es dividite in congregations plus grande appellate wards, o in congregations plus parve appellate branches.[5]: 152  Le organisationes regional del ecclesia, que comprende multe congregations, include stakes,[5]: 175  missiones, districtos e areas.[189] === Culto in le templo === [[File:Salt Lake Temple, Utah - Sept 2004-2.jpg|thumb|Le Templo de Salt Lake.]] {{AP|Templo (Ecclesia SUD)}} In le theologia SUD, un templo es considerate un edificio sancte, dedicate como un "Casa del Senior" e tenite plus sacre que un casa de reunion o capella typical. In le templos, le membros del ecclesia participa in ceremonias considerate le plus sacre del ecclesia, includente matrimonios e un ceremonia de dotation que include lavation e unction, recipir un vestimento de templo, e facer pactos con Deo. Baptismos pro le mortos — assi como altere ordinantias de templo in nomine del mortos — es executate in le templos.[3] Le templos es considerate per le membros del ecclesia como le structuras plus sacre in terra, e pro isto, le templos operative non es aperite al publico.[190] Post que le templo es dedicate, le permission de intrar es reservate solmente a membros del ecclesia que passa entrevistas periodical con dirigentes ecclesial e recipi un carta special de recommendation, appellate recommendacion de templo, que illes presenta al entrar.[3] Le membros del ecclesia es instruite a non compartir detalios super le ordinantias del templo con non-membros, ni mesmo parlar de illes extra del templo mesme.[3] A maio 2023, il ha plus de 200 templos dedicate mundialmente.[191] Le Ecclesia SUD ha 382 templos in variate fases, que include 207 templos dedicate (199 operative, 8 in renovation[192]), 4 con dedication programmate, 52 in construction, 4 con commencement programmate,[193] e 115 altere annunciate (ancora non in construction).[194] Pro executar ordinantias in templos pro parentes decedite, le ecclesia enfatisa le recerca genealogic e encourage su membros laicos a participar in genealogia.[195] Illa opera FamilySearch, le plus grande organisation genealogic del mundo.[196] === Conferentias === {{AP|Conferentia General (Ecclesia LDS)}} Duo vices per anno (le prime fin de septimana de april e ottobre), le autoridades general e officiarios general se adressa al ecclesia mundial per medio del conferentia general. Le sessiones del conferentia general es traducte in usque a 80 linguas e es transmittite ab le Centro de Conferentia con 21,000 sedes[197] in Salt Lake City. Durante iste conferentia, le membros del ecclesia formalmente recognosce, o “sustene”, le Prime Presidencia e le Quorum del Doze Apostolos como prophetas, videntes, e revelatores.[198] [[File:LDS Conference Center interior panoramic.jpg|center|thumb|upright=2.5|Interior del Centro de Conferentia ubi le ecclesia tene su Conferentias General duo vices per anno.]] Stake individual tamben tene conferentias formalmente intra lor limites duo vices per anno; wards tene conferentias annualmente.[199] == Organisation e structura == === Nomine e entitates legal === {{AP|Nomine del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Ultime Dies}} Le ecclesia insenia que illo es un continuation del Ecclesia de Christo restaurate in 1830 per Joseph Smith. Iste ecclesia original passava per plure cambiamentos de nomine durante le annos 1830, essente renominate "The Church of the Latter Day Saints",<ref name=Name>{{cite encyclopedia |contribution-url= https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Name_of_the_Church |contribution= Name of the Church |first= Susan Easton |last= Black |page= 979 |editor1-last= Ludlow |editor1-first= Daniel H |editor1-link= Daniel H. Ludlow |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia de Mormonismo]] |location= New York |publisher= [[Macmillan Publishers]] |year= 1992 |isbn= 0-02-879602-0 |oclc= 24502140 |access-date= September 23, 2014}}</ref> "The Church of Jesus Christ",<ref name=Drop>{{cite news|last=Fletcher Stack|first=Peggy |author-link=Peggy Fletcher Stack|title=LDS Church wants everyone to stop calling it the LDS Church and drop the word 'Mormons' – but some members doubt it will happen|url=https://www.sltrib.com/news/2018/08/16/lds-church-wants-everyone/|newspaper=[[The Salt Lake Tribune]] |date=August 16, 2018|access-date=June 23, 2023|url-status=live|archive-date=April 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420203816/https://www.sltrib.com/news/2018/08/16/lds-church-wants-everyone/ |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> "The Church of God",<ref name=HotC/> "The Church of Christ of Latter Day Saints"<ref name=Name/> e "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints" (per un revelation de 1838).<ref name=Name/><ref name=Inventing>{{Cite book| year=1994|title=Inventing Mormonism: Tradition and the Historical Record| location=Salt Lake City| publisher=[[Signature Books]]| editor1-last=Marquardt|editor1-first=H. Michael| editor2-last=Walters| editor2-first=Wesley P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IXRAAAAACAAJ |via=[[Google Books]]| isbn=978-1-56085-108-0}}</ref>{{rp|160}} Finalmente, post le morte de Smith, Brigham Young e le plus grande gruppo de sequitores de Smith incorporava le ecclesia in 1851 per legislation del [[Territorio de Utah]]{{efn|Le legislation initial esseva promulgate per le non-existente [[Stato de Deseret]], e dunque non esseva legalmente valide,<ref name=Incorporating/> ma illo esseva tosto ratificate per le Territorio de Utah in 1851<ref>{{cite book |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=716954 |title=Acts Resolutions and Memorials Passed by the First Annual and Special Sessions of the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Utah, 1851 |date=1851 |publisher=[[Assemblea Legislative Territorial de Utah]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522165624/http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=%2Futhisstat&CISOPTR=448&REC=3&CISOBOX=church+of+jesus+christ+of+latter-day+saints |archive-date=May 22, 2008 |url-status=live |via=[[Universitate de Utah]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522165624/http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=%2Futhisstat&CISOPTR=448&REC=3&CISOBOX=church+of+jesus+christ+of+latter-day+saints |date=May 22, 2008 }}</ref> e in 1855.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=[[Corporation Tarde del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies v. Statos Unite|Late Corporation of the [LDS Church] v. US]] |court=[[Corte Supreme del Statos Unite]] |date=1890 |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep136/usrep136001/usrep136001.pdf}}</ref>}} sub le nomine "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", le qual includeva un tracto de union in "Latter-day" e un ''d'' minuscule de [[Anglese britannic|stilo britannic]].<ref name=Incorporating>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=718227 |page=66 |chapter=State of Deseret: An Ordinance, incorporating the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |date=February 4, 1851 |access-date=June 22, 2023 |title=Laws and Ordinances of the State of Deseret: Compilation 1851 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623010831/https://collections.lib.utah.edu/file?id=718262 |archive-date=June 23, 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Shepard Book Company |location=Salt Lake City |via=[[Universitate de Utah]]}}</ref> Nomines commun informal del ecclesia include le Ecclesia LDS, le Ecclesia Mormon e le Ecclesia del Sanctos del Ultime Dies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Noyce |first=David |date=March 8, 2019 |title=AP changes its style on The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, but 'Mormon' is not entirely out |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325173628/https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2019/03/08/ap-changes-its-style/ |archive-date=March 25, 2023 |url-access=limited |via=[[Internet Archive]] |newspaper=[[The Salt Lake Tribune]] |url=https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2019/03/08/ap-changes-its-style/ |access-date=June 25, 2023}}</ref> Le ecclesia solicita que le nomine official sia usate quando possibile o, si necessari, abbreviate a "le Ecclesia" o "le Ecclesia de Jesus Christo".<ref name=Drop/> In augusto 2018, le presidente del ecclesia Russell M. Nelson demandava al membros del ecclesia e al alteres de cessar usar le terminos "LDS", "Mormon" e "Mormonismo" pro referer se al ecclesia, su membrosia o su systema de credentias, e in vice appellar le ecclesia per su nomine complete e official.<ref name=nbc_dont_say_mormon>{{cite news | title=Don't use 'Mormon' or 'LDS' as church name, president says | newspaper=[[NBC News]] | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/don-t-use-mormon-or-lds-church-name-president-says-n901491 | date=August 16, 2018 | access-date=July 27, 2020 | archive-date=September 15, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915210811/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/don-t-use-mormon-or-lds-church-name-president-says-n901491 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=washpost_dont_say_mormon>{{cite news | title=Stop calling the Mormon Church 'Mormon,' says church leader. 'LDS' is out, too |last=Chiu |first=Allyson |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/08/17/stop-calling-the-mormon-church-mormon-says-church-leader-lds-is-out-too/ | date=August 17, 2018 | access-date=July 27, 2020 | archive-date=July 28, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728135750/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/08/17/stop-calling-the-mormon-church-mormon-says-church-leader-lds-is-out-too/ | url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|Durante le Conferentia General de octobre 2018 del Ecclesia, Nelson declarava que le uso de sobriquetos como ''Mormon'' representava "un grande victoria pro Satan".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fletcher Stack |first1=Peggy |last2=Pierce| first2=Scott D. |author1-link=Peggy Fletcher Stack |first3=David |last3= Noyce |title=Members 'offend' Jesus and please the devil when they use the term 'Mormon,' President Nelson says |url=https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2018/10/07/members-offend-jesus/ |publisher=[[The Salt Lake Tribune]] |access-date=October 9, 2018 |date=October 7, 2018}}</ref><ref name=Drop/>}} Post iste annuncio, le principal ensemble vocal del ecclesia, le [[Choro del Tabernaculo Mormon]], esseva renominate officialmente e deveniva le "Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square".<ref name=pbs_motab_rename>{{cite news | title=Mormon Tabernacle Choir renamed in church shift | url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/mormon-tabernacle-choir-renamed-in-church-shift | publisher=[[PBS]] | date=October 5, 2018 | access-date=July 28, 2020 | archive-date=July 28, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728025252/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/mormon-tabernacle-choir-renamed-in-church-shift | url-status=live }}</ref> Le reaction al politica de cambio de nomine ha essite mixte.<ref name=sltrib_a_year_later>{{cite news | title=A year later, how successful is the war on the word 'Mormon'? | url=https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2019/08/20/jana-riess-year-later-how/ | last=Riess | first=Jana |author-link=Jana Riess |newspaper=[[The Salt Lake Tribune]] | date=August 20, 2019 | access-date=July 28, 2020 | archive-date=July 28, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728015841/https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2019/08/20/jana-riess-year-later-how/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Legalmente, le ecclesia functiona actualmente como un corporation sole, incorporate in Utah.<ref name=SECfiling/> [[Intellectual Reserve]] es un corporation sin scopo lucrative integralmente possedite per le ecclesia, que detene le proprietate intellectual del ecclesia, como derectos de autor, marcas commercial e altere medios de communication.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/02/not-mormonr-still-mormon|title=Not Mormon®, But Still Mormon|first=Vera|last=Ranieri|date=February 9, 2016|publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]}}</ref> [[Utah Property Management Associates]] (UPMA), anteriormente Zions Securities Corporation (ZSC), es un filiala de Property Reserve Inc.,<ref>{{Cite news |title=DMC announces division merger|date=October 23, 2009 |url=https://www.ksl.com/article/8421389/dmc-announces-division-merger |publisher=[[KSL-FM]]}}</ref> que administra proprietates possedite per le Corporation del Presidente de The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, principalmente in Salt Lake City, Utah.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Winter |first1=Caroline |last2=Burton |first2=Katherine |title=The money behind the Mormon message |url=https://archive.sltrib.com/article.php?id=54478720&itype=cmsid |access-date=31 May 2026 |work=[[The Salt Lake Tribune]] |date=5 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Riddle |first1=Isaac |title=Church wants to add history-inspired signs on Regent Street |url=https://www.buildingsaltlake.com/church-wants-add-history-inspired-signs-regent-street/ |website=Building Salt Lake |access-date=31 May 2026 |date=14 July 2016}}</ref> Illes administra importante spatio corporative, residential e commercial, assi como areas de stationamento e placias.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lockhart |first1=Ben |title=One tap can pay for parking in some downtown lots |url=https://www.deseret.com/2013/5/1/20518917/one-tap-can-pay-for-parking-in-some-downtown-lots#shoppers-walk-to-their-cars-in-a-city-creek-center-parking-lot-in-salt-lake-city-march-22-2012-four-downtown-lots-near-city-creek-now-offer-the-option-of-paying-for-parking-with-one-tap-of-a-cellphone |access-date=31 May 2026 |work=[[Deseret News]] |date=1 May 2013}}</ref> === Hierarchia del sacerdotio e servitio ecclesial === {{AP|Sacerdotio (Ecclesia SUD)}} Le Ecclesia SUD es organisate in un structura hierarchical del sacerdotio administrate per su membros masculinos. Le membros del direction ecclesial mundial es appellate autoridades general. Illes exerce tanto le direction ecclesial como administrative super le ecclesia e dirige le effortios del dirigentes regional usque al nivello local. Autoritates general, officiarios general e presidentes de missiones laborava a tempore plen pro le ecclesia, e generalmente recipi stipendios ex fondos ecclesial o investimentos.[217] Preter parlar in conferentia general, autoridades general e officiarios general parla al membros del ecclesia in congregations local per tote le mundo; illes parla tamben al juvene[218] e jvenes adultos[219] in transmissiones e in le scholas del Systema Educational del Ecclesia (CES), tal como Brigham Young University (BYU).[220] Le congregations local es generalmente dirigite per episcopos, que face functiones similari a pastores in le tradition protestante, o sacerdotes parroquial in le Ecclesia Catholice Roman.[221] Tote le masculinos que vive le normas del ecclesia es generalmente considerate pro le sacerdotio e ordinat al sacerdotio a partir del etate de 11 annos.[222] Le ordination occurre per un ceremonia ubi manus es posite super le capite del person ordinat. Le sacerdotio es divide in un ordine pro juvenes de 11 annos e plus (appellate le sacerdotio Aaronic) e un ordine pro homines de 18 annos e plus (appellate le sacerdotio Melchizedek).[3][5]: 26  Alcunos dirigentes ecclesial e studiosos ha parlato super feminas que detene o exerce potentia del sacerdotio.[223] Tamen, feminas non es formalmente ordinate al sacerdotio, e illes non participa in functiones public administrate per le sacerdotio — tal como passar le Sacramento, dar benedictiones sacerdotale, o tener positiones de direction super congregations de genere mixte. Desde 2013, le organisation Ordain Women cerca ordination formal del sacerdotio pro feminas.[224] In 2019, le direction del ecclesia autorisava feminas SUD a servir como testigos pro baptismos, un rolo ceremonial que antea era reservate al tenitores masculinos del sacerdotio.[225] Cata membro active del ecclesia es expectate de recipir un vocation, o position de responsabilitate assignate in le ecclesia. Le membros del ecclesia es expectate de non solicitar vocationes specific, e non declinar vocationes que illes recive ab lor dirigentes.[verification fallite] Le positiones de direction in le varie congregations del ecclesia es plenite per medio del systema de vocation, e le major parte del vocationes es plenite voluntariemente.[v][w] Le membros voluntaria labores general de cura pro installationes ecclesial local.[229] === Programmas e organisationes === Le campus de Brigham Young University, in Provo, Utah, un del multe institutiones educational supportate per le ecclesia Le ecclesia opera multe programmas e organisationes in le campos de proselytismo, education, e benesser ecclesial tal como LDS Humanitarian Services. Multi de iste organisationes e programmas es coordinate per le Programma de Correlation del Sacerdotio, que es designate pro prover un approccio systematic pro mantener consistentia mundial, orthodoxia, e control del ordinantias, doctrinas, organisationes, reuniones, materiales, e altere programmas e activitates del ecclesia.[230][6]: 184–215  Le ecclesia tamben opera le CES, que include BYU, BYU–Idaho, BYU–Hawaii, e Ensign College. Le ecclesia opera tamben Institutes of Religion proxime al campus de multe collegios e universidades. Pro juvenes de etate de scola superior, le ecclesia opera un programma de Seminary de quatro annos, que provee classes religiose pro studentes a supplementar lor education secular.[3] Le ecclesia tamben sponsorisa un programma de prestito educational a basso interesse appellate Fundo de Education Perpetue, que provide opportunitates educational a studentes de nationes in via de disveloppamento.[231][232] Le Bibliotheca de Historia Familiare del ecclesia es le bibliotheca plus grande del mundo dedicate a recerca genealogic. Le systema de benesser del ecclesia, initiate in 1930 durante le Grande Depressione, provide adjuta al pauperes. Le dirigentes requesta que le membros magne un vice per mes e done le moneta que illes haberia depensate pro iste pastos pro adjutar le necessitante, in un offerta de jejuno.[3] Le moneta del programma es usate pro operar magazinos del episcopo, que package e conserva cibos a bas custo. Le distribution de fondos e cibo es administrate per episcopos local. Le ecclesia tamben distribue moneta per su division de Philanthropias pro victimas de disastras mundialmente.[233] Altere programmas e departamentos del ecclesia include Family Services, que provide referrales pro adoption, consilio marital e familial, psychotherapia, e consilio pro addiction;[234] le Departamento de Historia del Ecclesia SUD, que collige historia ecclesial e registros; e le Departamento de Historia Familiare, que administra le grande effortios genealogic del ecclesia, includente FamilySearch, le plus grande organisation e bibliotheca genealogic del mundo.[196][235] Altere installationes possedite e operate per le ecclesia include Temple Square, le Edificio de Officio del Ecclesia,[236] le Edificio de Administration del Ecclesia,[237] le Bibliotheca de Historia del Ecclesia[238] e le Vault del Registros de Granite Mountain.[239] === Finantias === {{AP|Finantias del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Ultime Dies}} Desde 1941, le ecclesia es classificate per le IRS como un organisation 501(c)(3) e per consequente exemptate de taxes. Donationes es deductibile de tax in le Statos Unite.[240] Le ecclesia non ha publicate statementes finanziari ecclesial desde 1959.[241] In absencia de statementes official, personas interessate a saper le stato finanziari e comportamenti del ecclesia, includente tanto membros del ecclesia como personas externe, ha cercate estimar o coniecturar.[242] In 1997, le revista Time appellava le Ecclesia SUD un del ecclesias plus ric per capita del mundo.[243] Le ecclesia ha affermate que tote su entitates subsidiari a scopo de lucro, non lucro, e educational es auditate per professionales independent del altere entitates ecclesial.[244] == Cultura == {{AP|Cultura del Ecclesia de Jesu Christo del Ultime Dies}} A causa del differentias in stile de vita promovite per le doctrina e le historia del ecclesia, le membros del ecclesia ha disveloppate un cultura distincte. Illa es principalmente concentrate in le corredor Mormon del Intermontane West.[251] Multes del practicas plus distincte del ecclesia deriva de lor adhesion al Parola del Sapientia — que include abstinentia ab tabacco, alcohol, caffe, e te — e lor observantia del restrictiones del die Sabbat in recreation e compras. Cuisine commun e distincte include patatas pro funerales e insalata de Jello.[252] Tabu cultural existe super piercings[x] e tattoos[111], e le ecclesia consilia contra l'uso de crucifixes como symbolos de cultu.[253] === Media e artes === [[File:Mtchoirandorchestra ConferenceCenter (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Le Tabernaculo Choir patrocinante per le ecclesia in Temple Square ha recipite varie premios e ha viagiato extensivemente desde su inception.]] Media de thema SUD include cinema, fiction, sitios web, e arte graphic tal como photographia e picturas. Le ecclesia posse un catena de librerias appellate Deseret Book.[254] Le ecclesia etiam produce plure pageantias annualmente que representa diversos eventos del ecclesia primitiv e moderne. Su pageantia de Pascha, Jesus le Christo, ha essite identificate como le "plus grande pageantia de Pascha in le mundo facite foras".[255] Le ecclesia encourage divertimento sin violentia, contento sexual o linguage vulgar; multe membros specificamente evita filmes con rating-R.[256] Le choir official del ecclesia, le Tabernaculo Choir in Temple Square, esseva formate in le medie del 19eme seculo e performa in le Salt Lake Tabernaculo. Illes ha viagiato in plus de 28 paises,[257] e es considerate un del choires plus famose del mundo.[258] Le choir ha recipite un Premio Grammy, quatro Premios Emmy,[259] duo Premios Peabody,[260] e le Medalia National de Artes.[261] === Implicamento politic in le U.S. === [[File:Dallin Oaks.jpg|thumb|Le president del ecclesia Thomas S. Monson (sinistra) e le apostolo Dallin H. Oaks (dextra) presentante al president U.S. Barack Obama su genealogia in le Oval Office in julio 2009.]] Le ecclesia SUD declara que generalmente non prende un rolle partisan in politica,[262] ma encourage su membros a participar activemente como citatanos responsabile in lor communitates, includente informar se super le questiones e votar.[263] Le ecclesia mantiene que le valores del fide pote esser trovate inter multe partidos politic.[263][262] Illa generalmente non prende partes in conflictes global.[264] Un studio del Pew Center on Religion and Public Life in 2012 indicava que 74 percento del membros U.S. inclina verso le Partido Republican.[265] Alcun membros liberal dice que illes senti que debe defender lor valor pro causa de differentias politice.[266] Democratos e illes que inclina democrat formava 18 percento del membros interrogate in le studio del 2014 del Pew Research Center.[267][268] Le ecclesia se involve a vices in politica quando crede que le questiones ha implicationes moral o que "directemente affecta [su] mission, doctrinas o operationes."[262] Le ecclesia habeva un rolle importante in le opposition al legalization del matrimonio inter personas del mesme sexos in Hawaii, Alaska, Nebraska, Nevada, California, e Utah.[269][270] Illa supportava un lege de derectos gay in Salt Lake City que prohibiva discrimination contra personas homosexual in habitation e laboro,[271][272] opposeva le gambling,[68] opposeva le deposito de residuos nucleari in Utah,[273] e supportava un approccio a politica de immigration in U.S. conforme al Utah Compact.[274] Illa opposeva un initiative de votation que legalisava marijuana medicinal in Utah,[275] ma supportava un possible alternative.[276] In 2019 e 2021, le ecclesia declarava su opposition al Equality Act, que prohiberea discrimination in le Statos Unite basate sur orientation sexual e identitate de genere, ma supportava legislation alternativo que diceva protegeria tanto le derectos LGBTQ como le libertate religiose.[277] In 2022, le ecclesia declarava su supporto al Respect for Marriage Act — que codificava legalmente le matrimonio inter personas del mesme sexos in le Statos Unite — pro le "protectiones pro libertate religiose" que includeva.[278] In le 117me Congresso del Statos Unite, il ha nove membros del SUD, includente tote le sex membros del delegation congressional del Utah, tote Republican.[279] Le governator actual del Utah, Spencer Cox, es un membro del ecclesia,[280] assi como majoritate super in ambe camaras del Legislature del Utah.[281] === Demographia === Le ecclesia reporta un membro mundial de 17 milliones,[283][4] de qui plus de 6.8 milliones reside in le U.S.[284] Le definition del ecclesia de "membro" include tote personas que jam esseva baptisate, o cujos parentes esseva membros durante le persona esseva sub 8 annos (appellate "membros de registro"),[285]: 145–146  qui non ha essite excommunicate o qui non ha demandate que lor nomines essera removite del registros del ecclesia.[285]: 116, 148–149  A partire de settembre 2019, approximativemente 9.6 milliones de membros reside extra le Statos Unite. Secundo lor statisticas, le ecclesia es le quarte plus grande corpo religiose in le Statos Unite.[289][290] Benque le ecclesia non publica statisticas de frequentia, investigadores estima que le frequentia a servitios de adoramento SUD semanalmente in le mundo es circa 4 milliones.[291] Membros que vive in U.S. e Canada constituite 46% del membro, America Latina 38%, e membros in le resto del mundo 16%.[4] Le studio Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life in 2012, realisate per Princeton Survey Research Associates International, trovava que circa 2% del population adulte del U.S. se identifica como Mormon.[282] Le membro es concentrate geograficamente in le Intermontane West, in un regione specific que a vices es cognoscite como le corredor Mormon.[292] Membros del ecclesia e alcun altere del U.S. colonisava iste regione in le medie a fin del 1800, dispossessante alcun tribus indigene.[293] [[File:LDS Church Membership 1830-2021.png|thumb|left|Le ecclesia habeva un accrescimento numerose prodigiose in le secunde medietate del 20me seculo, ma le accrescimento ha ora stabilisate.]] Le ecclesia experimentava un rapide crescita numerose in le 20me seculo, specialmente in le 1980s e 1990s.[294]: 1  In le 21me seculo, tamen, le crescita del membro del ecclesia ha retardate.[295][296] In 2022, octo del top die nationes con le plus alte rata de crescita del SUD esseva in Africa,[297] e personas Latino es un del grupos ethnic con le plus rapide crescita con milliones de adherentes SUD in paises latino-americani.[298] In le Statos Unite, membros del ecclesia tende a esser plus educate que le population general.[299] Le composition ethnic e racial del membro in le U.S. es un del menos diverse in le pais.[300] Le membro negro es significativemente plus basse que le population general del U.S.[287] Le ecclesia SUD non publica statisticas official super le activitate ecclesial, ma es probabile que solmente circa 40% del membro registrate in le U.S. e 30% mundialmente frequenta regularimente servitios de adoramento dominical semanal.[301][z] Un studio de 2016 trovava que majoritate (54%) del millennials allegateva esser crescite in le ecclesia disaffiliate.[303] Le rate de activitate varia con le etate, e le disengagement occurre le plus frequentemente inter 16 e 25 annos. Iuvenes adult solitarie ha plus probabilitate de devenir inactive que lor pares maritate,[304] e feminas tende a esser plus active que masculinos.[112]: 55 == Servitios humanitari == [[File:USN sailors at Beirut pier with aid cargo Aug 4 2006.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Marinarios del Marina del U.S. transportante subsidios humanitari donate per le Ecclesia SUD a Beirut, Libano, in 2006.]] Le Ecclesia SUD es largemente cognoscite pro provider servitio humanitari mondial.[305][306][233] Le esfuerzos de benessere e humanitari del ecclesia es coordinate per Philanthropias, un departamento del ecclesia sub le direction del Episcopato Presidente.[233] Le esfuerzos de benessere, iniziate originalmente durante le Grande Depressione, provide adjuta pro le pauperes, finanziate per donationes de membros del ecclesia. Le donationes es usate etiam pro operar magazinos del episcopo, que empaqueta e conserva alimentos pro personas de basso ingresos a bass costo.[307][308] In 2016, le ecclesia reportava que haberea expendite un total de $1.2 milliardos in adjuta humanitari in le ultime 30 annos.[233] Le adjuta humanitari del ecclesia include organisation de projectos pro securitate alimentaire, aqua pulite, mobilitate, e sanitate, operation de magasins de Deseret Industries, e financement de altere organisationes. Le ecclesia reporta que le valor total de tote le donationes charitable in 2021 esseva $906 milliones.[309] Reportages independent ha trovate que le organisation charitable del ecclesia, LDS Charities, donava un total de $177 milliones de 2008 a 2020.[310] Le ecclesia distribute etiam moneta e adjuta a victimas de desastre mundialmente.[311] In 2017, le ecclesia collaborateva con Catholic Relief Services e altere organisationes pro provider adjuta a plure nationes in Africa e Medio Oriente.[72] In 2010, illes collaborateva con Islamic Relief pro adjutar victimas de inundationes in Pakistan.[312] Latter-day Saint Charities augmentava le conversion de alimentos bruto stocate in productos alimentari finite durante le pandemia COVID-19 e donava materiales sanitarie a 16 paises affectate per le crisi.[313][314][315] Le ecclesia donava $4 milliones pro adjutar refugiate fugiente del invasion russe del 2022 in Ucraina.[316] In 2022, le ecclesia donava $32 milliones al Programme Mundial de Alimentos del Nationes Unite, que esseva su donation unificate plus grande cognoscite a un organisation humanitari usque a ora.[317] == Critica e controversias == Le critica moderne del ecclesia include affirmations disputate, allegationes de revisionismo historic per le ecclesia,[318] abuso sexual de infantes, sexismo,[319][320] racismo,[321][322][323] e doctrinas anti-LGBTQ+.[325] Criticos notabile del 20me seculo includeva Jerald e Sandra Tanner[326] e le historicista Fawn Brodie.[327] === Abuso sexual de infantes === Le ecclesia ha essite criticata pro un numero de abusos que on affirma haber essite perpetrate o celate per le direction local del ecclesia; plure casos ha essite resolvite extra le corte.[328][329][330] In altere casos, le dirigentes ecclesial ha essite criticati pro: suppositemente non reportar abuso a le autoritates legal;[331] impropermente invocar le privilegio clerical-penitente in isto;[329] e non conservar registros de affirmations de abuso sexual reportate via le numero de telephono Helpline del ecclesia.[329] === Scripturas === Vide etiam: Critica del Libro de Mormon, Historicitate del Libro de Mormon, Origine del Libro de Mormon, Archaeologia e le Libro de Mormon, Genetic e le Libro de Mormon, Anachronismos del Libro de Mormon, e Critica del Libro de Abraham In le fin del annos 1820, le critica se centrova in le affirmation de Joseph Smith de haber essite conducite a un serie de tabulas de oro ab le qual le Libro de Mormon esseva reputate traducite.[332] Le communitates archaeological, historic e scientific principal ha trovate paucitate de evidentas que supporta le existentia del civitates describite in le Libro de Mormon, e non considera lo un registro ver del eventos historic.[17]: xv  Scholaros ha indicate multe anachronismos in le texto. Illes arguia que non existe evidenta de un lingua egiptian reformate;[333]: 91 [aa] le Libro de Mormon dice explicitemente que illo esseva scribite in un texto egiptian reformate.[335] Insimul, le evidentas archaeological e genetic non supporta le declarationes del libro sur alcun populos indigenous cognoscite del Americas.[336][337] Desde su publication in 1842, le Libro de Abraham (actualmente publicate como parte del canonico Perla de Grande Precio) ha essite un fonte major de controversia. Multos egiptologos non-Mormon, comenciate in le fin del 19me seculo,[338]: 61  discordeva con le explanationes de Joseph Smith del facsimiles del libro. Le traductiones del papyri originale — per egiptologos Mormon e non-Mormon — non coincide con le texto del Libro de Abraham como esseva traducite per Joseph Smith.[339]: 61  De facto, le texto translitterate del papyri recuperate e le facsimiles publicate in le Libro de Abraham non contine referencia directe a Abraham.[342] Scholaros ha etiam affermate que partes damageate del papyri esseva incorrectemente reconstructite per Smith o su socios.[339]: 25  === Polygamia === Le polygamia (appelate matrimonio plural intra le ecclesia) esseva practicate per le dirigentes ecclesial pro plus de meso seculo XIX,[343] e practicate publicamente de 1852 a 1890 per inter 20 e 30 porcento del familias Ultime Die.[344][59] Illo esseva instituite privatemente in le annos 1830 per le fundator Joseph Smith e publicate in 1852 sub le direction de Brigham Young.[59] Durante plus de 60 annos, le ecclesia e le Statos Unite se trovava in conflicte super iste question: a un puncto, le platforma Republican refereva a "le duo reliquias de barbarie — polygamia e schiavitude."[345] Le ecclesia defendiva iste practica como un question de libertate religiose, durante que le governo federal le combatteva vigouremente; in 1862, le Congress de Statos Unite approbava le Legge Anti-Bigamia Morrill, que prohibiva matrimonios plural in le territorios.[59] In 1890, le presidente ecclesial Wilford Woodruff publishava un manifesto que terminava officialmente le practica in le U.S.,[58] mesmo si illo non dissolveva matrimonios polygamous existente.[343] Alcun membros ecclesial continuava a entrar in matrimonios polygamous in Canada e Mexico, ma illes cessava finalmente in 1904 quando le presidente ecclesial Joseph F. Smith repudiava polygamia ante le Congress e publishava un "Secunde Manifesto", vocante que tote matrimonios plural in le ecclesia cessava. Alcun grupos fundamentalista minore, que voleva continuar le practica, se separava del Ecclesia SUD, ma le ecclesia principal agora excommunica membros trovate practicante polygamia e se distantia de illes grupos fundamentalista.[112]: 91 [346] Le ecclesia permisse tamen que homines divorciate o vidue esse selate con altere feminas sin cancelar selationes existente.[347] === Minoritate === ==== Personas nigre ==== [[Image:Green Flake Colorized.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.75|Green Flake, un homine nigre in schiavitute, esseva rapportate haber tractate le prime carruage del pioneros SUD al Valle de Salt Lake in 1847.<ref name=Flake>{{cite web |title=Century of Black Mormons: Flake, Green |url=https://exhibits.lib.utah.edu/s/century-of-black-mormons/page/flake-green |website=[[J. Willard Marriott Library]] |publisher=[[University of Utah]]}}</ref>]] Le doctrinas, attitudines e practicas del altos dirigentes del Ecclesia SUD verso personas nigre ha cambiate significativemente ab le annos de fundation usque al tempore moderne, e le ecclesia ha affrontate critica e controversia super iste temas.[352] Joseph Smith permitteva que plure hombres nigre esseva ordinati sacerdotes durante su presidencia, ma etiam insegnava que le pelle scure del personas de ascendentia africane nigre esseva un signo de malediction de Deo.[353]: 213 [354]: 27  Tanto Smith como Brigham Young insegnava que le personas nigre esseva subjecte al malediction biblic de Ham,[355]: 126 [356] e al malediction de Cain.[354][355]: 256  Ambe faceva declarationes in supporto del schiavitude nigre,[349]: 22  e Young legalisava le schiavitude nigre durante su gubernation in le territorio de Utah.[360] Ab 1844 a 1978, le ecclesia prohibiva personas nigre de participar in ordinantias de templo necessari pro le plus alto nivello de salvation;[361][362][363] impediva le major parte del hombres de descendencia africane nigre de esser ordinati al sacerdotio laico, omine in toto;[364]: 64  supportava segregation racial in su comunidades e scholas;[349]: 67, 78 [365] insegnava que personas nigre justo deveniva blanc post morte;[321][366][367]: 148  e opponiva matrimonio interracial.[368][71]: 89  Durante iste tempore, dirigentes insegnava multe vices que personas nigre esseva minus just in le pre-existencia.[370] Le restrictiones racial del templo e sacerdotio esseva abolite per altos dirigentes in 1978[372] a causa del pression public durante le movimento pro derechos civil in le Statos Unite.[ab] In 2013, le ecclesia repudiava direttamente su precedente doctrinas sur le race pro le prime vice.[321][375] In 2018, le Ecclesia formava un alliance con le NAACP pro meliorar relationes racial.[376] ==== Personas native american ==== [[File:Joseph Smith Preaching to the Indians by William Armitage.png|thumb|Representation artistic de Joseph Smith predicante a Native American in Illinois.]] Durante le ultime duo seculos, le relation inter personas native american e le Ecclesia SUD ha includite relationes amical, displacemento, battalias, massacre, schiavitude, programas de placement educative, discrimination official e non-official, e critica.[377][378] Le dirigentes ecclesial e publicamentos insegnava que Native American es descendentes de Lamanites, un populo de pelle scure e maledite del Libro de Mormon.[379]: 196 [378] Plus recentemente, investigadores SUD e publicamentos generalmente preferi un plus parve territorie geographic pro descendentes de Lamanites.[ac][381] Non existe supporto directe inter historicistas e archaeologos principal pro le historicitate del Libro de Mormon o pro origine medio-oriental del personas native american.[383] Tosto post le colonisation Mormon del Valle Salt Lake in 1847, infantes native american in schiavitute deveniva un fonte vital de labor.[384]: 273–274  Le colonos initialmente habeva relationes pacific, ma proque le resursos esseva scarce in le desert, hostilitate explodiva inter le native american local.[385] Secundo le historicista ecclesial SUD Marlin K. Jensen, con le arrivata de plus immigrantes SUD e le appropriation del territorios del nationes native, "Le resursos que le Indios usava per generationes diminuiva, e in tempore illes se trovava forzate a resistir e luctar pro lor proprie supervivencia... le territorios e le hereditage cultural que le Indios habeva in le Grande Bacino esseva largemente perdit".[385] In 50 annos post le colonisation Mormon, le population de Native American in Utah esseva reducite quasi 90 percento.[384]: 273  Le ecclesia conduceva un Programme de Placement Indian inter le annos 1950 e 1990, durante le qual infantes indigenous viveva in casas de membros ecclesial durante uno o plus annos scolari. Critica se resultava durante e post le programma, includente accusationes de assimilation improper e mesmo abuso.[386][321] Tamen, multe studentes e familias involveva laudava le programma.[387]: 194–195  Le dirigentes ecclesial insegnava pro decennios que le pelle plus scure del native american deveniva plus clare per lor righteousness.[388][365][353]: 64  ==== Individuos LGBTQ ==== [[File:Prop8templeProtest.jpg|thumb|Protestatores in fronte del Templo Newport Beach California manifestante lor opposition al supporto del ecclesia pro Proposito 8.]] Le politicas e trato del ecclesia verso minoritates sexual e de genere ha longemente essite subjecto de critica externe,[389][390][391] insimul con controversia interne e disaffection inter membros.[392][393][394] Proque le prohibtion del act sexual inter personas del mesme sexos e matrimonio del mesme sexo, le ecclesia SUD insegnava per decennios que adherentes attrahite al mesme sexo poteva e debeva cambiar isto per efforces pro cambiar orientation sexual e strenue virtute.[395] Le ecclesia provideva therapias e programas pro tentar cambiar le orientation sexual.[396] Le doctrina e politicas actual lassa membros homosexual con le optiones de intrar in matrimonio hetero de orientation mixte, o celibato vitalic.[400] Alcunos ha arguite que le doctrina ecclesial contra homosexualitate e le trato verso membros LGBTQ ha contribuite a lor plus alte taux de PTSD, depression,[401][402][403] suicide e juvene sine casa.[406] Le involvement politic de decades del ecclesia contra le leges US pro matrimonio del mesme sexo ha generate plus critica e protestas.[408] Personas considerate pro cirurgia de affirmation de genere non pote esser battisate, e illes qui ja habeva uno debe reciper clearance special del Prime Presidenza ante battesimo.[409][410]: 145  Submeter a un "operation trans-sexual",[sic] includente cirurgia feminisante o masculinisante como reconstruction del pectore (top surgery),[411] pote minacar lor appartenentia como membro currente.[412][413] Ordinantias post battesimo como recipir le sacerdotio e donas de templo es facite solmente secundo le sex assignate a lor nascentia.[414] Membros que exprime genere per vestimentos o pronomines differente del sex assignate a lor nascentia recipira restrictiones de appartenentia e annotation in lor registros de membro.[415][416][417] === Critica de Joseph Smith === In le annos 1830, le ecclesia esseva fortemente criticata pro le modo in le qual Smith tractava un fallimento bancari in Kirtland, Ohio.[415] Post le migration del Mormones verso le occident, habeva timor e suspicion super le potentia politic e militar del Ecclesia SUD in Missouri,[ad] culminante in le Guerra Mormon de 1838 e le Ordine de Extermination Mormon per le Governator Lilburn Boggs. In le annos 1840, le critica del ecclesia includeva su aspirationes theocratic in Nauvoo, Illinois. Critica del practica del matrimonio plural e altere doctrinas que Smith insegnava esseva publicate in le Nauvoo Expositor in 1844.[12]: 539 [ae] Post que Smith prendeva un rolo principal in facer destruir le typographia del gazetta, ille esseva accusate de treason e incarcerate. Durante que ille expectava le processo, un turba irate invadiava le carcere e lo tuava mortalmente.[416] In le opinion popular moderne, le non-Mormones in le U.S. generalmente considera Smith como un "charlatano, scoundre e heretic."[417] Le musical Book of Mormon se burla de su relato del tabulas de oro.[418] In 2007, Christopher Hitchens, scribente in Slate, denuntiava Smith como un impostor, charlatano e fraude (e le ecclesia ipse como un "culto ridicul" e un "trafico" que deveniva un religion).[419] === Controversia financiari === Le ecclesia ha litigate pro mantener su information interne finanziari foras del registro public.[420][421] Le fallimento del ecclesia a render public su finantias ha attracte critica.[425] In decembre 2019, un denunciante affirmava que le ecclesia teneva plus de 100 milliardos de dollares in fondos de investimento per medio de su compania de gestion de investimento, Ensign Peak Advisors (EP); que illes usava iste fondos in empresas pro lucro al loco de charitate; e que illes decepiava contributores e le publico super le uso e extentente de iste fondos.[426][427] Le Prime Presidenza del ecclesia declarava que "le Ecclesia conforma a tote le leges applicabile que reguarda nostre donationes, investimentos, taxas e reservas," e que "un portion" del fondos recipite per le ecclesia es "methodicamente protegite per medio de sapiente gestion finanziari e le construction de un reserva prudente".[428] Le ecclesia non addressava directemente al publico le dimension del fondos, ma tertie partes considerava le disclosure como legitime.[246][247] Iste revelation ha conduce a critica que le ricchessa del ecclesia pote esser excessive.[429] Le ecclesia ha transferite plus de un milliard de dollares del decima collectate in Canada, sin taxation, a universitates ecclesial durante un periodo de 15 annos.[430] In octubre 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald annuntiava que durante que le ecclesia publicamente affirmava haber donate US$1.35 milliardos a charitate inter 2008 e 2020, su rapportos finanziari private monstrava que illes donateva solmente US$0.177 milliardos.[431][af] In februario 2023, le Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) del U.S. infligeva un multa de $5 milliones al ecclesia e a su compania de investimento, EP. Le SEC accusava que le ecclesia occultava su investimentos e lor gestion in plure companias fantasma ab 1997 a 2019; le SEC credeva que iste companias fantasma esseva approbate per le alto dirigentes del ecclesia pro evitar le transparentia public.[421] Le ecclesia publicava un declaration que in 2000 EP "recipiveva e se basava super consilio legal super como conformar a su obligationes de rapportar durante que tenta mantener le private del portfolio." Post le initial preoccupation del SEC in junio 2019, le ecclesia declarava que EP "modificava su approccio e comenciava a presentar un rapporto aggregate unico."[433] == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Referentias}} == Ligamines externe == * http://www.lds.org — Le sito official del Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies (in multilingue) * http://www.mormon.org — sito official multilingue [[Categoria:Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies| ]] qrxze3vr20lzx2ihamw5jfldrjh5e1h 0 7865 699507 699356 2026-09-03T04:55:56Z Interlingvisto 60932 699507 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20](https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20) October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[aesthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[skepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant tracava un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le [[aesthetica]] nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser securate per medio de un [[federation]] international de estados [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74) |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=[https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5](https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5) |journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html](http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html) |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html) |url-status=live}}</ref> Su cognomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de arneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=[https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1](https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1) |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf) |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de}}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/) |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: * Kant, I. (1756a) [[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448) "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. * Kant, I. (1756b) [[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460) "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. * Kant, I. (1756c) [[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494) "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. * Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=[http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27](http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27) septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}})</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition{{mdash}}id es, cognition rational{{mdash}}iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general''{{mdash}}isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos''{{mdash}}i.e., inferentias false{{mdash}}que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']]{{mdash}}i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme{{mdash}}in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate{{mdash}}comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres{{mdash}}como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo{{mdash}}nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalizate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic{{mdash}}illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Política === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento{{mdash}}democratia, aristocratia e monarchia{{mdash}}con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21) 7]}}</ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant{{mdash}}a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] 4g1ujttfbnq9fjd3buo6005poa9fbzs 5 12063 699504 699280 2026-09-03T04:49:24Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Augusto 2026 */ 699504 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ Salute interlinguistas! Iste spatio es pro selectionar le '''[[Wikipedia:Articulos eminente|articulos eminente]]'''. Io propone haber un periodo mensual pro su selection. Le mechanica que io propone es simple: *Durante le periodo, le usatores propone articulos eminente, o si il ha plus de un, vota pro illo que place plus. *Al fin del periodo, on vide: ** Si il ha un unic articulo con major quantitate de votos, on lo selige como nove articulo eminente ** Si il ha plus de un articulo con major quantitate de votos, on selige illo de proposition plus vetere Io copia infra le selection del ultime articulo eminente. [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 01:00, 1 junio 2007 (UTC) Per favor, selige le articulo con un mense de anticipation. Le articulo non deberea necessitar un grande revision. Comocunque, durante le mense previe a su publication, le articulo pote esser meliorate pro le usatores. Quando le articulo es seligite, per favor modifica le extracto del mense correspondente: * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/01|januario]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/02|februario]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/03|martio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/04|april]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/05|maio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/06|junio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/07|julio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/08|augusto]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/09|septembre]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/10|octobre]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/11|novembre]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/12|decembre]] Iste parve texto essera monstrate in le pagina principal ab le prime die del mense. Si nulle articulo es seligite, le articulo del mesme mense del anno previe essera monstrate. Le extractos del articulos seligite es in le [[:Categoria:Paragraphos del pagina principal]]. <!-- Selection de articulos eminente --> == Junio 2007 == ''(iste paragrapho es un copia de [[Wikipedia:Taverna/2007#Nove articulo eminente]])'' Io considera que esserea bon seliger un nove articulo eminente. Que opina vos? Que altere articulo poterea esser monstrate in le [[frontispicio]]? Io ha registrate iste activitate in [[Wikipedia:Activitates pendente]], insimul a le activitate anterior. [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] 11:45, 28 april 2007 (UTC) ::Io nondum ha legite le articulo "[[Espania]]", sed io pensa que con alicun imagines poterea esser un bon articulo eminente. --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 01:56, 1 maio 2007 (UTC) [[Espania]] sembla un bon articulo pro articulo eminente, sed illo necessita un revision linguistic. [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 22:27, 13 maio 2007 (UTC) :Io pensa que [[Espania]] es un bon articulo. [[Usator:Santista1982|Santista1982]] 13:59, 19 maio 2007 (UTC) Io es de accordo con vos. Io ponera [[Espania]] como le [[Wikipedia:Articulos eminente|articulo eminente]] le 1 de junio. Cordialmente, [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 16:19, 30 maio 2007 (UTC) ==Julio 2007 == Io propone [[Carl von Linné]]. --[[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 10:39, 26 junio 2007 (UTC) ::Io pensa que le structura del articulo poterea esser meliorate (Ligamines externe, per exemplo), sed iste articulo sembla bon como articulo eminente.--[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 11:22, 30 junio 2007 (UTC) :::Io jam ha facite le modificationes al structura del articulo. --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 03:25, 1 julio 2007 (UTC) ==Augusto 2007== Io propone [[Radio amateur]]. --[[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 03:22, 18 julio 2007 (UTC) :Io jam ha applicate le formato wiki a iste articulo, e alicun modificationes al structura. Io pensa que esserea un bon articulo eminente. --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 16:13, 21 julio 2007 (UTC) == Septembre 2007 == Io propone [[Geometria]]. --[[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 14:05, 27 augusto 2007 (UTC) ::Multe gratias per tu election, Julian! --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 20:38, 18 septembre 2007 (UTC) Gratias a te pro scriber lo. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 19:36, 28 septembre 2007 (UTC) == Octobre 2007 == Io propone [[Charles Darwin]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 19:36, 28 septembre 2007 (UTC) == Novembre 2007 == Io propone [[Notation bra-ket]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 16:44, 28 octobre 2007 (UTC) == Decembre 2007 == Forsan con alicun modificationes e (alicun imagines) le articulo [[Septimana]] poterea esser un bon articulo eminente. [[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 23:53, 12 novembre 2007 (UTC) :Io es de accordo. Cordialmente, --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 21:28, 15 novembre 2007 (UTC) Modificationes necessari facite. —[[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 00:11, 5 decembre 2007 (UTC) == Januario 2008 == Io propone [[Installation radioamatori]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 14:07, 26 decembre 2007 (UTC) == Februario 2008 == Io propone [[Interlingua]]. Io nunc va poner iste articulo in le Frontispicio perque... hodie jam es 2 de februario! —[[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 17:45, 2 februario 2008 (UTC) == Martio 2008 == Io propone [[mathematica]]. Io va poner iste articulo como eminente perque hodie es 2 martio! Per favor, nos necessita plus articulos eminente!!. —[[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 19:02, 2 martio 2008 (UTC) == Octobre 2008 == Io propone [[Apollon]] como articulo eminente. Per favor, votar pro (o contra) ille. Gratias, --[[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 23:52, 27 octobre 2008 (UTC) : '''io vota Si''' - le articulo [[Apollon]] de accordo que es un bon candidate articulo eminente -[[Special:Contributions/209.153.204.2|209.153.204.2]] 22:42, 12 novembre 2008 (UTC) : '''Io vota si''' con gratias a Architengi pro su recognoscentia. Gratias anque a Julian Mendez pro corriger mi errores linguistic. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 00:01, 14 novembre 2008 (UTC) ::Le articulo essera monstrate in febrero 2009. Cordialmente, --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 22:50, 16 januario 2009 (UTC) == Martio 2009 == Io propone [[MSX]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 23:00, 16 januario 2009 (UTC) :'''Si.''' [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 06:06, 23 januario 2009 (UTC) : '''Si'''. Isto es un bon articulo. Le ligamine [[hardware]] necessita un articulo, un pecietta al minimo. Que pensa vos? -- [[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 05:31, 7 februario 2009 (UTC) ::Io crede que nulle del ligamines in le prime paragrapho debe esser rubie, e non plus que un medie (50%) de tote le ligamines in le articulo. Nos habe duo septimanas pro scriber un pauc articulos, e facer MSX un articulo ''vermente'' eminente. =) [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 00:08, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) ::: Io es etiam de accordo in reducer le ligamines rubie. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 11:38, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) == April 2009 == Io volerea traher vostre attention pro pensar super le selection del articulo eminente pro april. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 11:38, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) Io propone '''[[James Cook]]'''. Si, io sape que esse un articulo traducite, e que esse mi obra, ma etiam esse un articulo bon -- le articulos anglese, espaniol, e francese in que io basava le traduction esseva bon articulos, illustrate e con referentias. Ma proque io creava le articulo, io no votara pro lo. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 17:10, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) :Io abstine. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 19:25, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' - [[James Cook]] es un articulo plus bon, con multe detalios. Ille eleva le standardos pro le [[wikipedia:articulos eminente]]. Le subjecto es plus interesante, e es bon de haber multe altere articulos re [[explorator]]es, [[navigator]]es e [[dicoperitor]]es. Gratias -- [[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 20:08, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' Nos ha 20 dies pro facer correctiones subtil. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 22:37, 9 martio 2009 (UTC) ------ Io propone '''[[The Cure]]''' etiam proque esse un bon articulo (e proque io non vole votar in mi proprie obra). [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 19:25, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) :'''Si''', naturalmente... [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 19:25, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' - [[The Cure]] es un articulo bon. De accordo. -- [[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 20:42, 18 februario 2009 (UTC) ------ Un nove proposito pro articulo eminente: [[Abu Nuwas]]‎ : [[Special:Contributiones/96.49.18.68|96.49.18.68]] 08:06, 26 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' - Gratias Almafeta pro isto articulo que io pensa es vero eminente: [[Abu Nuwas]]. ( [[Usator:Galitobero|Galitobero]] 20:05, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) ) : '''No''' -- Iste articulo esse un pecietta. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 20:16, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) :: ... ma esse ironic... io crede que [[Abu Nuwas]] esse le plus "eminente" articulo re Abu Nuwas de tote le articulos del wikipedias in linguas europanee, quasi tam bon como le articulo re il in le wikipedia arabe. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 20:57, 16 martio 2009 (UTC) ------ Un altere proposito como articulo eminente: [[Sarah Bernhardt‎]] : [[Special:Contributiones/96.49.18.68|96.49.18.68]] 08:06, 26 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' ( [[Usator:Galitobero|Galitobero]] 20:05, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) ) : '''No''' -- Iste articulo esse un pecietta. Su longitude se derivi de un lista de obras, non information utile. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 20:16, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) == Maio 2009 == Propositiones? --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 22:41, 9 martio 2009 (UTC) Io repropone '''[[The Cure]]'''. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 17:17, 22 martio 2009 (UTC) Io propone '''[[Esperanto]]'''. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 17:17, 22 martio 2009 (UTC) :{{si}}. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 20:36, 25 martio 2009 (UTC) == Junio 2009 == Io propone [[Normalisation linguistic]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 03:35, 27 april 2009 (UTC) *[[File:Symbol support vote.svg|18px|+]] '''Si'''. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 17:58, 19 maio 2009 (UTC) == Julio 2009 == Io propone [[The Cure]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 07:46, 1 junio 2009 (UTC) == Augusto 2009 == Io propone '''[[Tacito]]'''. On debe ameliorar e expander lo, ma il ha tempore. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 13:34, 25 julio 2009 (UTC) == Septembre 2009 == Io propone '''[[Jamblico]]'''. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 13:39, 25 julio 2009 (UTC) :Illo me sembla un pauc parve pro esser eminente. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 21:06, 13 augusto 2009 (UTC) == Octobre 2009 == Io propone '''[[Isaac Newton]]'''. Alcun ameliorationes essera necesse. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 17:59, 2 augusto 2009 (UTC) :'''Non''', pro iste mense - nose debe meliorar le articulo, al minus al puncto de remover le peciettas de revision e referentia, ante que il pote esser "eminente". [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 06:20, 22 septembre 2009 (UTC) Io propone '''[[SIDA]]'''. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 06:16, 22 septembre 2009 (UTC) ::Si QuartierLatin1968 es de accordo, nos poterea monstrar le articulo [[Isaac Newton]] in novembre, e facer le meliorationes requirite in octobre. In ille caso, nos monstrarea le articulo [[SIDA]] durante octobre. Comocunque, io faceva un revision linguistic partial de ambe articulos. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 11:08, 27 septembre 2009 (UTC) ::Como il non ha un responsa contrari, io lo face in ille modo. Cordialmente, --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 23:06, 30 septembre 2009 (UTC) == Novembre 2009 == :[[Isaac Newton]] (proponite originalmente per QuartierLatin1968). --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 23:08, 30 septembre 2009 (UTC) == Decembre 2009 == Io propone [[lingua japonese]]. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 21:02, 9 novembre 2009 (UTC) == Januario 2010 == Io propone [[latino ecclesiastic]]. Iste articulo ha alcun problemas de NPOV e referentias, ma io crede que on pote ben ameliorar lo ante januario. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 21:02, 9 novembre 2009 (UTC) == Septembre 2011 == Io propone [[Historia de Brasil]]. --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] 16:26, 20 septembre 2011 (UTC) == Octubre 2011 == Io propone [[Erasmo de Rotterdam]] --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] 12:57, 30 octobre 2011 (UTC) == Februario 2012 == Io propone [[Linguage de programmation]] --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] 10:40, 3 januario 2012 (UTC) == Martio 2012 == Io propone [[Union Europee]]. --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi|discussion]]) 15:12, 17 martio 2012 (UTC) == April 2013 == Io gustarea proponer le articulo [[Movimento pedophile]]. Io non sape si isto es un bon idea a causa de lo polemic del thema, ma io ha laborate la durante multo tempore e me ha effortiate a fin que illo sia un articulo vermente eminente, neutral, ben referentiate e ben scribite. Que opina vos?--[[Usator:PeioR|PeioR]] ([[Discussion Usator:PeioR|discussion]]) 05:47, 11 april 2013 (UTC) :E io ha un dubita. Io non sape si es melio dicer "Movimento pedophile" o "Movimento pedophilic", equal quam "Partito socialistic", et cetera.--[[Usator:PeioR|PeioR]] ([[Discussion Usator:PeioR|discussion]]) 06:27, 11 april 2013 (UTC) == Augusto 2014 == Io volerea proponer [[Union Europee]]. --[[Usator:Chabi1|Chabi1]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi1|discussion]]) 07:05, 21 augusto 2014 (UTC) == Octobre 2014 == Io propone [[lingua interslave]] --[[Usator:Chabi1|Chabi1]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi1|discussion]]) 12:16, 13 octobre 2014 (UTC) == Septembre 2022 == Io volerea proponer [[Vulpe]]. [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 07:52, 1 septembre 2022 (UTC) *{{Si}} Un articulo substantial (illo contine le totalitate del [[:en:Fox|articulo original anglese]]), scribite in interlingua bon, con stilo bon. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:24, 6 octobre 2022 (UTC) *{{Si}} Cordialmente --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 15:12, 7 octobre 2022 (UTC) :{{si}} (pro decembre 2022) [[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 19:21, 10 octobre 2022 (UTC) ::Ma pro quo illos non es marcate como in le altere Wikipedias? [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 19:44, 10 octobre 2022 (UTC) == Octobre 2022 == Io vole proponer [[Raphael]]. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 08:19, 14 octobre 2022 (UTC) == Articulos eminente == Io vide que il ha multe articulos eminente in le pagina principal ma illos non habe li stella pro indicar lo. Io volerea presentar [[Photographia columbari]] como articulo eminente. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 07:40, 4 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:42, 16 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Rudhar|Rudhar]] ([[Discussion Usator:Rudhar|discussion]]) 06:13, 18 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Resursos|Resursos]] ([[Discussion Usator:Resursos|discussion]]) 15:25, 18 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 09:52, 12 maio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator:Miquel Adroer|discussion]]) 13:58, 26 Junio 2023 (UTC) Votation claudite: Articulo acceptate. == Scientia e technologia del dynastia Song == Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Scientia e technologia del dynastia Song]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 14:11, 21 maio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lavall%C3%A9e Martin Lavallée]) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 17:17, 2 julio 2023 (UTC) == Edgar de Wahl == Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Edgar de Wahl]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 06:39, 2 junio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 07:39, 2 junio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator: Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator: Miquel Adroer|discussion]]) 10:31, 2 junio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 17:18, 2 julio 2023 (UTC) == Interlingue == Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Interlingue]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator: Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator: Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 17:18, 2 julio 2023 (UTC) == Januario 2024 == === Historia del physica === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Historia del physica]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 10:11, 16 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} -- Martin Lavallée # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 09:51, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) === Historia del scientia === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Historia del scientia]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 08:37, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 09:51, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} --Martin Lavallée === Scientia in le mundo antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Scientia in le mundo antique]] como articulo bon. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 10:04, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} --Martin Lavallée == Padmasambhava == Io pensa que le articulo [[Padmasambhava]] sia bon e deberea devenir un articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Laurbereth|Laurbereth]] ([[Discussion Usator:Laurbereth|discussion]]) 11:22, 1 augusto 2024 (UTC) == Julio 2025 == === Raphael === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Raphael]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 15:21, 2 julio 2025 (UTC) # {{Si} --Martin Lavallée 15:22, 2 julio 2025 (UTC) == Decembre 2025 == === Litteratura in Interlingua === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Litteratura in Interlingua]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:07, 17 decembre 2025 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 20:35, 17 decembre 2025 (UTC) # {{No}}. Io lo regretta, ma un articulo eminente informa, explica, analysa, educa, e contine prosa ben scribite e legibile. Le major parte de iste articulo es un enumeration cec de un massa de publicationes in interlingua, ma care de ver information. Illo da poc impression general del historia o stato actual del litteratura in interlingua, poco explica qual publicationes esseva importante e influente e proque, etc. In facto, le grande majoritate del articulo se lege como un simple conversion de lista in prosa, un labor que IA poterea haber facite. Le resultato pote esser impressionante, ma non eminente. – [[Usator:McDutchie|Martijn]] ([[Discussion Usator:McDutchie|discussion]]) 05:41, 27 decembre 2025 (UTC) #:E qui pote decider quales es le publicationes importante? Io non cognosce un sol publication que analysa le litteratura in Interlingua. Pro poter facer lo, illo deberea haber referentias, si non, le autor esserea scribente su opinion personal (lo que es contrari al normas del Wikipedia). Io ha facite lo que io ha potite con le ressurces disponibile. [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 11:31, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) == Februario 2026 == === Roma antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Roma antique]] como articulo eminente. Io ha prendite information ex le Wikipedias in anglese, francese, italian e espaniol per haber le articulo le plus complete. Io ha includite omne referentias ex tote le articulos original. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 11:26, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 11:27, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Yaridarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:Yaridarling|discussion]]) 17:31, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) == Martio 2026 == === Grecia antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Grecia antique]] como articulo eminente. Io ha prendite information ex le Wikipedias in anglese, francese e espaniol per haber le articulo le plus complete. Io ha includite omne referentias ex tote le articulos original. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 16:21, 1 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 16:21, 1 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Yaridarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:Yaridarling|discussion]]) 17:29, 2 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} Le articulo es multo grande, interessante, relativemente ben scribite. Io comenciava corriger errores. I secunda ;) [[Usator:Tim Ocean|Tim Ocean]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tim Ocean|discussion]]) 18:32, 2 martio 2026 (UTC) === Egypto antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Egypto antique]] como articulo eminente. Io ha prendite information ex le Wikipedias in anglese, francese e espaniol per haber le articulo le plus complete. Io ha includite omne referentias ex tote le articulos original. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:27, 3 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} - Io secunda isto! [[Usator:Tim Ocean|Tim Ocean]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tim Ocean|discussion]]) 21:40, 4 martio 2026 (UTC) == Augusto 2026 == === Michel Foucault === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Michel Foucault]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 17:59, 19 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:YariDarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:YariDarling|discussion]]) 1:10, 23 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 05:31, 28 augusto 2026 (UTC) === Castello de Ahrensburg === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Castello de Ahrensburg]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 12:54, 22 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:YariDarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:YariDarling|discussion]]) 1:10, 23 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 05:31, 28 augusto 2026 (UTC) === Johann Wolfgang von Goethe === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 10:18, 25 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 05:31, 28 augusto 2026 (UTC) == Septembre 2026 == === Immanuel Kant === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Immanuel Kant]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 04:49, 3 septembre 2026 (UTC) hghxpr77x3ge42eyrkr01ybntmrbpos 699506 699504 2026-09-03T04:51:41Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Immanuel Kant */ 699506 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ Salute interlinguistas! Iste spatio es pro selectionar le '''[[Wikipedia:Articulos eminente|articulos eminente]]'''. Io propone haber un periodo mensual pro su selection. Le mechanica que io propone es simple: *Durante le periodo, le usatores propone articulos eminente, o si il ha plus de un, vota pro illo que place plus. *Al fin del periodo, on vide: ** Si il ha un unic articulo con major quantitate de votos, on lo selige como nove articulo eminente ** Si il ha plus de un articulo con major quantitate de votos, on selige illo de proposition plus vetere Io copia infra le selection del ultime articulo eminente. [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 01:00, 1 junio 2007 (UTC) Per favor, selige le articulo con un mense de anticipation. Le articulo non deberea necessitar un grande revision. Comocunque, durante le mense previe a su publication, le articulo pote esser meliorate pro le usatores. Quando le articulo es seligite, per favor modifica le extracto del mense correspondente: * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/01|januario]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/02|februario]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/03|martio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/04|april]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/05|maio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/06|junio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/07|julio]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/08|augusto]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/09|septembre]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/10|octobre]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/11|novembre]] * [[Patrono:Pagina principal/articulo/12|decembre]] Iste parve texto essera monstrate in le pagina principal ab le prime die del mense. Si nulle articulo es seligite, le articulo del mesme mense del anno previe essera monstrate. Le extractos del articulos seligite es in le [[:Categoria:Paragraphos del pagina principal]]. <!-- Selection de articulos eminente --> == Junio 2007 == ''(iste paragrapho es un copia de [[Wikipedia:Taverna/2007#Nove articulo eminente]])'' Io considera que esserea bon seliger un nove articulo eminente. Que opina vos? Que altere articulo poterea esser monstrate in le [[frontispicio]]? Io ha registrate iste activitate in [[Wikipedia:Activitates pendente]], insimul a le activitate anterior. [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] 11:45, 28 april 2007 (UTC) ::Io nondum ha legite le articulo "[[Espania]]", sed io pensa que con alicun imagines poterea esser un bon articulo eminente. --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 01:56, 1 maio 2007 (UTC) [[Espania]] sembla un bon articulo pro articulo eminente, sed illo necessita un revision linguistic. [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 22:27, 13 maio 2007 (UTC) :Io pensa que [[Espania]] es un bon articulo. [[Usator:Santista1982|Santista1982]] 13:59, 19 maio 2007 (UTC) Io es de accordo con vos. Io ponera [[Espania]] como le [[Wikipedia:Articulos eminente|articulo eminente]] le 1 de junio. Cordialmente, [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 16:19, 30 maio 2007 (UTC) ==Julio 2007 == Io propone [[Carl von Linné]]. --[[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 10:39, 26 junio 2007 (UTC) ::Io pensa que le structura del articulo poterea esser meliorate (Ligamines externe, per exemplo), sed iste articulo sembla bon como articulo eminente.--[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 11:22, 30 junio 2007 (UTC) :::Io jam ha facite le modificationes al structura del articulo. --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 03:25, 1 julio 2007 (UTC) ==Augusto 2007== Io propone [[Radio amateur]]. --[[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 03:22, 18 julio 2007 (UTC) :Io jam ha applicate le formato wiki a iste articulo, e alicun modificationes al structura. Io pensa que esserea un bon articulo eminente. --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 16:13, 21 julio 2007 (UTC) == Septembre 2007 == Io propone [[Geometria]]. --[[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[Discussion_Usator:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 14:05, 27 augusto 2007 (UTC) ::Multe gratias per tu election, Julian! --[[Usator:André Oliva|André Oliva]] 20:38, 18 septembre 2007 (UTC) Gratias a te pro scriber lo. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 19:36, 28 septembre 2007 (UTC) == Octobre 2007 == Io propone [[Charles Darwin]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 19:36, 28 septembre 2007 (UTC) == Novembre 2007 == Io propone [[Notation bra-ket]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 16:44, 28 octobre 2007 (UTC) == Decembre 2007 == Forsan con alicun modificationes e (alicun imagines) le articulo [[Septimana]] poterea esser un bon articulo eminente. [[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 23:53, 12 novembre 2007 (UTC) :Io es de accordo. Cordialmente, --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 21:28, 15 novembre 2007 (UTC) Modificationes necessari facite. —[[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 00:11, 5 decembre 2007 (UTC) == Januario 2008 == Io propone [[Installation radioamatori]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian_Mendez|disc.]]) 14:07, 26 decembre 2007 (UTC) == Februario 2008 == Io propone [[Interlingua]]. Io nunc va poner iste articulo in le Frontispicio perque... hodie jam es 2 de februario! —[[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 17:45, 2 februario 2008 (UTC) == Martio 2008 == Io propone [[mathematica]]. Io va poner iste articulo como eminente perque hodie es 2 martio! Per favor, nos necessita plus articulos eminente!!. —[[Usator:André Oliva|André.]] 19:02, 2 martio 2008 (UTC) == Octobre 2008 == Io propone [[Apollon]] como articulo eminente. Per favor, votar pro (o contra) ille. Gratias, --[[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 23:52, 27 octobre 2008 (UTC) : '''io vota Si''' - le articulo [[Apollon]] de accordo que es un bon candidate articulo eminente -[[Special:Contributions/209.153.204.2|209.153.204.2]] 22:42, 12 novembre 2008 (UTC) : '''Io vota si''' con gratias a Architengi pro su recognoscentia. Gratias anque a Julian Mendez pro corriger mi errores linguistic. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 00:01, 14 novembre 2008 (UTC) ::Le articulo essera monstrate in febrero 2009. Cordialmente, --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 22:50, 16 januario 2009 (UTC) == Martio 2009 == Io propone [[MSX]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 23:00, 16 januario 2009 (UTC) :'''Si.''' [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 06:06, 23 januario 2009 (UTC) : '''Si'''. Isto es un bon articulo. Le ligamine [[hardware]] necessita un articulo, un pecietta al minimo. Que pensa vos? -- [[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 05:31, 7 februario 2009 (UTC) ::Io crede que nulle del ligamines in le prime paragrapho debe esser rubie, e non plus que un medie (50%) de tote le ligamines in le articulo. Nos habe duo septimanas pro scriber un pauc articulos, e facer MSX un articulo ''vermente'' eminente. =) [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 00:08, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) ::: Io es etiam de accordo in reducer le ligamines rubie. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 11:38, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) == April 2009 == Io volerea traher vostre attention pro pensar super le selection del articulo eminente pro april. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 11:38, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) Io propone '''[[James Cook]]'''. Si, io sape que esse un articulo traducite, e que esse mi obra, ma etiam esse un articulo bon -- le articulos anglese, espaniol, e francese in que io basava le traduction esseva bon articulos, illustrate e con referentias. Ma proque io creava le articulo, io no votara pro lo. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 17:10, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) :Io abstine. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 19:25, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' - [[James Cook]] es un articulo plus bon, con multe detalios. Ille eleva le standardos pro le [[wikipedia:articulos eminente]]. Le subjecto es plus interesante, e es bon de haber multe altere articulos re [[explorator]]es, [[navigator]]es e [[dicoperitor]]es. Gratias -- [[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 20:08, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' Nos ha 20 dies pro facer correctiones subtil. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 22:37, 9 martio 2009 (UTC) ------ Io propone '''[[The Cure]]''' etiam proque esse un bon articulo (e proque io non vole votar in mi proprie obra). [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 19:25, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) :'''Si''', naturalmente... [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 19:25, 17 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' - [[The Cure]] es un articulo bon. De accordo. -- [[Usator:Architengi|Architengi]] 20:42, 18 februario 2009 (UTC) ------ Un nove proposito pro articulo eminente: [[Abu Nuwas]]‎ : [[Special:Contributiones/96.49.18.68|96.49.18.68]] 08:06, 26 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' - Gratias Almafeta pro isto articulo que io pensa es vero eminente: [[Abu Nuwas]]. ( [[Usator:Galitobero|Galitobero]] 20:05, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) ) : '''No''' -- Iste articulo esse un pecietta. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 20:16, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) :: ... ma esse ironic... io crede que [[Abu Nuwas]] esse le plus "eminente" articulo re Abu Nuwas de tote le articulos del wikipedias in linguas europanee, quasi tam bon como le articulo re il in le wikipedia arabe. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 20:57, 16 martio 2009 (UTC) ------ Un altere proposito como articulo eminente: [[Sarah Bernhardt‎]] : [[Special:Contributiones/96.49.18.68|96.49.18.68]] 08:06, 26 februario 2009 (UTC) : {{OK}} '''Si''' ( [[Usator:Galitobero|Galitobero]] 20:05, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) ) : '''No''' -- Iste articulo esse un pecietta. Su longitude se derivi de un lista de obras, non information utile. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 20:16, 1 martio 2009 (UTC) == Maio 2009 == Propositiones? --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 22:41, 9 martio 2009 (UTC) Io repropone '''[[The Cure]]'''. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 17:17, 22 martio 2009 (UTC) Io propone '''[[Esperanto]]'''. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 17:17, 22 martio 2009 (UTC) :{{si}}. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 20:36, 25 martio 2009 (UTC) == Junio 2009 == Io propone [[Normalisation linguistic]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 03:35, 27 april 2009 (UTC) *[[File:Symbol support vote.svg|18px|+]] '''Si'''. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 17:58, 19 maio 2009 (UTC) == Julio 2009 == Io propone [[The Cure]]. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 07:46, 1 junio 2009 (UTC) == Augusto 2009 == Io propone '''[[Tacito]]'''. On debe ameliorar e expander lo, ma il ha tempore. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 13:34, 25 julio 2009 (UTC) == Septembre 2009 == Io propone '''[[Jamblico]]'''. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 13:39, 25 julio 2009 (UTC) :Illo me sembla un pauc parve pro esser eminente. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 21:06, 13 augusto 2009 (UTC) == Octobre 2009 == Io propone '''[[Isaac Newton]]'''. Alcun ameliorationes essera necesse. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 17:59, 2 augusto 2009 (UTC) :'''Non''', pro iste mense - nose debe meliorar le articulo, al minus al puncto de remover le peciettas de revision e referentia, ante que il pote esser "eminente". [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 06:20, 22 septembre 2009 (UTC) Io propone '''[[SIDA]]'''. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] 06:16, 22 septembre 2009 (UTC) ::Si QuartierLatin1968 es de accordo, nos poterea monstrar le articulo [[Isaac Newton]] in novembre, e facer le meliorationes requirite in octobre. In ille caso, nos monstrarea le articulo [[SIDA]] durante octobre. Comocunque, io faceva un revision linguistic partial de ambe articulos. --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 11:08, 27 septembre 2009 (UTC) ::Como il non ha un responsa contrari, io lo face in ille modo. Cordialmente, --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 23:06, 30 septembre 2009 (UTC) == Novembre 2009 == :[[Isaac Newton]] (proponite originalmente per QuartierLatin1968). --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 23:08, 30 septembre 2009 (UTC) == Decembre 2009 == Io propone [[lingua japonese]]. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 21:02, 9 novembre 2009 (UTC) == Januario 2010 == Io propone [[latino ecclesiastic]]. Iste articulo ha alcun problemas de NPOV e referentias, ma io crede que on pote ben ameliorar lo ante januario. [[Usator:QuartierLatin1968|QuartierLatin1968]] 21:02, 9 novembre 2009 (UTC) == Septembre 2011 == Io propone [[Historia de Brasil]]. --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] 16:26, 20 septembre 2011 (UTC) == Octubre 2011 == Io propone [[Erasmo de Rotterdam]] --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] 12:57, 30 octobre 2011 (UTC) == Februario 2012 == Io propone [[Linguage de programmation]] --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] 10:40, 3 januario 2012 (UTC) == Martio 2012 == Io propone [[Union Europee]]. --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi|discussion]]) 15:12, 17 martio 2012 (UTC) == April 2013 == Io gustarea proponer le articulo [[Movimento pedophile]]. Io non sape si isto es un bon idea a causa de lo polemic del thema, ma io ha laborate la durante multo tempore e me ha effortiate a fin que illo sia un articulo vermente eminente, neutral, ben referentiate e ben scribite. Que opina vos?--[[Usator:PeioR|PeioR]] ([[Discussion Usator:PeioR|discussion]]) 05:47, 11 april 2013 (UTC) :E io ha un dubita. Io non sape si es melio dicer "Movimento pedophile" o "Movimento pedophilic", equal quam "Partito socialistic", et cetera.--[[Usator:PeioR|PeioR]] ([[Discussion Usator:PeioR|discussion]]) 06:27, 11 april 2013 (UTC) == Augusto 2014 == Io volerea proponer [[Union Europee]]. --[[Usator:Chabi1|Chabi1]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi1|discussion]]) 07:05, 21 augusto 2014 (UTC) == Octobre 2014 == Io propone [[lingua interslave]] --[[Usator:Chabi1|Chabi1]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi1|discussion]]) 12:16, 13 octobre 2014 (UTC) == Septembre 2022 == Io volerea proponer [[Vulpe]]. [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 07:52, 1 septembre 2022 (UTC) *{{Si}} Un articulo substantial (illo contine le totalitate del [[:en:Fox|articulo original anglese]]), scribite in interlingua bon, con stilo bon. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:24, 6 octobre 2022 (UTC) *{{Si}} Cordialmente --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 15:12, 7 octobre 2022 (UTC) :{{si}} (pro decembre 2022) [[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 19:21, 10 octobre 2022 (UTC) ::Ma pro quo illos non es marcate como in le altere Wikipedias? [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 19:44, 10 octobre 2022 (UTC) == Octobre 2022 == Io vole proponer [[Raphael]]. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 08:19, 14 octobre 2022 (UTC) == Articulos eminente == Io vide que il ha multe articulos eminente in le pagina principal ma illos non habe li stella pro indicar lo. Io volerea presentar [[Photographia columbari]] como articulo eminente. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 07:40, 4 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:42, 16 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Rudhar|Rudhar]] ([[Discussion Usator:Rudhar|discussion]]) 06:13, 18 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Resursos|Resursos]] ([[Discussion Usator:Resursos|discussion]]) 15:25, 18 april 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 09:52, 12 maio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator:Miquel Adroer|discussion]]) 13:58, 26 Junio 2023 (UTC) Votation claudite: Articulo acceptate. == Scientia e technologia del dynastia Song == Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Scientia e technologia del dynastia Song]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 14:11, 21 maio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lavall%C3%A9e Martin Lavallée]) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 17:17, 2 julio 2023 (UTC) == Edgar de Wahl == Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Edgar de Wahl]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 06:39, 2 junio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 07:39, 2 junio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator: Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator: Miquel Adroer|discussion]]) 10:31, 2 junio 2023 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 17:18, 2 julio 2023 (UTC) == Interlingue == Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Interlingue]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator: Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator: Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 17:18, 2 julio 2023 (UTC) == Januario 2024 == === Historia del physica === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Historia del physica]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 10:11, 16 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} -- Martin Lavallée # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 09:51, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) === Historia del scientia === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Historia del scientia]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 08:37, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Miquel Adroer|Miquel Adroer]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 09:51, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} --Martin Lavallée === Scientia in le mundo antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Scientia in le mundo antique]] como articulo bon. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 10:04, 17 januario 2024 (UTC) # {{Si}} --Martin Lavallée == Padmasambhava == Io pensa que le articulo [[Padmasambhava]] sia bon e deberea devenir un articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Laurbereth|Laurbereth]] ([[Discussion Usator:Laurbereth|discussion]]) 11:22, 1 augusto 2024 (UTC) == Julio 2025 == === Raphael === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Raphael]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 15:21, 2 julio 2025 (UTC) # {{Si} --Martin Lavallée 15:22, 2 julio 2025 (UTC) == Decembre 2025 == === Litteratura in Interlingua === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Litteratura in Interlingua]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:07, 17 decembre 2025 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 20:35, 17 decembre 2025 (UTC) # {{No}}. Io lo regretta, ma un articulo eminente informa, explica, analysa, educa, e contine prosa ben scribite e legibile. Le major parte de iste articulo es un enumeration cec de un massa de publicationes in interlingua, ma care de ver information. Illo da poc impression general del historia o stato actual del litteratura in interlingua, poco explica qual publicationes esseva importante e influente e proque, etc. In facto, le grande majoritate del articulo se lege como un simple conversion de lista in prosa, un labor que IA poterea haber facite. Le resultato pote esser impressionante, ma non eminente. – [[Usator:McDutchie|Martijn]] ([[Discussion Usator:McDutchie|discussion]]) 05:41, 27 decembre 2025 (UTC) #:E qui pote decider quales es le publicationes importante? Io non cognosce un sol publication que analysa le litteratura in Interlingua. Pro poter facer lo, illo deberea haber referentias, si non, le autor esserea scribente su opinion personal (lo que es contrari al normas del Wikipedia). Io ha facite lo que io ha potite con le ressurces disponibile. [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 11:31, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) == Februario 2026 == === Roma antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Roma antique]] como articulo eminente. Io ha prendite information ex le Wikipedias in anglese, francese, italian e espaniol per haber le articulo le plus complete. Io ha includite omne referentias ex tote le articulos original. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 11:26, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 11:27, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Yaridarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:Yaridarling|discussion]]) 17:31, 24 februario 2026 (UTC) == Martio 2026 == === Grecia antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Grecia antique]] como articulo eminente. Io ha prendite information ex le Wikipedias in anglese, francese e espaniol per haber le articulo le plus complete. Io ha includite omne referentias ex tote le articulos original. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 16:21, 1 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Martin Lavallée|Martin Lavallée]] ([[Discussion Usator:Martin Lavallée|discussion]]) 16:21, 1 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Yaridarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:Yaridarling|discussion]]) 17:29, 2 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} Le articulo es multo grande, interessante, relativemente ben scribite. Io comenciava corriger errores. I secunda ;) [[Usator:Tim Ocean|Tim Ocean]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tim Ocean|discussion]]) 18:32, 2 martio 2026 (UTC) === Egypto antique === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Egypto antique]] como articulo eminente. Io ha prendite information ex le Wikipedias in anglese, francese e espaniol per haber le articulo le plus complete. Io ha includite omne referentias ex tote le articulos original. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:27, 3 martio 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} - Io secunda isto! [[Usator:Tim Ocean|Tim Ocean]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tim Ocean|discussion]]) 21:40, 4 martio 2026 (UTC) == Augusto 2026 == === Michel Foucault === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Michel Foucault]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 17:59, 19 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:YariDarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:YariDarling|discussion]]) 1:10, 23 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 05:31, 28 augusto 2026 (UTC) === Castello de Ahrensburg === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Castello de Ahrensburg]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 12:54, 22 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:YariDarling|Andrea Moreau]] ([[Discussion Usator:YariDarling|discussion]]) 1:10, 23 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 05:31, 28 augusto 2026 (UTC) === Johann Wolfgang von Goethe === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 10:18, 25 augusto 2026 (UTC) # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 05:31, 28 augusto 2026 (UTC) == Septembre 2026 == === Immanuel Kant === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Immanuel Kant]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 04:49, 3 septembre 2026 (UTC) === Edith Södergran === Io volerea proponer le articulo [[Edith Södergran]] como articulo eminente. # {{Si}} --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 04:51, 3 septembre 2026 (UTC) csbcog93swd40xvp0aqsxn93kjmrib9 0 25221 699497 593801 2026-09-03T00:17:06Z Jondel 198 699497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Tabula elemental |nomine=Cesium |previe=Xenon |proxime=Barium |imagine=Cesium.jpg |apparentia=argentee aurate |symbolo=Cs |numero=55 |serie_chimic=[[metallo alcalin]] |gruppo=1 |periodo=6 |bloco=s |celectron=[Xe] 6s¹ |negativitate=0,79 |stato=solido |massa=132,9054519(2) g·mol^-1 |densitate=1,93 g·cm^-3 |densitatel=1,843 g·cm^-3 |fusion=301,59 K, 28,44&nbsp;°C, 83.19&nbsp;°F |ebullition=944 K, 671&nbsp;°C, 1240&nbsp;°F |critic=1938 K, 9,4 MPa |efusion=2,09 kJ·mol^-1 |evapor=63,9 kJ·mol^-1 |specific=32,210 J·mol^-1·K^-1 |resistivitate|(20&nbsp;°C) 205 nΩ·m |conductivitate=35,9 W·m^-1·K^-1 |expansion=(25&nbsp;°C) 97 µm·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ }} '''Cesium''' es un [[elemento chimic]] de symbolo '''Cs''' e [[numero atomic]] 55. Le cesium (Cs), es elemento chimic del Grupo 1 (etiam nominate Grupo Ia) del tabla periodica, pertenecente a grupo de le metales alcalin, esseva le primer elemento discoperite spectroscópicamente (1860) per le scientíficos german Robert Bunsen e Gustav Kirchhoff, que le nominate per le singular lineas azur de su spectrm (ex latín caesius, «azul celo»). === Referentia === *[https://www.britannica.com/science/cesium Britannica.Cesium.Y2026] {{Pecietta|chimia}} [[Categoria:Elementos chimic]] [[Categoria:Metallos alcalin]] [[Categoria:Isotopos de cesium|*]] abcjjb9sfcwruu63hbmuqta3ye3al2x 0 29400 699494 696989 2026-09-02T20:11:27Z Gmillernd 20128 699494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Historia de Francia}}{{infobox/articulo}} '''[[Francia]]''' es un del statos le plus antique de [[Europa]], benque sole appare con iste nomine desde le [[Medievo]] in un data difficile de precisar. Recognosce se le [[Gallia]] como le antecedente historic de Francia, benque le Gallia occupava un superficie europee plus grande que le Francia actual. == Del origines al fin del Gallia roman == === Ab le prime gruppos human al arrivata del Celtas === ==== Paleolithico ==== [[File:Lascaux painting.jpg|thumb|left|Pictura parietal que representa [[aurochs]] in le [[grotta de Lascaux]].]] In le sito de [[Le Bois-de-Riquet|Bois-de-Riquet]], in [[Lézignan-la-Cèbe]], in [[Hérault (département)|Hérault]], esseva discoperite un del plus antique tracias human cognoscite sur le solo francese, datate inter 1,1 e {{Nombre|1,2 million}} de annos, constituite de un vintena de [[Galet aménagé|calculos manipulate]] confectionate a partir de rocas diverse (quartzite, basalto, microgranito…). Verso {{Nombre|1,15 Ma}}, le [[grotte du Vallonnet|grotta del Vallonnet]], in [[Roquebrune-Cap-Martin]], in le [[Alpes-Maritimes]], livrava vestigios lithic del mesme typo<ref>{{Ligamine archivo|url=http://www.memo.fr/article.asp?ID=PRE_ORG_005|titulo=Homo erectus|sito=Memo|data archivo=20070428095757}}.</ref>. A partir de circa {{nb|700000 annos}} appare sitos [[acheulean]]<ref>{{Lien web |lingua=fr |titulo=Premières preuves d’une occupation acheuléenne, il y a 700 000 ans, dans le Centre de la France |url=https://www.mnhn.fr/fr/actualites/premieres-preuves-d-une-occupation-acheuleenne-il-y-a-700-000-ans-dans-le-centre-de-la |sito=www.mnhn.fr |data=2013-11-21 |consultate le=2025-07-07}}</ref>. In [[Terra Amata]], in [[Nice]], excavationes ha permittite discoperir un foco datate de {{nb|380000 annos}}<ref>{{lien web |lingua=fr-FR|titulo=Le site acheuléen de Terra Amata - Musée de Préhistoire Terra Amata|sito=musee-terra-amata.org|leger in linea=https://www.musee-terra-amata.org/musee/le-site-acheuleen-de-terra-amata/|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20230621233227/https://www.musee-terra-amata.org/musee/le-site-acheuleen-de-terra-amata/|archivedate=2023-06-21|consultate le=2026-03-18}}</ref>. Le fossiles human le plus antique cognoscite in Francia es illos del [[Homme de Tautavel|Homine de Tautavel]], de qui le restos esseva trovate in le [[caune de l'Arago|caverna de l'Arago]], in [[Tautavel]], in le [[Pyrénées-Orientales|Pyreneos Oriental]]. Ille viveva de circa {{nb|570000 a 400000 annos}} [[avant le présent|ante le presente]] (AP)<ref>{{Lien web |lingua=fr |prenom=Rachel |nom=Mulot |titulo=Préhistoire : découverte du plus vieux des Français à Tautavel |url=https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/archeo-paleo/paleontologie/une-dent-trouvee-a-tautavel-vieille-de-560-00-ans-devient-le-plus-plus-fossile-humain-de-france_126127 |sito=Sciences et Avenir |data=2018-07-24 |consultate le=2025-07-07}}</ref>. A partir de {{nb|350000 annos}} AP, le [[Homme de Néandertal|Homine de Neanderthal]] es presente sur le territorio de Francia. Ille talle le silex secundo le [[méthode Levallois|methodo Levallois]]. Su industria se appella le [[Moustérien|Musteriense]]. In le sitos de [[Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil|Les Eyzies]] e de [[Moustier (Lot-et-Garonne)|Le Moustier]], in [[Dordogne (département)|Dordogne]], numerose utensiles esseva trovate: [[racloir|rasorios]], [[biface|bifaces]], picos, scalpros. Ille chassa le [[bison]], le [[aurochs]], le [[cheval|cavallo]] e le [[Rangifer tarandus|ren]]. Verso {{nb|50000 annos}} AP, ille lassa le plus antique tracias de sepulturas cognoscite in Francia. [[File:Crâne_de_l’Homme_de_Cro-Magnon.jpg|thumb|left|Cranio de un del individuos ([[Cro-Magnon 1]]) discoperite in le [[abri de Cro-Magnon|reparo de Cro-Magnon]].]] [[File:Venus of Brassempouy.jpg|thumb|Le [[Dame de Brassempouy|Dama de Brassempouy]].]] A partir de {{nb|42000 annos}} AP, ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' arriva in Francia e occupa le territorios del Homine de Neanderthal, qui dispare progressivemente: il es le epocha del [[Aurignacien|Aurignaciense]]. Il es durante le [[Gravettien|Gravettiense]] que appare le [[Vénus paléolithique|Venuses paleolithic]] que on crede esser le opera de un secunde unda de homines moderne, venite del Est<ref>{{Ouvrage|autor1=[[Marcel Otte]]|titulo=Les Gravettiens|editor=Éditions Errance|collection=Civilisations et cultures|data=2013|isbn=978-2-87772-509-5|oclc=831829447|leger in linea=https://www.worldcat.org/title/831829447|consultate le=2024-12-10}}.</ref>. Le [[homme de Cro-Magnon|homines de Cro-Magnon]] es remarcabile artisanos. Illes ha lassate punctas de [[sagaie|sagaia]] de osso longe e finmente laborate, spatulas, [[poinçon|punzones]], [[Lissoir (instrument)|lissores]] decorate. Le sitos que attesta lor activitate es multo numerose: [[Bayac]], [[Pincevent]], le [[grotte de Lascaux|grotta de Lascaux]], celebre pro su {{Nombre|150 picturas}} e {{nb|1500 gravuras}}, illos de [[Grotte Cosquer|Cosquer]], de [[Grottes de Gargas|Gargas]] e de [[Grotte Chauvet|Chauvet]]… Le sito de [[Bergerac (Dordogne)|La Madeleine]] in Dordogne, habitate verso le millennio XVI a.C. per venatores de renes e piscatores, ha livrate [[harpon|harpones]] a puncta mobile e ha date su nomine al cultura de iste periodo: le [[Magdalénien|Magdaleniense]], qui succede al [[Solutréen|Solutreense]]. Durante le interstadio [[Bölling]]-[[Alleröd]] appare le [[Azilien|Aziliense]]. Verso 9700 a.C., le clima se recaleface. Le fin del glaciation apporta le disparition del ren e del phoca. Le [[Mésolithique|Mesolithico]] es marcate per un cultura, le [[Sauveterrien|Sauveterriense]], qui se spande del sud-west usque al [[bassin parisien|bassin parisian]]. Durante le mesme epocha se manifesta le [[Tardenoisien|Tardenoisiense]] in le [[bassin parisien|bassin parisian]]. ==== Neolithico ==== Como in le resto de Europa, le Neolithico — que vide le apparition del agricultura e del allevamento — es debite a un diffusion demographic : le prime agricultores neolithic presente in le territorio francese es un population multo homogenee venite de Anatolia. On observa duo grande fluxos de neolithisation : le fluxo danubian (cultura del ceramica a bandas) e le fluxo mediterranee (cultura del ceramica cardial), que poterea in realitate representar le obra de un sol e unic population colonisator proveniente de un mesme fonte commun, que haberea conquirite le major parte de Europa quasi sin mesclar se con le populationes de chassatores-colligitores incontrate per le cammino — mesmo longe tempore post le separation del duo fluxos — usque a lor arrivata al costas atlantic. Durante le Neolithico medie (-4800 a -3500), iste duo fluxos de neolithisation se reuni in le centro de Francia. Verso le 6e millennio a.C. in le sud-est, inter 5700 e 5500 a.C. in le est de Francia (vide gruppo de La Hoguette, cultura a bandas, cultura cardial, postea gruppo de Villeneuve-Saint-Germain, cultura de Cerny, cultura de Rössen, cultura de Michelsberg e cultura Chasséen), appare progressivemente le cultura del cereales, le domesticamento del animales, e nove technicas artanal como le ceramica, le texitura, e le politura del petras. Inter le culturas neolithic, solmente le cultura chasséenne se ha disveloppate sur le major parte del territorio francese (circa 4350–3300 a.C.). Le grupos human se sedentarisa, generante le prime villages e le prime sepulturas megalithic : tumulos, cairns, dolmenes e menhirs (vide allée couverte, cultura Seine-Oise-Marne). Le menhirs es multo presente in Bretagne, sol o in alliniamento como a Carnac (4 km, 2 935 menhirs), o in cromlech como al pico de Saint-Barthélemy prope Luzenac in Ariège. Como pro le colonisation per le agricultores neolithic, un nove migration se haberea extendite al integre Europa. Iste migration haberea occurrite ab le steppas pontic (cultura Yamna) verso le centro de Europa, e postea al altere partes del continente ab circa 3000 a.C. Illa haberea jocato un rolo clave in le diffusion del cultura campaniforme. Iste populationes con ancestros del steppas esseva presente in le territorio del actual Francia ab circa 2650 a.C. Le pastores nomade — que esseva le parlatores del linguas indo-europee — se caracteriza per le dominio del cavallo, le invention del rota, le introduction de technologia metallurgic del bronze, e per nove structuras social. Tote iste innovationes haberea favorisate le societates indo-europee e lor descendentes. Il es possibile que le populationes celtic esseva caracterisate per differente subgruppos del haplogruppo R1b-M269, introducite in Europa per iste migrationes indo-europee. === Le tempore del celtas === ==== Ab 1300 a.C. usque La Tène (circa 500 a.C.) ==== Ben que isto se basa solmente super pauc provas tangibile, on ha supponite que le colonisation del futur Gallia per le populos celtic (communmente appellate Gaules per le Romanos), originari de Europa central, ha comenciate circa 1300 a.C. con le civilisation del campos de urnas, e se haberea terminate circa 700 a.C. Es tamen possibile que illo esseva principalmente un diffusion del cultura celtic sin esser accompaniate per un colonisation massive. Le studios genetic ha monstrate que le individuos del etate del bronze e del etate del ferro in Francia presenta profilos genetic proxime a los del populationes actual de Europa central. Le etate del ferro non corresponde a un nove fluxo genetic, lo que indica que in Francia illo representa un diffusion cultural e non demographic. Iste conclusiones concorda con le theorias secundo le quales le Celtas ha emergite ab populationes derivate del cultura campaniforme. Data le grande homogeneitate genetic in Europa a iste epocha, un migration intra-europee es difficile a identificar. Verso le fin del 8e seculo a.C., le metallurgia del ferro se diffunde (etate del ferro). Un nove aristocratia guerriere appare, gratias al apparition del spadas de ferro e al combatto a cavallo. Illa perturba le organisation social antea agricole e egalitari del Celtas. Le "principes e princessas del Celtica" (Patrice Brun) es inhumate con armas e carros de ceremonia, como le famose princessa de Vix, inhumate in Côte-d’Or inter 550 e 450 a.C. Secundo Tito Livio, le populationes superabundante de guerreros del Bituriges, Arvernes, Eduens, Ambarres, Carnutes e Aulerques, sub le direction del legendari biturige Bellovesos, invade le plana del Po e se uni al Insubres, tribos celtic que funda circa 600 a.C. Mediolanum ([[Milan]]). Como consequentia del clima in le fin del etate del bronzo danese, le celtas originari del regiones del [[Rheno]], Danubio e silva Hercynian extende lor autoritate super le resto de Gallia al fin del 6e seculo e in le initio del 5e seculo a.C. Isto es le secunde etate del ferro, appellate periodo de La Tène. Iste nove expansion coincide con transformationes economic e social. Le guerreros aristocratic pauc numerous es remplaciate per paisanos-soldatos reunite circa un chef de clan. Le aratro con soc de ferro reimplacia le aratro de ligno. Isto permitte le labore del terras pesante del centro e del nord del Francia actual. Isto explica in grande parte le colonisation de nove terras, le crescimento demographic e le nove invasion que ha sequite. Circa 390 a.C., le chef senon Brennos guida guerreros celtic (Senones, Cenomans, Lingones, etc.) in Italia del nord, ubi illes se uni a altere populos celtic, inter los le Insubres, Boios e Carnos. Roma es prendite in 390 a.C. Le romanos comencia a stoppar iste invasion a partir del fin de 349 a.C. ==== Developpamento del relationes commercial ==== Le relationes commercial distante se developpa. Circa 600 a.C., le compto grec de Massalia (Marseille) es fundate sur le costas del Mediterraneo per navigatores grecos venite de Phocée (de ubi proveni le surnomine moderne "cite phocéenne"). Al momento del fundation, le Phocenses confronta tribos celtic. Altere comptos simile, ante e post iste data, es create, specialmente longo le littore (Antibes ja in 680 a.C., Alalia (Aleria) circa 565 a.C.). Massalia assume tamen un position dominante circa 550 a.C., post le arrivata massive de refugiatos phocenses, pois que Phocée cade in manus del Persas. Le influentia grec se manifesta longo le grande vias commercial, gratias al rolo active de Massalia. Le tombas principesc manifestava le presentia de objectos luxuose proveniente del regiones mediterranee. Interrumpite durante le invasion del 5e seculo a.C., le relationes commercial con Marseille recomencia con vigor al fin del 4e seculo a.C. In iste periodo, on trova ceramicas e monetas grec in tote le valle del Rheno, in le Alpes e usque in Lorraine. === Florescimento del civilisation gallic (290 a 52 a.C.) === Le civilisation gallic experientia un periodo particularmente prospere. Le emergentia de ver citates fortificate (oppida), de dimensiones multo plus grande que le fortificationes del periodos anterior, e le uso del moneta, es characteristicas distincte de iste civilisation. Desde le fin del 4e seculo a.C. e le initio del 3e seculo a.C., certe Belgas, le Germani cisrhenani, avantia verso le region del Oise, como attestate per le sanctuarios de Ribemont-sur-Ancre e Gournay-sur-Aronde — sitos de battalias contra, probabilemente, Armoricains o Gaules belgas. Illes haberea causate circa mille mortes, lo que les permitteva de conquistar territorios e repeller lor adversarios, probabilemente le tribos Aulerques, verso le Loire. Durante le 2e seculo a.C., un relative hegemonia arvernic se instaura, definite per un potente fortia militar e le grande ricchessa de su chefs. In le mesme tempore, le influentia roman cresce in le sud del Gallia, primo per le commercio. Excavationes archeologic ha monstrate que, in iste periodo, amphoras italian comencia a reimplaciar gradualmente illos greco in le commercio marseillese. Plure vices, le Massilienses face appel a Roma pro les defender contra le tribus celto-ligur e le pression del imperio arvernic. Le sud-est del Gallia — in particular le regiones hodierne del Languedoc e del Provence — es conquirite per Roma ante le fin del 2e seculo e forma le provincia de Narbonnese. Iste region, que se extende del Pyreneos usque le Alpes per le valle del Rhone, es strategic pro connecter Italia con Hispania, conquirite durante le secunde guerra punic. Le conquista es completate in 118 a.C. post le derrota del Arvernes e del Allobroges, e le alliantia de Roma con le populo gallic del Eduens. Post le cadita del hegemonia arvernic sub pression roman, le grande nationes del Gallia — specialmente le Eduens e le Sequanes — entra in fort rivalitate. In 58 a.C., Julio Cesar usa le menacia del pression germanic super le Gaules como pretexto pro intervenir al appel del Eduens, alliate a Roma. Le guerra es longe e sanguinari. In januario 52 a.C., Vercingetorix accede al poter, e le Arvernes con lor clientes se revolta contra le armea del proconsul. Cesar affronta le determination del Gaules, cuje insurrection es quasi general. Assedios, incendios de citates, politica del terra bruliate, massacres e deportationes in servitude marca le conflicto, que termina con un victoria roman super le ardor disorganisate del Gaules. In 50 a.C., Julio Cesar lassa un Gallia exsanguine. Il lassa al citates un grande autonomia. === Le Gallia roman === Le imperator Augusto organisa le Gallia in quatro provincias: a Narbonnese, sufficientemente romanisate pro devenir un provincia senatoriale, ille adjunge le Gallia Aquitania, le Gallia Lugdunense e le Gallia Belgica. Le limites del Gallias excede largemente lo del Francia actual, principalmente in lo que concerne le Gallia Belgica, que confina con le [[Rheno]]. Lugdunum es electe como le capitale del Gallias. Durante le 2e seculo, ja existeva un communitate christian in iste citate. Verso le fin del 4e seculo, in Gallia, quasi tote le population de citates se habe transferite al lato del Christo. Poco a poco, le Ecclesia se veste de un administration ubi un episcopo in cata citate deveni le capite del communitate. ==== Le pace roman ==== Nihil sembla cambiar al principio del occupation roman. Certemente, le gallos debe pagar lor tributos, ma illes conserva lor magistratos e lor maniera de viver. Le vias roman reprende in grande parte le vias gallese ja numerose e ben mantenite, lo que explica le grande rapiditate de movimento del legiones romane; le pacification super le Rheno e in Britannia favorisa le auge economic. Pierre Gros resume talmente le impacto del presentia roman: «le conquesta roman que ha introducite le ingressos in le tempore historic, ha formate pro seculos le paisage rural, establite o ameliore le principales axes de communication, urbanisate immense territorios, definite le territorios administrative.» Le urbanisation generalisate vide le disveloppamento de multe citates, organisate secundo le modelo del municipios italian, citates que ancora perdura hodie, dum le campagne se coperi de villagios (''vici'') e grande exploitationes agricole (''villae''). Le Gallia es alora, con le [[Egypto]], le regione le plus populate del [[Imperio Roman]], con un population estimate de 7 milliones de habitantes. In 48, le imperator Claudio concede accesso al Senato romano al notabilitates gallese, como monstra le Tabulas de Lugdunum. Le disveloppamento economic beneficia del seculos de Pax Romana: le extension del [[vino|vinos]] in Aquitania, in le valle del Rheno e del Saona e mesmo in illo del Mosella es tal que illes compete con le vinos italian. Artisanos italian installate in Gallia crea un industria prospere de ceramica sigillata (per exemplo a La Graufesenque). Le artesanato gallese produce tamben abundantia de objectos de ligno, vestimentos de lana e exporta verso le grandes centros de consumo in [[Italia]], super le Rheno e le alto [[Danubio]]. Le scambios non se limita al benes material: accanto al cultos popular del numerose pantheon gallese, appare in le citates altere religion de origine oriental: culto de [[Mithras]], de [[Cybele]], de [[Jesus Christo|Jesus]], attestate a partir de 177 (cf. le Martires de Lugdunum). Iste ultime culto devenira preponderante in le ambientes urban a partir del 4e seculo. Cinque seculos de romanisation lassa profunde marcas in le Gallia: le parolas bas-latin del qual derivante le [[Lingua occitan|occitan]] e le [[francese]] d’oïl (assi como le corso foras del limites del Gallia), un derecto scribite liberate de tote principio religiose, citates, un religion (le [[catholicismo]]), e mesmo habitos quotidian (le pan, le vignas e le vino). === Le invasiones germanic (2e a 5e seculos) === [[File:Invasions barbares.PNG|197px|right|thumb|Le movimento migratori inter le seculos 2 e 5.]] Le 3e seculo vide un succedimento de crisis e guerras civil in le territorio gallic. Ben que le provincias romane de Germania superior e Germania inferior esseva constituite desde le 1e seculo per Domitian, ab le medio del 3e seculo, populos germanic como le Francos e le Alamans transgrede le Rheno e sacchegia le Galia plusie vices. Un imperio efemere del Galia (un termino improprie), sin un caracter national, esseva create per Postumo, qui esseva presto assassinate per su soldatos. Le Galia esseva afficite per un debilitamento demographic, le declino del citates, le ralentamento del commercio e del circulation monetari, que conduceva al prime manifestationes de bagaudes. Durante le mesmo periodo, le Romanos installava garnisones de Letas in Galia, inter le quales Chamaves e Hattuarios in le futura Burgundia. Le situation militar esseva restabilite a fine del 3e seculo, e le disposito defensiv super le Rheno includeva sempre plus contingentes germanic installate con lor familias. Groupos de Francos in Galia Belgica e Alamans in Alsacia serviva como tropas auxiliar federate, e alcun officiales francos haberea brillante carrieras intra le Imperio Romano. Fronte a iste invasiones, le elite gallo-romano habeva reactiones divide. Salviano de Marsella declara que le invasion es le consequente del vitios del governa roman. Alteres, como Sidonio Apollinaris, se lamentava del lor falta de education in bon maniera. In le nocte del 31 de decembre 406, populos vandalos, suevos, alanos e altere populos germanic transgredeva le frontiera super le Rheno, nonobstante le defense de truppas auxiliar franc. In 412, le Visigothos transgredeva le Alpes e attingeva Aquitania. Le potentia imperial romano cediva territórios a illes e finalmente dispareva in 476. Le structuras del Imperio se dissolveva in Gallia e le potentia politic passava al manos de regnos barbaric con lor proprie leges, lor proprie religiones, como le arianismo o le politheismo. Le periculo representate per le Hunos causa un alliance temporari inter le occupant del Galia. In 451, Aetio conduceva un coalition gallo-romano e franco que deteneva le invasion del Hunos comandate per Attila in le battalia del campos Catalaunicos. Iste battalia, longe de aniquilar le Hunos, esseva magnificate per le historiographos e augmentate per le historia de sancta Genevieve que encourageva le Parisianos a resistir a Attila. In le medio de iste regnos barbaric — visigoth, alaman, burgundian o franco — un Romano, Syagrio, riusciva a mantener un portion detachate del Imperio inter Soissons (e mesmo Germania central) e le Loire como su proprietate personale, recipiente le titulo de rege del Romanos, secundo Gregorio de Tours. Refugiatos Bretones, fugiente de Britannia pro le invasion de angles e saxones (le actual Anglia), se installava in Armorica, que deveniva parcialmente independente del resto del Galia usque al creation del ducato de Bretaña in 939. Le elites gallo-romano ancora present in le citates exercitava le direction local e provideva multe episcopos, protectores de lor communitates contra le malaugurios del tempore, interlocutores del potentia militar del reges germanic que divideva le Galia e ultimes representantes del cultura romano. Inter illes citaremos Avito de Vienne, Nizier de Lyon, Remi de Reims, e Gregorio de Tours. In un medalia de oro de Constantino, probable datate de 310, on leprime le parola Francia. Le disveloppamento del christianismo permitteva de ligar le populationes gallo-romano e germanic. == Le Medievo e le formation de Francia == Le historia de Francia in le Medievo, ab 476 a 1453, se characterisa per plure periodos e eventos importante durante dece seculos, ab Clodoveo (Clovis) a Carlo VIII: le affirmation del christianismo, le disintegration del Imperio Romano, le longe genesis del regno de Francia, le grande peste, le Guerra del Cent Annos... Le societate es marcate per le crescentia del campania e del population francese, le disveloppamento del commercio (ferias e mercatos) e le renascentia urban, le apparition del universitates e le formation del lingua francese. === Le Francos, Merovigios e Carolingios (seculos 5 a 10) === ==== Le Merovigios ==== In le medio de iste confusion de populos, le Francos Salios, installate in le nord de Gallia, e le Francos Ripuari super le rivas del Rhino e del Mosella, conquesta un grande partie de Gallia sub le autoritate de lor rege Clodoveo I (466-511). Le grande intelligentia de Clodoveo esseva de comprender que su potentia non poteva durar sin le assentimento del populos romanisate. Su baptismo catholic per le episcopo Remigio de Reims, inter 496[40] e 508 (le debate es ancora actual)[41], permitte le collaboration del Francos con le elites gallo-romane. Clodoveo es le fundator del prime dynastia durabile in le territorio de le actual Francia, le dynastia merovingian. Le conversion de Clodoveo, a su tempore, esseva valorisate plus tarde per le Capetianos in 987 pro affermar le principio del monarchia de derecto divine, significante le origine divin del potentia regal. Illes popularisa le legenda del Sancte Ampulla, apportate per le Sancto Spirito representate per le colombe, pro unger le rege baptisate in Reims, ampulla que esseva usate pro le sacros del Capetianos usque al Revolution. Le Francos habeva un vision patrimonial de lor regno. Clodoveo divideva su regno inter su quatro filios, lo que favoriva le guerras inter le hereditores. Le carta del pais evolveva conforme le guerras, le crises e le hereditages: le regno de Clodoveo esseva presto divise inter Neustria, Austrasia e Aquitania, que deveniva, con le Burgondia conquistate per le filios de Clodoveo in le annos 530, le divisiones politice major del « Gallia » in le seculos 6 e 7 . Le Francos se extendeva al oriente. Sub le Merovingianos, le periodo de regression initiate desde le Basse Imperio continua. Le population decresceva in le seculos 6 e 7 a causa del epidemias, especialmente del peste. Le disorganisation causate per le invasiones barbaric contribuiva al disparation del artesanatos specialisate que habeva facite le renomine de Gallia romana. Le vias romane non esseva plus mantenite. Le transporte rar del mercantias se faceva per vias fluvial. Le grande commercio praticamente cessava e un economia autarchic attornante le grande proprietates, le vici, se disveloppava. Multes campesinos perdeva lor libertate quia illes se « da» al potentatos in cambio de lor protection. Le termino « franco» finalmente designateva le homines libere, que illes esseva de origine germanic o gallo-romane, ma illes deveniva sempre minus numerose. Ab le initio del 7e seculo, marcate per le faida regale, le potentia regale deveniva debile a favor del aristocratia franca (le leudes), e specialmente al « majores del palatio» (major domus), sorta de prime ministros. In effecto, le reges merovingianos non habeva plus terras pro distribuir a lor guerreros e ergo esseva abandonate per illes. Le familia de Pippinides, originari de Austrasia, prendeva le majoriatas del palatio de Austrasia e postea de Neustria. Illes remitteva Provencia, Burgondia e Aquitania, devenite quasi independentes, in le orbita merovingiana e iniziava le conquiste del Frisia al nord del regno. Un del plus celebre maiores del palatio, Carlo Martello, repelleva in 732 un armada musulmane non longe de Poitiers. Pro recompensar su fidel, ille confiscava le immense proprietates ecclesiastic que ille redistribuiva a illes. Isto le permitteva assecurar lor fidelitate sin perder su proprie proprietates. Su filio, Pipino le Breve, faceva incarcerar in un convento le ultime rege merovingiano, Childerico III, e se faceva elegger rege per le guerreros francos in 751. Ille prendeva etiam le precaution de se facer sacrar insimul a su duo filios in 754 per le papa. Isto le dava un nove legitimitate, illo del electe de Deo, sicut le rege David, un election superiore a illo del guerreros francos. Le dynastia merovingiana habeva vivite. Le regno del dynastia carolingian comencia. ==== Le Carolingios ==== Pipino le Breve conquista Aquitania, que habeva devenite independente, e Septimania, que deveniva un del cinque provincias musulmanas de al-Andalus ab 719 a 759[42]. Il interviene mesmo foras de su frontieras, creando particularmente le Statos Pontificial post un campania contra le Lombardos. Al su morte, secundo le tradition franco, ille divideva su regno inter su duo filios, Carlomano e Carlo, ma le morte premature de Carlomano permitte a Carlo regnar super un regno franc unite. Le regno del Francos (regnum francorum) cognosceva su maximam expansion sub Carlo Magno. Iste extendeva le regno usque al Saxonia al oriente, al costo de 20 annos de guerra, in Bretania, Vasconia, Lombardia, Bavaria e inter le Avaros. Tamen, iste conquistas non esseva definitive e multe revoltas secuteva in Bretania e Vasconia. In iste tempore, on creava le « marches », zonas militarisate usate pro controlar le attactas del Bretanos o del Vascones. Iste politica de conquista resultava in le coronation imperial de Carlo Magno le 25 de decembre 800 per le papa Leon III. Le contemporaneos voleva vider isto como un renascentia del Imperio Roman del Occidente. Ma le Imperio carolingian esseva centrate super Gallia e Germania. Carlo Magno se considerava initialmente como un rege franco. Le regnatos de Carlo Magno e su filio Ludovico le Pio remaneva tamen, inter du ondas de invasion, un periodo de fortification del potentia regale, de renascentia del artes e del cultura que marcava durablemente le mente; « Carlo Magno fundava le pace germanic e christian, inaugura le legislation social e rendeva le instruction primari obligatori »[43]. Ludovico le Pio renuncia a confiscar le terras del Ecclesia pro donar los como recompensa a su fidel. Faciendo isto, ille es obligate a prender de su proprie proprietates e debilita assi le potentia terriera del Carolingianos. Su filios se disputava pro le division del hereditage carolingian. Finalmente illes attingeva un accordo durante le division de Verdun in 843. Iste es le occasione in le qual Gallia esseva nominate pro le prime vice Francia occidentale (Francia occidentalis in latino). Le Francia occidentale, concede a Carlo le Calvo, le filio plus juvente de Ludovico le Pio, va dar nascentia al regno de Francia a fin del IX seculo, post multe evolutiones territorial. Le Francia occidentale se extende ab le Mar del Nord usque al Mar Mediterranee, e es grossiermente delimitate al oriente per le Meuse, le Saona e le Rono. Illa ha le beneficio de un extrem diversitate de paisages e de ressource natural. Tamen, in le IX e X seculos, le Francia occidentale es menaciate de division. Sub Nominoe, le Bretania reafirma su independentia. Le attachemento de Aquitania al regno es solmente theoretic. Le secunde onda de invasion de Vikingos, Sarracenos e Hungaros accentua le disgregation del autoritate regale. Le sovranos, incapace de defender lor subditos, debeva consentir que le potentia de commandamento passa de lor manus a illes de potentados qui formava principatos, vastes territorios quasi independentes. Pro detener le menacia viking, le rege Carlo le Simple es obligate a ceder le Normandia al duce Rollo per le tractato de Saint-Clair-sur-Epte in 911. Le titulo de rege deveni elective e le Carolingianos debe ceder lor corona a Eudes, conte de Paris inter 888 e 898, a Roberto I de 922 a 923, e a Raoul ab 923 a 936. In 987, Hugo Capeto, duce del Francos e descendente de Eudes, es preferite al pretendente carolingian Carlo de Bassa Lotaringia, tio avunculo del defuncte rege Ludovico V, gratias al supporto active del archiepiscopo Adalberon de Reims. Su election marca le fin del dynastia carolingian e le initio de un nove dynastia, le dynastia capetian, que construira le regno de Francia durante le secunde millennio. Es a notar que Bretania non participa al election e que in julio 990, Conan le Tort se declara Britannorum Princeps (sovrano del Bretanos) e, secundo le monaco contemporane Raoul Glaber, es coronate al maniera del reges in le abatia del Monte Sancto Michele in praesentia del episcopos de Bretania[44]. === Le Capetios e le consolidation del stato (11e al 13e seculo) === ==== Le evolution del potentia regale ==== Le regno del prime Capetianos es marcate per le debilitate del poter regal in facie del grande seniores al capite de principatos. Hugues Capet non interveniva jammais al sud del regno. Su autoritate esseva limitate al dominio regal — le benes material e le vassallos directe super le quales ille exerceva un poter directe. Le prime Capetianos possedeva solmente un dominio poco extese, reducite principalmente a un zona inter Beauvais e Orléans, vestigio del ducato de Francia de Robert le Fort. Per un politica astute de la major parte de illes, illes assecurava le expansion del dominio regal. In facie del grandes del regno quasi independente, illes tamen habeva tres atutos. In prime loco, illes succedeva a render hereditari lor linea dynastic per facer eliger e consacrar lor filios durante lor vita, e per associar los al throno (un uso sequite usque a Philippe Auguste). In ultra, le reges de Francia esseva al summitate del hierarchia feudal e non rendeva homagio a necuno pro lor possessiones. Ma, como le systema feudal lo require, tote le grande feudos del regno debeva render homagio al rege. Le plus prestigiose vassallos del rege de Francia esseva le souveranos de Anjou e de Anglaterra. Pro le parve extension de su dominios sub administration directe, le rege de Francia esseva plus debile que multe de su proprie vassallos, ma in terminos de vassalitate, esseva sin dubita le rege qui se trovava al culmine del pyramide de poter del systema feudal. Un adagio dice: «Rex francorum imperator est in suo regno» — «le rege del Francos es imperator in su regno». Finalmente, le unction regal permitteva al Capetianos de acquirer un character divine, gratias al oleo del Sacre Ampolla, un dono del Spirito Sancte. Assi le rege, christian desde le baptismo de Clovis, deveniva in plus un rege de derecto divin, qui deteneva su poter solmente de Deo. Desde Robert le Pio, filio de Hugues Capet, on attribueva al Capetianos poteres thaumaturgic — per un simple tacto, illes esseva supponite capace de curar le scrofulas (ecrouellas).[45] Le matrimonio de Alienor de Aquitania con le comte de Anjou, devenite rege de Anglaterra sub le nomine de Henric II Plantagenet, rendeva iste ultime un vassallo del rege de Francia multo plus potente que su proprie senior feudal, como monstra le prime carta. Philippe II, appellate Philippe-Auguste, habeva como objectivo principal le humiliamento del Plantagenetes. Inter 1202 e 1205, ille conquireva sur Johannes sin Terra (Jean sans Terre) Normandia, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, le nord del Poitou e Saintonge. Johannes sin Terra essayava reagir per organisar un coalition que comprendeva etiam le imperator germanic Otton IV e le comte de Flandre. Le dominica 27 de julio 1214, Philippe II triumphava super le coalition durante le batalia de Bouvines. In le plano interior, Philippe-Auguste augmentava le ressources regales per un bon administration, lo que le permitteva pagar mercenarios, construer nove muros de fortification circa Paris, pavimentar le urbe e eriger le forteria del Louvre. A su morte, le dominio regal esseva considerate como multo amplifyate. Su successores continuava su obra. Su nepote, Ludovico IX, finalmente signa le pace con le Plantagenet. Il affirmava le derecto del rege de legiferar in tote le regno, mesmo in le grande feudos, quando le interesse commun lo require. Il pone in circulation un moneta regal stabile e fidabile, le gros tournois de argento, valide in tote le regno. Il pone definitivemente le monarchia super le ben commun. Su legistas affirmava que nulle cosa pote justificar le rebellion de un vassallo, e que nulle episcopo pote excommunicar le rege. Ludovico IX participa a duo croisadas pro combatter le musulmanos in le Terra Sancte, de 1248 a 1254 (le septeime croisada), e de novo in 1270, in Egypto e Tunis, ubi ille mori de dysenteria le 25 de augusto. Philippe IV le Bel (1285–1314) es le ultime del grande Capetianos directes. Il es cognoscite pro le rolo que ille ha jugate in le centralisation administrative del regno. Il organisava definitivemente le parlamentos. Durante tote su regno, ille cercava de meliorar le financias regal. Como ille falleva a instaurar un imposto regular, le budget del Stato functionava per medios expeditive: confiscation del benes del judeeos, del mercatores italiane, e per le diminution del contento de metall pretiose in le monetas frappate per le rege, in comparation con lor valor nominal. Pro trovar nove subsidios, ille organisava le prime reunion de representantes del tres ordines: le clero, le nobilitate e le tiers état (le populo). Iste typo de reunion essera appellate plus tarde le Statos general. Ille se circumdava de legistas originari de tote le Francia. Ma Philippe le Bel es specialmente cognoscite pro su confrontation con le papas, qui, pro escapar al disturbios constante de Roma, se installava a Avignon, ponente le papato sub le influentia directe de Francia pro tres quartas de un seculo. Quando ille mori in 1314, le monarchia capetian semblava consolidate e forte. ==== Le transformationes economic e social ==== Mesmo si le fontes scribite manca, plure inditios monstra que le vitalitate demographic de Francia es multo importante a partir del 11e seculo. Homines venite del regno de Francia occupa le prime rango in le conquista de Angleterra in 1066 per Guillaume le Conquérant, duce de Normandia. Le cavalieros franc joca un rolo predominante in le Reconquista del Hispania musulmane desde le medio del 11e seculo. Illes es tanto numerose a participar in le prime croisada al fin del 11e seculo que le statos create post le captura de Jerusalem in 1099 es appellate le Statos franc del Oriente. Le augmento del population accompania le grande disboscationes. Nove technicas agricultural se diffunde, permittente le cultivation del terras ric e pesante del basso parisiense : aratros con rotas e versoirs pro aerar le solo, e herse pro franger le massas de terra. Villages, ecclesias e castellos fortificate forma le paisage del campanias. Le retorno a un pace relative favorisa le circulation del mercantias e del homines, le circulation de moneta e le renaissance del urbes. Le artesanos e mercatores se revolta rapidemente contra le autoritate oppressive del seniores laic o ecclesiastic e succede a obtener chartas de libertate, que los permitte de autoadministrar se. In le urbes, le artesanos del mesme profession se reuni in corporationes professional multo rigide e protectionista. Le 13e seculo consacra le radiation de Francia. Le historicos crede que durante iste seculo, le population passa de 12 milliones a 20 milliones de habitantes, gratias al melioration del practica agricole, que permitteva le augmento del rendementos del terras cultivate. Isto non impediva que le campanias esseva agitate per revoltas, sovente local, contra le derectos feudal o le decima. Totevia, le 13e seculo es le epocha del chartas de affranchissement, que permitteva al paysanos de meliorar lor condition juridic e fiscal. Paris deveni le urbe le plus importante del Occidente christian, con quasi 200 000 habitantes, le duople de Venetia. Su prestigio es mantenite per su universitate, su edificios religiose famose in tote le christianitate, tal como le Sainte-Chapelle ubi es conservate le reliquias del corona de spinas e del baston de Moses, le cathedral de Notre-Dame de Paris, su ateliers de miniaturas e de ebore. Totevia, ja desde le medio del 13e seculo, signales de fatigation economic appare. Le parve seniores deveni plus paupere. Le crescentia del population resultava in un fragmentation del tenentias. Le disnivello cresceva in le urbes inter le riccos e le pauperes, provocante revoltas del populo "minime" contra le populo "grasse", con strikes e conflictos in urbes como Douai, Paris, Ypres, etc. ==== Le fin del Capetios directe ==== Le linea del Capetianos directe se termina con le regnos successiv del tres filios de Philippe IV, qui mori sin hereditarie mascul. Quando Charles IV le Belle, le ultime filio de Philippe le Belle, mori in 1328, es le prime vice desde le election de Hugues Capet que le rege defuncte non ha un herede mascul. Duo pretendentes es in lucta : Eduard III, rege de Angleterra, nepote de Philippe le Belle, e Philippe de Valois, nepote (per fratre) de Philippe le Belle. Le assemblea del grandes del regno prefere Philippe, proque ille es de Francia e plus mature que su juvene rival anglese. Iste evento marca le initio del dynastia del Capetianos-Valois, un ramo collateral del Capetianos directe. === Crisis e mutationes del basse Medievo (del 14e al 15e seculo) === Tote le Occidente es affligite per le faminas, le [[peste nigre]] e multe conflictos. Ma Francia, le stato le plus popolate de Europa, es ancora plus toccate per iste calamitas, tanto plus que illo es le scena de un guerra sin fin inter 1337 e 1453: le [[Guerra del Cento Annos]]. ==== Le tempore del crisis ==== Al fin del 13e seculo, on observa in Francia un inversion del conjunctura: non ha plus terras a disboscar. Le production agricole stagna, durante que le population continua a augmentar. Le exhaustion del minas de auro e argento frena le disveloppamento del moneta, e per consequentia, le cambiamentos commercial. Ab le initio del 14e seculo usque al fin del 15e seculo, tote Europa experi un parve etate glacial: le hibernos es plus long e plus frigid, le estates plus fresc e humid, lo que face putrescer le recoltas sur le campo. Le crises economic resultante causa disordines politic e social, accentuate per le debilitate de alcun reges durante le Guerra de Cent Annos. Durante le annos 1315-1317, le mal clima causa recoltas insufficiente. Le precio del cereales cresce, lo que genera famina con un surmortalitate del plus paupere. Le faminas persiste usque al fin del 15e seculo. Le situation del rusticos es catastrophic: o illes consuma le granos reservate pro semination, e le famina se aggrava le anno sequente, o illes conserva le granos, e al fin del hiberno, le mortalitate cresce per manco de nutrimento. Le textos del epocha relata etiam de lupos entrant in le urbes pro trovar nutrimento, car illes mesme es private de preda. Ab 1348, le peste, que jam devastava Francia in le [[Antiquitate]] e le alte Medievo, retorna con fortia, causante le morte de quasi un tertio del population francese. In 1361-1363 e in 1418-1419, un forma de peste colpa durmente le infantes. Le revoltas se multiplica, specialmente in Paris: le revolta de Étienne Marcel, le revolta del Cabochianos. In le campos, le jacqueries es numerose. Le differente crises habeva tamen aspectos positive. Le rusticos e artesanos que survive al faminas e al peste vide un melioramento de lor condition de vita, gratias al augmento del salarios causate per le raritate del mano de obra. Le nobilitate, decimate in le grande battalias del Guerra de Cent Annos, se renova. Le burgenses compra dominios seneschal. ==== Le guerra de Cento Anos ==== Le Guerra de Cento Annos oppone Francia e Angleterra pro le succession al throno de Francia, ab 1337 usque 1453. Malgrado lo que su nomine pote suggerer, illa non es continue, ma comprende 55 annos de trêva e 61 annos de combatto. Illa non tocca tote le regno, ma illa apporta desolation e morte ubi illa occurre : pillationes, epidemias e desertification accompania le bandos de mercenarios que, in absentia de intendencia e de salario regular, se paga per devastar le regiones ubi illes reside, mesmo illas del principe que los emplea. Durante iste interminabile conflicto, le territorio francese deveni le scena de combattos episodic ma ferocissime inter le reges de Francia e le reges de Angleterra. Le Anglese gaude de un superioritate tactic de lor armea, specialmente per lor archeros. Illes inflige al cavalleria francese, ben que multo superior in numero, duo grave derrotas : a Crécy in 1346, e a Poitiers, in un combatto in le qual le rege Johannes II le Bon es capturate. Le delfino Charles es obligate a signar le tractato de Brétigny in 1360, que concede al Anglese plus que un tertio del regno francese, e require le pagamento de un enorme rançon de 3 milliones de scutos de auro pro liberar Johannes II le Bon — le equivalente de duo annos de entratas regal. Ille mori in Londres in 1364, ante que le rançon esseva totalmente pagate. Su filio, Charles V, es un stratega astute : le pace obtenite le restitue le medios pro iniciar le reconquesta del territorios perdite, evitante le grande battalias in campo aperte. Ille confide le reconquesta a grande capitanores como Du Guesclin, qui reipara placia post placia per un strategia de assedios successive. In 1377, le Anglese controla solmente Bayonne, Bordeaux, Brest, Calais e Cherbourg. Le restitution es provisorie. Le folie de Charles VI plunge le pais in guerra civil inter Philippe le Hardi, duce de Burgundia e Louis de Orléans, fratre del rege. Iste ultime prende le controlo del Stato e se aliga con seniores del sud-west que es hostil al rege de Angleterra. Le accento de iste meridionales da le nomine al partisanos del duce de Orléans : le Armagnacs. Le duce de Burgundia ha interesse a mantener bon relationes con le Angleses, qui commercia con su comtato de Flandria. Iste ultimi profita del confusion pro lancear un chevauchée devastator per Francia. Post evitar Paris, illes travalia le Picardia verso Calais. Illes es reunite a Azincourt in 1415 per le flor del cavalleria francese. Le Francese patte de novo un grave derrota contra un armea anglese exhauste e inferior in numero : le partito del Armagnacs es quasi decapitate. Le duce de Burgundia, Johannes sin Paura, profita del situation pro occupar le Champagne e Paris. Su filio, Philippe le Bon, persuade Charles VI a signar le tractato de Troyes, le 21 de maio 1420, que stipula : * Charles VI debe disheredar su filio, le delfino Charles. Ille lo declara incapace de regnar, proque ille faceva occider le duce de Burgundia, Johannes sin Paura, le 10 de septembre 1419. * Le rege Henric V de Angleterra deveni immediatemente regente del regno de Francia e debe maritar Catherine de Francia, filia del rege fol. * Al morte de Charles VI, le regno de Francia debe revenir al filio de Henric V e Catherine. Quando Charles VI mori in 1422, Francia es dividite in tres partes: * Le norde e west es sub le controlo del fratre de Henric V, Johannes de Lancastre, duce de Bedford, como regente del juvene rege anglese, le futur Henric VI. * Le nord-est, ubi le duce de Burgundia es quasi independent. * Le sud del Loire, ubi le delfino prende le titulo de Charles VII, ma es appellate per le propaganda anglese le "rege de Bourges", pro metter in dubita su legitimitate (pois que le castello de Bourges es su residence preferite). Le Angleses, per lor strategia de pillage (le famose chevauchées), deveniva detestate per le populo, e solmente recipeva le supporto del artesanos e del universitarios del grande urbes. Le rol de Johanna d’Arc es politic e psychologic – illa catalysa iste voluntate de "expeller le Angleses foras de Francia" – ma es etiam militar, per su participation active al liberation de Orléans, e postea al victoriose campania in le valle del Loire. Illa insisteva pro que Charles VII esseva sacrate a Reims le 17 de julio 1429 – un gesto de altissime signification symbolic, que al epocha esseva interpretate como un nove signo del voluntate divine, proque Reims se trovava in pleno territorio burgundian. Illa consolida assi le legitimitate del rege, facente oblidar le rumores que le accusava de esser le filio illegitime del duce de Orléans. Le via es tunc libere pro le reconquista del territorio francese. Le rol militar de Johanna d’Arc diminue progressive : durante le hiberne 1429, illa captura le village de Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier, ma falle ante le bourgada de La Charité-sur-Loire, e es finalmente capturate ante Compiègne, le 24 de maio 1430. Charles VII face le pace con le Burgundianos in 1435 (tractato de Arras), e, private de lor potente alliate, le Angleses es finalmente expellite de Francia in 1453 post le battalia de Castillon. Le reges de Francia recupera postea lor prestigio e autoritate. Illes ha ancora un potente adversario in le duces de Burgundia, Philippe le Bon e Charles le Temerari, qui ha addite le Paeses Basse a lor possessiones burgundian, e se presenta como inter le plus potente sovranos de Europa. Charles VII e su filio Louis XI los considera como lor principales rivales. Al morte de le Temerari, su possessiones que proveniva del familia capetian es recuperate per Ludovico XI, ma le Paeses Basse retorna a su unic filia, Maria de Burgundia, qui los apporta a su marito Maximiliano de Austria : iste division deveni un fonte de conflicto inter le domos de Francia e de Austria. Le Medievo se conclude con le fin del independentia de facto del grande principalitates, como le ducato de Burgundia (1482) e le ducato de Britannia (vincite in 1488, annexate in 1491, e formalmente unite al regno in 1532). == Le Epoca moderne == === Evolutiones e perturbationes del 16e seculo === ==== Le affirmation del potentia regale ==== Desde le fin del 15e seculo usque al fin del prime medietate del 16e seculo, le politica exterior francese es largemente dominate per le guerra de Italia. Le Valois vole affirmar le derectos hereditate de lor ancestres super le regno de Neapole e le ducato de Milano. In 60 annos, illes conquista e perde 4 vices Neapole, e 6 vices le ducato de Milano. Finalmente, illes renuncia a omne ambition in Italia. On pote questionar se tal expeditiones, continuemente recommenciate e terminante sempre per insuccessos, esseva utile. Plure factores explica isto : le attraction del ricchessas e del cultura del prestigiose citates italiane, le voluntate de controlar passages strategicamente importante pro menaciar le interesses del Habsburgos ab le sud. In le 16e seculo, le strategias militar se developpa inter altere cosas circa le idea de frontiera offensive: le objectivo es occupar punctos strategic pro privar le adversario de illos, plus que pro aggrandir le territorio del regno. In 1519, Charles V, rege de Hispania desde 1516, herita le possessiones del Habsburgos (Imperio de Austria, Paeses Basse, Franche-Comté). Francia deveni le obstaculo a cader pro unificar territorialmente su terras. Ille dispone tamben del inexhaustibile reservas de auro e argento del colonias hispanic in America. Francisco I se presenta invane al election del Sacro Imperio Romano Germanic pro limitar le influentia del Habsburgos. Ille falla mesmo a securisar le alliantia de Enrico VIII. A partir de 1521, Francia initia un guerra longe e difficile, comenciate per le desastre de Pavia in febrero 1525. Francisco I, impregnante del valores cavalleresce, refusa receder e es capturate. Ille es obligate a signar le tractato de Madrid in 1526, que amputa un tertio del territorio francese, ma ille reinicia le guerra immediatemente post liberation. In 1529, ille debe renunciar le suzeranitate de Flandria e Artois, duo possessiones de Charles V. Iste ultime renuncia a revendicar Burgundia.[48] Ben que combate le Reform, Francisco I se alia con le principes protestante germanic e etiam con le sultano del Imperio Ottoman, Solimano le Magnifice, pro allargar le pressiones super le Habsburgos. Enrico II continua le luta. Ille reconquista le Boulonnais e le Calaisis del Angleses. In cambio de su supporto al principes reformate germanic in guerra contra Charles V, ille obtine le derecto de occupar Calais, Metz, Toul e Verdun. In 1559, le tractato del Cateau-Cambrésis firma finalmente le pace inter Francia e Hispania. In le 16e seculo, le guerra se transforma radicalmente. Le artilleria, decisive in battalias naval e in assedios, comencia a esser usate anque in combattos in campo aperte. Francia, pro mantener su potentia in le joc europee, debe non solmente mantener un armea permanente (le ''compagnies d’ordonnance'' create per Charles VII), ma anque posseder forte artilleria e construir forteressas capace de resister al nove technicas de guerra. Le Renascentia italian invadi Francia, principalmente per le guerre de Italia. Francisco I invita [[Leonardo da Vinci]] a su corte. Es le epoca del construction del castellos del Loire : Blois, Chambord, Chenonceau, locos ubi triumpha le vita de corte. Le sculptura, le pictura e le architectura frances se transforma sub le influentia del modello italian, dando nascentia al ''Renaissance'' francese, culminante in le schola de Fontainebleau. Francisco I es le prime rege de Francia a comprender que le radiation artistic de un pais es un elemento de gloria e potentia. Consciente del importantia del possessiones colonial, ille financia expeditiones remote. In 1534, le breton [[Jacques Cartier]] discoperi le Nova Francia, que devenira postea le Canada. Tote isto costa multo. Le taille se quadrupla durante le seculo : de 5 a 20 milliones de livres.[49] Ma le ressources fiscal es insufficiente pro sustiner le spesas. Le reges de Francia recorre al emprunt – le debito se duplica inter 1522 e 1550 – e al banqueroute in 1558 e 1567, que annulla parte del debitos e reescalona le pagamento, e al venalitate del officios. Un officium es un function public quam su detentor non pote esser removite desde 1467, e que ille compra. Si le venalitate ja existeva in le 15e seculo, Luis XII e Francisco I la expandeva systematicamente. Con illo nasce le hereditate del office, oficialisate per le creation de la Paulette in 1604 (un taxa annual de 1/60 del valor de compra). Si le beneficios es clar, anque le inconvenientes lo es : fluctuationes e corruptiones abundava. Sub le regno de Francisco I, le [[Auvernia-Rhodano-Alpes|Auvernia]] se integra definitivamente al dominio regal. Enrico IV acquista le Bresse, le Bugey, e le territorio de Gex, permittente le interrumpimento del communicationes inter le Habsburgos. A prime tempore, ille refuse unificar al corona su feudos personale pro proteger le interesses de su soror. Le Parlamento de Paris rejecta, in 1590, le registration del litteras que separa le bones patrimonial del familia de Navarra del dominio regal. Post le morte de su soror, Enrico IV accepta integrar su feudos al dominio regal. Es etiam in le 16e seculo que se formula le ''theorie de l’inalienabilitate'' del dominio regal : le rege non pote plus donar feudos come apanage a su cadetes. ==== Le guerras de religion ==== Le regnos del tres filios de Henrico II – Francisco II (1559–1560), Carlos IX (1560–1574) e Henrico III (1574–1589) – es marcate per le guerras de religion inter protestantes e catholicos. Le Reformation se ha diffuse in Francia a partir de 1520, usque al puncto que in 1562, data del initio del octo guerras de religion, un decimo del population esseva devenite protestante[50]. Iste guerra civil es marcate per le massacre del Sancte Bartholomee, le 24 augusto 1572 e le dies sequente, ubi le protestantes es attaccate in lor proprie domos, resultante in plure milles de victimas in Paris e in provincias. Le guerra civil representa etiam un grave menacia al unitate territorial. Le protestantes e le liguistas face promissas a souveranos estranier pro obtener adjuta. Per exemplo, le reformates promette a Elisabeth I de Anglaterra restituer le Calaisis in cambio de su intervention. In ultra, le disordines permitte a cata faction presente de usurpar partes del poder regal. Le principes catholic es omnipotente in le regiones que illes ha obtinite como governatores, como le Guise in Burgundia e le Montmorency in Languedoc. Le edicta de Beaulieu de 1576 permitte al protestantes de celebrar lor culto publicamente ubique, excepte in Paris. Illes pote occupar octo plazas forte e gaude de cameras mixtas in le parlamentos. Illes forma a iste momento un ver Stato huguenote intra le Stato. Le edicta de Nantes de 1598 solmente revoca parte de iste privilegios. Post le assassinio ordinate per Henrico III del duca de Guise, capite del Liga Catholic in Francia, le Universitate de Theologia del Sorbona decreta, in un assemblage del 7 januario 1589, le deposition del rege tyrannic. Iste mesme assemblage declara que « le populo francese esseva deligate del juramento de fidelitate prestat a Henrico III e que illes poteva prender armas pro defender le religion ». Isto basta pro incitar le monacho Jacques Clément a assassinar le rege sex menses plus tarde[51]. Le throno, sin herede in le linea del Valois, passa a un linea cadette, le Bourbon, in le persona de Henrico IV, antea rege de Navarra. Ma como ille es protestante, ille non es recognoscite per le ultra-catholicos del Liga. Ille debe reconquirer su regno e se converter al catholicismo, lo que ille face in 1593. Un vice su poter consolidate, Henrico IV pone fin al guerras de religion per le promulgation del edicta de Nantes in 1598. Adjutate per su ministro Sully, Henrico IV labora pro restabilir un regno durmente affligite per le guerras de religion. Quando Henrico IV es assassinate per Ravaillac, un fanatico catholic, in 1610, ille lassa a su filio Ludovico XIII un regno considerabilemente refortiate. === Le epoca classic: del 17e al 18e seculo === ==== Le grande seculo ==== Durante le seculos 16 e 17, le theoria del monarchia absolute prende sempre plus de extension. Su principal instrumento in le provincias es le officiarios de justitia, qui cerca a reducer le derectos de justitia senhorial. Le justitia es in effecto un medio potente de unification del pais. Omne casos pote esser appellate al Consilio del Rege per le medio del evocationes. Le costume de Paris tende a imponer se como le derecto commun coutumari. Louis XIII (1601–1643) habeva nove annos quando su patre Henric IV esseva assassinate in 1610. Su matre, Maria de Medici, assumeva le regentia con su favoritos e negligeva le education del juvene rege. Louis XIII la removit del poter in 1617 per facer assassinar su favorito Concini. A partir de 1624, ille regnava in strette collaboration con su principal ministro, le cardinal Richelieu, que ille supportava contra le intrigas del nobiles, furiose de esser excluse del poter. Ille menava un politica de domestication del grande senhores del regno (affaire del conte de Chalais in 1626), e de durification verso le protestantes, al quales ille successiva remover le placias forte que le Edito de Nantes les concedeva. Ille installava intendentes de justitia, policia e finantia in le provincias. In contrasto con le officiarios, istos esseva commissarios revocabile. Illes esseva indispensable in le regiones de frontiera o occupate per le Francese. Illes ibi garantiva le ordine, combatteva le pillages del soldatos francese e vigilava le fidelitate del subditos, in particular del nobiles e del citates. Le rege accentuava le centralisation favorisante le atellier de moneta de Paris in detrimento de illos in provincias. Desde 1635, Louis XIII e le cardinal Richelieu se implicava in le Guerra de Trenta Annos (1618–1648), al latere del princes germano protestante, pro reducer le potentia del dynastia de Habsburg – de Hispania, le prime potentia europee a ille tempore, e de Austria, al capite del Sacre Imperio Roman Germanic. Pro affaibilir le monarchia Habsburg, le Francese occupava placias forte e controlava le passes strategic que les connecteva con lor alligatos, in Alsatia, Lotharingia e Piemonte. Le grande augmentation del pression fiscal, causate per le guerra, provocava multe revoltas popular: in 1636–1637 le revolta del croquants in Saintonge–Périgord, e in 1639, le revolta del va-nu-pieds in Normandia, brutalmente reprimite. Louis XIV habeva quatro annos e medie quando su patre moriva in 1643. Su matre, Anna de Austria, assumeva le regentia con le cardinal Mazarin. Usque 1661, data de su morte, esseva iste ultime qui governava de facto, mesmo post le majoritate de Louis XIV. Ille continuava le efforto de guerra initiate per Richelieu. Le truppas francese gania victorias decisive que permitteva terminar le Guerra de Trenta Annos (1618–1648). Le Tractato de Münster, de octobre 1648, accordava a Francia quasi tote Alsatia, confirmava le possession del tres episcopatos e donava tres fortresses a Francia sur le ripa dextere del Rheno: Landau, Philippsburg e Brisach. Mazarin continuava assi le politica de expansion verso le Sacre Imperio Roman Germanic comenciate per le cardinal Richelieu. Le conflicto continuava tamen con Hispania usque 1659. Con le Pace del Pyrenees, le dominio regal se expandiva con le Rossillon, Artois e certe placias in Hainaut, como Thionville e Montmédy. Louis XIV se maritava con le infanta de Hispania, Maria Theresa de Austria. Pro le prime vice, in un tractato signate per Francia, le frontiera inter Francia e Hispania esseva definite per le natura: « le crestas del montanias que forma le pendites del aquas ». A la morte de Mazarin, in 1661, Louis XIV declara que ille va governar sol, isto es, sin un primo ministro. Ille require de su secretarios de Stato un obedientia strictissime e les prohibe de prender decisiones sin su autorisation. Pro esser secur de esser obedite, ille selige su ministros inter le burguesia, como Colbert o Le Tellier. Le regno de Louis XIV marca un centralisation extrem del poter regal. Le grande decisiones es prendite per le consilio superior, que se reuni duo o tres vices per septimana, e in le qual sede solmente 3 a 5 ministros. Le intendentes es plus que jammais le voce del rege in le provincias. Desde le initio de su regno personal (1661–1715), Louis XIV comencia a restabilir le autoritate regal. Le governatores del provincias, proveniente del alte nobilitate, non ha plus armeas a lor disposition e debe resider al corte, lo que rende plus difficile le clientelismo. In 1665, Louis XIV interdice al parlamentos de deliberar super le edictos e les ordina de los registrar sin voto. Le estatos provincial de Normandia, Périgord, Alvernia, Rouergue, Guyenne e Dauphiné dispare. Con Colbert, ille incipe a reformar le justitia e face redactar un serie de ordonnantias o codices applicabile in tote le regno. Non essente certe del fidelitate del officiarios proprietarios de cargas hereditari, ille confide lor functiones a commissarios revocabile. Iste methodo finiva per obligar le officiarios al obedientia. Le nobilitate perde tote poter politic. Illa es domesticate a Versailles, ubi su major inquietude es de esser notate per le rege. Pro isto, illa debe facer expenses excessive e es reducite a petir pensiones al rege pro mantener su modo de vita fastuose. Louis XIV pensa que le guerra es le vocation natural de un rege. Ma al initio de su regno, le armea es ancora un enterprise private monopoliate per le nobilitate. Sub le direction de Le Tellier, e postea de su filio Louvois, le officiarios es controlate per administratores civil qui applica regulationes strictissime, les privante de un grande parte de lor poter. Le effortos pro modernisar e disciplinar le armea permitte a Louis XIV de obtener victorias splendidissime in le prime parte de su regno personal. Le guerra de Devolution (1667–1668) le permitte de conquistar nove placias forte in le nord de Francia, inter illos Dunkerque, Lille e Douai. Le tractatos de Nimègue in 1678 pone fin al guerra de Hollande. Louis XIV non pote reducer le Países Basse, ma obtene le Franche-Comté al detrimento de Hispania. Cambios de placias forte permitte de regularisar le frontiera in le nord. In 1680–1681, Louis XIV, forte de su domination sin opposition sur Europa, lancia le politica del « réunions ». Le scopo es de connecter le catena de fortresses construite per Vauban. In plena pace, ille annexa inter alteres Nancy e Strasburgo. Iste violation del derecto international indigna le statos europee. Louis XIV se aliena le statos protestante quando ille revoca le edicto de Nantes in 1685. Su relationes con Anglaterra deveni tensionate. De facto, Francia comencia a poplar le Nove Francia inter 1635 e 1654; Guadeloupe es conquistate per Liénard de l'Olive e Duplessis d'Ossonville, e in 1682, Cavelier de La Salle descoperi lo que ille nomina Louisiana. Le franceses funda comptores commercial in India, lo que compete con le planos britannic. Le 25 septembre 1688, Louis XIV lancia un ultimatum postulante que le treva que le accordava le occupation del « réunions » pro 20 annos deveni un tractato definitive. Ille face occupar e devastar le Palatinato, de cuje successione ille se reclama herede. Isto provoca le guerra del Liga de Augsburg, dirigite per Guillaume d’Orange, stathouder de Hollande, devenite rege de Anglaterra con su esposa Marie II. Le guerra es indecise e extrememente costose, in un periodo in le qual Francia suffre un fame general in 1693. Louis XIV accepta de negociar : ille rende le « réunions » ma conserva Strasburgo per le tractato de Ryswick in 1697. Le guerra de Successione de Hispania, menate per un coalition europee pro impedir que le comte d’Anjou, secunde filio del delphino, deveni rege de Hispania, comencia in 1701. Post alcun victorias, Francia experientia multe reversos. Le pace es signate a Utrecht in 1714, e confirma le accession de un ramo del Bourbon al throno hispanic. Le vetule rege, qui mori in 1715, vide morir su filio e su nepote ante ille. Su herede es dunque su bis-nipote nascite in 1710. ==== Le seculo del Illuminismo ==== Louis XV rege de 1715 usque a 1774. Habente solmente cinque annos al morte de su bisavo Louis XIV, le poter es affidate a un consilio de regentia dirigite per le duca de Orléans. Iste hava curate de facer cassar le testamento del defuncte rege, le qual limitava su poter, per le parlamento de Paris, in cambio de un restitution del derecto de remonstrantia. Assi, un del poteres autonome muzzlate per Louis XIV retrova su facultate de contestation del monarchia, lo que ille va utilisar durante tote le 18e seculo. Le epocha es marcate per un relaxation del morales, un explosion economic e le speculation. Le gusto pro productos exotic favorisa le developpamento del portos atlantic. Le mercatores de productos colonial, le monarchia e le traficantes de sclavos face fortunas splendidissime, e le colonos importa productos manufacturate ex Francia. Le porto de Nantes se developpa rapidemente, e le negrieros se face construer imposante naves a Nantes, Bordeaux e La Rochelle. Nove-Orléans es fundate in 1718. Quando le regente mori in 1723, Louis XV se appoia sur un de su ministros, Fleury, su ancian preceptore, in qui ille ha plena fide, usque al morte de iste in 1743. A partir de ille anno, le rege prende directemente le reins del poter. Sub su regno, Francia se aggrandi. In 1735, le Lorraine, un principato souveran plure vices occupate per Francia, es date a Stanislas Leszczynski, rege malfortunose, expellite del throno de Polonia per le Russos e le Austriacos, e socrate de Louis XV. Al morte de Stanislas in 1766, le Lorraine entra in le dominio royal. Le Corsica, de facto independente desde 1755, es symbolicamente cedite per le republica de Gênes in 1768, e militarmente subjugate post le battalia de Ponte-Novo in maio 1769. Previamente, in 1762, le regione del Dombes etiam retornava al dominio del corona. Sub le regnos de Louis XV e Louis XVI, on initia un politica de simplification e regularisation del frontieras. Le objectivo es de proceder a cambios de placias avantiate con statos vicin pro evitar le enclaves — tanto francesas extra le frontieras como estrangeiras intra le territorio. In 1789, il non existe plus que tres enclaves estrangeiras in territorio francese : Avignon e le Comtat, que pertine al papa ; le principato de Montbéliard ; e le republica de Mulhouse. Es in le 18e seculo que se forma le theoria del frontieras natural de Francia. Un memoria inviate al rege dice : « Francia debe ver se limitate per le Rheno e nunquam cercar de facer ulle conquista in Germania. Si ella se impone como lege de non ultra passar iste barriera, ni le alteres que le natura le ha assignate al occidente e al sud – mar oceanic, Pyrénees, mar Mediterranee, Alpes, Mosa e Rheno – illa devenirea le arbitro de Europa, capace de mantener le pace in vice de turbar lo ». Durante su regno, Louis XV refusa plure vices le propositiones que le es facite de annexar le País Basse austriac (le actual Belgica) in cambio de su alliantia o de su neutralitate, sin que le historicos comprende clarmente le ration. Le refusos de Louis XIV e Louis XV monstra que iste idea non es ancora le doctrina official del Stato. Perdente le Guerra del Septe Annos (1756–1763), Francia perde su importantia politic ultramarin, in particular in America (perdida de Nove Francia) e in India (ubi illa conserva solmente Yanaon, Chandernagor, Karikal, Mahé e Pondichéry), in cessione a su rivala Grande-Bretagne per le tractato de Paris de 1763. Le regno de Louis XV es multo brillante in le dominio cultural, con le apparition del philosophos del Illumination, tal como Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot e D’Alembert. Le plus grande problema del Stato in iste periodo es le deficit budgetari chronic, lo que rende le rege dependente del financiatores e del manipulatores de moneta. Un altere fonte de paralyse del systemas de governamento es le opposition del parlamentos, que se presenta como defensor del leges del regno e como un contra-poter. Opponente se a omne tentativa de reformas del regno, illos contribue al crise del monarchia absolute sub le regno de Louis XVI. Le nepote de Louis XV, Louis XVI, accede al poter in 1774. Il es gauque e timide. Il vive in un corte regial plen de intrigas e coteries. Su regno es marcate per un politica vellitari. Facie al pressiones del corte, del parlamentos e del nobilitate, ille es incapace de prender le medidas necessari pro compensar le debita public e un deficit budgetari disproportionate. Le adjuta apportate al insurgentes american aggrava ancora le deficit. Plure altere factores explica le difficultates del monarchia absolute. Malgrado le tentativas de centralisation administrative, le pais es longe de esser unificate. Il existe duanas interior inter le provincias, e il non ha un unitate de pesos e medidas. Tote isto impedi le developpamento economic de Francia in un momento ubi Angleterra es in pleno initio del revolution industrial. Le impotes non es percipite del mesme maniera in tote le pais, mesmo si le intendentes supervisiona lor repartition e collection. Malgré le effortios initiate desde François I con le ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts, le leges non es le mesme in tote le regno. Le norte es ancora submittite al derecto coutumier, con circa 300 coutumes, durante que le sud es regite per un derecto scribite, inspirate per le derecto roman. Le Ancien Régime habeva le habitude de non supprimer nihil ma solmente superimponer. Assi, in le annos 1780, il existe un enchevrecamento de circumscriptiones de dimensiones e functiones differente : dioceses del Antiquitate, bailliages e sénéchaussées del Medio Evo, généralités del 16e seculo. Per exemplo : « Un habitante de Saint-Mesnin resideva in le bailliage de Semur, pagava su impositiones al recepta de Semur, habeva affaire al subdelegato de Vitteaux e al episcopo de Dijon. Si alcun affaire concernente aqua e silvas le reteneva, ille debeva presentar se al maestria de Avallon ; si ille habeva besonio de justitia consular, su viage le menava a Saulieu. » Iste confusion se explica per le maniera in le qual le domaine royal se formava. A cata acquisition, le reges prometteva de respectar le privilegios e le costumes del provincias e del citates. Al aurore del Revolution, le particularismos regional remaneva multo vive. === Formation de un prime imperio colonial === Es durante le epoca moderne e sub le direction del Bourbons que Francia se dota de un prime imperio ultra-marin, elaborante, pro le prime vice in su historia, un vaste projecto de colonisation. Illo, que vermente comencia in le prime medietate del 17e seculo, se appuia principalemente sur le commercio maritime de saccharo con le Antillas, le traffico de negros proveniente de Africa, e le commercio de pellas in America del Nord. Malgré le effortios de Richelieu e postea de Colbert, le vaste insimul que forma le Nouvelle-France — extendite ab le actual Québec usque al valle del Mississippi — nunquam vermente attinge su potential de developpamento, excepte in alcun punctos localisate, a causa de un debilitate demographica recurrente e del interesse decrescente del potentia regal pro iste regiones remote. Le possessiones antillese, al contrario, prospera ab le fin del 17e seculo e attinge le culmine de un systema commercial atlantic lucrative que attrahe plus e plus le attention del monarchia. Le India es etiam objecto de conquisitiones francese, ma sin successo facie al britannicos durante le 18e seculo. In le mesme tempore, plure comptores, specialmente in le actual Senegal, es implantate sur le costa occidental de Africa pro servir como bases pro le commercio de sclavos. Illos devenira, plus tarde, le puncto de partida del secunde expansion colonial de Francia sur le continente african. ==== Nova-Francia ==== In le 16e seculo, marinos francese comencia a navigar le long del costas nord-oriental de [[America del Nord]]. In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano explora, in nomine de Francisco I, le litoral e le regiones circum le actual [[New York (citate)|New York]], postea descende usque al Antillas. Dece annos plus tarde, in 1534, le mesme Francisco I invia le navigator [[Jacques Cartier]], originario de Saint-Malo, pro explorar nove terras circa Terra-Nova. Cartier attinge le estuari del fluvio San-Laurent, lo risale, prende possession official del territorios in nomine del rege de Francia, e visita plure campamentos amerindian. Un secunde viage se face le anno sequente, durante le qual Cartier arriva usque al actual [[Montreal]], crede haber discoperite un region ric in auro, e motiva le rege a preparar un tertie expedition, iste vice pro colonisation. Ma iste expedition de 1541 es un fiasco, e on debe attender quasi un medie seculo ante le installation real del franceses sur le rivas del San-Laurent. Malgrado le insuccesso de iste prime tentativo de colonisation e le guerras de religione que distrahite le attention del monarchia francese ab America, le flottas de piscatores breton, basc e normand frequenta regularemente le costas de Terra-Nova e le estuari del San-Laurent pro le pescata de morue, assecurante un presentia indirecte e periodic de Francia. Profitante de iste presentia, que se intensifica ab le annos 1580, Henric IV, post le fin del guerras religiose e con le voluntate de relanciar le effortios maritime e colonial francese, accorda in 1598 e in 1603 monopolos commercial, con le objectivo de favorisar le installation a Terra-Nova. Es in [[Acadia]] que le colonisation comencia vermente, quando Pierre Dugua de Mons e Jean de Poutrincourt funda Port-Royal in 1605. In 1608, [[Québec]] es officialmente fundate per [[Samuel de Champlain]], qui se effortia de developpar le colonia nascent. In 1614, Champlain concludi, in nomine de Francia, un alliantia con le Hurones, implicante le franceses in le guerra contra le Iroqueses, inimicos del Hurones. In le mesme tempore, al sud, le angleses se installa in [[Virginia]] (1607) e in [[Massachusetts]] (1620), e le hollandeses face lo in [[Manhattan]]. Le Nouvelle-France se extende sol lentemente, premente per le Iroqueses e limitate per medios politic, militar e economic modeste, mesmo ridicule. Cardinal Richelieu, qui comprende le valor del commercio maritime e del expansion colonial, relancia partialmente le colonia que le regentia de Marie de Médicis habeva abandonate. In 1627, ille crea le Compagnie des Cent-Associés, con le monopolo de tote commercio con le Nouvelle-France e etiam su administration. Tamen, le compania non succede a affirmar se. Illa suffre reversos militar in 1629, quando le angleses sasi Québec — retornate in 1631 — e destrue un flotta de reforcios, e reversos commercial, pois le commercio de pellas non pote compensar le debita crescente. Le compania survive un poc plus de vinti annos post le morte de Richelieu, usque su dissolution per Louis XIV in 1663. Es etiam durante le epocha moderne e sub le regno del Bourbons que Francia se dota de su prime imperio transmarin, in elaborante, pro le prime vice in su historia, un vaste empresa de colonisation. Iste effortios, que comencia vermente in le prime medietate del 17e seculo, se basa principalemente sur le commercio maritim de saccharo con le Antillas, le commercio de sclavos ab Africa, e le commercio de pellas in America del Nord. Malgrado le effortios de Richelieu e postea de Colbert, le vaste insimul que forma le Nouvelle-France — que se extende del actual Quebec usque al valle del Mississippi — non succede vermente a developpar se, excepte in alcun punctos localisate, a causa del persistentemente basse population e del interesse decrescente del monarchia pro iste terras remote. Le possessiones antillese, al contrario, prospera a partir del fin del 17e seculo e deveni le centro de un systema commercial atlantic lucrative, que attrahente plus e plus le attention del monarchia. Le India es etiam objecto del ambitos francese, ma Francia non succede a superar le britannicos in le 18e seculo, e conserva solmente alcun comptoirs: in Yanaon, Chandernagor, Karikal, Mahé e Pondichéry. Similmente, diverse postes commercial es implantate in le costa occidental del Africa (notabilemente in le actual Senegal) pro servir como bases pro le commercio de sclavos. Iste locos devenira, plus tarde, le puncto de departo del secunde expansion colonial francese in le continente african. ==== Antillas e America del Sud ==== In 1635, [[Guadalupe]] e [[Martinica]] passa sub controlo francese. Le cultura del tabaco, que requireva multe mano de obra, esseva initialmente assicurate per servitores contractuale europee. Ma le tabaco del Virginia, plus competitive, reduce le rentabilitate del production antillese. Pro isto, a partir del annos 1660 e 1670, le islas se orienta verso le cultivation del canna a sucre, lo que deveni le fonte principal de lor prosperitate. Al mesme tempore, Louis XIV invia un governator al bucaniers del insula de [[Hispaniola]], que esseva installate in [[Santo Domingo]] (actual [[Haiti]], le parte occidental del insula), pro subjugar le communitates bucanier e filibustier al autoritate regal. Le operation es un successo : in 1697, [[Espania]], presente in le parte oriental del insula, reconosce le possession francese de Santo Domingo. Durante le annos sequente, le exportation de sucre se developpa rapidemente, e ultrapassa celle de [[Jamaica]], que tamen esseva un grande productor britannic. Le commercio de sclavos african assume un rolo crescente con le expansion del cultura del canna a sucre, que exige un forte quantitates de laboratores in un periodo ubi le servitores europee deveni plus rare. Illo conduce al formation del commercio triangular transatlantic : le europeos exchanga armas, munitiones e objectos de poc valor in [[Africa]] per sclavos, qui es vendite in le colonias per productos exotic producite ibi. Iste productos — in particular le sucre — es fortemente demandate in [[Europa]], ubi illos es vendite sur un mercato dynamico e lucrative. Le commercio triangular deveni un systema economic e maritim que concerne tote le Antillas, e contribue tanto al expansion del colonias francese quanto al prosperitate del grande portos como [[Nantes]] e Bordeaux, que se embelli durante iste epocha. == Le periodo revolutionari == Le periodo revolutionari comencia circa 1787. A ille epocha, le monarchia absolute esseva incapace de menar le reformas, specialmente fiscal, indispensabile pro le modernisation de Francia, fronte al contestation del grupos privilegiari, con le parlamentos e le nobilitate in prime linea. De altere parte, le nove ideas promovite per le philosophos del Illumination e le economistas anglese habeva penetrate le stratos agiate del population, que requireva un monarchia parlamentari, le rationalisation del institutiones e le liberalisation de un systema economic archaic. Le reaction nobilitari e le crise economic jocava un rolo non negligibile in le commotion popular. Le periodo revolutionary termina in 1814-1815, quando le emperator Napoleon I esseva exiliate, primo al insula de Elba e postea al insula de Sancte Helena. Traditionalmente, le historianos distingue duo phases major durante le periodo revolutionary: le Revolution francese de 1789 a 1799 e le periodo napoleonic (Consulato e Prime Imperio) de 1799 a 1815. === Le Revolution Francese (1789-1799) === ==== Le nascentia de un Francia nove ==== Le anno 1789 es ric in eventos historic. Incapace de establir un imposto universal, Louis XVI convocava le États généraux pro le 5 de maio 1789 a Versailles. Le deputados del tertie stato succede, in duo menses e sin violentia, a terminar le monarchia absolute con le adjuta de un parte del clero e del nobilitate, facente se recognoscer como assembléa national in sequita del juramento del sala del pelota, pronunciate le 20 de junio 1789. Le 14 de julio 1789, le habitantes de Paris, exasperate per le crise economic, le instabilitate gubernamental e timente le arrivata de tropas circa Paris, prende per assaulto le Bastille, accelerante assi le processo revolutionary initiate per le deputados, facente ceder un symbolo del absolutismo regal. In effecto, le 17 de julio, le rege, venite al hotel de ville de Paris pro ratificar le nove institutiones parisian nascite del presa del Bastille, accepta de portar le cocarda tricolor: le blanc, color regal, inter le duo colores del guarda municipal de Paris, le blau e le rubie. Iste association de colores prefigura le drappo tricolor, usate ab 1794 pro symbolisar le republica. Al fin del mense de julio 1789, le campanias es agitate per le Grande Paura, un revolta contra le derectos feudal. Pro poner fin al agitation, le deputados vota, in le nocte del 4 de augusto 1789, le abolition del privilegios e del derectos feudal. Mesmo si iste ultime es declarate como redimibile durante le redaction del decretos del 4, 6, 7, 8 e 11 de augusto 1789, iste data marca le fin del Ancian Regime e le initio de un nove societate. Le Declaration del derectos del homine e del citatano, votate le 26 de augusto 1789, es su acto de baptismo. Iste texto recognosce le equalitate del citatanos ante le lege, consacra le souveranitate national e legitima le derecto al resistentia contra le oppression. Con le retorno forzate del rege a Paris le 5 e 6 de octobre 1789, le Revolution sembla haber attingite su objectivos: facer nascer un monarchia parlamentari per humiliar le prestigio del rege e limitar su poderes. Le 14 de julio 1790, un anno post le presa del Bastille, le festa del Federation celebra, sur le Champ-de-Mars a Paris, le reconciliation national e le unitate de tote le Francese. Le memoria de iste duo datas conduceva al adoption, in 1880, del data del 14 de julio como festa national del Republica francese. Le abolition del privilegios e del feudalitate impulsa le constituintes, plen de rationalismo e del ideas del Illumination, a reorganisar le Francia pro darle le unité que le haberea mancate. Le assembléa decide de suprimir le intreliceamento del vetule circumscriptiones administrative e decide, le 15 de januario 1790, de crear un circumscription administrative unic pro le justitia, le administration, le religion, le collection del impostos, regentiar le res publica de maniera multo decentralisate. Iste es le creation del 83 prime departamentos, regite per consilios departamental electe e subdividite in districts, cantones e communes. Le suppression del doganas interne, le decision de crear nove unidades de peso e misure basate sur le systema decimal e valente in tote le Francia, le redaction de codices unificante le jure a nivello national, le equalitate in jure pro le protestantes e le judeos es tantissime iniciativas que contribue a consolidar le unité national, creditate al merito del Constituintes. Le suppression del corporatos per le decreto de Allarde e le prohibition del congregationes campestre e operative per le lege Le Chapelier in 1791 participa a iste desiro de unité, ma causa a longe termino un debilitate del corpos intermediate, specialmente del sindicatos. Le question del principes possessores in Alsacia e le annexation de Avignon e del Comtat Venaissin in 1790 permitte al revolutionarios de establir un nove principio del jure international, le jure del populos a disponer de se mesme. Tamen, le reorganisation del clero catholic sin le autorisation del papato causa un division profunde in le regno. Le constitution civil del clero, votate le 12 de julio 1790, transforma le episcopos e le parochianos in officiales electe qui debe prestar juramento de fidelitate al Nation. Iste lege es condemnate per le papa, assi como le Declaration del derectos del homine e del citatano. Le Francia es dividite in duo: le mundo rural supporta plus le sacerdotes refractarios, illes que refuse prestar juramento pro obedecer al papa; le citadinos supporta plus le juratores, illes que accepta le juramento al Nation. Le hostile attitude del rege e de un enorme majoritate del nobilitate verso le cambios es un altere elemento fundamental de division. Multes nobles emigra e forma al frontiera germanic un exercito de emigrantes pronto a interceder. Louis XVI hesita, spera le guerra e un defaite francese pro reciperar su potere absolute. Iste guerra es declarate le 20 de abril 1792 per le nove assembléa legislative resultate del Constitution de 1791, le prime jam votate in Francia. Le defaites del prime battalias e le invasion del territorio national conduce al caduta del monarchia le 10 de agosto 1792 e al proclamation del Republica le 22 de september 1792. Duo dies ante, le 20 de september 1792, un exercito de juveniles voluntarios patrioticos arrestava le avance prussiano a Valmy. Si le victoria militar es minime, su impacte symbolic es multo forte. ==== Crisis e successos del Republica ==== In le autumno, le exercitos del Revolution occupa le Paises-Bassos austriac, le ripa sinistre del Rhin, le Savoia e Mulhouse. Danton adopta le theorie del frontieras natural e encourage le guerras de conquiste longe del ideal revolutionari de liberation del populos oppressate. In Paris, le nove assembléa electe per suffragio universal pro votar un nove constitution, le Convention, es occupate per le processo del rege a partir de decembre 1792. Su execution le 21 de januario 1793 provoca le indignation del Europa monarchic e conduce a formation del prime coalition in februario. Le juvene republica es rapide assalitate de tote partes per le coalitionarios que transpassa le frontieras in le primavera de 1793. A partir de marzo 1793, le oeste de Francia es le preda de un insurrection catholic e royalista, appellate le guerra de Vendée. Le Girondinos, le ala dextre del Convention, que dirige le pais ab le proclamation del Republica, vole respecciar le institutiones existente e vole reducer Paris, ubi le agitation e le pression del sans-culottes es permanente, a 1/83 de Francia. Illes insiste in mantener institutiones decentralisate contra le ala sinistre del Convention que reclama mesuras de exception pro le difficultates. Sub le pression del sans-culottes, le Girondinos es expulsi del Convention per le jornadas revolutionari del 31 de maio e 2 de junio 1793. Le Montagnardos, que forma le parte plus radical del assemblea, prende le potere. Illes non hesitate a satisfaccer certe revendicationes del populo parisian pro mantener le potere e, soprattutto, salvar le Republica minaciate per le chaos in fronte al actiones contrarevolutionari del royalistas in Vendée e altere regiones, al rebellione del Girondinos contra le "dictatura parisian" appellate rebellion federaliste, e al avance del coalitionarios in territorio francese. Le Montagnardos instaura un governo revolutionari, significante un governo extrememente centralisate ubi le decisiones es prendite per un organo emergite del Convention, le Comité de salvation public, dominate per le forte personalitate de Robespierre. Iste mesuras extraordinari debeva salvar le revolution per le Terrore (contra le inimicos del Republica) e le virtute (del patriotas). Le 23 de augusto 1793, es decretate le leva in massa. Iste es le prime exemplo in le historia de Francia de un conscription obligatoire de tote le juvenes solteros. Es etiam le prime vice que le economia national es quasi completemente dedicate al efforto de guerra. Durante le jornadas del 4 e 5 de septembre, le sans-culottes demanda que le Terrore sia mise "a le ordine del die". Iste demanda es transmittite al Convention le 5 de septembre, ma sin que le deputatos lo instaure officialmente. Le 10 de octobre 1793, le governo es declare revolutionari usque al pace, ante de esser regite officialmente per le decreto del 14 frimaire (4 de decembre). Sub le pression del populo que suffre de fame, relayate per le sans-culottes, le deputatos adopta mesuras economic d’urgenza: al lege del 27 de julio 1793 contra le accumulation que puniva con morte le speculation, illes adjunge le 11 de septembre le maximum national de granos e farinas e le 29 de septembre 1793 un nove lege del maximum general super le mercadorias e salarios. Tote iste mesuras de exception permitte de vincer le rebelliones e liberar le frontieras desde le autumn 1793. Le exercitos francese, conducite majormente per general emergite del rang, passa denovo al offensive. Le regiones conquistate deveni departementos: Mont-Blanc, Alpes-Maritimes e Mont-Terrible (Mulhouse-Bâle). In 1794, le Belgica es reconquistate assi como le ripa sinistre del Rhin. Robespierre, que vole fortificar le Terrore mentre que le situation non lo justifica plus, es destituite le 9 thermidor anno II (27 de julio 1794) e execute le die sequente. Le Conventionales pone fin al regime de exception que esseva le Terrore. Illes redacta un nove constitution, le Directoriato, que divide le potentia executive inter 5 directores e le potentia legislative inter duo assembleas. Le suffragio censitario es restablite. Ma le constitution non pote resolver le conflictes inter le differentes potentias. Le Directoriato es un periodo ubi multiple electiones e coups d’état se succede. Le insicure es multo grande, assi como le miseria popular. Al contrario, in plano externe, le conquistas e annexiones es multe. Belgica e un parte del Holanda es transformate in 9 departementos francese le 1° de ottobre 1796. In 1798, le ripa sinistre del Rhin e Genève es organisate in cinque departementos. Le frontieras natural es largemente attingite. Si on adjunge que le Provincias-Unite, le Svizzera e Italia es transformate in republicas sorores con institutiones modelate super ille del Directoriato e un politica externe subordinate a ille de Francia, le frontieras natural es etiam excedite. Si le republicas sorores beneficia del conquistas revolutionari como le abolition del feudalitate e le equalitate legal, illes debe fournir requisitiones e obras de arte, lo que face le praesentia francese rapide impopular. Le fatigue del francese causate per le disorderes interne permitte al general Napoléon Bonaparte de esser ben recepite quando, per le coup d'état del 18 brumaire (9 novembre 1799), ille pone fin al Directoriato. Le general es multo popular post su victorias spectaculares durante le prime campania de Italia (1796-1797). Ille beneficia etiam de forti supportos politic. Su fratre Lucien Bonaparte es presidente del consilio del quinquecentos, una del duo assembleas del Directoriato. Sieyès appelava lo pro derrocar le regime e establir un altere plus stabile. Ma immediatemente a su prise de potere, Napoléon Bonaparte le appropria pro su propio beneficio e establi un regime personal: le Consulato. === Revoltas in le colonias e abolition del servitude === A partir de 1791, un importante rebellion de esclavos comencia in Saint-Domingue, le colonie francese plus riche, populate in 1789 per 25 000 Blancos, 28 000 Liberos de colore e quasi 500 000 esclavos[59]. Iste rebellion conduce al voto, le 4 de aprile 1792, de un decreto que concede equalitate de derecto inter le Liberos de colore e le Blancos, e du annos plus tarde resulta in le prime abolition del schavitate in le colonias francese, votate le 4 de februario per le Convention montanarde. Tamen, pro le occupation britannic de certe territorios, a vices a petition del colonos planteatores, le abolition es effectiv solmente in tres colonias: Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe e Guyana. Le schavitate es gradualemente restabilite per Bonaparte in 1802, excepto in Saint-Domingue que accede al independentia in 1804 sub le nomine de Haïti. Tamen, in 1825, un ultimatum portate per un esquadra francese obligava Haïti a pagar un grosse indemnitate al antigos colonos, lo que penalisa durablemente le economia del insula. === Le Consulato (1799) e le Primo Imperio (1804) === Bonaparte fa rapidamente rediger un constitution, le Constitution del anno VIII. Il es designate como prime consul, ergo de facto le capite del executive. Il habe le potentia de nominar al principales functiones public e le potentia de initiar le leges e le budget. Il ha tres consules in total, ma le alteres duo, Cambacérès e Lebrun, habe solmente un potentia consultative. Benque Bonaparte possede un grande parte del potentia legislative, ille cura crear quatro assembleas, ma nunquam eligite per le citatanos. Lor membros es seligite per le prime consul o per le Senato, un del quatro camaras. Inter illes, on pote notar le Consilio de Stato, que debe preparar, rediger le projectos de lege e interpretar le leges. Il es le origine del actual Consilio de Stato. Le suffragio universal es restabilite ma il non ha plus electiones. Le franceses es consultate per plebiscitos. Le potentia personal de Napoleon Bonaparte es fortificate per le constitution del 16 thermidor anno X (4 augusto 1802). Il es consul a vita e pote nominar su successor durante su vita. Le potentias del assembleas es reducite a beneficio del senatus-consulte, un acto emanate del Senato. Le electiones es restabilite, ma illes occurre in plure gradios e solmente le 600 cittadinos con le plus alto imposation pote participar al collegio departmental[60]. Plus, le cittadinos non selige representantes, illes propone candidatos in lo que es appellate "listas de confidentia". Ulteriormente, le libertates public es abolite: libertate de presse, de reunion, censura in le edition e in le theatro. Bonaparte fortifica le centralisation administrative. A partir de 1800, ille nomina a capite de cata departemento un prefette e un sub-prefette per arrondissemento. Il cura tamben nominar o facer nominar le mayoros. Le prefettes ha le responsabilitate de finir le divisiones nate del Revolution e de romper tote lo que remane de particularismos local. Le institutiones financial e judicial es organisate in le mesme maniera, con le judices nominate per le prim consul. Napoleon Bonaparte restaurava gradualmente le stabilitate financial. Il crea le Banco de Francia in 1800, le sol institution que pote emetter moneta. In 1803, le decreto de Germinal crea le franc, appellate franc germinal. Le moneta de un franc ha un peso invariable de 5 gramos de argento. Illa mantendra le mesme valor usque a 1914. Le promulgation del codice civil in 1804 permittiva le consummation del unitate del pais. Iste codice, in projecto desde 1789, tracta del familia, de proprietate e de contractos. Il combina le regulas de le lege scribite e le costumbres del differente regiones in un texto applicabile a tote le Francese. Le lege del 16 september 1807 crea le Corte de Contos, un corpo unic e centralisate de controlo del contos public. Le prim consul mitte fin al brigandage e al insecuritate que affligeva multe departementos. In 1804, le Francese accepta per plebiscito que Napoleon Bonaparte deveni imperator hereditari sub le nomine de Napoleon I. Sub Napoleon Bonaparte, Francia es quasi continuo in guerra. In 1810, al apice del Prime Imperio, illa ha 130 departementos que comprende le [[Pais Basse]], un parte de [[Germania]] usque a [[Danmark]], e un parte de [[Italia]]. Le annexiones es in grande parte debite al necessitate de Napoleon de facer respecter le blocco continental que ha le scopo de suffocar economicamente le [[Regno Unite]]. In ultra, un grande numero de estados es vassallos de Francia: le Confederation del Rhin, le Confederation Helvetic, le regnos de Italia e de Napoles, e Hispania. In total, presque le mitate de Europa es sub domination francese. Ma iste domination deveni sempre plus contestate. De facto, Francia favorisa su economia a dispetta la del estados vassallos. In 1812, pro constranger [[Russia]] a respecter le blocco continental que illa habeva ruptite, Napoleon I la invade. Ma ille avantia con tro grande imprudentia usque a [[Moscova]] e debe retirar se sub le rigores del hiberno e le assaltos del tropas e partisanos russe. Ille perde le 90% de su effectivos. Le desastre del campania de Russia in 1812-1813 precipita le fin del Prime Imperio. Un nove coalition se forma contra Francia. In octobre 1813, post le defeta a Leipzig, le francese debe evacuar Germania. Le Pais Basse e Hispania es perdite. In 1814, Francia es invadite. Napoleon abdica in aprile e deveni rege del insula de Elba. Le fratre del rege Ludovico XVI, le conte de Provenza, deveni rege sub le nomine de Ludovico XVIII. Francia conserva su frontieras de 1792, includente Savoia e le comitate de Nice, e pote retener tote le obras d’art confiscate foras del pais. Ma, in 1815, Napoleon I retorna inesperatemente de su exilio e reprende le potentia pro un breve periodo (le Cento-Dies) usque al defeta decisiv de Waterloo le 18 de junio 1815: ille es inviate a un exilio plus rigide in le insula de Santa Helena. Francia debe render un grande parte del obras robate e perde Savoia, Nice e alcun plazzas in su frontiera nord. Illa debe etiam pagar le mantenentia de un forza d’occupation de 150,000 soldatos usque a 1818. == Le 19e seculo de 1814 a 1870 == === Le Restauration (1814-1830) e le monarchia de julio (1830-1848) === Le Restauration es le periodo que commencia con le cade del Prime Imperio le 6 de aprile 1814 e dura usque le Revolution de 1830. Le Bourbon retornava al potentia durante un periodo appellate Restauration, que inicia le 6 de aprile 1814. Le 24 de aprile 1814, Ludovico XVIII desembarca a Calais. Le 4 de junio 1814, ille concede un charta per le qual ille consentia voluntariemente a limitar su potentia. Per isto ille affirma etiam le souveranitate de derecto divine del monarca. Pro isto, le charta de 1814 concede un potentia importante al rege, un personalitate "invulnerabile e sacrato". Le initiativa del leges es reservate a ille, ma illes es approbate per le Parlamento, que consiste in duo chambres: le Camera del pares, cujos membros es nominate a vita per le rege e illes es in numero illimitate; e le Camera del deputatos, que es electe per cinque annos per suffragio censitario. Le deputatos logra obligar le ministros a justificar lor politica ante illes e responder a lor questiones. Le Restauration, que pareva iniciar ben malgrado alcun obstaculos, es abbreviate per le retorno de Napoleon in martio 1815, que fortia Ludovico XVIII a fugir a Gand. Napoleon reprende le potentia pro un periodo de cento dies que dura usque al disfaite de Waterloo le 18 de junio 1815, le qual reinstalla Ludovico XVIII in le throno. Durante tres annos, le coalitate occupe militarmente plus del mitate del territorio francese. Ludovico XVIII, volente esser un rege conciliatori, non placia al gusto del « Ultras », que exigeva un castigo contra ille qui habeva supportate Napoleon durante le Cent Dies. In iste clima de vindicta, le electiones de augusto 1815 les dava le majoritate, e paradoxalmente, illes es le qui implementava le responsabilitate politic del ministros ante le camera, cosa que le charta de 1814 non prevedeva. Al morte sin heredero de Ludovico XVIII in septembre 1824, su fratre Carlo X le succede. Contrariamente a su fratre, ille non comprendeva que certe cambios esseva irreversible. Ille se faceva sacrar a Reims in 1825 in le pura tradition capetian, e tenta restaurar le Veter Regime favoriente le nobiliate e le catholicismo. Ille faceva votar un lege super le indemnisation del nobiles que emigrava durante le Revolution e cujas proprietates esseva vendite como bienes national. Un altere lege, appellate lege super le sacrilegio, puniva con morte le furto del ciboria que contineva hostias consacrate o le profanation de illes. Ille se appuyava super le ultras, id est le deputatos partisant de un retorno al Veter Regime. Ma su politica reactionari se confrontava al opposition determinate del bourgeoisie liberal. In 1830, le ministro Polignac publicava quattu ordinationes reactionari. Illes prevedeva le restauration del censura pro le pressa, le dissolution del camera, le modification del cens electoral pro reservar le derecho de voto al grande proprietari fonciari, e le fixation del date del nove electiones. Le publication de iste ordinationes le 27 de julio 1830 provoca un revolution appellate le Tres Gloriose in julio 1830. In un Paris coperite de barricadas, on clama « Vive le Republica » o « Vive l’Imperator ». Ma in le coulissas del potere, burgeses moderate como Adolphe Thiers o Casimir Perier reussi a imponer le duca de Orléans como nove sovereigno. Le ramo senior del familia royal, illo del Bourbons, es ergo remplace per le ramo junior, illo del Orléans. Le burgesia liberal ha sapite usar le revolution popular pro meter sur le throno un rege conforme a su interesses. Le revolution de Julio non constituie ergo un rupture con le regime precedente. Le cambio principal es que le sovereignitate national remplace le sovereignitate de derecto divine. Iste cambio se manifesta in le titulo date al rege: Ludovico-Filippo deveni rege del Francese, id est ille detene su potere del voluntate del populo, durante que su predecessores portava le titulo de rege de Francia. Le Camera del pares perde su influentia. Le bandiera tricolore remplace definitivemente le bandiera albi. Le monarchia de Julio corresponde al initios del industrialisation de Francia. Francia experimenta, sequente le exemplo de Anglia, un boom ferroviar in le annos 1840, que stimula le production de ferrum. Le prime ministro Guizot lanza le credo de un nove societate: « Arricchite vos! ». Le grandes dynastias burges, ligate al bancos o al grande empresas, se constitui e affirma lor voluntate de dominar le vita politic. Le suffragio censitario essente multo restricte, illes es le soles, con le aristocratia traditional, qui pote votar e haber electos al Camera del deputatos. Isto se manifesta per le apparente de duo partidos politic: le conservatores, representantes del veter nobiliate, e le liberales, representantes del mundo commercial. Ma iste duo grupos concorda super le conservation del regime tal qual illo es, pues illo serve lor interesses. Le lege Guizot de 1833 obliga cata communa a mantener un schola elemental. Tamen, le revolution industrial crea un nove classe social, illo del operarios in miseria. Le theorias socialiste de Ludovico Blanc e de Proudhon cerca remediar le injustitias social que afflige le proletariato. Le monarchia de Julio es etiam marcate per un nove auge del colonisation francese. Le incidente diplomatic del colpo de eventail date per le dey de Alger al console francese in 1827 servi como ration pro le conquiste francese de Algeria in julio 1830. Le colonisation se extendi gradualemente a tote le Africa. In 1842, le general Binger, Crozat e Marchand parte pro conquistar le Costa de Avorio, ma debe affrontar le resistantia de Samory. Le rege se presenta como un bon patre de familia burges, ma in realitate ille es un homo autoritari e un astute machinator. Le debilitate del corpo electoral, le autoritate del rege, e le revelation de un grande corruption in le governo finalmente discredita completemente le regime. In ultra, a causa de pessime raccoltas, le pais cognosce un crise economic profunde ab 1846. Le opposition republicano profita pro agitar se denovo. Sur le plano philosophic, le periodo 1814-1848 es multo marcate per le emergentia del ideas sant-simonian e positivista, promovite respectivemente per Claude-Henri de Rouvroy de Saint-Simon e Auguste Comte. === Secunde Republica (1848-1852) === In 1847, le opposition, alimentate per un unda de discontentimento causate per le corruption del regime in loco e per le crise economic, organisa in tote le pais banquetos pro reclamar le extension del corpo electoral. Le libertate de reunion non existente, le praesentia a iste banquetos republican permitte al oppositores del regime de congregar se sin violar le lege. Le 22 de februario 1848, le potentia prohibi le celebration de un banqueto. Iste decision causa manifestationes que continua le die sequente. Tunc, le tropas aperi fuoco super le manifestantes. Quando le nove del tal fusillade es cognoscite, tote le populo popular de Paris se inflammas. Le rege abdica le die sequente proque ille non vole esser responsabile de un massacrio del multitudine parisian. Le insurrectos ha apprensite le lection de 1830. Illes exige que republicanos sede in le governo provisional. Iste governo proclama le Republica mesmo in le serata. Le secunde Republica comencia. Le Secunde Republica instituie definitivamente le suffragio universal masculine in Francia. Illa aboliva le schiavitude sur proposition de Victor Schœlcher. Isto non impediva le exercito francese de comenciar le conqueste del Senegal le mesme anno. Sub le pression del populo e del socialistas, on prendeva mesuras social: proclamation del derecho al labor, limitation del die de labor a 10 horas in Paris e a 11 horas in le provincias. Officinas national esseva create pro donar labor al parisianos afficite per le crisi economic. Ma al electiones de aprile 1848, le francese elegiva majormente moderatos hostile al mesuras innovative (500 deputatos) o monarchistas (300). Le socialistas que defendiva le mesuras social esseva solmente circa cent. Le governo provisional resultante de iste assemblea decideva de serrar le officinas national. Le orientale de Paris se revoltava al annuncio de iste decision. Le general Cavaignac habeva plen poder pro reprimer le rebellione. Il la reprimeva con grande sanguinamento post tres dies de combates, del 23 al 25 de junio 1848. Iste "dies de junio" discrediteva o maculava le nove Republica ante le oculos de certe sectores, specialmente le operarios. Ma durante que illes, victimas del repression, perdeva interesse, le campesinos e le possessores timava le disordines social e cercava un regime stabile e autoritari. Pro decidir le nove institutiones, le constituentes se inspirava del Statos Unite, cujo modello esseva popularisate per Alexis de Tocqueville in su libro De la democratia in America, publicate in 1835. Le constitution del 4 novembre 1848 decideva de conferir le potentia executive a un presidente electe per suffragio universal directe pro un periodo de quatre annos. Il poteva recandidar se post un intervallo de quatro annos. Como in le Statos Unite, le Assemblea e le presidente esseva totalemente independent. Ma, contrariamente al Statos Unite, le presidente non habeva le derecto de veto. Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, Lamartine, Cavaignac, Ledru-Rollin e le socialista Raspail esseva candidatos al election presidential, le prime in suffragio universal masculine in Francia. Le nepote de Napoleone I poteva particularmente profiter del division del sinistra e del basse nivello de instruction, durante que le nomine Bonaparte esseva multo plus cognoscite in le regiones rural. Le 10 de decembre 1848, con quasi 75% del votos, in particular del Partito del Ordine, ille esseva electe pro quatre annos. Le nove assemblea electe in maio 1849 esseva dominate per le monarchistas. Illa conduceva un politica extrememente conservator. Illa inviava tropas a Roma pro mantener le papa in su Statos pontificales minaciate per le revolutionarios republican italian. Illa votava le lege Falloux que poneva le schola sub le controlo del Ecclesia Catholic. Le 31 de maio 1850, le Assemblea votava un lege electoral que excludeva del corpo electoral illes que non poteva justificar tres annos de residentia continuate in le mesme communa, eliminante 3 milliones de personas del corpo electoral, principalmente artosanos e operarios saisonal. Opponente a iste reforme, Louis-Napoleone deveniva un heroe pro le populo. Al initio del anno 1851, Louis Napoléon Bonaparte demanda un revision del constitution pro permitter se recandidar immediatemente post le fin de su mandato. Ante le refusal del Assemblea National, ille executava un golpe de stato diligentemente preparate le 2 de decembre 1851, que ille ratificava per un referendum. Le 2 de decembre es un date symbolic pro le Bonaparte: Napoleone I esseva coronate le 2 de decembre e remportava le anno sequente le éclatante victoria de Austerlitz, le 2 de decembre 1805. Le secunde Republica finiva per esser rostate per su proprie presidente, que non tarde instaurava un regime imperial. === Secunde Imperio (1852-1870) === Le golpe de stato del 2 de decembre 1851 causa poche reactiones. Solmente alcun personalitates se opponeva apertemente al nove regime. Isto es le caso de Victor Hugo, que partiva in exilio a Guernesey, ubi ille non cessava de criticar Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, quem ille appellava « Napoléon le Parve ». Le plebiscito del 20 de decembre 1851 dava al nove homine forte plenipotentia pro rediger un nove constitution. Post un nove plebiscito, ille esseva proclamate imperator sub le nomine de Napoléon III. Iste poneva in loco un regime authoritarian ubi le libertate de stampa esseva limitate e le oppositores esseva persecutate. Le practica del candidaturas official reduceva le opposition al silentio. Solmente alcun republicanos reussiava a esser electe. Sed, como le pais gaudeva de un bon conjunctura economic, le protestas esseva poche. Ab 1860, le Secunde Imperio se liberalisa. Napoléon III ha perdite un grande parte del sustention del catholicos, pois ille adjuta le rege de Piemonte-Sardegna, Victor-Emmanuel II, a realisar le unification italian, lo que vade contra le interesses del papato. Plus, le signature de un tractato de libre commercio con le Regno-Unite, in illo tempore le prime potentia industrial mondial, inconforta le industrialistas que timi le concurrentia de productos anglese. Ergo, le imperator cerca nove sustentatores andando verso le liberal e le classas popular. Le derecto de greve es concedite in 1864. Le operarios ha le derecto de formar caissas de soccorso (abolition del lege Le Chapelier). Le corpo legislative obtine gradualmente derectos: illes poteva criticar le governo, votar le budget. Desde 1869, illes ha etiam le initia del leges. Le Secunde Imperio evolveva a un regime parliamentary, con ministros responsabile ante le Parlamento. Iste liberalisation del regime esseva massivamente approbate per un plebiscito in maio 1870 que dava al imperator 7 336 000 “si” contra 1 560 000 “no”. Le Secunde Imperio pareva consolidate super bases plus democratic, ma illo esseva balayate in paucas septimanas per le guerra franco-prussian. Le decollage industrial de Francia occurreva sub le Secunde Imperio. Le credito se liberalisa, le creation de societates anonymes (SA) es facilitate. Le Stato mesme da le exemplo. Grandes obras de modernisation esseva initiate in Paris sub le direction del baron Haussmann. Le region de Sologne e le Landes esseva ameliorate (creation del foresta del Landes). Napoléon III, fortemente influence per le epopea napoleonian, vole dar a Francia un ruolo importante in le mundo. Francia interveniva in le Guerra de Crimea a latere del Britannicos pro impedir le expansionismo russe. Ab 1854, Faidherbe da un nove impulsion al conquista del Senegal. Ille forma le famose tirailleurs senegaleses. Francia comencia a interessar se a Indochina. Le tropas francese etiam interveniva in Mexico pro sustener le archiduce d’Austria Maximiliano que tenta instaurar ibi un grande imperio latino e catholic. Le aventura mexican esseva un fiasco. Maximiliano esseva fusillate per le revolutionarios mexican. Napoléon III supporta le processos de unification italian e germanic. In cambio de su bon officios, Francia recipeva del Regno de Sardegna le ducato de Savoia e le comitate de Nicia, annexate a Francia in 1861 post le signature del tractato de Turin. In cambio de su neutralitate benevole durante le guerra austro-prussian de 1866, le imperator reclama compensationes territorial que Bismarck, le cancellario prussian, refuseva conceder le. Retro iste neutralitate de Louis Napoléon il ha in realitate su inquietude ante le ascension in potentia in Europa del Prussia post le victoria de Sadowa, durante que, in linea con le bonapartismo, le imperator aspirava a conquistas territorial e un prestigio al delà del frontieras. Bismarck multiplica ental provocations contra Francia pro provocar la a declarar guerra al Prussia. Post le publication del depescha de Ems, le 19 de julio 1870, Francia declara guerra al Prussia. Le Secunde Imperio poteva solmente opponer 265 000 homines contra le 500 000 prussianos e aliados germanic. Le guerra se convertiva rapidemente in un desastre. Le 6 de agosto, Alsacia cadeva. Napoléon capitulava a Sedan le 2 de septembre 1870. A iste annoncia, le habitantes de Lyon ab le matino e le parisianos in le vespere proclamava le republica le 4 de septembre 1870. Iste periodo es le epoca del disveloppamento del prime revolution industrial, que vide le propagation del ideas saint-simonian e positivista inter le ambientes dirigente del grande empresas e bancos, especialmente inter le polytechnicos. == Le Tertie Republica de 1870 a 1940 == === Le instauration del regime republicano === ==== De difficile comenciamentos ==== Le republica nasce in conditiones difficile. Le governo provisorio decide continuar le guerra. Le germanos attinge rapidemente [[Paris]], que illes assedia. Gambetta, ministro del Interior del governo de defensa national, quittava Paris in ballon pro appellar al provincia a le levata in masse. Ma le truppas assi constituite non poteva rumpere le encerclamento prussian. Le citate subiva bombardeamentos regular e suffriva del manco de victualias. Pro permitter al parisianos de non cader in miseria, le governo decreta le moratoria del debitas e del loyas. Armas es distribute a voluntarios que forma un guarda national. Le 28 de januario 1871, le governo debeva resolver firmar le armistitio. Le germanos permitteva que electiones se facia. Iste electiones dava le majoritate al monarchistas. Le nove assemblea firma un pace que amputava le pais de [[Alsatia]] e del nord de [[Lorena]] e obligava le franceses a pagar al vincitor un grande multa de guerra. Thiers, un ex-prime ministro de Louis-Philippe, es nominate capite del potere executive in attesa que le assemblea decide super le natura del regime e su organisation. Le parisianos, qui ha resistite valorose durante le sitio de Paris, es scandalisate per le armistitio e le conditiones impose per [[Prussia]]. Illes se defia de un assemblea monarchista que, per timor del periculos revolutionari, prefere installar se a [[Versailles]] in loco del capitale. Durante que le situation economic del parisianos ancora es precar, le governo provisorio abroga le moratoria del loyas e debitas. Le 18 de marzo 1871, Thiers ordina le desarmamento del parisianos. Iste annuncio causa un tumulto. Thiers se retira del capitale e decide reprender lo per le forza. A Paris, le comite central del guardas national decide l’ election de un consilio municipal. Le Commune de Paris se installa a partir del 26 de marzo 1871. Le principales animatores del Communa de Paris veni de differentes origine. Illes prende medidas radical pro aliviar le miseria popular: requisition del habitations, instruction gratuite, laic e obligatori. Illes inventa un democratia participative permitente al citatanos intervenir in le affares del commune. Juxta revendicationes provenite del movimento sans-culotte de 1793, como le anticlericalismo e le respecta del libertate de conscientia, revendicationes de tipo socialista es portate per le insurrectos, con le condemnation del militarismo e del capitalism. Iste evento remanera central in le culturas politic socialiste, proque Marx considera lo in Le guerra civil in Francia como le prime revolution autenticamente proletarien. Le Commune dura solmente 70 dies. Le 21 de majo 1871, le truppas del governo, appellate le ''Versaillais'' per le communardos, invade Paris. Le revoltatos conduce un battalia desperate. Illes incendia monumentos como le palacio de Tuileries e le Hotel de Ville pro retardar le avancata del Versaillais. Post le execution del archevêque de Paris per le communardos, le repression deveni un banho de sanguine. Inter 20,000 e 30,000 communardos es execute in un septimana. Mille de revoltatos es deportate a bagnes in Algeria o in Nov-Caledonia. Le conditiones impose per Prussia, que habeva scandalisate le parisianos al momento del armistitio, es ancora plus dur per un lege de decembre 1871 que exige de Francia un indemnitate de guerra equivalente a 25% de su PIB. Le debito public cresce fortemente, e con ille, un nove classe de parve rentistas que vive de lor interesse e participa al nove expansion borsari, lo que accelera le creation de bancos de deposito. ==== Le establition del institutiones ==== Nate del defaite, luctante contra le rebellation parisian e dominate durante 5 annos per un assemblea monarchista, le Republica ha poche chances de sobrevivere. Illa debe su installation al disaccordo del monarchistas. In effecto, le royalistas es dividite in duo grupos: le legitimistas, partisanos del nepote de Charles X, le conte de Chambord, e le orleanistas. Post multe tractatos, le orleanistas e le legitimistas se accorda super le nomine del conte de Chambord. Ma ille exige le restauration del bandiera albe, que le orleanistas refusa. Interim, le lege Rivet da al capite del executiv, Thiers, le titulo de presidente del Republica. Le republicanos, que ha probate, gratias al repression del Communa de Paris, que illes non es revolutionarios e sape mantener le ordine, gani la majoritate del electiones partial. Per manco de melior, le orleanistas rompe con le legitimistas e se rallya al idea de un regime republicano. In 1875, un serie de leges constitutional es votate. Illas functiona como constitution durante tote le duration del tertie Republica. Le regime republicano es un regime parlamentar bicameral. Le presidente del Republica es eligite pro septe annos per le duo cameras, le Senato e le Assemblea National reunite in congresso a Versailles. Ille es politicamente irresponsabile. In 1876, le republicanos gani 360 del 500 sedes disponibile. Le conflicto inter le presidente monarchista Mac-Mahon e le assemblea es inevitabile. Le 16 de maio 1877, Mac-Mahon dimitte le presidente del Consilio, Jules Simon, un republicano moderate, e lo remplace per Albert de Broglie, un royalista. Illes es ponite in minoritate per 363 votos republican, e Mac-Mahon dissolve le camera. Iste episodio es cognoscite sub le nomine de crise de 1877. Un campania electoral agitate seque, opposente monarchistas e republicanos. Le republicanos se uni detra Gambetta. Duo conceptiones del republica se confronta. Pro Mac-Mahon, le presidente del republica es equal al Parlamento. Ergo, ille pote haber su proprie politica e dimitter ministros qui non ha su confidentia. In caso de conflicto con le Parlamento, es le populo que debe decider. Pro le republicanos, le presidente es solmente un figura symbolic. Ille debe nominar ministros cuje opiniones es conforme al camera del deputados. Illa es le sol que representa le souveranitate national, proque illa es le sol eligite per suffragio universal. Le imprecision del textos permitte le duo interpretationes. De novo, le republicanos gani le electiones. In 1879, le renovation partial del Senato les permitte acquirer le majoritate in iste camera. Le victoria del republicanos es total. Sin supporto e discreditate, Mac-Mahon demissiona. Su successore, le republicano Jules Grévy, renuncia voluntariemente a exercer su prerogativas constitutional (principalmente le derecto de dissolution) e se interdice intervenir contra le votos del Assemblea. Le presidente del Republica resta dunque in un function representative, lassante le poter al presidente del Consilio e al Parlamento. Le presidentes del IIIe Republica se conforma a iste practica. In dece annos, Francia deveniva republicana. ==== Le radication del Republica ==== Le republicanos se effortia a radicar le Republica per establir le grande libertates : le libertate de reunion e de pressa in 1881, le derecto de formar syndicatos per le lege Waldeck-Rousseau de 1884, le possibilitate de divorciar le mesme anno. Le lege de 1901 super le libertate de association permitte le formation de partidos politic que remplacia le gruppamentos informal del clubes e comites. Le prime partidos que se forma es le partito radical in 1901 e le partito socialiste, le SFIO (Section française de l’Internationale ouvrière), in 1905. Le Republica se dota de su grande symbolos : le busto de Marianne, La Marseillaise que redeviene le hymno national in 1878, e le 14 de julio como festa national. Al mesme tempore, grande republicanos como Victor Hugo o Léon Gambetta recipe a lor morte un funerale national. Jules Ferry joca un rolo central in le realisation de iste evolutiones, con tres objectivos principales : extender le libertates, substraher le schola ab le domination del Ecclesia Catholic e relever Francia post le defaite per le colonisation. Totevia, le nomine de Jules Ferry es sur toto associate in Francia con le instauration del schola gratuite, obligatori e laic. Pro render le Republica irreversible, le formation del nove generationes appare essential. Ma le schola esseva, ab le lege Falloux, sub le autoritate del Ecclesia, qui esseva semper un adversario del Republica. Jules Ferry face votar un serie de legislatos concernente le question scholastic : creation de lyceos public pro puellas per Camille Sée in 1880 (ben que illos non permitteva de passar le baccalauréat), instauration del schola gratuite, laic e del instruction obligatori per le leges Ferry de 1881-1882, e laicisation del personal docente in le scholas public. Le institutor deveni un del pilares del Republica. Il ha le mission de inculcar al juven alumnos le moral republican e le amore del patria. Ma facie al republicanos al poter, appellate moderatos o opportunistas per lor adversarios, un parte del movimento republican remane attachate al convictiones del annos 1860 e al programma de Belleville de 1869, que esseva abandonate in favor de un compromisso con le orléanistas. De isto nasce le division inter republicanos moderatos e republicanos radicales. In particular, le lucta contra le influentia del Ecclesia es un thema que permitte le emergentia de un nove partito a sinistra del scena politic, le Partito Radical. Le attachement del franceses al Republica non impedisce que illa es turbate per multe crisis causate per le ascension del nationalismo (episodios del boulangisme dirigite per le general Georges Boulanger) o del antisemitismo (le Affaire Dreyfus). Iste eventos monstra que il ha duo Francias : un conservator e revanchista, le altere devote al ideales revolutionari e al progresso social. Es finalmente le progressistas que triumphava. Le republicanos forma un governo de union national dirigite per Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau inter 1899 e 1902. Le arrivata al poter del Partito Radical in 1902 accentua le laicisation del societate. In 1904, le congregationes religiose non ha plus le derecto de docer, e multe inter illas es expulsate de Francia. In 1905, sub le impulso del presidente del consilio Émile Combes, le Assemblée nationale vota le lege de separation del Ecclesia e del Stato. Le ministros del culto cessa de esser pagate per le Stato. Le bens mobiliari e immobiliari del Ecclesia es nationalisate e messe a disposition de associationes cultual religiose, post un inventario de tote le bens nationalisate. In alcun regiones, iste inventarios provoca violent affrontamentos inter catholicos e le fortias del ordine, ma iste fenomeno remane marginal — ben que il colpava fortemente le imagination collective. Ab 1905, le religion deveni un question private. === Francia sub le Tertie Republica === ==== Population e societate ==== Francia cognosce un forte declino demographic. Mentre in 1800 Francia habeva duo vices plus habitantes que Germania e tres vices plus que le Regno Unite, in 1913 illa conta minus habitantes que cata un de iste duo paises. Francia deveni le pais del filio unic, protegite, incoragiate, sur le qual reposa le projecto de ascension social del familia. Le malthusianismo francese s'explica in parte per le voluntate de non divider le hereditage familial. Facie al crescent tensiones international, le debilitate demographic del pais inquieta. Pro compensar le manco de soldados, le servicio militar es extendite a tres annos in julio 1913. Le recruitamento de tropas colonial comenciava jam al fin del 19e seculo e se accelera in 1910. Un altere consequentia es le recursar al immigration, considerate como solution al declino demographic. Illa es incoragiate per le introduction del principio del jus soli (derecto del solo) pro obtener le nationalitate francese in 1889. In 1914, Francia conta circa 1,2 milliones de estranieros, principalmente ex Belgica e Italia, lo que suscita reactiones xenophobe (ex. le Vêpres marseillaises in 1881, le pogrom de Aigues-Mortes in 1893, etc.). Francia remane un pais essentialmente agricole, como lo monstra le percentuale del sector primari in le population active (43,2 % in 1906), ben que iste sector representa minus que un quar del production national. Le exodo rural, comenciate in 1848, continua: circa 35 000 personas lassava le campanias cata anno circa 1900. Le parve exploitationes agricole domina: 80 % de illas ha minus que 10 hectaras. Le rendementos es generalmente basse: 13 quintales de frumento per hectara in medie, mesmo 4 o 5 in le regiones con solos paupere. Iste exploitationes practica un policultura de subsistentia, e solmente un parve parte del production es vendite. Al nord del Loire, existe un agricultura plus capitalista e productive. Le annos 1900 es marcate per un timide mutation: seminator mechanic e moissoneuses deveni plus commun. Le peso electoral del agricultores face de illes un gruppo de interesse pro le Republicanos. In 1881, es create le ministerio del Agricultura, e in 1892, un tarifa protectionista es instaurate per Jules Méline pro proteger le petite paysannerie del cadita mundial del precios agricole. ==== Le Francia colonial ==== Faidherbe forma le famose tirailleurs senegalese qui executara le conquista del regiones del [[Niger]] in 1898, con officieros como Gallieni, Voulet-Chanoine, Fourreau-Lamy, Monteil e Gentil. Le Touaregs oppone un resistente seriose. Francia accorda le statuto de «commune française de plein exercice» a Saint-Louis, Gorée e Dakar in 1872, e al urbe de Rufisque in 1880. A partir de iste datas, le habitantes de iste quatro communas deveni citatanos francese con tote lor derectos e deberes, e es representate in le Assembleas parlamentari de Francia. A iste possessiones se adjunge le conquesta de [[Gabon]], del [[Republica del Congo|Congo]], de [[Mauritania]], de [[Guinea]], del Alte Volta, de [[Tchad]], del Dahomey e de Indochina. In 1914, le Imperio colonial francese es 22 vices plus grande que le Francia metropolitane (le Hexagono). Le conquistas colonial es motivate in parte per rationes economic: fornir materias prime al industria francese e crear sboccos commercial per medio del colones o del populos colonisate. Illas es effectuate sub le pression del lobby colonial, como Afrique française o Asie française, que comprende bancarios, homines de affaires, jornalistas, parlamentarios e militares. A latere del pretention de «apporter le civilisation» al populos considerate «sauvages», existe multe protestas contra le expansion colonial. Le Exposition colonial de 1931 include le reconstruction del templo de [[Angkor Wat]] a Paris, ma etiam le installation de zoos humanes**. In total, iste exposition attira circa 8 milliones de visitatores (includente 1 million de estranieros). == De un guerra a altere == Al initio del 20e seculo, le confrontation inter Francia e Germania a proposito del [[Marocco]] conduce a incidentias diplomatic — como le colpo de Tanger e le crise de Agadir. Le antagonismo franco-germanic trova su fortia in plure problemas, inter le qual le question del [[Alsatia]]-[[Lorena]], le reclamationes colonial tardive del Germania, e su atteggiamento aggressive (''Weltpolitik''). Il se nutri etiam del timor francese provocate per le crescentia demografic del Germania. Francia poteva ancora alinear 74 divisiones contra 94 divisiones germanic: que evenirea in dece o vinti annos? === Le Prime Guerra Mundial e su sequellas === ==== Le Grande Guerra (1914-1918) ==== Le manuales scolari del Tertie Republica propagava un discurso nationalista, e un large parte del opinion public non habeva renunciate a recuperar Alsacia-Lorena, ni mesmo al idea de un revancha contra Germania. Un lege que restabiliva le servicio militar, supprimite in 1815 per Ludovico XVIII, esseva adoptate le 27 de julio 1872, pois un del causas del disfacta in 1871 esseva le deficientia del mobilisation del reservas e le insufficientia numeric del armea francese. Le 9 de januario 1912, le presidente del republica Armand Fallières, chef constitutional del armeas, declarava: : ''Nos es resolute a marchar directe verso le inimico sin arrière-pensée; le offensiva conveni al temperamento de nostre soldatos e debe assecurar nos le victoria, a condition de consacrar al lucta tote nostre fortias active sin exception.'' Le 19 de julio 1913, le cabinet Briand face votar un lege que prolungava le servicio militar a tres annos. Secundo le historico Philippe Bernard, le opinion francese considerava Germania como un aggressor, especialmente post que le governo german addressava un ultimatum a Belgica, demandante le libere passage de su armea. Le mobilisation proclamate le 1 de augusto 1914 suscitava tamen stupefaction e consternation in certe medios, specialmente in le mundo rural durante le plen periodo del recolta. Le idea de un revancha contra Germania pro recuperar le provincias perdite habeva gradualmente dispareva del spirito del joven generationes. Ma le mobilisates demonstrava un ver resolution: Francia appareva como le victima del aggression german, e multe credeva que le guerra esserea breve. Le francese esseva determinate a combatter, como lo monstra le numero ridiculmente basse de desertores, 1,5% del mobilisates, e persuadite del legitimitate de lor causa. Secundo Philippe Bernard, le stato-major francese habeva subestimato le numero de divisiones germanic presente. Le affrontamentos del batalia del Frontieras (augusto 1914) es un fiasco, e le armea francese debe replegar se. Tamen, Joffre manteneva su sang-froid e decideva de mover le truppas plus al sud, ubi le configuration del terreno esseva plus favorabile. Le doctrina del offensive a outrance, adoptate per le altos commandos, causava perditas human enorme, specialmente a causa del tiros de mitraillettas: le 22 de augusto 1914 es le jour le plus mortal del historia de Francia — circa 27 000 soldados francese es occidite in un sol die in le Ardennas belgic, quatro vices plus que a Waterloo. Le soldados esseva contraite a enterrarse in trinceas pro proteger se, e le conflicto se transformava rapidemente in un guerra de position. Dece departamentos del nord de Francia, al retro del front, esseva occupate per Germania durante tote le guerra. Le Grande Guerra es un elemento central del historia de Francia. Le 20e seculo emergite de iste conflicto exceptional, que vide le victoria del Alliate contra le imperios central, e pro le prime vice pone al societate le question del poter destructiv del technologia. ==== Sortir del guerra (1919-1929) ==== Al exito del Grande Guerra, Francia es victoriose ma exhauste. In terminos de demographia, illa suffre le plus importante perdas post Serbia, con 10,5 % de perdas in le rangos del armea (contra 9,8 % pro Germania e 5,1 % pro le Regno Unite). Istes perdas occurreva in un pais que ja habeva un demographia debilitante. Le joie de viver prevale super le horas obscur del guerra: es le epocha del Annos Folle (''Années folles''). Tamen, Francia remane in grande parte un pais rural, con un alte proportion de population que vive del agricultura (35 % in 1921 e 25 % in 1936) e es solmente in 1931 que le population del urbes (agglomerationes de plus de 2 000 habitantes) supera celle del campanias. A nivello politic, le governamentos de Raymond Poincaré ha pro objectivo principal le reestabilimento del finantias public. Pro pagar le debito del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]], Francia crea un imposte super le plus-valores e un imposte super le societates, que se adjunge al imposte super le ingresos instaurate in 1914. In marto 1924, le “Camera bleu horizon” augmenta le taxa marginal superior a 90 %, comparate a 2 % dece annos ante. Le crescita economic francese del annos 1920, plus forte que celle del altere paises, es stimulate per un multiplication per octo del production hydroelectric in un sol decennia. Le electrification facilita le diffusion del cinema, del radio e del automobile, que utiliza le productos del electro-metallurgia. === Le crisi del annos trenta e le Secunda Guerra Mundial === ==== Le Francia del annos trenta ==== Francia esseva toccate per le [[Grande Depression]] solmente in 1931. Francia entra in le crise con un certo retardamento, apparente protegite durante alcunos annos, usque al momento in que le crollamento del activitate economic in altere paises afficte fortemente su exportationes. Quando le governo britannic decidet de devaluer le libra le 20 de septembre 1931 (e finir le padrão-oro), le precios francese deveniva troppo alte pro le exportation. Iste crise conduceva a un diminution longe del production industrial. Inter 1929 e 1935, le production industrial recedeva per 25 %. Si Francia esseva toccate plus tarde e minus profunde per le crise, illa commenciava etiam plus tarde a sortir de illa, contrariamente al Statos Unite e al Regno Unite. In ultra, illa non implementava politicas de relance como lo que le Statos Unite faceva con le New Deal. In 1938, Francia ancora non habeva reciperate su nivello de production ante le crise. In 1936, Francia se dotava con un governo de sinistra, le « Front Popular », e multe derechos social, tal como ferias pagate e conventiones collectivas, esseva instituite. Tamen, Francia se trovava impotente ante le turbulentas que afficteva multe paises in Europa al mesme tempore. Illa iniciava un larga politica de alliance, que non conduceva a alcun resultado. Francia refutava interceder in le guerra civil de Hispania. Plus que isto, traumatisate per le [[Prime Guerra Mundial]], Francia non osava opponer se al politica exterior aggressive del [[Germania Nazi]], le cui dictatore, [[Adolf Hitler]], voleva revocar le tractato de Versailles de 1919 e reunir sub su Reich le populos germanic vicin, in virtute del ideas pangermanista. Passo a passo, Francia permitteva a Germania rearmar se (1934-1935), remilitarisar le Rhin (marso 1936) e annexionar [[Austria]] (marso 1938). Le spiritu pacifista francese attegniva su summo in septembre 1938 con le signature del accordos de Munich, que permitteva a Hitler prender possession del territorio del Sudeten sin combatte. Contra iste accordos, Hitler expandeva su dominio in Cecoslovachia alcunos menses postea, in marzo 1939. Le mot d’ordre de iste epoca esseva « pace a tote le custos », ma le signature del accordos de Munich marcava le ultime concession facite a Hitler per le diplomatia francese e britannic, finalmente unite in iste question. ==== Le defaite de 1940 ==== Post haber declarate guerra a [[Germania]] le 3 de septembre, sequente a su intrata in [[Polonia]], Francia tenta con le [[Regno Unite]] de securrer [[Norvega]], victima de un simile assalto germanic, ma sin succeso evidente. Iste « strana guerra », durante le qual non sucede multo in le fronte, finiva le 10 de maio 1940 con un offensiva fulmine (''blitzkrieg'') del Axe que conquistava Francia (directemente le parte nord) in solmente sex septimanas. Tamen, Philippe Pétain habeva fatte construir le linea Maginot longe le frontiera franco-germanic (ille habeva volite tamben construir la longe le frontiera belgic, ma le rege Léopold III voleva conservar le neutralitate de su pais). Le germanes passava per Belgica e le silva del Ardennes, e gratias al auxilio del carros de battalia e del aviation, illes succedeva a attinger Francia con grande velocitate e prender le linea Maginot a reverso. Le paroles es tro fortemente insufficientes pro describer le stato d’animo del francese e mesmo del resto del mundo a causa de iste collapse: « Le Abismo », pro reprender le parole de Gaulle, pare le expression le plus coherente. Le corpo expeditionari britannic se retrahiva con alcun soldados francese a Dunkerque, e postea verso [[Anglaterra]]. Le resto del soldados combatteva contra le inexorabile avance del germanes. Presque 10 milliones de habitatores del regiones del Nord e del Centro fuyva del avance del exercito germanic e se refugiate temporalmente in le sud de Francia. Quando le armistitio esseva signate le 22 de junio, on registrava minus de 100.000 perdas militar, circa 100.000 perdas civil durante le exodo, e 1.5 milliones de captivos. ==== Le governamentos concurrentes del regime de Vichy e de la Francia libre ==== Le 10 de julio 1940, le Camera de Deputatos e le Senato, reunite in Assemblea national a Vichy, votava con 569 votos contra 80 e 17 abstentiones voluntari un texto que dava al governamento del Republica (dirigite per le maresciallo Pétain) le potentia de cambiar le constitution[74]. Pétain approfittava del victoria germanic pro imponer a los francese un governamento que aboliva le Republica. Desde le 11 de julio, per le prime del actos constitutional de Vichy[75], « viste le lege constitutional del 10 de julio 1940 », ille se declarava capite del Stato[76] e creava le regimen de Vichy ultra passante le lege del 10[74]. Le pais, facto amputate de Alsacia-Lorena, debe pagar un forte indemnitate de occupation. Un grande parte de su fortia viva ja es captivitate o inviate al labor forzate in Germania (STO). Per su parte, le general de Gaulle se opponeva al armistitio annunciate le 17 de junio 1940[77] per le maresciallo Pétain e faceva su famose appello del 18 de junio al populo francese, via le radio BBC ab London, incitant al racollimento al latere del alleatos britannic pro continuar le lutta contra le nazistas. Ab illo momento ille prendeva le capitania del Francia libere que se basa super le Fortias francese libere. Obtinente le rapide racollimento de plure possessiones colonial francese, specialmente le Africa Equatorial Francese que, con Camerun, forma le Africa francese libere, le Francia libere remaneva presente in le campo alleato, continuante le combatte sur le frontes libic, egyptian, postea tunisian e italian. == Francia desde 1945 == === Le Governo provisional del Republica Francese (1944-1946) === Post le desembarco del Alleatos in Normandia, De Gaulle declarava le 14 de junio: «Nos combatte al latere del Alleatos, con le Alleatos, como un alleato. E le victoria que nos ganara essera le victoria de Francia». Il se imponeva a tote como le homine fort francese. Roosevelt, qui se habeva miscredite de ille, se resolveva a reciper lo con grande pompa a Washington in julio 1944. De Gaulle habeva ganate le partita e, fortificate per le accordo secret concluse con Winston Churchill le 7 de agosto 1940, Francia rapidemente recaptava su position de «grande potentia». A fine de augusto 1944, le Governamento provisorio de Charles de Gaulle se imponeva in le territorio. Il haberea essite necessari attender medie octubre pro que ille essesse officialmente recognoscite per le Statos Unite. Il esseva compose de communistas, socialistas e gaullistas. Le engagemento del communistas francese in le resistentia, le courage del soldatos sovietic e le victoria final del USSR e del Alleatos dava un prestigio importante al dirigentes communistas in le opinion public. Le governamento provisorio (GPRF) concedeva particularmente le diritto de votar al feminas le 21 de aprile 1944, in le articulo 17 del ordonnance de Alger: illas votava pro le prime vice al electiones municipal del 29 de aprile e 13 de maio 1945. Le governamento provisorio essera postea conducite per Félix Gouin e Georges Bidault. === Le Quarte Republica (1946-1958) === In 1946, le Governamento provisorio cedeva su loco al Quarte Republica, instaurate per un nove constitution approbate per referendum. Ma le instabilitate politic e le divergentias concernente le problemas colonial in Indochina e in [[Algeria]] conduceva a crises ministerial successiv e finalmente al caduta del regime. Vincent Auriol esseva le prime presidente del IV Republica, de 1947 a 1954. René Coty le succedeva (1954-1958). ==== Le politica general del nove regime ==== Le regime parliamentari del Quarto Republica permitteva le reconstruction e le modernisation de Francia gratia, in particular, al creation del Commissariato al Plano e a un certo numero de nationalisationes in sectores strategice. Es in iste periodo que le famose Trenta Gloriose prendeva su fontes, profitante etiam le sector private; le reconstruction del pais se faceva via un forte crescentia economic e financiar. In materia de politica exterior, Francia intrava in NATO, acceptante mesmo le mantemento del bases american in su territorio national. In 1956, le fallita intervention franco-britannic super le canale de Suez, oppostate per le Statos Unite e le USSR, incitava le rapprochement del Statos europee: le mercato commun (CEE) esseva create in 1957. Le Constitution de 1946 createva le Union Francese. Iste Union, plus le territorios europee del Republica, comprendeva Algeria, formate de tres departamentos (Alger, Oran e Constantine) e le territorios del sud (Sahara), le departamentos ultra-mar (Martinica, Guadaloupe, La Réunion, Guyana), le territorios ultra-mar (ex-AEF, AOF, Oceania), le territorios associate (Camerun e Togo) e le Statos associate (Indochina, Marocco, Tunisia). Illo es necessario adjunger: Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, le costa francese del Somalis, Madagascar e le Comores, le terra Adelie e le comptorios del Indias. Plus de 12 milliones de km² in toto repartite in territorios plus o minus autonome. Le statut politic de cata territorio dependeva del historia e del conditiones del conquiste. Post le guerra, fissuras appariva. Le decolonisation essera marcate per duo grande conflictes. ==== Le guerra de Indochina ==== Ab le anno 1940, le Japoneses qui occupava le Indochina francese encourageva le movimento de decolonisation que resultava in le proclamation del independentia del Vietnam per Ho Chi Minh le 2 de septembre 1945. A partir del annos 1950, le Viet Minh, movimento nationaliste de inspiration communiste, esseva adjutate per le USSR e le Republica popular de China. In le contexto del Guerre Frigide, Francia se trovava al prime rango mondial del luta contra le avance communiste in Asia. Le conflicte indochinese se disveloppava e amplificava in un contexto general de indifferentia verso iste guerre longe e ruinose. In 1954, le general Henri Navarre, comandante in chef del fortias francese in Indochina, sperante attraher le Viet Minh in un territorio ubi il poteva combatter los de maniera classic, concentrava su tropas in le conca de Dien Bien Phu. Le campo retranchate de Dien Bien Phu, commandate per le general de Castries, includeva le melior unitates del corpo expeditionari. Post 55 dies de combates e multe errores strategic del dirigentes del exercito francese, le francese, exhauste per octo annos de guerrilla conducite per le general Giap, esseva suffocate sub un diluvio de foco. Dien Bien Phu cadeva le 7 de maio 1954. Pierre Mendès France signava le accordos de Geneva le 21 de julio que finiva le guerre e, per consequentia, le Indochina Francese. Illes prevedeva le separation del Vietnam in duo estados a ambe lateres del 17me parallel: le nord retornava al Viet Minh communiste durante que le sud deveniva un stato independente. Le 7 de augusto, le cessate le fuego esseva total in Indochina. Le guerre provocava plus de 75 000 mortes del lato francese e costava circa 300 millardos de francos. ==== Le initio del guerra de Algeria ==== Le guerre de Indochina esseva appena finite quando le guerra de Algeria commenciava. Le 1e de novembre 1954, un parve grupo de nationalistas algerian congregate in le Fronte de Liberation National dischadena un insurrection organisante in Kabylie e in le Aurès un serie de attentatos que causava 8 mortes. Le Governamento Francese reagiva rapide. Le governo (Pierre Mendès France) inviava reinfortios militar e prendeva medidas repressiv. Le 12 de novembre, Mendès-France proclamava su determination a restablir le ordine durante que François Mitterrand, ministro del interne, affermava que Algeria faceva parte de Francia e que on debeva far toto le possibile pro que le « populo algerian se senti a casa, como nos e inter nos » e proponeva mesmo, le 5 de januario 1955, que Algeria esserea integrate in Francia. Iste integration remetterea in question le statuto de Algeria votate in 1947 que habeva instituite un Assemblea algerian con duo collegios de 60 membros — un electe per le minoritate francese, le altere per le majoritate musulmane in numero — que inviava sex deputatos al Assemblea de l’Union Francese. Assi, le idea de remetter in question le advantages e privilegios del communitate francese provocava un profunde discontentimento. Le governo Mendès-France esseva overturnate le 5 de februario 1955. Le effectivos del fortias armate cresceva rapide. Jacques Soustelle esseva nominate governator general de Algeria. Le situation aggravava e le stato de urgentia e le censura esseva proclamate le 3 de abril. Tamen le integration pareva ancora possibile usque al dischadimento del greve general organisate per le FLN que marca le separation definitive inter le duo communitates. Guy Mollet, capite del SFIO, esseva previde post le electiones legislative de 1956 pro formar le governo. Il se rendeva a Alger le 6 de februario pro installar le general Catroux in loco de Soustelle. Il esseva recipite per un clima insurrectional (Lagaillarde, Ortiz) e se submetteva. Il replaceva Catroux per Robert Lacoste, ben viste per le militares. Le 12 de marzo 1956, le Assemblea dava le poderes special al governo. De ora in ante, Guy Mollet e Robert Lacoste poteva implementar le politica de mantenentia del ordine in Algeria. Le spirale de attentatos e repression se amplificava. Le poder gradualmente passava al manos del militares. In facia del recrudescente del attentatos, le parachutistas del general Massu combatteva le battalia de Alger (januario 1957) durante le qual le tortura esseva sovente usate pro obtener information super le retiros. Iste uso del tortura esseva legitimate per le governo francese. In le territorios european del Republica, le fossa se profundeva inter le partisans del guerre e le oppositores (communistas, intellectuales e jornaes avant-garde). Le faction le plus ultra del partisans esseva conducite per le extrema dextra (Tixier-Vignancour) relayate per Soustelle e Bidault in le Union pro le Salvamento e Renovation de Algeria Francese (USRAF) que illes creava. Le positiones se induriva durante le prolongation del servitio militar a 27 meses (1957) e le remandato del contingent liberate. Violente manifestationes e blocages de convoios verso Algeria occurreva al initia del CGT e del communistas. Sur le terreno, le quadratura e repression assi como le surveillance del costas per le marina rendeva difficile le ravitallamento in armas del FLN. Le audientia del FLN diminuiva durante que le desertiones in su rangos e le inscriptiones in le exercito francese se multiplica. Le militares obteneva le derecto de persecution in territorio tunisian e faceva un bombardamento in Sakiet Sidi Youssef. Ma Francia esseva subite condemnate per le ONU, lo que le debilitava politicalmente. Félix Gaillard, presidente del consilio interim, dava plen poderes in Algeria al general Salan, e postea al general Massu qui constituiva un Comitato de Salvamento Public. Félix Gaillard esseva remplaciate per Pierre Pflimlin. Ma ille, judicate tro liberal, non habeva le confidentia del militares. Le general Massu, postea, faceva un appellation al general de Gaulle, demandante que ille forma un governo de salvamento public. De Gaulle respondeva durante un conferentia de prensa, le 19 de maio, que ille esseva prepare a assumer le responsabilitates del poder. === Le Quinte Republica (desde 1958) === Durante le referendum del 28 de septembre 1958, le nove constitution esseva adoptate, e le Quinta Republica officialmente proclamate le 5 de octobre 1958. [[Charles de Gaulle]], electe presidente del Republica le 21 de decembre 1958, reelecte in 1965 contra [[François Mitterrand]], remaneva presidente usque al 1969, data in le qual le ex-prime ministro [[Georges Pompidou]] le succedeva. Le periodo del fin del annos 1960 e le inicio del annos 1970 esseva notabilemente marcate per Maio 68 e per le fin del Trenta Gloriosas. Al morte de Pompidou in 1974, [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]], candidato de centro-dextre, esseva electe capite del Stato contra François Mitterrand, candidato del Union del sinistre. In 1981, François Mitterrand esseva electe presidente del Republica, battente le capite del Stato sortiente Valéry Giscard d’Estaing e riportante le sinistre al poder pro le prime vice desde le Quarta Republica. In politica, le Partido Communista Francese initia un longe declino, durante que le Fronte National constitui, al extrema dextra, un nove fortia. Post duo annos de cohabitation durante le qual ille debeva laborar con Jacques Chirac como prime ministro, François Mitterrand esseva reelecte in 1988 contra iste mesmo. Le persistentia de problemas social, in particular le disoccupation, conduceva in 1993 a un nove cohabitation, con Édouard Balladur como prime ministro. Succedente a François Mitterrand in 1995, [[Jacques Chirac]] affrontava le mesme problemas ante de esser obligate a cohabitar per cinque annos con Lionel Jospin como prime ministro. In 2002, Jacques Chirac esseva reelecte contra Jean-Marie Le Pen, post un prime tour que videva le elimination surprendente de Lionel Jospin. In 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy succedeva a Jacques Chirac, post haber battite Ségolène Royal durante le election presidencial. Il debeva affronter le crisi financial de 2007-2008 originante del Statos Unite. In maio 2012, François Hollande succedeva a [[Nicolas Sarkozy]]. Pro le secunde vice in le historia del Quinta Republica, un presidente socialiste esseva electe. Su politica economic prendeva un virage social-liberale in 2014, anno del « pacto de responsabilitate », sequite per le lege Macron e le lege Labor, que provocava un contestation social durante plure meses. Su presidentia esseva etiam marcate per le adoption del matrimonio homosexual, le Conferentia de Paris super le clima, interventiones militar (in Mali, in le Africa Central e in Medio Oriente), un crisi migratori in Europa e le institution de un stato de urgentia post plure attentatos islamiste in Francia. In maio 2017, [[Emmanuel Macron]], le presidente del Republica le plus juven e le plus juven dirigente francese desde [[Napoléon Bonaparte]], succedeva a François Hollande. Il affrontava le movimento del Gilets Jaunes e postea le pandemia de Covid-19 que attaccava Francia le 24 de januario 2020. Il esseva reelecte in 2022, ma su grupo perdeva le majoritate absolute in le Parlamento post le electiones legislative del mesmo anno. Le tripartitismo contemporanee francese (sinistre – centro – extrema dextra) se confirma durante le electiones legislative de 2024 provocate per le dissolution del Assemblea National. == Notas e referentias == <references/> {{Historia de Europa per pais}} [[Categoria:Historia de Francia]] aykbxek8nleooedhk7sicijazep8jzv 0 31706 699509 699298 2026-09-03T04:58:33Z Interlingvisto 60932 699509 wikitext text/x-wiki {{eminente}} {{infobox}} '''Johann Wolfgang Goethe''', ab 1782 '''von Goethe''' (* [[28 de augusto]] [[1749]] in [[Frankfurt am Main]]; † [[22 de martio]] [[1832]] in [[Weimar]]), esseva un [[poeta]], [[politico]] e [[scientista]] german. Il es considerate como un del plus importante creatores de [[poesia]] de lingua german. Goethe proveniva de un familia burgesea opulente e honorate; su avo materne era [[Schultheiß|Schultheiss]] e le plus alte official de justitia del citate de Frankfurt am Main, su patre era [[doctor in jure|doctor del derecto]] e [[consiliario imperial]]. Il e su soror [[Cornelia Schlosser|Cornelia]] recipeva un education elaborate per [[preceptor]]es private. Conformemente al desiro de su patre, Goethe studiava [[derecto]] in [[Universitate de Leipzig|Leipzig]] e [[Universitate de Strasbourg|Strasbourg]] e postea exerceva como [[advocate]] in [[Wetzlar]] e Frankfurt. Simultaneemente il se dedicava a su inclination verso le poesia. Il obteneva su prime recognitiones in le mundo del [[literatura]] in 1773 con le [[drama]] ''[[Götz von Berlichingen (Goethe)|Götz von Berlichingen]]'', que le apportava un successo national, e in 1774 con le [[roman epistolar]] ''[[Le dolores del juvene Werther]]'', con le qual il attingeva mesmo un successo europee. Ambes obras es attribuibile al currente litterari del [[Sturm und Drang]] (1765–1785). Le juvene [[Carl August (Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach)|duce Carl August]] de [[Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach]] invitava le Goethe de 26 annos in 1775 a su [[curia|curia]] in Weimar, ubi ille finalmente remaneva pro le resto de su vita. Illac, como amico e ministro del duce, il occupava functiones politic e administrative e dirigeva durante un quarto de seculo le [[Teatro national german e Orchestra statal de Weimar#Teatro de curia de Weimar|Teatro de curia de Weimar]]. Le neglecto de su capacitate creative resultante de su activitate official provocava, post le prime decennio de Weimar, un crise personal, de que Goethe se evadeva per fugi a Italia. Le [[Viage italian|viage a Italia]] de septembre 1786 a maio 1788 esseva considerate per ille como un «renascentia». Il debeva a illo le completion de importantes obras como ''[[Ifigenia in Tauride]]'' (1787), ''[[Egmont (Goethe)|Egmont]]'' (1788) e ''[[Torquato Tasso (Goethe)|Torquato Tasso]]'' (1790). Post su retorno, su obligationes official esseva in grande parte limitate a functiones representative. Le abundantia del patrimonio cultural experite in Italia stimulava su production poetic, e le experientias erotic con un juvene roman permitteva que ille, immediatemente post su retorno, initiava un relation amorose durabile e «inappropriate al su stato social» con [[Christiane von Goethe|Christiane Vulpius]], que ille legalisava solmente dece-octo annos plus tarde per le matrimonio. Le obra litterari de Goethe comprende [[poesia lyric]], [[drama|dramas]], [[epica]], [[autobiografia|obras autobiographic]], tractatos de [[theoria del arte|theoria del arte]] e de [[theoria litterari|theoria litterari]], assi como scriptores de scientias natural. In addition, su vaste correspondentia possede un importantia litterari. Mesmo [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]] le invitava a un audientia in occasion del [[Congresso de principes de Erfurt]]. In collaboration con [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]] e insimul con [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]] e [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]], ille incarnava le [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Le romanes ''[[Wilhelm Meister|Wilhelm Meister]]'' deveniva precursores exemplar de [[roman de artista|romanes de artista]] e [[roman de formation]] de lingua german. Su drama ''[[Faust. Un tragedia|Faust]]'' (1808) acquireva le reputation de esser le plus importante creation del litteratura de lingua german. In su etate vetule, il esseva considerate etiam in le exterior como un representante del Germania intellectual. In le [[Imperio german]] il esseva transformate in le [[poeta national]] german e herald del [[character national|«essentia german»]] e, como tal, esseva instrumentalizate al servicio del [[nationalismo german]]. Assi initiava un veneration non solmente del obra, sed etiam del personalitate del poeta, cuje modo de vita esseva considerate exemplar. Le poesia lyric de Goethe, le ''Faust'' e le roman ''Le dolores del juvene Werther'' pertine al [[litteratura universal]]. == Vita == [[File:Johann Caspar Goethe by Schmoll, 1774.jpg|thumb|upright|''Johann Caspar Goethe,'' designo in aquarella de [[Georg Friedrich Schmoll]], 1774]] [[File:Catharina Elisabeth Goethe 1776.jpg|thumb|upright|''Catharina Elisabeth Goethe,'' portrait de [[Georg Oswald May]], 1776]] === Origine e juventute === [[File:Frankfurt Am Main-Goethe-Haus-Ansicht am Grossen Hirschgraben.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Casa Goethe|Casa natal de Goethe]] reconstruite in Frankfurt am Main]] Johann Wolfgang von Goethe nasceva le 28 de augusto 1749 in le casa familial de Goethe (le actual [[Casa Goethe]]) al [[Großer Hirschgraben|Grande Fossato del Cervo]] in Frankfurt e esseva baptisate evangelic le die sequente. Su nomine usate era Wolfgang. Al nascentia de Goethe occurreva grande problemas, nam ille inicialmente non respirava e monstrava signos clar de privation de oxygeno ([[asphyxia]]). Il existeva un periculo acute pro su vita e un risco de [[damno cerebral|encephalopathia hypoxic]]. On suppone que un [[circumvolution del cordon umbilical]] impediva su respiration. Anque como infante e adolescente Goethe esseva frequentemente malade e pativa particularmente severemente de un infection de variola.<ref>[https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/pdf/10.1055/s-0032-1309707.pdf ''Patient Goethe – un pathographia'']</ref> Su avô, originari de Thuringia, [[Friedrich Georg Göthe]] (1657–1730), se establiva in 1687 como maestro sartor in Frankfurt, modificava le orthographia del nomine familial<ref>Secundo Heinrich Düntzer: ''Arbores genealogic de Goethe – un presentation genealogic.'' Salzwasser, Paderborn 1894, [http://digital.ub.uni-duesseldorf.de/ihd/content/pageview/8366985 p. 93 ss.] [[Nicholas Boyle]] attribue tamen iste passo a Johann Caspar G. Vide Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-458-34725-9, p. 69. – Ben que Goethe sempre scribeva su nomine con oe, durante tote su vita publicationes appareva anque sub le nomine Göthe.</ref> e poteva maritar se in un prospere negotio de taberna e hospitio. Assi ille acquireva un patrimonio considerabile, que ille lassava, in forma de immobiles, credite hypothecari e plure sacculos plen de moneta, a su duo filios ex su prime matrimonio e al filio le plus juvene [[Johann Caspar Goethe]] (1710–1782), patre de Johann Wolfgang Goethe.<ref>Werner Plumpe: ''Economia, consumo e acquisition in le casa parental de Goethe''. In: Vera Hierholzer e Sandra Richter (ed.): ''Goethe e le moneta. Le poeta e le economia moderne. Catalogo del exposition in le Casa Goethe de Frankfurt/Libere Alte Collegiate German del 14 de septembre al 30 de decembre 2012'', p. 118.</ref> Le patre de Goethe habeva obtenite le titulo de doctor in [[jure]] al Universitate de Leipzig, ma non exerceva un profession juridic. Con le titulo honorific de «Consiliario imperial» ille ascendeva al classe superior de Frankfurt. Como [[rentista]], ille viveva del rendimentos de su patrimonio hereditate, que plus tarde permitteva anque a su filio de viver e studiar sin constrangimentos financiari.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 68, 87.</ref> Il era multilateralmente interessate e educate, ma anque stricte e pedantic, lo que repetitemente conduceva a conflictos in le familia. Le prime contactos de Goethe con le litteratura consisteva in le historias de bon nocte del matre e le lectura del Biblia in le pie familia lutherano-protestante. Per le Natal de 1753, su avia le regalava un [[Theatro de pupas|theatro de pupas]]. Ille apprendeva de memoria le obra teatral destinate a iste scena e lo presentava repetitemente con entusiasmo insimul con su amicos. Le parve Goethe demonstrava su prime tentativas de imagination litterari etiam con su (secundo su proprie assertion) «initios de fanfaronada»,<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Aus meinem Leben. Dichtung und Wahrheit.'' Erster Teil, Zweites Buch [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Erster+Teil/Zweites+Buch](http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Erster+Teil/Zweites+Buch) zeno.org] (abgerufen am 14. Januar 2015).</ref> inventante contos extraordinari e narrante los a su stupefacite amicos in le prime persona como un entretenimento captivante. On legeva multo in le casa de Goethe; le patre possedeva un bibliotheca de circa 2000 volumines. Assi Goethe cognosceva ja como infante, inter altere cosas, le [[Materia de Faust|libro popular sur le Dr. Faust]]. Durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos|Guerra de Septem Annos]], ab 1759 usque a 1761, le commandante francese del citate [[François de Théas von Thoranc|Comte Thoranc]] esseva allogiato in le casa parental. A ille e al troupe teatral que le accompaniava Goethe debeva su prime incontro con le [[Classicismo francese|litteratura dramatic francese]]. Incitate per le numerose linguas apprendite, a dece-duo annos ille comenciava un roman multilingue, in le qual tote le linguas habeva un presentation in un miscuglio colorate.<ref>Karl Otto Conrady: ''Goethe. Leben und Werk.'' Neuausgabe in einem Band. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, S. 328.</ref> Secundo su biographos Nicholas Boyle e [[Rüdiger Safranski|Rüdiger Safranski]], Goethe esseva certemente un infante de talento exceptional, ma non un infante prodigio como [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]].<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 74; Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, ISBN 978-3-446-23581-6, S. 32. Boyle spricht von „ausnehmend begabt“, Safranski von „hochbegabt“.</ref> Ille apprendeva rapidemente linguas e possedeva un «destreza completemente non infantil in le composition de versos». Ille esseva «vivace, de temperamento exuberante e obstinate, ma sin profunditate».<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 74.</ref> === Studios e poesia juvene === ==== Leipzig (1765–1768) ==== [[File:Goethe 1765.jpg|thumb|upright|Goethe pauc ante su periodo de studente in Leipzig, secundo un pintura a oleo de Anton Johann Kern, comburite in 1943]] [[File:Leipzig Goethes Studentenwohnung.jpg|thumb|Cortile del «[[Grande Sphera de Foco|Grande Sphera de Foco]]» – le habitation de studente de Goethe in Leipzig]] Per instruction de su patre, Goethe comenciava in le autumno de 1765 un [[Studios de jure|studio de jure]] al [[Universitate de Leipzig]], de longe tradition. In contraste con le parve-burgese Frankfurt, que alora ancora non habeva su proprie universitate, Leipzig esseva un citate elegante e cosmopolite, que portava le supernomine ''[[Parve Paris|Parve-Paris]]''.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 83.</ref> Goethe esseva tractate como un provincial e debeva primo adaptar se in su vestimentos e manieras de comportamento pro esser acceptate per su nove concitatanos. Alimentate per su patre con un [[Cambial|cambial]] mensual de 100 [[Florin|florinos]], ille disponeva del duple del moneta que un studente necessita alora mesmo al universitates le plus costose.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 87.</ref> Goethe habita in Leipzig in un edificio del cortile del casa [[Grande Sphera de Foco|Grande Sphera de Foco]] al [[Neumarkt (Leipzig)|Neumarkt]].<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Aus meinem Leben. Dichtung und Wahrheit.'' Zweiter Teil, Sechstes Buch, S. 302 [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Zweiter+Teil/Sechstes+Buch](http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Zweiter+Teil/Sechstes+Buch) zeno.org] (abgerufen am 14. Januar 2015).</ref> Durante le [[Feria de Leipzig|feria]], le studentes debeva liberar lor allogiamento pro le mercatores; assi Goethe se transferiva durante le feria a un possession agricole in [[Reudnitz (Leipzig)|Reudnitz]], un village al est de Leipzig.<ref>Irene Altmann: ''Goethe und der Kuchengarten in Reudnitz.'' In: ''Leipziger Osten 2.'' Verlag im Wissenschaftszentrum, Leipzig 1994, ISBN 3-930433-00-1, S. 24.</ref> Nonobstante que su patre habeva confidate su education al professor de historia e jure public [[Johann Gottlob Böhme|Johann Gottlob Böhme]], e que iste habeva prohibite a Goethe le desiderate cambio de disciplina de studio,<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 84.</ref> ille comenciava ja tosto a negliger le studio obligatori. Ille prefereva frequentar le cursos de poetica de [[Christian Fürchtegott Gellert|Christian Fürchtegott Gellert]], al qual le studentes poteva presentar lor tentativas litterari. Proque Gellert acceptava versos con reluctancia, ille transmitteva immediatemente le tentativas poetic de Goethe (inter illos un poema nupcial pro le oncle Textor) a su substituto, qui ne habeva un opinion favorabile de illos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 44.</ref> Le pictor [[Adam Friedrich Oeser|Adam Friedrich Oeser]], apud qui Goethe continuava le instruction de designo que ille habeva initiate in Frankfurt, le familiarisava con le ideal artistic orientate verso le [[Antiquitate classic|Antiquitate]] de su discipulo [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann|Johann Joachim Winckelmann]]. Oeser, director fundator del [[Academia de Artes Graphic e del Libro de Leipzig|Academia de Artes de Leipzig]], create in 1764, stimulava le comprehension del arte e le capacitate de judicio artistic de Goethe. In un littera de gratias desde Frankfurt, Goethe le scribeva que ille habeva apprendite plus con ille que durante tote su annos al universitate.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 56.</ref> Per recommendation de Oeser, ille visitava [[Dresden]] e le [[Galeria de Pinturas de le Veteres Magistros|Galeria de Pinturas]] in martio 1768. Goethe establiva con le filia de Oeser, Friederike Elisabeth (1748–1829), un amicitia in 1765, que continuava ancora per alcun tempore post su annos de Leipzig per medio de correspondentia. Oeser ipse remaneva etiam in contacto plus proxime con Goethe per litteras usque a su partentia verso Strasbourg. Lor relation durava usque al morte de Oeser. Apud le gravator [[Johann Michael Stock|Johann Michael Stock]] in le [[Urso Argentee (Leipzig)|Urso Argentee]], Goethe apprendeva durante su periodo de studente in Leipzig le technicas del [[Xylographia|xylographia]] e del [[Aquaforte|aquaforte]]. Lontan del casa parental, le 16- e 17-anne Goethe gaudeva in Leipzig de plus grande libertates: ille frequentava representationes teatral, passava le vespere con amicos e faceva excursiones in le ambiente.<ref>In ''Dichtung und Wahrheit'' (zweiter Teil, siebentes Buch, S. 302 [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Zweiter+Teil/Siebentes+Buch](http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Zweiter+Teil/Siebentes+Buch) (Zeno)]) erwähnt er einen solchen Ausflug zum Kuchenbäcker Hendel, dem Wirt vom [[Kuchengarten#Goethe und der Kuchengarten|Kuchengarten]] in Reudnitz, einem der sogenannten Kohldörfer, wo er ein Spottgedicht verfasste und an die Wand schrieb.</ref> Durante le periodo de Leipzig occurreva le «prime relation amorose serio» de Goethe.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 88.</ref> Le romance con [[Anna Katharina Schönkopf|Käthchen Schönkopf]], filia de un artesano e proprietario de albergo, esseva dissolvite de mutue accordo post duo annos. Le effusiones emotional de iste annos influentiava le stilo de scriptura de Goethe; si ille habeva antea ja componite poemas secundo le stilo regular del [[Rococo|rococo]], lor tono deveniva ora plus libere e tempestose. Un collection de 19 poemas [[Anacreontica|anacreontic]], copiate e illustrate per su amico [[Ernst Wolfgang Behrisch|Ernst Wolfgang Behrisch]], resultava in le libro ''[[Annette (Goethe)|Annette]]''. Un altere parve collection de poemas esseva imprimite in 1769 sub le titulo ''Neue Lieder'' como le prime del obras de Goethe publicate in forma de libro. Secundo Nicholas Boyle, in su initios juvene le poesia de Goethe esseva «sin compromissos erotic» e se occupava «directemente del fonte le plus potente del voler e sentir individual».<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 106.</ref> In julio 1768, Goethe subiva un grave [[hemorrhagia]]. On suspectava un affection [[Tuberculose|tubercular]]. Hodie on presume plus tosto que se tractava de un [[ulcere gastric]] sanguinante, que poterea haber se formate como consequentia de su alte consumo de alcohol e de forte cargas psychic.<ref>[[https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/pdf/10.1055/s-0032-1309707.pdf ''Patient Goethe'']; Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 93.</ref> Goethe esseva tractate con successo per le medico de Leipzig [[Georg Christian Reichel]] (1727–1771). Quando ille esseva de novo plus o minus capace de viagiar, ille retornava in augusto — al disappointment de su patre sin un grado academic<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 96.</ref> — al casa parental in Frankfurt. ==== Frankfurt e Strasbourg (1768–1771) ==== [[File:Maison Goethe Strasbourg.jpg|thumb|upright|Le casa de Goethe in Strasbourg, olim al ''Fischmarkt'', hodie ''Rue du Vieux Marché aux Poissons'']] Le maladia que menaciava su vita requireva un longe [[convalescentia]] e rendeva Goethe receptive al conceptiones del [[pietismo]], que un amica de su matre, le [[communitate del Fratres Moravos]] [[Susanne von Klettenberg]], le faceva cognoscer. Durante iste periodo, ille se approximava temporarimente al christianismo como adulto.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 91.</ref> Ille se occupava insimul de scriptos [[Mystica|mystic]] e [[Alchemie|alchemic]], un lectura al qual ille recurrerea plus tarde in ''[[Faust de Goethe]]''.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 73.</ref> Independente de isto, durante iste tempore ille scribeva su prime comedia, ''[[Le complices]]''. In april 1770 Goethe continuava su studios al [[Universitate de Strasbourg]]. Strasbourg, con 43.000 habitantes, esseva plus grande que Frankfurt<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 116.</ref> e habeva essite annexate per Francia in 1681 in le quadro del [[politica de reunion]]. Le inseniamento al universitate se faceva ancora in grande parte in lingua germane. Iste vice Goethe se dedicava con plus determination al studios juridic, ma trovava etiam tempore pro assister como auditor a in 1770–1771 al cursos de [[chimica]] e [[botanica]] de [[Jacob Reinbold Spielmann]].<ref>Georg Schwedt: ''Goethe als Chemiker.'' Springer, Berlin / Heidelberg u. a. 1998, S. 22 f.</ref> In Strasbourg ille establiva un integre serie de cognoscentias personal. Le plus importante esseva le del theologo, theoretico del arte e del litteratura [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Gottfried Herder]]. Goethe lo appellava le «evento le plus significative» del periodo de Strasbourg.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 81.</ref> Le viro plus vetere, durante lor visitas quasi quotidian, aperiva le oculos de Goethe al fortia linguistic originari de autores como [[Homero]], [[William Shakespeare]] e [[Ossian]], como etiam al poesia popular, e assi le dava impulsos decisive pro le disveloppamento poetic de Goethe. Plus tarde, per le intervention de Goethe, ille esserea appellate al servicio de Weimar. Al circulo de su amicos e cognoscitos, qui se incontrava generalmente al mesme tabula durante le prandio, pertineva etiam le futuro [[oculista]] e scriptor de orientation pietista [[Johann Heinrich Jung-Stilling|Jung-Stilling]], e le theologo e scriptor [[Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz]]. Ben que circumdate de amicos de orientation religiose, Goethe se distantiava definitivamente del pietismo in Strasbourg.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 118.</ref> Su companion de studios [[Friedrich Leopold Weyland]] le introduceva in le familia del pastor Brion in [[Sessenheim]]. Goethe cognosceva ibi le filia del pastor, [[Friederike Brion]] (1752–1813), e se innamorava de illa. Con su abandono del Universitate de Strasbourg, le juvene Goethe, qui timeva le ligamines affective, poneva fin al relation, ben que Friederike lo comprendeva solmente per un carta de Goethe inviate de Frankfurt. Secundo Nicholas Boyle, Friederike debeva sentir se gravemente compromittite, proque, per su conducta verso illa, Goethe poteva esser considerate su fidanzato.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 128 f. und S. 133.</ref> Goethe recipeva con commotion e sentimento de culpa le novas de su collapso physic, que ille apprendeva per le responsa posterior de Friederike. Friederike remaneva non maritate usque al fin de su vita. Le poemas que Goethe scribeva pro illa deveniva plus tarde cognoscite como le ''[[Cantos de Sesenheim]]'' (inter alteres ''[[Salutation e congedo]]'', ''[[Canto de maio]]'' e ''[[Petite rosa del landes incultivate]]''). [[Karl Otto Conrady]] considera false le etiqueta de «[[lyrica de experientia]]» in iste caso. Le forma exterior del lyrica non offereva nihil de nove, e le expression linguistic excedeva solmente in nuantias le linguage poetic usual. Tamen, le «io» in iste poemas habeva tractos individual e non se appoiava super «modellos predefinite de [[poesia pastoral]]»; plus tosto, «le io parlante, le amate, le amor e le natura appareva con un intensitate linguistic usque alora incognite».<ref>Karl Otto Conrady: ''Goethe. Leben und Werk.'' Neuausgabe in einem Band. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, ISBN 3-538-06638-8, S. 121 und 125 f.</ref> In le estate de 1771 Goethe submitteva su [[dissertation]] juridic (que non ha essite conservate), cuje thema esseva le relation inter le Stato e le Ecclesia. Le theologos de Strasbourg la considerava scandalose; un de illes appellava Goethe un «religionis contemptor folle». Le decano del facultate recommendava a Goethe de retirar le dissertation. Tamen, le universitate le offereva le possibilitate de obtener le [[licentia]]. Pro iste grado inferior, ille solmente debeva formular e defender alcun theses.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 100 f.</ref> Le base del [[disputation]] del 6 de augusto 1771, que ille superava «cum applausu», esseva 56 theses in lingua latin sub le titulo ''Positiones Juris''. In le penultime these ille tractava le question controverse de si un [[infanticida]] deberea esser condemnate al [[pena de morte]]. Plus tarde ille retomava le thema in forma artistic in le [[tragedia de Gretchen]]. === Advocato e poeta in Frankfurt e Wetzlar (1771–1775) === [[File:Silhouette of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.svg|thumb|upright|Profil de Goethe in [[silhouette]]]] [[File:-1- Die Leiden des jungen Werthers. Erstdruck.jpg|thumb|''Le suffrentias del juvene Werther'', prime edition de 1774 (in un revision posterior le [[genitivo]]-s esseva eliminate]] Retornate a Frankfurt, Goethe aperiva un parve [[officio de advocato]], que serviva principalmente a su patre como «simple station de transito» verso cargos plus alte (per exemplo [[Schultheiß|Schultheiss]], como su avo).<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 102.</ref> Ille exerceva le advocatura durante quatro annos, con interesse tosto decrescente e poc fervor de labor, usque a su partida verso [[Weimar]]. Plus importante que le profession de advocato esseva pro Goethe le poesia. In fin de 1771 ille poneva in scripto — in le spatio de sex septimanas — le ''Historia de Gottfried de Berlichingen con le mano de ferro''. Post un revision, le drama esseva publicate in 1773 como ''[[Götz von Berlichingen (Goethe)|Götz de Berlichingen]]'' per le proprie editoria. Le obra, que rompeva con tote le regulas dramatic tradicionalmente transmittite, recipeva un reception enthousiaste e es considerate un documento fundational del [[Tempesta e Impeto]].<ref>[[Dieter Borchmeyer]]: ''Curso rapide Goethe.'' Dumont, Köln 2005, p. 35.</ref> Le drama ''[[Tempesta e Impeto (obra teatral)|Tempesta e Impeto]]'', que dava su nomine al epocha, esseva de [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]], qui apparteneva al circulo de amicos de Goethe desde su juventute. In januario 1772, Goethe assistiva in Frankfurt al «ceremonia obscur» del execution public per le spada del infanticida [[Susanna Margaretha Brandt]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 120.</ref> Secundo [[Rüdiger Safranski]], illo formava le fundo personal del «tragedia de Gretchen» in le ''Faust'', que Goethe habeva comenciate a laborar al initio del annos 1770.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 119.</ref> Su soror Cornelia maritava in 1773 le advocato [[Johann Georg Schlosser]], amico de Goethe decem annos plus vetere, qui habeva participate como advocato al processo contra le infanticida. Plus tarde, in 1783, Goethe, consultate per le duca [[Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August de Weimar]], qui voleva transformar su pena capital in carceration perpetue, se pronunciava in le [[Consilio Secrete]] in favor del mantenimento del [[pena de morte|pena capital]]; Höhn esseva decapitate con le spada le 28 de novembre 1783.<ref>Uwe Wittstock, ''Esque iste pena esseva vermente meritate?'' In: [[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] del 8 de januario 2022.</ref> Durante iste annos, ille visitava frequentemente le [[Circulo de Darmstadt]] del [[sensibilitate|sensitivos]], circum [[Johann Heinrich Merck]], faciente excursiones de 25 kilometros de Frankfurt a [[Darmstadt]].<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 156.</ref> Goethe attribueva grande importantia al judicio de Merck; in su autobiographia ille affirmava que Merck habeva exercite le «plus grande influentia» super su vita. Per invitation de Merck, Goethe scribeva [[recensiones]] pro le revista ''[[Annuncios erudite de Frankfurt]]'', dirigite per Merck e Schlosser.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 123–128.</ref> Inter le duo redactiones del ''Götz'', Goethe, de nove per insistentia de su patre, se inscribeva in maio 1772 como practicante apud le [[Tribunal Cameral del Imperio]] in [[Wetzlar]]. Su collega ibi, [[Johann Christian Kestner]], describeva plus tarde le Goethe de ille tempore: {{Citation|Il possede lo que on appella genio, e un imagination extraordinari. Il es vehemente in su affectiones. Il ha un maniera de pensar nobile. […] Il ama le infantes e pote occupar se multo con illes. Il es bizarro e ha in su comportamento e in su apparentia varie cosas que poterea render le desagradabile. Ma apud infantes, feminas e multe alteres ille es tamen ben acceptate. – Il face lo que le place, sin preoccupar se si illo place a alteres, si es al moda o si le maniera de viver le permitte. Tota constrangimento le es odiose. […] Il ha facite del belle scientias e del artes su opera principal, o plus tosto de tote le scientias, salvo le cosi appellate scientias panificatori.<ref>Citate secundo Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 160.</ref>}} De nove Goethe accordava poc attention al labor juridic. In vice, ille se occupava del autores antique. Durante un festa rural con dansas, ille incontrava le fidanzata de Kestner, [[Charlotte Buff]], e se innamorava de illa. Goethe deveniva un hospite regular e benvenite in le domo del familia Buff. Post que Charlotte le explicava que ille poteva sperar in nihil altere que su amicitia, e Goethe habeva comprendite le desesperation de su situation, ille fugiva de [[Wetzlar]].<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 162.</ref> In 1774 Goethe deveniva padrino de [[Georg Kestner (archivista, 1774)|Georg Kestner]], le filio senior de Johann Christian Kestner e Charlotte. Un anno e medie plus tarde, ille elaborava iste experientia, assi como altere experientias proprie e de alteres, in le roman epistolar ''[[Le suffrentias del juvene Werther]]'', que ille scribeva al initio de 1774 in solmente quatro septimanas. Le obra de alte emotionalitate, attribuite tanto al «Tempesta e Impeto» como al corrente litterari contemporanee del «sensibilitate», rendeva su autor celebre in tote Europa in pauc tempore. Goethe ipse explicava plus tarde le enorme successo del libro e le «[[effecto Werther|febre de Werther]]» que illo habeva provocate per le facto que illo habeva precise incontrate le besonios del epocha. Le poeta se salvava ipse, per le labor creative al ''Werther'', de un situation vital personal de crise: «Io me sentiva, como post un confession general, de novo felice e libere, e con derecto a un nove vita.»<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''De mi vita. Poesia e veritate.'' Tertie parte, tredecime libro [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Dritter+Teil/Dreizehntes+Buch](http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Aus+meinem+Leben.+Dichtung+und+Wahrheit/Dritter+Teil/Dreizehntes+Buch) zeno.org] (consultate le 14 de januario 2015).</ref> Tamen, ille manteneva postea un relation cordial con Kestner e Lotte per correspondentia.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 164.</ref> Al retorno de Wetzlar, su patre le recipeva con reproches, proque le filio ibi non habeva facite progressos professional.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 139.</ref> Le annos subsequente in Frankfurt, usque a su partida verso Weimar, esseva inter le plus productive del vita de Goethe. Ultra le ''Werther'', nasceva le grande [[hymnos]] (inter altere ''[[Canto tempestose del viator]], [[Ganimede (poema)|Ganimede]], [[Prometheus (hymno)|Prometheus]]'' e ''[[Canto de Mahomet]]''), plure dramas breve (inter altere ''[[Le festa del mercato in Plundersweilern]]'' e ''[[Deos, heroes e Wieland]]''), assi como le dramas ''[[Clavigo]]'' e ''[[Stella (Goethe)|Stella. Un obra teatral pro amantes]]''. Durante iste periodo Goethe se occupava etiam pro le prime vice del ''[[materia de Faust]]''. Per Pascha 1775, Goethe se fidanzava con [[Lili Schönemann]], filia de un banquero de Frankfurt. Verso le fin de su vita, ille diceva a [[Johann Peter Eckermann|Eckermann]] que illa esseva le prime femina que ille habeva «profundemente e vermente amate». Pro le prime vice, como scribe Nicholas Boyle, Lili offereva a Goethe «le possibilitate completemente real del matrimonio»,<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 236.</ref> ma le juvene poeta reculava ante un tal ligamine. Un matrimonio non esseva compatibile con su planos de vita. Altere impedimentos esseva le differente ambientes social e confessiones del genitores (ille esseva lutheran, illa [[Hugenotto|hugenotta]]). Pro ganiar distantia, ille acceptava un invitation del fratres [[Christian de Stolberg-Stolberg|Christian]] e [[Friedrich Leopold de Stolberg-Stolberg]] a un viage de plure menses trans le [[Suisse]]. In [[Zurich]] ille esseva hospite de [[Johann Caspar Lavater|Lavater]], in cuje ''[[Physiognomia|Fragmentos physiognomic]]'' Goethe collaborava, e cognosceva [[Barbara Schulthess|Barbara Schultheß]] del circulo de amicos de Lavater. De illo nasceva un amicitia pro tote le vita; Goethe la nominava su «lectora le plus fidel».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita''. Hanser, München 2013, p. 183.</ref> A intervallos, illa recipeva le libros completate del emergente roman ''Wilhelm Meister'', que illa copiava con adjuta de su filia. Un de iste copias face possibile que le posteritate conservava le version original del roman, ''[[Le mission teatral de Wilhelm Meister]]'', discoperite in 1909 e imprimite in 1910.<ref>[[Arthur Henkel]]: Postface a Goethe: ''Le mission teatral de Wilhelm Meister'' (= ''[[Exempla classica|Bibliotheca Fischer de centos libros]]''). Fischer Bücherei, Frankfurt am Main 1969, p. 317–321, hic p. 318 f.</ref> In octobre 1775, le fidanzamento esseva dissolvite per le matre de Lili, con le declaration que un matrimonio non esseva convenibile a causa del differentia inter le religiones.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 185.</ref> Goethe, qui suffreva multo del separation, acceptava in iste situation un invitation del duca de 18 annos [[Carl August de Saxonia-Weimar-Eisenach (1757–1828)|Carl August]] a un viage verso [[Weimar]]. === Ministro in Weimar (ab 1775) === [[File:Weimar, Stadtplan von Franz Ludwig Güssefeld, 1784.jpg|thumb|Plano de Weimar (mesurate in 1782); a basso sinistre es indicate le jardin de Goethe]] In novembre 1775 Goethe attingeva Weimar. Le capital del ducato de [[Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]] contava solmente circa 6000 habitantes (le ducato circa 100 000), ma gratias al efforts del ducissa-matre [[Anna Amalia de Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel|Anna Amalia]], illo deveniva nihilominus un centro cultural.<ref>Anna Amalia succedeva, post le morte precoce de su marito, non solmente a governar su ducato durante 17 annos con grande prudentia, ma etiam a attraher artistas e scientistas a su «corte del Musas» e a promover les secundo su possibilitates. Le poeta ja cognoscite in ille tempore, [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]], illa nominava mesmo preceptor de su duo filios.</ref> Su corte habeva hospitate le renominate ensemble teatral de [[Abel Seyler]], usque un incendio in le anno 1774 destrueva le castello de Weimar. Al tempore quando Goethe esseva invitate a Weimar sin un function precise, ille esseva ja un autor celebre in tote Europa.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 197.</ref> Ille ganiava rapidemente le confidentia del duce Carl August, de octo annos su junior, educate in le spirito del Illumination e qui admirava su gran-uncle [[Federico II (Prussia)|Federico II]] pro su amicitia con [[Voltaire]]. Como ille, ille voleva «haber un grande spirito a su latere».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 207.</ref> Le duce faceva toto le possibile pro retener Goethe in Weimar; ille le faceva generose donos, inter altere le [[Casa de jardin de Goethe|casa de jardin in le parco al Illm]]. Quando le duce proponeva a ille de participar al direction del stato, Goethe acceptava post alcun hesitation. In illo le determinava le desiro de un activitate practic e efficace. A un amica de Frankfurt ille scribeva: «Io va […] probabilemente remaner […]. Mesmo si isto essere solmente pro alcun annos, illo es sempre melior que le vita inactive a casa, ubi io, con le plus grande placer, pote facer nihil. Hic io ha al minus un par de [[Ducato|ducatos]] ante me.»<ref>[[Klaus Seehafer]]: ''Mi vita, un sol aventura. Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Biographia.'' Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-351-02471-1, p. 141.</ref> ==== In le servicio del stato ==== [[File:Johann Wolfgang Goethe, 1779.png|thumb|upright|''Johann Wolfgang Goethe'', pictura al oleo per [[Georg Oswald May]], 1779]] [[File:Ilmenauer Kupfer und Silberbergwerk Kuxschein 1784.jpg|thumb|alt=Un Kux del mina de cupro e argento de Ilmenau de 20 «thaler», emittite le 24 februario 1784 in Weimar, signate in original per Johann Wolfgang de Goethe, Johann Carl Wilhelm Voigt e Christian Gottlob de Voigt. Inscripte al nomine de Karl Theodor baron de Dalberg, gubernator de Erfurt.|Un [[Kux]] del mina de cupro e argento de Ilmenau de 20 [[Taler|«thaler»]], emittite le 24 februario 1784 in Weimar, signate in original per Johann Wolfgang de Goethe, [[Johann Carl Wilhelm Voigt]] e [[Christian Gottlob Voigt]]. Inscripte al nomine de [[Karl Theodor baron de Dalberg]], gubernator de Erfurt]] Goethe deveniva le 11 de junio 1776 Consiliere secrete de [[Legation]] e membro del ''[[Conseil secrete|Conseil Secrete]]'', le organo consultive de tres membros del duce, con un salario annual de 1200 [[Taler|taler]].<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Vol. I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 279.</ref> Nominalmente, Goethe apparteneva al ''Conseil Secrete'' usque a su dissolution in 1815. Le 14 de maio 1780 ille scribeva a Kestner concernente su activitate litterari durante le servicio del stato, que ille postponerea su activitate de scriptor, ma se permitteva «[…] secundo le exemplo del [[Federico II (Prussia)|gran rege]], qui dedicava cata die alcun horas al [[flauto]], etiam a vices exercitar le talento que es proprie a me».<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Classicismo de Weimar. Portrait de un epocha.'' Nova edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, ISBN 3-407-32124-4, p. 66.</ref> De su ex-amicos del periodo del ''[[Sturm e Drang|Sturm e Drang]]'', como Lenz e [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger|Klinger]], qui le visitava in Weimar in 1776, restava ibi durante un tempore e recipeva supporto financiari de Goethe, ille finalmente se distanciava bruscamente. Lenz, post un insulto cuje causas remane incognoscite usque hodie, ille faceva mesmo expeller del ducato.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 228.</ref> Le activitate de Goethe como funcionario extendeva se, a partir de 1777, al renovation del [[Ilmenau]] [[mineria]] e, a partir de 1779, al presidentia de duo commissiones permanente: le commission del construction de stratas e le commission militar, con competentia pro le recluta de soldatos pro le armea de Weimar.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Vol. I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 294 f.</ref> Su principal preoccupation esseva sanear le budget del stato, gravemente indebitate, per medio de reduction del gastos public con simultanee promotion del economia. Isto succedeva al minus partialmente; per exemplo, le reduction per le medietate del «fortias armate» produceva economias.<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Classicismo de Weimar. Portrait de un epocha.'' Edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 72 f. Vide etiam Sandra Richter: ''Homo e mercato. Proque nos time le competition e tamen lo necessita.'' Murmann, Hamburg 2012, ISBN 978-3-86774-128-6, p. 71.</ref> Le difficultates e le insuccesso de su efforts in le servicio del stato, insimul con un surcharge de labor, le menava al resignation. Goethe notava in su diario in 1779: «Nulle persona sape lo que io face e con quante inimicos io lucta pro producer le pauc que io produce.»<ref>Citate secundo [[Karl Otto Conrady]]: ''Goethe. Vita e obra.'' Nova edition in un sol volumine. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, p. 328.</ref> Per viages con le duce, Goethe se familiarisava con le pais e su habitantes. Su activitates le menava inter alteres a [[Apolda]], cuje miseria ille describe, como etiam a altere regiones del ducato.<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Classicismo de Weimar. Portrait de un epocha.'' Edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 72 f.</ref> Principalmente in le quadro de su deberes official, Goethe faceva durante su prime decennio in Weimar plure viages ultra le frontieras del pais, inter illos in le primavera de 1778 un viage a [[Dessau]] e [[Berlin]], de septembre 1779 a januario 1780 in [[Suisse]], e plure vices al [[Harz (massif montuose)|Harz]] (1777, 1783 e 1784). Le 5 de septembre 1779 ille esseva promovite a [[Consiliere secrete|Consiliere Secrete]].<ref name="Activitate official 1958">[[Willy Flach]]: ''Activitate official.'' 1958/61. In: [[Volker Wahl]] (ed.): ''Willy Flach (1903–1958). Contributos al archivistica, al historia regional de Thuringia e al investigation de Goethe.'' Böhlau, Weimar 2003, ISBN 978-3-7400-1205-2, p. 384–393, hic p. 385.</ref> [[File:Danksagung Goethe an Loge Amalia zu Weimar 1830.jpg|thumb|upright|Gratias de Goethe (copie manuscripte) al logia de Weimar «Amalia» pro su 50me anniversario como francmasone (1830)]] Le consiliere de corte [[Johann Joachim Christoph Bode]], qui habeva venite a Weimar, eveliava le interesse de Goethe pro le logia de [[Francmasoneria|francmasones]] de Weimar «[[Anna Amalia al tres rosas|Amalia]]». Durante su secunde viage a Suisse, Goethe faceva su prime effortes pro esser admittite; le 23 de junio 1780 ille entrava in le logia. Ille passava rapidemente le grados usual e esseva promovite a compagnon in 1781 e, in 1782, insimul con Carl August, a maestro.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Vol. I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 319 e 387.</ref> Le 7 de octobre 1781 Goethe viagiava a [[Gotha]] pro incontrar personalmente [[Friedrich Melchior Grimm]], le autor germano-francese, diplomate e amico de [[Denis Diderot]] e de altere [[Encyclopedista|encyclopedistas]]. Grimm habeva ja visitate Goethe le 8 de octobre 1777 al [[Wartburg]].<ref>Gero von Wilpert: ''Lexico de Goethe'' (= ''Edition de tasca de Kröner.'' Vol. 407). Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-520-40701-9, p. 425–426.</ref> Le activitates de Goethe in [[Ilmenau]] e su lucta contra le corruption ibi incitava le duce, le 11 de junio 1782, a incarcar le de familiarisar se con le direction del [[Camera de corte|affaires del camera]], isto es, le finantias del stato, sin tamen conferir le titulo official del presidente del camera Johann August Alexander von Kalb, qui habeva essite dimittite le 6 de junio 1782. Il debeva participar al sessiones del collegio del camera e esser informate de tote le affaires extraordinari.<ref>[[Irmtraut Schmid]], [[Gerhard Schmid (archivista)|Gerhard Schmid]]: ''Le scriptos official de Goethe.'' In: [[Reinhard Kluge (archivista)|Reinhard Kluge]] (ed.): ''Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Opera complete, litteras, diarios e conversationes.'' Vol. 26: ''Scriptos official. Parte 1: Conseil Secrete e altere campos de activitate assumite ante le viage a Italia.'' Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1998, ISBN 978-3-618-60425-9, p. 815–854, hic p. 837.</ref> In le mesme anno ille esseva nominate supervisor del [[Universitate Friedrich Schiller de Jena|Universitate de Jena]].<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Classicismo de Weimar. Portrait de un epocha.'' Edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 73 f.</ref> [[File:Goethe-Wappen.png|thumb|upright|Arma de Goethe]] A petition del duce, le 3 de junio 1782, le imperator [[Joseph II]] le concedeva le [[Diploma de nobilitate|diploma de nobilitate]]. Le [[Nobilitation|ennobilitation]] debeva facilitar su activitate al corte e in le affaires del stato.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Vol. I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 391 f.</ref> Plus tarde, in 1827, Goethe diceva a [[Johann Peter Eckermann]] concernente su ennobilitation: «Quando on me dava le diploma de nobilitate, multe personas credeva que io me sentiria elevate per illo. Ma, inter nos, illo non esseva nihil, absolutemente nihil pro me! Nos [[Patriciato|patricios]] de Frankfurt nos considerava sempre equal al nobilitate, e quando io teneva le diploma in mi manos, in mi pensamento il non habeva nihil plus que lo que io ja possedeva desde longe.»<ref>[[https://blog.litteratur.ch/WordPress/?p=8675](https://blog.litteratur.ch/WordPress/?p=8675) ''Monsieur Göthé''] (consultate le 17 octobre 2020.) Marko Kreutzmann: ''Inter le vita de ordines e le vita burgese: le nobilitate in Saxonia-Weimar'', 2008, [[https://books.google.de/books?id=I-pXWwqjUwQC&pg=PA7](https://books.google.de/books?id=I-pXWwqjUwQC&pg=PA7) p. 7.]</ref> Tamen, isto faceva su senso de valor personal elevar se un poco supra le realitate, nam nulle de su duo grandpatres habeva per nascentia le derecto de citatan de Frankfurt, e multo minus le appartinentia al [[Patriciato (Frankfurt am Main)|patriciato de Frankfurt]]; [[Johann Wolfgang Textor]] habeva tamen ascendite usque al [[Lista del burgomaistros de Frankfurt am Main|burgomaistro senior]] e on dice que ille habeva refusate un ennobilitation. Le [[Commission immediat|commissiones immediate]] inter 1776 e 1783 esseva le principal instrumento de Goethe pro le application de reformas, proque le systema administrative «rigidificate» non esseva capabile de realisar los. Le effortes reformatori de Goethe esseva obstaculisate in le annos 1780 per le [[Aristocratia|aristocratia]] del ducato.<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Classicismo de Weimar. Portrait de un epocha.'' Edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 73–78.</ref> Le initiative de Goethe pro revivificar le extraction de cupro e [[Extraction de argento|mineria de argento]] in Ilmenau se revelava poc efficace, motivo pro le qual illo esseva finalmente terminate completemente in 1812.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 314; Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Vol. I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 294 f.</ref> Con circa 33 annos, Goethe habeva attingite le culmine de su successo. Post le duce, ille esseva le homine le plus potente de Weimar.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Vol. I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 392. In junio 1782 [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], non sin ironia, enumerava le functiones de Goethe: «Il es ergo ora Consiliere Secrete real, presidente del camera, presidente del collegio militar, supervisor del construction usque al construction de stratas, insimul etiam Directeur del divertimentos, poeta de corte, autor de festivitates belle, operas de corte, ballets, procession de mascaras, inscriptiones, obras de arte etc., director del academia de design, […] in breve, le [[Factotum|factotum]] de Weimar e, si Deo vole, tosto le [[Majordomo|majordomo]] de tote le casas [[Ernestinos|ernestine]], al quales ille va circum pro esser adorate.» Citate secundo Boyle p. 392. (Al momento del observation de Herder, Goethe esseva tamen solmente Consiliere Secrete. Consiliere Secrete real ille deveniva in 1804.)</ref> Pro su labor pro le duce, ille esseva criticate como «[[Servitor del principes|servitor del principe]]» e «poeta despotic».<ref>De Ludwig Börne on ha preservate le designation «poeta del principes, id es, poeta despotic», referite a Goethe. Vide Gero von Wilpert: ''Le 101 questiones le plus importante: Goethe.'' C. H. Beck, München 2007, p. 121 f.</ref> Le activitate de Goethe in le ''Consilium'' es evalutate differentemente in le litteratura. Pro alcun autores ille es un [[Precursor del Illumination|politico reformator del Illumination]], qui inter alteres se effortiava pro liberar le agricultores del opressive [[Servitude|servitutes]] e cargas fiscal; <ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Curso rapide Goethe.'' Dumont, Köln 2005, p. 52.</ref> alteres sublinea que ille, in su function official, supportava tanto le [[Recrutamento fortiate|recrutamento fortiate]] de filios del pais pro le armea prussian como mesuras pro restringer le libertate de expression. In 1783 ille votava pro le execution del matre celibe [[Johanna Catharina Höhn]], qui habeva occidite su neonate in desperation — al contrario del attitude comprensive e compassive que ille exprimerea plus tarde in le [[Tragedia de Gretchen]].<ref>[[W. Daniel Wilson]]: ''Le tabu de Goethe. Protesta e derectos human in le Weimar classic.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, München 1999, ISBN 3-423-30710-2, p. 47 ss., 76 ss. e 7 f.</ref> In 1784 Goethe succedeva a persuader le [[Statos provincial|statos regional]] de Weimar, Jena e Eisenach a assumer le debitas del stato de 130 000 taler, per reducer lor appropriationes annual pro le budget militar de 63 400 taler a 30 000 taler.<ref>Irmtraut Schmid, Gerhard Schmid: ''Le scriptos official de Goethe.'' In: Reinhard Kluge (ed.): ''Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Opera complete, litteras, diarios e conversationes.'' Vol. 26: ''Scriptos official. Parte 1: Conseil Secrete e altere campos de activitate assumite ante le viage a Italia.'' Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1998, ISBN 978-3-618-60425-9, p. 815–854, hic p. 838.</ref> Le 13 de septembre 1804 Goethe deveniva finalmente Consiliere Secrete real con le titulo honorific [[Excellentia (titulo)|''Excellentia'']].<ref name="Activitate official 1958" /> ==== Poesia e studio del natura ==== Durante su prime decennio in Weimar, Goethe publicava, excepto alcun poemas dispersate in revistas, nihil. Le labor quotidian lassava a ille poc tempore pro un activitate poetic seri, specialmente proque ille esseva anque responsabile pro le organisation de festas del corte e pro fornir al teatro de amatores del corte cantatas e piezas teatral. Inter iste productiones occasional, que ille sovente considerava un deber molestante, se trova un nove version del ''Festo del mercato de Plundersweilern''. Inter le obras plus ambitiose de iste periodo, solmente un prime version in prosa de ''[[Iphigenia in Tauride|Iphigenia in Tauride]]'' esseva completate; insimul comenciate esseva ''[[Egmont (Goethe)|Egmont]], [[Torquato Tasso (Goethe)|Tasso]]'' e ''[[Wilhelm Meister]]''. Inoltre nasceva alcun del poemas le plus cognoscite de Goethe; ultra le poemas amorose dedicate a [[Charlotte von Stein]] (per exemplo, ''Perque tu nos dava le profunde reguardos''), illos comprendeva inter alteres ''le [[Le Roi des Aulnes (ballada)|Rege del alnos]], [[Le canto de nocte del viator|Canto de nocte del viator]], [[Limites del humanitate (Goethe)|Limites del humanitate]]'' (1780) e ''[[Le Divine|Le Divine]]''. Circa 1780 Goethe comenciava a occupar se systematicamente de questiones del scientias natural. Plus tarde ille attribueva isto al occupationes official con questiones del industria minier, del agricultura, del exploitation forestal, etc. Su interesse principal esseva inicialmente le [[Geologia|geologia]] e le [[Mineralogia|mineralogia]], le [[Botanica|botanica]] e le [[Osteologia|osteologia]]. In iste campo, in 1784, ille faceva le supposite discoperimento (proque illo esseva apena cognoscite, ma in realitate solmente un auto-discoperimento)<ref>Klaus Seehafer: ''Mi vita, un sol aventura. Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Biographia.'' Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 2000, p. 180.</ref> del [[Osso intermaxillar|osso intermaxillar]] in le homine. In le mesme anno ille scribeva su essay ''[[Super le granito]]'' e planava un libro con le titulo ''Romance del Terra''. ==== Relation con Charlotte von Stein ==== [[File:Charlotte von Stein.jpg|thumb|Charlotte von Stein]] Le relation le plus importante e formative de Goethe durante iste decennio in Weimar esseva celle con le damisella del corte [[Charlotte von Stein]] (1742–1827). Le femina septe annos plus vetere esseva maritate con le superior maestro del stabulo del corte [[Gottlob Ernst Josias Friedrich von Stein]] (1735–1793), qui a su vice esseva septe annos plus vetere que illa. Illa habeva con ille septe infantes, ex le qual tres viveva ancora quando Goethe la incontrava. 1770 cartas, billets, «billetins» e numerose poemas de Goethe a seniora von Stein se ha conservate. Illos monstra que illa promoveva le poeta como un «educatrice» — le cartas de seniora von Stein a ille non se ha conservate. Illa le inseniava le manieres de comportamento del corte, calmava su inquietude interior e fortificava su autodisciplina. Le question de si il habeva anque un relation sexual o solmente un «amicitia del animas» non pote esser respondite con certitude.<ref>[[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Goethe e seniora von Stein – Historia de un amor.'' C. H. Beck, München 2002, ISBN 3-406-48652-5, p. 254 ss.</ref> Le majoritate del autores suppone que Charlotte von Stein refusava satisfacer le desiro corporal de su amante. In un carta desde Roma ille scribeva que le «pensamento de non posseder te me […] consume e devora».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 309. – Como le contemporaneos de Goethe considerava iste relation pote esser deducite ex un carta de Schiller del 12 augusto 1787 a Körner: «On dice que lor relation debe esser completemente pur e irreprochabile» ({{Webarchiv |url=[http://www.wissen-im-netz.info/literatur/schiller/briefe/koerner/1787/51.htm](http://www.wissen-im-netz.info/literatur/schiller/briefe/koerner/1787/51.htm) |text=online |wayback=20150402192132}}).</ref> Es frequentemente defendite le these del psychoanalysta [[Kurt Eissler]]<ref>[[Kurt R. Eissler]]: ''Goethe. Un studio psychoanalytic 1775–1786.'' Volumine 2. Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag. München 1987, ISBN 3-423-04457-8, p. 1157.</ref> secundo le qual Goethe habeva su prime relation sexual a 39 annos, in Roma. Anque su biographo Nicholas Boyle vide in le episodio roman con «[[Faustina (Goethe)|Faustina]]» le prime contacto sexual documentari­mente attestabile.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 588.</ref> Le partita clandestin de Goethe pro Italia in 1786 perturbava le relation, e post su retorno occurreva le ruptura definitive a causa del relation amorose stabile que Goethe habeva comenciate con [[Christiane von Goethe|Christiane Vulpius]], su futuro sposa, que le profundemente vulnerate seniora von Stein non le perdonava. Illa, cuje vita integre e conception de se mesme se fundava super le negation del sensualitate, videva in iste relation un infidelitate de Goethe. Illa reclamava le retorno de su cartas a ille.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 677.</ref> Christiane la appellava solmente «le creaturula» e pensava que Goethe habeva duo naturas, un sensual e un spiritual. Solmente in lor etate avantiate ambe trovava de novo un relation amical, sin tamen restaurar le cordial relation de olim.<ref>[[Wolfgang Frühwald]]: ''Le nuptias de Goethe''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-458-19294-7, p. 60.</ref> Le parve filio de Goethe [[August von Goethe|August]], qui effectuava varie messages inter le casa de Goethe e celle de von Stein e que Charlotte habeva prendite a corde, initiava un reprise hesitant de lor correspondentia a partir de 1794, que tamen de allora in poi esseva conducite per le forma formal «vostre».<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 556 f.</ref> === Viage a Italia (1786–1788) === [[File:Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein - Goethe in der roemischen Campagna.jpg|thumb|''[[Goethe in le Campania Roman|Goethe in le Campania]]'' de [[Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein]], 1787]] [[File:Goethe, St. Peter (Rome).jpg|thumb|Vista del [[Basilica de Sancte Petro|Basilica de Sancte Petro]] desde le ''Arco Oscuro'' presso le [[Villa Giulia (Roma)|Villa Giulia]], aquarella de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, estate 1787]] [[File:Johann Friedrich Bury, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in seinem italienischen Freundeskreis.jpg|thumb|''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in su circulo de amicos italian, designo a penna de [[Friedrich Bury]], circa 1787]] In le medie del annos 1780, al apice de su carriera official, Goethe entrava in un crise. Su activitates official remaneva sin successos, le cargas de su functiones e le coercitiones del vita de corte deveniva molestes pro ille, e le relation con Charlotte von Stein se tornava progressivemente insatisfacente. Quando le editor Göschen le offereva in 1786 de preparar un edition complete de su obras, ille comprendeva bruscamente que nihil nove de ille habeva apparite durante le ultime dece annos. In consideration de su fragmentos poetic [[Fauststoff|(''Faust'', ''Egmont'', ''Wilhelm Meister'', ''Tasso'')]], le dubitas super su existentia dual como artista e functionario se intensificava. In le drama ''[[Torquato Tasso (Goethe)|Torquato Tasso]]'', Goethe trovava le materia adequate pro representar su existentia contradictori in le corte. Ille la divideva inter duo characteres, Tasso e Antonio, inter le quales il non existe reconciliation. Durante que ille diffideva del equilibrio poetic, ille tentava ancora in le realitate mantener le duo aspectos in equilibrio.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 307–314.</ref> Ma post le experientia disillusionante de su stagnation poetic durante le prime decennio in Weimar, ille se retirava del corte per un viage cultural a Italia, impreviste pro su ambiente.<ref>Klaus-Detlef Müller: ''Le miseria del existentia del poetas: le «Torquato Tasso» de Goethe.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Volumine 124, 2007, p. 198–214, hic: p. 198 ([[https://web.archive.org/web/20200801104147/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835321977.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801104147/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835321977.pdf) version PDF]).</ref> Le 3 septembre 1786 ille partiva sin congedo ab un cura in Karlsbad. Solmente su secretario e servitor de confidentia [[Goethes Diener|Philipp Seidel]] esseva al corrente.<ref name="Rüdiger Safranski 2013">Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 318.</ref> Al duce ille habeva demandate per scripto, post le ultime incontro personal in Karlsbad, un licentia sin termino fixe. Le die ante su partita, ille le annunciava su absentia imminente sin revelar su destination.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 452, 471.</ref> Le partita secrete con destination incognite esseva probabilemente parte de un strategia que permitterea a Goethe renunciar a su cargos, durante que ille continuarea a reciper su salario.<ref>Roberto Zapperi: ''Le incognito. Le altere existentia de Goethe in Roma.'' C. H. Beck, München 1999, ISBN 978-3-406-60471-3, p. 8 f.</ref> Le autor del ''Werther'', famose in tote Europa, viagiava [[Inkognito (Zeremoniell)|incognito]] sub le nomine Johann Philipp Möller,<ref name="Rüdiger Safranski 2013" /> pro poter mover se libere in le spatio public. Post sya estadias intermedie in [[Verona]], [[Vicenza]] e [[Venetia]], Goethe attingeva [[Roma]] in novembre [[1786]]. Il remaneva ibi primo usque a februario 1787 (prime estancia in Roma). Post un viage de quatro menses a [[Napoles]] e [[Sicilia]], ille retornava in junio 1787 a Roma, ubi ille remaneva usque al fin de april 1788 (secunde estancia in Roma). Durante le viage de retorno ille faceva estadias intermedie, inter alteres, in [[Siena]], [[Florentia]], [[Parma]] e [[Milan]]. Duo menses plus tarde, le 18 junio 1788, ille esseva de novo in Weimar. In Roma Goethe viveva presso le pictor german [[Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein|Wilhelm Tischbein]],<ref>In iste habitation, hodie Via del Corso 18, se trova le museo ''[[Casa de Goethe]]'', dedicate principalmente al estadias de Goethe in Roma e Italia.</ref> qui pintava le retrato probabilemente le plus cognoscite del poeta ([[Goethe in le Campania Roman|Goethe in le Campania]]). Ille esseva anque in communication intense con altere membros del colonia de artistas german in Roma, inter illes [[Angelika Kauffmann]], qui anque faceva su retrato, con [[Jakob Philipp Hackert]], [[Friedrich Bury]], e con le pictor suisse [[Heinrich Meyer (Pictor)|Johann Heinrich Meyer]], qui plus tarde se transfererea a Weimar e ibi devenirea inter alteres su consiliero artistic. Ille esseva anque in relation amical con le scriptor [[Karl Philipp Moritz]]; in lor conversationes se formava le conceptiones del theoria del arte que devenirea fundamental pro le conception «classic» de Goethe del arte e que Moritz exponeva in su obra ''Super le imitation creative del belle''. Goethe apprendeva in Italia a cognoscer e admirar le constructiones e obras de arte del [[Antiquitate|Antiquitate]] e del [[Renascentia]]; su veneraton special esseva pro [[Raphael]] e le architecto [[Andrea Palladio]]. In le edificios de iste ultime, ille habeva observate con entusiasmo in Vicenza como illos dava nove vita al formas del Antiquitate.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 480 f.</ref> Sub le direction de su amicos artistas, ille se exercitava con grande ambition in le designo; circa 850 designos de Goethe del periodo italian se ha conservate. Ma ille comprendeva anque que ille esseva nascite non como artista visual, sed como poeta. Ille se dedicava intensemente al completamento de obras litterari: ille transformava le ''[[Iphigenia in Tauride|Iphigenia]]'', ja existente in [[Prosa|prosa]], in versos, terminava le ''[[Egmont (Goethe)|Egmont]]'', comenciate dece-duo annos ante, e continuava a laborar al ''[[Torquato Tasso (Goethe)|Tasso]]''. In addition, ille se occupava de studios de botanica. Ma super toto ille «viveva»: «Sub le protection del [[Anonimato|incognito]] (le amicos german cognosceva tamen su identitate ver), ille poteva frequentar ambientes social plus simple, dar libere curso a su placer pro jocos e scherzos e facer experientias erotic.»<ref>[[https://www.kulturraum.nrw/buch/goethes-venezianische-epigramme.html](https://www.kulturraum.nrw/buch/goethes-venezianische-epigramme.html) Epigrammas venetian, numero 100 g]</ref><ref>Roberto Zapperi: ''Le incognito. Le altere existentia de Goethe in Roma.'' C.H. Beck, München 1999, p. 133 ss.</ref> Le viage deveniva pro Goethe un experientia decisiv; ille mesme parlava repetitemente in cartas a casa de un «renascentia», de un «nove juventute» que ille habeva experite in Italia.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 506. – Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 328.</ref> Ille scribeva al duce que ille habeva retrovate se mesme como artista. Concernente su activitate futur in Weimar, ille le faceva saper que ille voleva esser liberate del cargas precedente e facer «lo que nemo pote facer excepto me, e incaricar le resto a alteres». Le duce accordava a Goethe le prolongation demandate de su licentia pagate, de sorta que ille poteva remaner in Roma usque a Pascha 1788.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra de arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 338–341.</ref> Un resultato de su viage esseva que, post su retorno a Weimar, ille separava su existentia poetic de su existentia politic.<ref>Klaus-Detlef Müller: ''Le miseria del existentia del poetas: le «Torquato Tasso» de Goethe.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Volumine 124, 2007, p. 198–214, hic: p. 214 ([[https://web.archive.org/web/20200801104147/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835321977.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801104147/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835321977.pdf) version PDF]).</ref> Basate super su diarios, ille redigeva inter 1813 e 1817 le ''[[Viage italian]]''. === Tempore del Classicismo de Weimar (ab 1789) === ==== Relation con Christiane Vulpius (1788–1816) ==== [[File:Christiane-von-Goethe-Vulpius.jpg|thumb|upright|''Christiane Vulpius'', designo de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] Pauc septimanas post su retorno, le 12 de julio 1788, Goethe faceva le cognoscentia del [[Modist|modista]] de 23 annos [[Christiane von Goethe|Christiane Vulpius]], qui se presentava ante ille como supplicante in favor de su fratre [[Christian August Vulpius]], qui post le studio de derecto se trovava in difficultates financial.<ref>[[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Christiane und Goethe. Eine Recherche''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1998, ISBN 3-87763-020-0, p. 117.</ref> Illa deveniva su amante e tosto su compania de vita. Le matre de Goethe la nominava le „tesoro de lecto“. Non solmente ex le allusiones erotic in le ''[[Römische Elegien|Elegias roman]]'', que Goethe scribeva in ille tempore e in le quales le figura de su amante roman Faustina se fusionava con celle de Christiane,<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 663.</ref> [[Sigrid Damm]] conclude que illes duo esseva „un pare amante del sensos, dotate de imagination in le amor“. <ref>Sigrid Damm: ''Christiane und Goethe. Eine Recherche''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1998, p. 121.</ref> Quando Christiane esseva gravidate, Goethe voleva acolliger la in le domo al Frauenplan, ma a desiro del duce e per consideration al societate de Weimar ille se installava con illa in un appartamento extra le portas del citate.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 355.</ref> Le 25 de decembre 1789, illa parturiva le filio [[August von Goethe|August Walter]]. A occasion del baptismo, Goethe non se declarava formalmente como patre, ma le infante non esseva registrate como illegitime.<ref>Sigrid Damm: ''Christiane und Goethe. Eine Recherche''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1998, pp. 142 f.</ref> Un puero nasceva morte in 1791. Tres altere infantes commun sobreviviva le nascentia solmente alcun dies.<ref>Stephan Oswald: ''Im Schatten des Vaters. August von Goethe.'' München 2023, p. 31.</ref> In 1792 le duce approbava le translocation al domo al Frauenplan, que Goethe poteva habitar sin renta con Christiane, ante que illo, in 1794, per un donation del duce — in gratia del accompagnamento durante le [[Erster Koalitionskrieg|campanias del prime coalition]] de 1792 e 1793 — deveniva proprietate de Goethe.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band II: ''1790–1803''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, pp. 145 e 251.</ref> Poco es cognoscite re le „ligamine fugitive, sentimental con un dama nobile“,<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band II: ''1790–1803''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 111.</ref> le 21enne [[Henriette von Schuckmann|Henriette von Lüttwitz]], que ille incontrava post le nascentia de August durante su viage per [[Schlesien|Silesia]] in 1790 a Breslau e a qui ille faceva un proposition de matrimonio, que su patre nobile refusava.<ref>Irma Margarethe Lengersdorff: ''Eine Heiratsabsicht Goethes aus dem Jahr 1790.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Neue Folge, Band 27, 1965, pp. 175–192.</ref> Le poco educate Christiane, originante de un familia cadite in difficultates financial, non habeva accesso al societate de Weimar, in le qual Goethe se moveva. Illa esseva considerate ibi como vulgar e amante del divertimentos; le illegitimitate del „relation non conforme al stato social“ aggravava le situation. Goethe appreciava su natura natural e allegre e manteneva le relation con su „parve Eroticon“ usque al fin del vita de Christiane in 1816. Solmente in 1806 ille meliorava su position social per le matrimonio, que aperiva a illa le via al bon societate. Goethe se decideva al matrimonio a breve termino post que Christiane, per su intervention coragiose, le salvava del periculo mortal, quando, le vespere del [[Schlacht bei Jena und Auerstedt|batalla de Jena e Auerstedt]], soldatos francese saccheggiante la menaciava in su domo a Weimar. Solmente cinque dies plus tarde le matrimonio esseva celebrate. Como inscription pro le anulos, Goethe eligeva le data del battalia e de su salvation durante le nocte de terror: 14 de octobre 1806.<ref>Wolfgang Frühwald: ''Goethes Hochzeit''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2007, pp. 35, 42, 60.</ref> ==== Metamorphose del plantas e Elegias roman ==== In le annos post su viage in Italia, Goethe se occupava principalmente del recerca del natura. In su relation con le natura, ille distingueva solmente duo periodos: le decennio ante 1780, que esseva marcate principalmente, durante le annos in Strasbourg, per le experientia del natura, e le cinquanta annos sequente de studio systematic del natura in Weimar.<ref>[[Alfred Schmidt (Philosoph)|Alfred Schmidt]]: ''Natur.'' Articulo in: ''Goethe Handbuch.'' Band 4/2: ''Personen, Sachen, Begriffe L–Z.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-476-01447-9, p. 766.</ref> Durante un certe tempore, ille trovava in [[Alexander von Humboldt]] un parceiro scientific de valor equivalente, con qui ille poteva intercambiar sur lor recercas natural-scientific durante longe promenadas in Jena e con qui ille realisava experimentos natural-scientific commun in le primavera de 1797.<ref>Andrea Wulf: ''Fabelhafte Rebellen. Die frühen Romantiker und die Erfindung des Ich.'' Bertelsmann, München 2022, pp. 160 ss.</ref> In un epistola posterior a Wilhelm von Humboldt, ille nominava le incontro con ille como un de su „punctos le plus lumine del vita“.<ref>Citate secundo Andrea Wulf: ''Fabelhafte Rebellen. Die frühen Romantiker und die Erfindung des Ich.'' Bertelsmann, München 2022, p. 395.</ref> In 1790 Goethe publicava su ''[[Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären|Tentativa de explicar le metamorphose del plantas]]'',<ref>Johan Wolfgang von Goethe: ''Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären.'' Ettinger, Gotha 1790. ({{DTAW|goethe_metamorphose_1790}})</ref> un monographia de 86 paginas, que durante le vita de Goethe recipeva pauc interesse e que faceva de ille un del cofundatores del morphologia comparative. Con le grande [[Lehrgedicht|poema didactic]] ''[[Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen|Le metamorphose del plantas]]'', scribite in 1798, ille riusciva a unir poesia e recerca del natura. Le poema natural, scribite in le metro del [[Distichon|distico elegiac]], es adressate a un „amate“ (Christiane Vulpius) e presenta su doctrina morphologic in forma concentrate.<ref>[[Felix Sieglbauer]]: ''Goethes Begriff der Morphologie.'' In: Akademischer Senat der Universität Innsbruck (Hrsg.): ''Innsbrucker Universitätsalmanach auf das Goethe-Jahr 1949.'' Tyroliadruck, Innsbruck 1949, pp. 165–190.</ref> In le annos 1790, ille comenciava etiam su investigationes sur le [[Farbenlehre (Goethe)|theoria del colores]], que haberea a occupar le usque al fin de su vita. Inter le obras del prime annos 1790 se trova le ''[[Römische Elegien|Elegias roman]]'', un collection de poemas apertemente erotic que esseva create poc post su retorno. In le formas del poesia antique, Goethe elaborava non solmente le memoria del experientias cultural e amorose de su prime viage in Italia, ma etiam su sensual e felice amor pro Christiane Vulpius. Vinti del vinti-quatro poemas esseva publicate in 1795 in le ''[[Die Horen (Schiller)|Horen]]'' de Schiller. Le societate de Weimar se offendeva del erotica de Goethe, ben que ille habeva retenite quatro del poemas le plus licentiose.<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Aktualisierte Neuausgabe. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, pp. 183–186.</ref> ==== Cargas official, campanias militar e politica ==== Post su retorno ex Italia, Goethe se habeva facite liberar per le duce de le major parte de su obligationes official. Ille tamen conservava su sede in le ''Consilium'' e con illo le possibilitate de influentia politic. Como „ministro sin [[Ministerium#Portefeuille|portafolio]]“<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 742.</ref> ille assumeva un serie de cargas cultural e scientific, inter illos le direction del schola de designo e le supervision del obras public. In ultra, ille recipeva le direction del [[Theatro del corte de Weimar]] – un carga que demandava mult tempore, proque ille esseva responsabile de tote le affaires. In addition, Goethe prestava consilio in affaires del [[Universitate Friedrich Schiller de Jena]], que pertineva al ducato. A su intervention se debe le nomination de un serie de professores renominate, inter illes [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling]] e [[Friedrich Schiller]]. Post que le supervision del universitate le esseva conferite in 1807, Goethe se impegnava principalmente pro le expansion del facultate del scientias natural. In ultra, Goethe habeva un parte substantial in le fundation del „[[schola de medicina veterinari]]“ de Jena in 1816.<ref>G. S. Levit, U. Hoßfeld, L. Knoblich, (2014). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe und die Entstehung der Veterinärmedizin in Thüringen. ''Rudolstädter naturhistorische Schriften'', ''20'', 31–44.</ref> Post le conclusion del edition in octo tomos del obras de [[Georg Joachim Göschen|Göschen]] pro su quarantesimo anniversario, Goethe planava viagiar de novo a Italia. In 1790 ille passava plure menses in [[Venetia]], ubi ille attendeva le matre-ducissa durante su retorno de un viage de duo annos in Italia. Ille la accompaniava de retorno a Weimar, con pausas in [[Padua]], [[Vicenza]], [[Verona]] e [[Mantua]].<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, pp. 758 s., 768 s.</ref> Tamen, le exaltation del prime viage in Italia non retornava. Le producto de iste secunde viage involuntari a Italia es le ''[[Venezianische Epigramme|Epigrammas venetian]]'', un collection de poemas satiric sur le conditiones europee e de descriptiones de su proprie experientias e sentimentos, que „superava le limite aesthetic-moral de tolerantia del epocha“.<ref>[[https://www.kulturraum.nrw/buch/goethes-venezianische-epigramme.html] Le Epigrammas venetian de Goethe „Unglückselige Frösche, die ihr Venedig bewohnet!“, exemplo: „Knaben liebt ich wohl auch, doch lieber sind mir die Mädchen, Hab ich als Mädchen sie satt, dient sie als Knabe mir noch.“, hic sub: 100g]; consultate le 28 de martio 2024.</ref><ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Aktualisierte Neuausgabe. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 188.</ref> In le quatro epigramma, ille se senti „defraudate“ per le hospitatores e deplora le absentia del „honestate german“, lamentante: „Belle es le pais; ma ah! Faustinas io non trova plus.“ In vice, ille desiderava Christiane, su „amate“, que ille habeva lassate retro.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, pp. 756–766.</ref> In le centesime (100 g), ille scribeva „Io amava ben etiam le pueros, ma prefere le puellas; quando io ha satietate de illa como puella, illa me servi ancora como puero.“<ref>[[https://www.kulturraum.nrw/buch/goethes-venezianische-epigramme.html] Le Epigrammas venetian de Goethe „Unglückselige Frösche, die ihr Venedig bewohnet!“]; consultate le 28 de martio 2024.</ref> In 1789 le systema europee de domination e statos esseva tremefacte e remise in question per le [[Revolution francese]]. Le major parte del contemporaneos intellectual de Goethe (per exemplo Wieland, Herder, [[Friedrich Hölderlin|Hölderlin]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Georg Forster]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]) se enthousiasmava pro le ideales de libertate e fraternitate que proveniva de illo, per exemplo per le proclamation del [[Menschenrechte|derectos human]].<ref>Vide [[Goethezeit#Französische Revolution|Epocha de Goethe#Revolution francese]]</ref> [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] celebrava in su ode ''Kennet euch selbst'' le revolution como „le acto le plus nobile del seculo“. Goethe esseva desde le initio opposate al revolution; pro ille illo esseva „le plus terribile de tote le eventos“ e poneva etiam su existentia a Weimar como „[[Fürstendiener|servitor de principe]]“ in question.<ref>[[Hans-Jürgen Schings]]: ''Kein Revolutionsfreund. Die Französische Revolution im Blickfeld Goethes.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 126, 2009, pp. 52 s., 56; pro le citation de Goethe: Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Bedeutende Fördernis durch ein einziges geistreiches Wort.'' In: ''Theoretische Schriften.'' [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Theoretische+Schriften/Bedeutende+F%C3%B6rdernis+durch+ein+einziges+geistreiches+Wort zeno.org] (consultate le 22 de martio 2015).</ref> Ille esseva un supporter de reformas gradual in le senso del [[Aufklärung|Illumination]] e se sentiva specialmente repellite per le excessos de violentia consequente al revolution; del altere latere, ille videva lor causa in le conditiones social del [[Ancien Régime|Ancien Regime]]. Retrospectivemente, ille diceva plus tarde durante un conversation con Eckermann „que le insurrectiones revolutionari del classes inferior es un consequentia del injustitias del grandes“. Simultanee ille se defendava contra le accusation que, proque ille odiava revolutiones, ille esseva „un amico del existente“: „Isto es […] un titulo mult ambigue, que io vole evitar. Si le existente esseva toto excellente, bon e juste, io haberea nihil contra illo. Ma proque, juxta mult bon, existe etiam mult mal, injuste e imperfecte, esser un amico del existente significa sovente non mult minus que un amico del obsolete e del mal.“<ref>[[Johann Peter Eckermann]]: ''Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens. Gespräch vom 4. Januar 1824'' {{projekt-gutenberg.org |a=johann-peter-eckermann |w=johann-peter-eckermann-gespraeche-mit-goethe |n=999 |x=Gespräche mit Goethe |Wex=eckerman/gesprche/gsp3034 |Tex=Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens. Gespräch vom 4. Januar 1824 |Aex=[[Johann Peter Eckermann]]}}{{PGDW/Migration}} Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1981.</ref> In 1792 Goethe accompaniava le duce, a su desiro, in le [[Erster Koalitionskrieg|prime guerra de coalition]] contra le Francia revolutionari. Durante tres menses ille observava le miseria e le actos de violentia de iste guerra, que terminava con un victoria francese. Ille poneva su experientias in le obra autobiographic ''[[Campagne in Frankreich|Campania in Francia]]''. Post un breve estancia in Weimar, ille retornava con le duce al fronte. In le estate de 1793 ille le accompaniava pro participar al [[Belagerung von Mainz (1793)|assedio de Mainz]]. Mainz, occupate per le franceses e governate per [[Jakobiner|Jacobinos]] german, esseva reconquerite per le tropas de coalition prussian e austriac post tres menses de assedio e bombardamento. In 1796 le ducato se affiliava al [[Pace separate de Basilea]] inter Prussia e Francia. Le decenio de pace que sequeva permitteva, in le medio de un Europa tremefacte per le guerra, le florimento del [[Weimarer Klassik|Classicismo de Weimar]]. ==== Tractamento poetic del Revolution ==== In retrospectiva, Goethe notava que le Revolution Francese, como «le plus terribile de tote le evenimentos», le habe costate multe annos de effortio sin limites «pro dominar artisticamente iste evento in su causas e consequentias».<ref>Citate secundo Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 368.</ref> Secundo Rüdiger Safranski, Goethe viveva le Revolution como un evento elemental, simile a un eruption vulcanic del social e del politic; e non es un caso que, durante le menses post le Revolution, ille se occupava del phenomeno natural del [[vulcanismo]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 369.</ref> Sub le impression del Revolution nasceva un serie de comedias satiric, anti-revolutionari ma etiam anti-absolutistic: ''[[Le Grande-Cophta]]'' (1791), ''[[Le general del citatinos]]'' (1793) e le fragmento ''[[Le agitate]]'' (1793). Le obra in un acto ''Le general del citatinos'' esseva le prime obra de Goethe que tractava le consequentias del Revolution. Ben que illo esseva un de su obras le plus succedite — al scena de Weimar illo esseva representate plus frequentemente que ''Iphigenie'' e ''Tasso'' — Goethe plus tarde non voleva plus recognoscer isto. Ille non lo includeva non plus in le edition in septe volumentos de su ''Nove scriptos'', publicate irregularmente inter 1792 e 1800 per le editor berlinese [[Johann Friedrich Unger (editor)|Johann Friedrich Unger]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 377.</ref> Etiam le [[Reineke Fuchs (Goethe)|Reineke Fuchs]], le epopeia animal in [[hexametros]] scribite in 1792/93, proveniente del fin del Medio Evo e reflectente le crudelitates, falseitate e malitia del humanos in le regno animal, face referentia al experientias de Goethe de ille annos.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 380 sqq.</ref> Ancora durante le campo militar ante Mainz in 1793, ille perfectionava poco a poco le epopeia.<ref>Erich Trunz: ''Kommentarteil'' a ''Goethes Werke''. Edition hamburgese, tomo II: ''Gedichte und Epen II.'' C. H. Beck, München 1981, p. 719.</ref> Le eventos revolutionari de iste epocha formava etiam le fundo del ''[[Conversationes de emigrantes german]]'', scribite per Goethe in 1795, e del epopeia in versos ''[[Hermann e Dorothea]]'' (1797). Le ''Conversationes'' es un collection de novellas in le qual le Revolution es tractate solmente in le narration-cornice. Pro oblidar le disputas politic del die, refugiatos nobiles, fugite ante le tropas revolutionari francese de lor possessiones al sinistra del Rheno verso le regiones al dextra del Rheno, se narra historias in le tradition del [[novellistica]] romanic ([[Giovanni Boccaccio]]).<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 248 sqq.</ref> Iste poesia narrative inaugurava le prime volumine del revista de Schiller ''Le Horas''. ''Hermann e Dorothea'' se occupava directemente del consequentias del Revolution; in iste epopeia Goethe vestiva le description del destino del germanos al sinistra del Rheno in le forma del classic [[hexametro]]. Le obra attingeva, insimul con ''Le campana'' de Schiller, un «popularitate sin exemplo».<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 273.</ref> ==== Director del Teatro de Weimar (1776–1817) ==== In 1776 Goethe recipeva le direction del teatro de amatores del corte de Weimar, in un epocha in le qual le cortes prefereva le drama francese e le opera italian.<ref>Lesley Sharpe: ''Goethe and the Weimar theatre.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (ed.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 116.</ref> Como actores al Teatro de Weimar serviva amateurs del nobilitate e del burguesia, membros del corte, inter illes le duca Carl August e Goethe. Le locos del representation cambiava. Le cantatrice e actrice [[Corona Schröter]], ingagiate pro Weimar per suggestion de Goethe e veniente de Leipzig, esseva initialmente le sol actrice professional. Illa deveniva le prime interprete de [[Iphigenia]] in le prime representation, in 1779, del version in prosa de ''[[Iphigenia in Tauris]]'' de Goethe, in le qual Goethe interpretava [[Orestes|Orest]] e Carl August [[Pylades]]. In 1779 esseva contractate pro le prime vice, sub le direction de Goethe, un compania de actores. Post que le duca Carl August habe decidite in 1791 le fundation del [[Teatro del Corte de Weimar]], Goethe assumeva su direction. Le teatro del corte esseva inaugurate le 7 de maio 1791 con le drama ''Le chassatores'' de [[August Wilhelm Iffland|Iffland]]. Le desir de Goethe de ligar al Teatro de Weimar le talentose actor e dramaturgo Iffland falleva, proque ille prefereva le plus attractive posto de director del [[Teatro National]] de Berlin.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Tomo II: ''1790–1803''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 444.</ref> Durante su 26 annos de direction, Goethe transformava le Teatro del Corte de Weimar in un del scenas german le plus importante, ubi esseva presentate pro le prime vice non solmente multe de su proprie dramas, ma etiam le dramas posterior de Schiller, como le ''[[Trilogia de Wallenstein|trilogia de Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Maria Stuart (drama)|Maria Stuart]]'', ''[[Le sposa de Messina]]'' e ''[[Guillermo Tell]]''. Schiller adaptava etiam le ''[[Egmont (Goethe)|Egmont]]'' de Goethe pro le scena de Weimar.<ref>Lesley Sharpe: ''Goethe and the Weimar theatre.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (ed.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 121.</ref> Le duca habeva lassate Goethe plen libertate in su direction del teatro, que ille exerceva tamen con un maniera de tractar le actores e actrices bastante patriarchal. Quando le actrice e cantatrice [[Karoline Jagemann]], ingagiate in 1797, completemente formate e consciente de su proprie valor, se opponeva al stilo autoritari de direction de Goethe, ille se retirava del teatro in 1817. Un ration esseva que iste artista non solmente esseva le incontestate [[primadonna]] que faceva brillar le scena de Weimar, ma etiam le [[amante official]] del duca, de qui illa recipeva appoio in le conflicto con Goethe.<ref>Lesley Sharpe: ''Goethe and the Weimar theatre.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (ed.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 126 sqq. – Secundo Sharpe, le ultime impulso («the last straw») pro le [[demission]] de Goethe esseva un melodrama con un can, imponite per Karoline Jagemann, con un caniche in le rolo principal. Il se tractava de un melodrama, traducite al germano sub le titulo ''[[Le can del Aubry]]'', de [[René Charles Guilbert de Pixérécourt]]. Goethe protestava contra su representation con le can Dragon e menaciava de demitter se; le Granduca acceptava promptemente su demission.</ref> ==== In le pacto con Schiller (1789–1805) ==== [[File:Schiller, Friedrich (Weitsch).jpg|thumb|upright|''Friedrich von Schiller'', designo de [[Friedrich Georg Weitsch]], 1804]] Ante que Goethe incontrava Schiller personalmente pro le prime vice in le autumno de 1788 in le thuringian [[Rudolstadt]], le duo non esseva estranios un al altere.<ref>Vide [[Norbert Oellers]]: Einige Bemerkungen zur Vorgeschichte der Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe. In: [[Monatshefte]] 97 (2005), fasciculo 3, pp. 430–438. Le numero tematic de autumno habeva le titulo «Begegnungen mit Schiller» o «Encounters with Schiller».</ref> Illes cognosceva le obras juvene del altere. Jam como studiante del [[Hohe Karlsschule|Karlsschule]], Schiller habeva legite con entusiasmo le ''Götz'' e ''Werther'' de Goethe e habeva vidite le autor que ille admirava durante le ceremonia de fin de su promotion in 1780, presente insimul con le duce de Weimar al latere de [[Karl Eugen (Württemberg)|Karl Eugen]].<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Friedrich Schiller oder Die Erfindung des Deutschen Idealismus.'' Hanser, München, ISBN 3-446-20548-9, p. 103.</ref> Goethe, qui rejectava le ''Räuber'' de Schiller pro lor violentia, habeva post su retorno de Italia constatate con surprisa le crescente fama de Schiller e, plus tarde, habeva apprendite a apreciar etiam le [[Gedankenlyrik|lyrica reflexive]] de Schiller e su obras historic.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 389.</ref> Le judicios e sentimentos de Schiller verso Goethe esseva al initio cambiante rapidemente e habeva le tendentia a esser immediatemente revocate. Plure vices ille appellava Goethe un «egoista frigide de sentimento».<ref>Gesa von Essen: ''„eine Annäherung, die nicht erfolgte“? Die schwierigen Anfänge eines Dichterbundes.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 123, 2005, pp. 43–61, hic: pp. 53 f. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20210728230838/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835321953.pdf version PDF]).</ref> Safranski parla de un «odio-amor» e cita ex un littera de Schiller a [[Christian Gottfried Körner|Körner]]: «Il me es […] odiose, ben que io ama su spirito con tote mi corde».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''„daß es, dem Vortrefflichen gegenüber keine Freyheit gibt als die Liebe“. Über die Freundschaft zwischen Schiller und Goethe.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 123, 2005, pp. 25–35, hic: p. 27 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20210728230838/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835321953.pdf version PDF]).</ref> Pro liberar se del [[Ressentiment|ressentimento]] e del rivalitate, Schiller trovava plus tarde le «formula miraculose» (Rüdiger Safranski): «que contra le excellente il non existe libertate altere que le amor» (littera a Goethe del 2 de julio 1796). Le prime incontro personal in Rudolstadt, arrangiate per [[Charlotte von Schiller|Charlotte von Lengefeld]], le posterior sposa de Schiller, esseva relativemente sin emotion. In un reporto a Körner, Schiller dubitava «si nos unquam devenira multo proxime un al altere».<ref>Gesa von Essen: ''„eine Annäherung, die nicht erfolgte“? Die schwierigen Anfänge eines Dichterbundes.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 123, 2005, pp. 43–61, hic: pp. 50 f. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20210728230838/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835321953.pdf version PDF]).</ref> Post iste «incontro fallite», Goethe habeva promovite le nomination de Schiller a un professorato in Jena, que iste al initio occupava sin salario.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 388; [[Heinrich Düntzer]]: ''Zu Goethe’s Bericht über seine Anknüpfung mit Schiller.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 2, 1881, pp. 168–189 [https://archive.org/stream/goethejahrbuch39germgoog#page/n187/mode/2up (version digital)].</ref> Desde 1789, vivente como professor de historia in le proxime Jena, Schiller demandava a Goethe in junio 1794 de entrar in le circulo editorial de un revista de cultura e arte que ille planava, ''[[Le Hores (Schiller)|Le Hores]]''.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 389. [https://www.friedrich-schiller-archiv.de/briefwechsel-von-schiller-und-goethe/1794/1-an-goethe-13-juni-1794/ Vide etiam: littera de Schiller a Goethe del 13 de junio 1794.]</ref> Post le assenso de Goethe, le duo se incontrava in julio del mesme anno in Jena, lo que pro Goethe esseva «un evento felice» e le initio de su amicitia con Schiller. In septembre 1794 ille invitava Schiller a un visita plus longe in Weimar, que se prolongava durante duo septimanas e serviva a un intense intercambio de ideas inter illes.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 396.</ref> A iste incontro sequeva frequente visitas reciproc. A causa de Schiller, Goethe remaneva sovente plure septimanas in Jena.<ref>Andrea Wulf: ''Fabelhafte Rebellen. Die frühen Romantiker und die Erfindung des Ich.'' Bertelsmann, München 2022, p. 61.</ref> Ille habitava alora in le largemente inoccupate [[Stadtschloss Jena|palatio municipal de Jena]], le anterior sede del governatores del ducato, ubi ille habeva su proprie cameras.<ref>Andrea Wulf: ''Fabelhafte Rebellen. Die frühen Romantiker und die Erfindung des Ich.'' Bertelsmann, München 2022, p. 45.</ref> Le duo poetas concordava in le rejection del Revolution tanto como in le orientation verso le Antiquitate como supreme ideal artistic; isto esseva le initio de un intense collaboration, ex le qual tote cosa plus personal esseva excludite, ma que esseva characterisate per un profunde comprension del natura e del maniera de laborar del altere. In le discussion commun de questiones aesthetic fundamental, le duo elaborava un conception del litteratura e del arte que devenirea le designation de un epocha in le historia litterari: le «Classicismo de Weimar». Goethe, cuje creation litterari, como celle de Schiller, habeva antea stagnate, accentuava le effect stimulante de lor collaboration con le dece annos plus juvene: «Vos me ha date un secunde juventute e me ha facite de novo poeta, lo que io habeva quasi cessate de esser».<ref>''Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe – Zweiter Band. Goethe an Schiller, 6. Januar 1798'' {{projekt-gutenberg.org |a=johann-wolfgang-von-goethe |w=briefwechsel-zwischen-schiller-und-goethe-zweiter-band |n=999 |x=Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe. 2. Band |Wex=goethe/brschil2/chap001 |Tex=Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe – Zweiter Band. Goethe an Schiller, 6. Januar 1798}}{{PGDW/Migration}}</ref> In le prime anno de ''Le Hores'' appareva pro le prime vice le ''Elegias roman'' sub le titulo ''Elegias'' e sin indication del autor.<ref>Erich Trunz: ''Kommentarteil'' zu Goethe: ''Gedichte''. Jubiläumsausgabe hrsg. und kommentiert von Erich Trunz. C.&nbsp;H. Beck, München 2007, p. 584.</ref> Isto indignava evidentemente «tote le feminas honorabile» de Weimar. Herder dava al publication le suggestion ironic que ''Le Hores'' deberea ora scriber se con un «u».<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band II: ''1790–1803''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 339.</ref> In ''Le Hores'', Schiller publicava in 1795/96 in tres partes su [[tractato]] ''[[Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung|De poesia naive e sentimental]]'', un typologia poetic que contribueva essentialmente al autocomprension de ambe: Goethe como poeta «naive», Schiller como poeta «sentimental».<ref>T. J. Reed: ''Weimar Classicism: Goethe’s Alliance with Schiller.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 103.</ref> Ambe poetas participava vivemente, tanto in maniera theoric como practic, al obras del altere. Assi Goethe influentiava le ''[[Wallenstein (Schiller)|Wallenstein]]'' de Schiller, durante que iste accompagnava criticamente le labor de Goethe super le roman ''[[Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre|Le annos de apprendimento de Wilhelm Meister]]'' e le incoragiava a continuar le ''Faust''. Goethe habeva demandate a Schiller de adjutar le a completar le roman ''Wilhelm Meister'', e Schiller non le falleva. Ille commentava le manuscritos que le esseva inviate e esseva multo surprendite que Goethe ipse non sapeva exactemente como le roman deberea terminar. A Goethe ille scribeva que ille considerava «inter le plus belle felicitate de mi existentia» haber vivite a vider le completion de iste obra.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, pp. 405–407.</ref> Secundo Nicholas Boyle, le correspondentia super ''Wilhelm Meister'' in 1795/96 esseva le culmin del relation intellectual inter Goethe e Schiller.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit.'' Band II: ''1790–1803''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 502.</ref> Illes realisava etiam projectos commun de publication. Ben que Schiller participava scarcely al revista artistic de breve duration de Goethe, ''[[Propyläen (Zeitschrift)|Propyläen]]'', iste tamen publicava numerose obras in ''Le Hores'' e in le ''[[Musen-Almanach|Almanac del Musas]]'', que esseva etiam editate per Schiller. Le ''Musen-Almanach für das Jahr 1797'' contineva un collection de versos satiric scribite communmente, le ''[[Xenien]]''.<ref>''[[s:Musen-Almanach für das Jahr 1797|Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1797]].'' Wikisource.</ref> In le ''Musen-Almanach'' del anno sequente<ref>''[[s:Musen-Almanach für das Jahr 1798|Almanac de le Musas pro le anno 1798]].'' Wikisource.</ref> appareva le plus famose balladas de ambe autores, como le ''[[Apprendice del mago]]'', ''[[Le cercator de tresores (Goethe)|Le cercator de tresores]]'', ''[[Die Braut von Korinth|Le sposa de Corintho]]'', ''[[Le deo e le bajadera]]'' de Goethe, e le ''[[Plongeator]]'', ''[[Le gru de Ibyco]]'', ''[[Le anello de Polycrates]]'', ''[[Le guanto]]'' e ''[[Le cavaliero Toggenburg]]'' de Schiller. In decembre 1799, Schiller se moveva con su familia de quatro personas a Weimar, inicialmente a un appartamento in alquiler que antea habeva essite occupate per [[Charlotte von Kalb]]; in 1802 ille acquireva un [[Schillerhaus Weimar|proprie casa sur le Esplanade]]. In Weimar se formava factiones que provocava comparationes inter le duo «Dioscuros». Assi le successful autor de teatro [[August von Kotzebue]], qui se habeva installate in Weimar, tentava, con un celebration pompose in honor de Schiller, crear un discordia inter le duo. Malgrado alcun irritationes temporari inter illes, lor amicitia remaneva intacte usque al morte de Schiller.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, pp. 455 f.</ref> Le noticia del morte de Schiller le 9 de maio 1805 precipitava Goethe in un stato de stupor. Ille non assistiva al funere. A su amico, le musicista [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]], ille scribeva que ille habeva perdite un amico e con ille «le medietate de mi existentia».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, pp. 458 f., 465.</ref> Le morte de Schiller marcava, secundo Rüdiger Safranski, un ruptura in le vita de Goethe, un «addio a ille etate dorate, quando durante un breve tempore le arte non esseva solmente un del cosas le plus belle, ma etiam un del cosas le plus importante del vita».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 463.</ref> Secundo [[Dieter Borchmeyer]], con illo terminava le periodo formative del [[Weimarer Klassik|Classicismo de Weimar]].<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Aktualisierte Neuausgabe. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 461.</ref> === Le tarde Goethe (1805–1832) === [[File:Weimar Dom Goethego.jpg|thumb|[[Goethes Wohnhaus|Casa de habitation de Goethe]] in Weimar]] Le morte de Schiller in 1805 Goethe sentiva como un perdita incisive. Circa iste tempore ille pativa etiam de varie morbos ([[Herpes Zoster|erisipela facial]] o [[erysipel|erisipela]] in 1801,<ref>Werner Neuhauser: {{Webarchiv |url=https://www.zm-online.de/archiv/2006/19/titel/die-leiden-des-alten-goethe/ |text=''Le poeta inter imagine ideal e realitate. Le afflictiones del vetule Goethe.'' |wayback=20200920150838}} In: ''[[Communicationes odontologic]]|zm online.'' 19, 2006.</ref> colicas renal, attaccos cardiac).<ref>Le medico qui curava Goethe a ille tempore esseva le precursor del [[medicina romantic]] e pionero del moderne psychiatria [[Johann Christian Reil]].</ref> Le situation politic con le [[Quarte Guerra del Coalition|guerra que se annunciava]] con [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] etiam le inquietava. In su imagination Goethe se videva ja, con su duca, vagante per Germania mendicante e cercante [[asilo]]. Su ultime decennios esseva nonobstante marcate per un grande productivitate e forte experientias amorose. Como secretario, [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer|Friedrich Riemer]] (desde 1805 educator de su filio) deveniva tosto indispensabile. ==== Opera tardive e theoria del colores ==== [[File:Goethe’s life mask, 1807.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lebendmaske|Mascara vivente]] de Goethe, fundite per [[Carl Gottlieb Weisser]] in 1807, exponite in [[Thorvaldsens Museum]]]] Como effecto immediate del morte de Schiller, Safranski considera le facto que Goethe reprendeva le labor sur ''Faust''; a isto se addeva le pression externe del editor Cotta. Le nove edition complete in octave volumines de 1808 deberea continer le prime version complete del ''[[Faust. Eine Tragödie|prime parte de Faust]]''.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Der poeta in su tempore. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 468.</ref> Le matrimonio con Christiane non impediva Goethe de monstrar ja in 1807 un inclination [[Amor (mythologia)|amorose]] verso [[Wilhelmine Herzlieb|Minna Herzlieb]], le adoptata de dece-octo annos del librero [[Carl Friedrich Ernst Frommann|Frommann]] in Jena. Safranski parla de un «parve infatuation», que Goethe explicava como un «substitution» pro le «perdita de Schiller dolorosemente sentite».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 467 f.</ref> Un echo del experientias interior de iste periodo se trova in su ultime romance, ''[[Die Wahlverwandtschaften]]'' (1809). Characteristic pro Goethe es le maniera in que ille liga in iste obra poesia e studio del natura. In le chimica contemporanee on usava le termino del «[[Affinität (Chemie)|affinitate]]» del elementos, que Goethe adoptava pro tractar le «naturalitate de fortias de attraction que le ration non pote dominar definitivemente» inter duo pares.<ref>Articulate ''Le affinitates elective.'' In: Frank Rainer Max, Christine Ruhrberg (ed.): ''Lexico del romances de Reclam.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-15-010474-2, p. 341.</ref> In 1810 Goethe publicava le ''[[Theoria del colores (Goethe)|Theoria del colores]]'', ricemente ornate, in duo volumines e un volumine con tabulas illustrate. Ille habeva laborate sur illo desde quasi vinti annos. Secundo Safranski, le studios del colores que ille repetitemente repriseva (in forma de experimentos, observationes, reflexiones e studios litterari) serviva a Goethe pro fugir del turbulencias externe e del inquietude interne; assi, durante le expedition in Francia e le assedio de Mainz, ille notava su observationes pertinente.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 488.</ref> Le reaction al publication esseva debile e plenava Goethe de discontentamento. Amicos testificava respecto, ma le mundo scientific prendeva a pena cognoscentia de illo. Le mundo litterari lo considerava un digression superflue in un epocha de violente convulsiones politic.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 497 f.</ref> In januario 1811 Goethe initiava le redaction de un grande autobiographia, que plus tarde recipeva le titulo ''[[Aus meinem Leben. Dichtung und Wahrheit]]''. [[Bettina von Arnim|Bettina Brentano]] le adjutava, possedente notas sur le narrationes de su matre concernente le infantia e juventute de Goethe. Bettina visitava Goethe in Weimar in 1811. Post un disputa inter illa e Christiane, Goethe rumpeva con illa.<ref>Goethe non poteva pardonar le facto que illa habeva appellate Christiane «grossa sanguinosa» (''dicke Blutwurst''). Vide Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 585.</ref> Le prime tres partes del autobiographia pareva inter 1811 e 1814. Le quarte parte pareva solmente post su morte, in 1833. Le conception original esseva un historia formative del poeta, stilisate como un metamorphose, con emphase sur le «naturalitate del habilitates e dispositiones aesthetic e poetic». Un crise durante le labor sur le tertie parte le faceva considerar iste conception como inadapte. Ille substitueva lo per le demonico, como «cifra […] del contexto natural e historic devenite omnipotente».<ref>Articulate ''De mi vita. Poesia e veritate.'' In: Frank Rainer Max, Christine Ruhrberg (ed.): ''Lexico del romances de Reclam.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2000, p. 343.</ref> Circa 1828 Goethe scribeva como fragmento ''[[Der Zauberflöte zweyter Theil]]'', que [[Karl Goepfart]], un discipulo de [[Franz Liszt]], faceva representar como le opera ''[[Sarastro (Oper)|Sarastro]]'' pro le centesime anniversario del morte de [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]].<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10128320?page=196,197 |titel=Le obras de Goethe |abruf=2024-07-24}}</ref> Le libretto esseva textualemente adaptate e extendite per le poeta de textos [[Gottfried Stommel]]. Le passages que esseva prendite del original o modificate per Stommel es indicate sur le sito del editor.<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://sarastro.doctorsdome.events/goethe |titel=Goethe – Sarastro |datum=2024-07-24 |sprache=de |abruf=2024-07-24}}</ref> ==== Rencontre con Napoleon e Beethoven ==== [[File:Ehrenlegion Dekret 1808.jpg|thumb|Decreto de Napoleon del 12 de octobre 1808 concernente le nomination de Goethe, [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]], le medico de Goethe [[Johann Christian Stark der Ältere|Stark]] e le jurista [[Georg Wilhelm Vogel|Vogel]] como cavalleros del [[Legion de Honor]].]] [[File:Goethe, Kügelgen, 1810.jpg|thumb|upright|''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe'', pintura al oleo de [[Gerhard von Kügelgen]], 1810. Le pintura representativ monstra le poeta con le banda de humero del francese [[Ehrenlegion|Legion de Honor]] e le stella del russe [[Russischer Orden der Heiligen Anna|Ordine de Sancta Anna]], classe 1]] [[File:Louise Seidler - J. W. Goethe 1811.jpg|thumb|upright|Goethe in 1811 (disegno a pastel per [[Louise Seidler]].]] [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]] exerceva sur Goethe un fascination personal usque al fin de su vita.<ref>[[Gustav Seibt]]: ''Goethe e Napoleon. Un incontro historic.'' C. H. Beck, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-57748-2, p. 223.</ref> Pro ille Napoleon esseva «un del homines plus productive […], qui ha vivite unquam». «Su vita esseva le camminar de un semideo de battalia a battalia e de victoria a victoria.»<ref>[[Johann Peter Eckermann]]: ''Conversationes con Goethe in le ultime annos de su vita. Conversation del 11 de martio 1828'' {{projekt-gutenberg.org |a=johann-peter-eckermann |w=johann-peter-eckermann-gespraeche-mit-goethe |n=999 |x=Conversationes con Goethe |Wex=eckerman/gesprche/gsp3069 |Tex=Conversationes con Goethe in le ultime annos de su vita. Conversation del 11 de martio 1828 |Aex=[[Johann Peter Eckermann]]}}{{PGDW/Migration}} Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1981.</ref> In 1808 Goethe incontrava Napoleon duo vices. Le prime vice le imperator recipeva ille le 2 de octobre al [[Congresso de principes de Erfurt]] pro un audientia private, durante le qual Napoleon le parlava con appreciation de su ''Werther''. [[Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Talleyrand]], [[Anne-Jean-Marie-René Savary, duc de Rovigo|Savary]] e [[Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, duc de Dalmatie|Soult]] esseva etiam presente e ille esseva presentate a illes.<ref>[[Franz Herre]]: ''Napoleon Bonaparte, precursor del seculo.'' C. Bertelsmann Verlag, München 1988, p. 192 del traduction italian: ''Napoleone Bonaparte''. Bompiani, Milano 1991.</ref> Post que le imperator le habeva examinate attentemente, ille diceva: «Vous êtes un homme» (in germano: «Vos es un homine»).<ref name="Theo#" /> Le secunde incontro (insimul con Wieland) occurreva in Weimar durante un bal del corte le 6 de octobre. Le 14 de octobre ille e Wieland esseva nominate [[cavalleros del Legion de Honor]]. Le tsar [[Alexandro I de Russia]], qui esseva presente al Congresso de principes, confereva a ambe le [[Ordine de Sancta Anna]].<ref>''Augsburgische Ordinari Postzeitung'', n° 266, sabbato, le 5 de novembre 1808, p. 3, como [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:384-sustba000042-7 reproduction digital].</ref> Al disgusto de su contemporaneos e anque del duca Carl August, Goethe portava con orgolio le croce del Legion, mesmo durante le [[guerras de liberation german]]. In 1813 ille diceva in un conversation: «Tremulate solmente vostre catenas; le homine es troppo grande pro vos, vos non los rumperea.»<ref>Frank Deibel, [[Friedrich Gundelfinger]]: ''Goethe in conversation.'' Salzwasser, Paderborn 2012 [reproduction de 1906], p. 168.</ref> Immediatemente post le annuncio del morte de Napoleon le 5 de maio 1821 in [[St. Helena|San Helena]], le poeta italian [[Alessandro Manzoni]] scribeva le ode ''Il Cinque Maggio'' ''(Le cinque de maio)'' con 18 strofas de sex versos. Quando Goethe recipeva le ode, ille esseva tanto impressionate que ille immediatemente comenciava a traducer lo, conservante su tono alte e solemne.<ref>Gustav Seibt: ''Goethe e Napoleon. Un incontro historic.'' C. H. Beck, München 2008, p. 228–231. – [http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Gedichte/Gedichte+(Ausgabe+letzter+Hand.+1827)/Aus+fremden+Sprachen/Der+f%C3%BCnfte+Mai ''Le cinque de maio'', traduction interlinear de Goethe del ode de Napoleon de Manzoni]</ref> Con Beethoven Goethe se incontrava in julio 1812 in le [[Teplice|station termal de Teplitz]] in Bohemia. A ille tempore Beethoven habeva ja ponite in musica varie versos e cantiones de Goethe e, sur commission del [[Burgtheater|Teatro de corte de Vienna]], habeva componite in 1809/10 le [[Ouvertüre|ouverture]] del tragedia ''Egmont''. Illa es considerate un [[homage]] al figura dramatic de Goethe como incarnation del homine heroic. Beethoven habeva inviate le partition a Goethe con grande expression de respecto. In Teplitz illes se incontrava plure vices, e Beethoven etiam sonava pro ille sur le piano. Le 19 de julio Goethe e Beethoven incontrava casualmente durante un promenada le corte austriac in presentia del imperatrice [[Maria Ludovika Beatrix von Österreich-Este|Maria Ludovika]]. Contra Beethoven, qui apparentemente continuava su cammino sin salutar, Goethe se inclinava galantemente ante le imperatrice, un facto que esseva inter alteres fixate in un representation per le pictor de eventos historic [[Carl Röhling]] e, sur commission del industrial [[Georg Schicht (Unternehmer, 1884)|Georg Schicht]], in un pintura.<ref>Martin Krsek: [https://www.goethe.de/ins/cz/de/kul/mag/21798541.html ''Le portrait perdite de un incontro oblidate''.] Instituto Goethe de Tschechia, martio 2020.</ref> Le evento esseva evalutate differentemente per le duo participantes. Le vespere del 19 de julio Goethe scribeva a su sposa: «Plus concentrate, energic e intime que isto, io non ha ancora vidite un artista.»<ref>[[Alfred Brendel]]: ''Goethe, musica e ironia.'' In: ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'' del 20 de novembre 2020, p. 12.</ref> A Zelter ille scribeva: «Su talento me ha stupefacite; ma, regrettabilemente, ille es un personalitate completemente indomabile, que certemente non ha toto torto quando ille trova le mundo detestabile, ma per isto naturalmente ille lo rende ni plus agradabile pro se ni pro alteres.» Non minus critic esseva Beethoven post le incontro in un conversation con su editor [[Gottfried Christoph Härtel|Härtel]]: «Göthe ama troppo le aere del corte – plus que il conveni a un poeta.»<ref>Martin Geck: ''Le incontro in Teplitz.'' In: ''Die Zeit.'' del 14 de julio 2012 [http://www.zeit.de/2012/28/Beethoven-Goethe ''Beethoven & Goethe: Le incontro in Teplitz'' – ''Die Zeit online.'']</ref> Inter le duo esseva cambiate ancora alcun litteras, ma le relation remaneva purmente cortes.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 590.</ref> ==== Amicitates con Zelter e Boisserée ==== Goethe cultivava durante su longe vita multe amicitates. Como le plus importante medio de communication del amicitia serviva le carta private. Durante le ultime decennios de su vita ille establiva duo amicitates particular, con [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] e [[Sulpiz Boisserée]]. Le musico e compositor Carl Friedrich Zelter habeva in 1796 inviate a Goethe, per medio de su editrice, alcun compositiones musical basate super textos de ''Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahren''. Goethe le regratiava con le parolas que ille «a pena haberea credite que le musica poterea haber tal tonos cordial».<ref>Edith Zehm: ''Die „radicale Reproduction der poetischen Intentionen“: Goethe und Zelter.'' In: [[http://www.goethezeitportal.de/fileadmin/PDF/db/wiss/goethe/zehm_goethe_und_zelter.pdf Goethezeitportal], Blatt 1.</ref> Illes se incontrava pro le prime vice in februario 1802, ma ja in 1799 illes habeva initiate un contacto epistolar. Le extensive correspondentia, con quasi 900 cartas, durava usque al morte de Goethe.<ref>''Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter in den Jahren 1796 bis 1832.'' Herausgegeben von Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer. 6 Bände. Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 1833–1834.</ref> In iste amicitia del etate avantiate, Goethe se sentiva perfecte comprendite per Zelter, cuje musica sonava a su aures plus agradabile que le «tumulto» de Ludwig van Beethoven, non solmente in questiones musical. Lo que le amicitia con Zelter significava pro su comprension del musica, ille lo debeva a Sulpiz Boisserée pro su experientias con le artes visual. Le collector de arte de Heidelberg Boisserée, un discipulo de Friedrich Schlegel, habeva visitate Goethe pro le prime vice in Weimar in 1811. De isto nasceva un correspondentia durabile e un amicitia pro tote le vita, que durante le annos sequente le arricchiva con nove experientias artistic.<ref>Karl Otto Conrady: ''Goethe. Leben und Werk.'' Neuausgabe in einem Band. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, S. 852 ff., 889 f.</ref> Illes se reflecteva, post un viage al region del Rheno e del Main con un visita al collection de pinturas de Boisserée in Heidelberg, in le relation de viage ''Ueber Kunst und Altertum in den Rhein und Mayn Gegenden'' de 1816.<ref>Karl Otto Conrady: ''Goethe. Leben und Werk.'' Neuausgabe in einem Band. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, S. 852 ff., 889 f.</ref> Durante le viage, Goethe se trovava in 1814 in le medio del festa traditional de Sancte Rochus a Bingen, que le fascinava como olim le Carnaval Roman, e que ille describerea con affection como un festa popular.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens''. Hanser, München 2013, S. 588 f.</ref> ==== West-östlicher Divan ==== Ante le elevation patriotic contra le domination francese, Goethe manteneva le distantia. Il refugiva mentalmente in le Oriente, studiando le arabe e le persiano; ille legeva le [[Koran]] e recipeva con entusiasmo le versos del poeta persian [[Hafis]] in le nove traduction del ''Divan'' del 14e seculo, publicate per Cotta.<ref>In le poema introductori del ''West-östlicher Divan'' se lege: «Nord e West e Sud se disgrega, / tronos se rumpe, regnos tremula, / fuge tu al pur Oriente / pro gustar le aere patriarcal!» In su ''Tag- und Jahreshefte'', ille nota como particularitate de su maniera de ager: «Quando in le mundo politic appareva qualcosa de enorme e menaciante, io me lanceava obstinatemente verso le plus distante.» [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Autobiographisches/Tag-+und+Jahreshefte/1813 zeno.org] (consultate le 31 de martio 2015).</ref> Illes le transportava a un «alte altitude creative», que ille plus tarde describeva a Eckermann como «un pubertate repetite»: in breve tempore ille scribeva numerose poemas in le tono legier e ludicre de Hafis.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 546–548.</ref> [[Hendrik Birus]], editor del collection de poemas in le edition de Frankfurt, parla de un «productivitate eruptive».<ref>Hendrik Birus: ''Kommentar I. Überblickskommentare.'' In: Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''West-östlicher Divan.'' Teilband I. Insel, Berlin 2010, S. 728.</ref> In le estate de 1814, Goethe viagiava al region del Rheno e del Main. In Wiesbaden ille incontrava le banquero frankfurtese e promotor del theatro [[Johann Jakob Willemer|Johann Jakob von Willemer]], que ille cognosceva ja desde su annos de juventute, e su filia adoptive [[Marianne von Willemer|Marianne Jung]]. Postea ille les visitava al [[Gerbermühle]] presso Frankfurt, ubi ille etiam allogiava durante un certe tempore. Le banquero, qui era viduo, habeva prendite Marianne con se quando illa era un puella e viveva con illa in [[Konkubinat|concubinato]]. Durante le presentia de Goethe, e possibilemente sur su consilio, le duo se maritava formalmente in haste. Goethe, qui habeva 65 annos, se innamorava de Marianne. Illa deveniva su musa e partner in le creation del ''[[West-östlicher Divan|West-östlichen Divan]]''. Inter le duo se developpava un «alternantia lyric» e un «joco literari de roles amorose», que illes continuava le anno sequente durante un nove visita de plure septimanas.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 549–552, 561. Citate de Safranski al pp. 552 e 561.</ref> Le poemas create durante le septimanas in Frankfurt esseva includite principalmente in le ''Buch Suleika''. In 1850, Marianne revelava a [[Herman Grimm]] que alcun del poemas amorose includite in iste collection habeva essite scribite per illa.<ref>Eintrag ''Grimm, Herman.'' In: [[Walther Killy]]: ''Literaturlexikon. Autoren und Werke deutscher Sprache.'' Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag. Digitale Bibliothek, S. 6.656 (Band 4, S. 352). Band 4, Bertelsmann. Digitale Bibliothek, S. 6.656.</ref> [[Heinrich Heine]], in su obra ''[[Die romantische Schule]]'', elogiava le collection de poemas con le parolas: «Goethe ha portate hic le plus inebriante juisso de viver in versos, e illes es tanto legier, tanto felice, tanto tenuemente susurrate, tanto eteree, que on se demanda como tal cosa esseva possibile in le lingua german».<ref>[[Heinrich Heine]]: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III'': ''Schriften zur Literatur und Politik I.'' Mit Anmerkungen von Uwe Scheikert. 2. Auflage. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1992, S. 301.</ref> Durante su viage in 1815, Goethe videva pro le ultime vice su patria. Quando ille partiva in julio 1816 pro le cura medical planificate in Baden-Baden e voleva al mesme tempore facer un altere visita al Willemers, le carrozza se rumpeva post Weimar, e Goethe abandonava le viage. A partir de alora, ille renunciava a visitar Marianne e etiam cessava de scriber a illa durante un certe tempore. Ille lassava le ''West-östlichen Divan'' incomplite durante alcun tempore e solmente in 1818 le concludeva.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 563.</ref> ==== Morte de Christiane, elaboration del obras, scriptos super le natura ==== [[File:Weimarisches Wochenblatt, Februar 1816.jpg|thumb|«Le ministro de stato Goethe» recipe pro su «meritorie ben meritate al servicio del principe e del pais» le Grande Cruce del Ordine del Casa de Weimar. Frontispicio del ''Weimarisches Wochenblatt'' del 6 de februario 1816]] Le sposa de Goethe, Christiane, moriva in junio 1816 post un longe maladia. Como in altere casos de morte e maladia in su proximitate, quando ille cercava distraher se per le labor o se occupava de su proprie maladia, ille se retirava etiam durante le agonia de Christiane. Ille non era presente ni al latere de su lecto de morte ni a su funerales.<ref>Sigrid Damm: ''Christiane und Goethe. Eine Recherche''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1998, S. 501–508.</ref> Goethe evitava consequentemente le vista de personas moribunde o morte que le esseva proxime.<ref>[[Navid Kermani]]: ''Gott-Atmen. Goethes Religion.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 130, 2013, S. 24.</ref> [[Johanna Schopenhauer]] reportava a un amica que il esseva su maniera «lassar cata dolor sfogar se completemente in silentio, e reprender se presentar a su amicos solmente quando ille habeva recuperate completemente su compostura».<ref>''Goethe erzählt sein Leben.'' Nach Selbstzeugnissen Goethes und Aufzeichnungen seiner Zeitgenossen zusammengestellt von Hans Egon Gerlach und Otto Herrmann. Fischer Bücherei, Frankfurt am Main 1956, S. 342.</ref> Post le morte de Christiane, le grande casa al Frauenplan deveniva plus solitari circum Goethe. Ni le visita de Charlotte Buff, vidua Kestner, a Weimar in septembre 1816 contribuiva a alleviar su stato de animo.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 583 f.</ref> Su filio se maritava in 1817 con [[Ottilie von Goethe|Ottilie von Pogwisch]], qui, como nora, se occupava de Goethe a partir de alora. In 1817 Goethe esseva relieve de su direction del theatro del corte. Le micre ducato habeva — contra le timores de Goethe — superate illese le tumultos del [[guerras napoleonian]]; Carl August poteva portar le titulo de «Alteza Regal», e le nove situationes apportava a Goethe, le 12 de decembre 1815, le titulo de ministro de stato.<ref name="Amtliche Tätigkeit 1958" /> Goethe poneva in ordine su scriptos e manuscritos. Le diarios e le notas que habeva jacite durante longe tempore serviva le pro elaborar de nove le ''[[Viage italian]]''. Durante certe periodos ille se immersava in le [[mythos]] grec antique e in le [[poesia orphic]]. Isto se reflecteva in cinque [[Stanze|stanzas]], publicate pro le prime vice in 1817 in le revista ''Zur Morphologie'', reunite sub le titulo ''Urworte. Orphisch''. Illos esseva ligate a su effortio de recognoscer le leges del vita sub le forma del Urpflanze e del Urphänomene. In 1821 sequeva le prime version in un sol volum de ''[[Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre]]'', que consisteva principalmente in un collection de novella, parte del quales habeva ja essite publicate anteriormente.<ref>[[Hans Jürgen Geerdts]]: ''Johann Wolfgang Goethe'' Reclam, Leipzig 1974.</ref> Durante iste annos nasceva ''Geschichte meines botanischen Studiums'' (1817); usque a 1824 sequeva, in le serie ''Zur Naturwissenschaft überhaupt'', reflexiones inter altere cosas super morphologia, geologia e mineralogia. Ibi se trova etiam le presentation del ''Morphologie der Pflanzen'' in forma de un [[elegia]], que ille habeva ja scribite circa 1790 pro su amante. Durante iste periodo ille esseva etiam in contacto con le [[specialista in scientia forestal]] [[Heinrich Cotta]], que ille habeva visitate pro le prime vice in [[Tharandt]] in 1813. In 1818 Goethe deveniva membro del [[Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina|Leopoldina]], un del societates scientifico-natural le plus renominate.<ref>Goethe sur le sito web del Leopoldina [[http://www.leopoldina.org/de/ueber-uns/akademien-und-forschungsvorhaben/leopoldina-ausgabe-goethe-die-schriften-zur-naturwissenschaft/goethe-als-mitglied-der-leopoldina/ ''Goethe als Mitglied der Leopoldina.''] Consultate le 7 de decembre 2014.</ref> In februario 1823 Goethe cadeva gravemente malade, probabilemente a causa de un [[Herzinfarkt|infarto cardiac]]. Post su convalescentia, a alcun observatores ille pareva ancora plus vivace intellectualmente que antea. ==== Elegia de Marienbad ==== [[File:Goethe, Elegie, Motto.jpg|thumb|Le [[Motto (literatura)|motto]] del ''Elegia de Marienbad'' in le copia definitive manuscripte de Goethe: „Und wenn der Mensch in seiner Quaal verstummt / Gab mir ein Gott zu sagen was ich leide.“]] In le estate ille parti con grande expectation de revider [[Ulrike von Levetzow]]<ref>Peter Uhrbach: ''Goethes Fräulein in Böhmen.'' Sax-Verlag, Beucha 2009, ISBN 978-3-86729-050-0, S.&nbsp;59–79.</ref> in [[Marienbad]]. Duo annos ante (1821) ille habeva cognoscite le puella, alora de dece-septe annos, con su matre durante un cura in Marienbad, e se habeva inamorate de illa. Le anno sequente illes se incontrava de novo in Marienbad e passava insimul horas de convivialitate. Al tertie incontro, Goethe, qui habeva alora septanta-quatro annos, peteva le mano del dece-novem-anne Ulrike. Ille habeva rogate su amico, le grande duca Carl August, de presentar le demanda de matrimonio. Ulrike refusava cortesemente.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 594–596.</ref> Jam in le coche que le reconduceva a Weimar via plure stationes (Karlsbad, Eger), ille scribeva le ''[[Marienbader Elegie|Elegia de Marienbad]]'', un capolavoro lyric e, secundo Stefan Zweig, «le plus importante, le plus intimamente personal e pro isto le plus amate poema de su senectute»; Zweig dedicava a su genese un capitulo de su miniaturas historic ''[[Sternstunden der Menschheit]]''.<ref>Stefan Zweig: ''Sternstunden der Menschheit. Zwölf historische Miniaturen''. S. Fischer, Frankfurt 1986, S. 127.</ref> ==== Le ultime annos ==== [[File:Goethe und Schreiber John@Weimar Anna Amalia Bibliothek.jpg|thumb|''Goethe dictante in su studio al scriba John''. Pictura a oleo de [[Johann Joseph Schmeller]], 1834]] [[File:Ilmenau Goethehaeuschen.jpg|thumb|Le «casetta de Goethe» in Ilmenau]] [[File:Goethe on deathbed.jpg|thumb|upright|Le Goethe morte, coronate de [[corona de laureles|laureles]], in le lecto mortuari le 26 de martio 1832, desenho a plumbo realistic de [[Friedrich Preller der Ältere|Friedrich Preller le Vetule]]]] Postea su vita «apparteneva ancora solmente al labor».<ref>Stefan Zweig: ''Sternstunden der Menschheit. Zwölf historische Miniaturen''. S. Fischer, Frankfurt 1986, S. 135.</ref> Ille reprendeva le labor super le [[Faust. Der Tragödie zweiter Teil|secunde parte de ''Faust'']]. Ille quasi non scribeva plus ipse, sed dictava. Assi ille poteva non solmente mantener un vaste correspondentia, sed etiam confider su cognoscentias e su sapientias vital in conversationes amplissime al juvene poeta [[Johann Peter Eckermann]], qui le era devote. Pro le collection, selection e ordination del resultatos litterari de tote su vita durante le preparation del edition Cotta de ultime mano, Goethe poteva contar super un equipa de collaboratores: ultra le scriba e copista [[Goethes Diener#Johann August Friedrich John (1814–1832)|Johann August Friedrich John]], illes esseva le jurista Johann Christian Schuchard, qui archiviava le documentos de Goethe e estabileva extensive registros; [[Heinrich Meyer (Maler)|Johann Heinrich Meyer]], responsabile del revision textual del scripta de Goethe super le historia del arte; e le educatore del principes [[Frédéric Soret]], qui se occupava del publication del scripta scientifico-natural. Anque le bibliothecario e scriptor [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]], post un breve ruptura causate per le education del filio de Goethe, habeva retornate al equipa de collaboratores. Al testa del equipa se trovava ab 1824 Eckermann, a qui Goethe accordava su confidentia e que ille recompensava con recognition e laude. Ben que ille dedicava tote su fortia de labor a Goethe, ille esseva mal remunerate per ille.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 626 f.</ref> Ille debeva completar su medios de subsistentia per dar cursos de linguas a viagiatores cultural anglese. Goethe le designava in su testamento como editor de su obras postume. In 1828 moriva le amico e protector de Goethe, le grande duca Carl August,<ref>Vgl. auch Albert Schöne: ''„Regenbogen auf schwarzgrauem Grunde“ – Goethes Dornburger Brief an Zelter zum Tod seines Großherzogs.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1979 (= ''Göttinger Universitätsreden.'' Heft 65).</ref> e in novembre 1830 su filio [[August von Goethe|August]]. In le mesme anno ille terminava le labor super le secunde parte de ''Faust''. Illo esseva un obra pro le qual le longe processo de creation habeva le plus grande importantia; formalmente un drama pro le scena, in realitate a pena practicabile super le scena, plus tosto un fantastic kaleidoscopio de imagines, multivoc, como multe de su obras poetic. Finalmente ille interveniva anque in le [[Pariser Akademiestreit|controversia]] inter le duo [[Paläontologie|paleontologos]] [[Georges Cuvier]] e [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]] ([[Katastrophismus|catastrofismo]] contra [[Transmutation der Arten|evolution continue del species]]). Le geologia e le theoria del evolution le interessava tanto como le [[arcobaleno]], que ille non habeva succedite explicar per su theoria del colores. Anque le question de como cresce le plantas non le lassava in pace. In augusto 1831 Goethe se senti ancora attrahite verso le Foreste Thuringian, al loco ubi ille habeva un tempore recipite su prime impulsos scientifico-natural, e se dirigeva a Ilmenau. 51&nbsp;annos post que, in 1780, ille habeva scribite super un pariete de tabulas in le cabana de chasse «Goethehäuschen» sur le [[Kickelhahn]] prope [[Ilmenau]] su poema le plus cognoscite, ''[[Wandrers Nachtlied]]'' («Über allen Gipfeln ist Ruh&nbsp;…»), ille visitava de novo iste loco in 1831, poco ante su ultime anniversario. In le nocte del 21 de martio 1832 Goethe esseva subitemente surprendite, «post un catarrho multo leve, per le plus violente frigore; cramps in le thorace e le abdomen causava inquietude. Solmente al matino poteva on vocar le medico». Le medico consultate esseva le medico personal de Goethe, [[Carl Vogel (Mediziner)|Carl Vogel]].<ref>{{ANNO|pre|03|04|1832|8|Deutschland. Weimar, den 22. März|HERVORHEBUNG=l)1-,&#32;Vogel}}</ref> Le vespere del 21 de martio le stato del malade se ameliorava, e il se dice que ille habeva demandate le libro ''Seize mois, ou la révolution et les révolutionnaires'' de [[Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy]].<ref name="18320328AML">{{ANNO|aml|28|03|1832|8|Göthe's Tod|HERVORHEBUNG=Göthe's&#32;Tod}}</ref> Le 22 de martio 1832 Goethe moriva al etate de 82 annos, probabilemente de un [[infarto del myocardio|infarto cardiac]].<ref>Klaus Seehafer: ''Mein Leben ein einzig Abenteuer. Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Biografie.'' Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 2000, S. 458.</ref> Le fontes contemporanee reportava que Goethe habeva morite al mediedie del 22 de martio «dulcemente e pacificamente, minus de un [[edema pulmonar|congestion pulmonar]], que de un exhaustion simultanee de tote le systemas vital» o «post un lecto de maladia de quatro dies, per le consequentias de un febre gastrico-nervose».<ref name="18320328AML" /><ref>{{ANNO|pre|30|03|1832|7|Deutschland|HERVORHEBUNG=Iohann&#32;Wolfgang&#32;von&#32;Göthe}}</ref> Si le ultime [[ultime parolas|parolas ultime]] attribuite a Goethe, «Mehr Licht!» («Plus de lumine!»), es authentique es disputate. Illas esseva reportate per su medico personal Carl Vogel, qui tamen non se trovava in le camera mortuari al momento del morte.<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Carl Vogel |url=http://www.uni-giessen.de/gloning/tx/1833cvog.htm |titel=Die letzte Krankheit Goethe’s &#91;…&#93;. Nebst einer Nachschrift von C.&nbsp;W. Hufeland |werk=''Journal der practischen Heilkunde'' (1833) |hrsg=Universität Gießen |datum=1961 |abruf=2013-01-08}}</ref> Quatro dies plus tarde Goethe esseva inhumate in le [[cripta del principes de Weimar|cripta principesca de Weimar]]. Su sarcophago esseva «in forma antique con manicos de ferro, […] facite de tabulas de quercia e rivestite de plumbo». Ille portava le simple inscription ''Goethe'' e «esseva facite secundo le desenho que Goethe habeva preparate pro le sarcophago destinate a includer le restos terrestre de Schiller in le cripta principesca».<ref>''Nekrolog.'' In: ''Intelligenzblatt der Allgemeinen Literatur-Zeitung'' Juni 1832, Nr. 38‒40, Spalte 305‒326, hier [https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00199729/ALZ_1832_Bd05_IntBl_0160.tif Sp. 316.]</ref> Le sol discurso funebre esseva pronunciate per le director general [[Johann Friedrich Röhr]].<ref>''Trauerworte bei von Goetheʼs Bestattung am 26sten März 1832.'' Weimar o.&nbsp;J. [1832] ([https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/view/bsb10728862?page=3 Digitalisat]).</ref> === Le unicitate de Goethe === Le biographos de Goethe ha frequentemente attirate le attention al unicitate e al intim interconnexion de vita e obra de Goethe. Rüdiger Safranski exprimeva iste idea in le subtitulo de su biographia, ''Kunstwerk des Lebens''. [[Georg Simmel]] poneva al centro de su monographia super Goethe de 1913 le existentia spiritual exemplar de Goethe, con le incarnation de un individualitate inconfundibile.<ref>Georg Simmel: ''Goethe.'' Klinghardt & Biermann, Leipzig 1913.</ref> Le discipulo de [[Stefan George]], [[Friedrich Gundolf]], dedicava su monographia de 1916 al «representation del figura integre de Goethe, le plus grande unitate in le qual le spirito german se ha incarnate», e ibi «vita e obra» appare solmente como differente «attributos de un e le mesme substantia».<ref>Friedrich Gundolf: ''Goethe.'' 1. Auflage. Bondi, Berlin 1916, S. 1.</ref> Le parola «Olympian» ja circulava durante le vita de Goethe.<ref>Secundo [[Walter Benjamin]] (''Illuminationes. Scripta seligite.'' Edition in brochura. Suhrkamp. Frankfurt am Main 1977, S. 84), illo esseva attribuite a [[Jean Paul]].</ref> In un maniera minus floride, le psychoanalysta [[Kurt R. Eissler]] parla in su vaste studio de Goethe de un «genio creative»<ref>Kurt R. Eissler: ''Goethe. Eine psychoanalytische Studie 1775–1786.'' Band 1. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 1987, S. 38.</ref> e delineava le incredibile amplitudine de su interesses e activitates: {{Citation|Il ha amor e amicitia e odio e viages e festas e guerra e caritate verso le proxime; il ha Goethe le cortesan, le aventuriero, le scientifico (physico, mineralogo, botanico, meteorologo, anatomista e biologo), le maestro, le amante, le marito, le patre, le administrator, le diplomate, le director del theatros e museos, le pictor e delineator, le maestro de ceremonias, le philosopho e le politico – e io non ha ancora mentionate le poeta e dramaturgo, le romanciero, le traductor, le correspondentista e critico.<ref>Kurt R. Eissler: ''Goethe. Eine psychoanalytische Studie 1775–1786.'' Band 1. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 1987, S. 36.</ref>}} == Le «pensamento objectal» de Goethe == Il essere incorrecte supponer un vision del mundo coherente e unitari in Goethe; plus appropriate es parlar de su comprension del mundo. Ille acquireva in le campos del philosophia, theologia e scientia natural un cognoscentia de un extension e amplitude que nulle poeta de su epocha, ma ille non reuniva iste cognoscentia in un systema. Tamen, ille partiva del unitate del cognoscentia human e del experientias, del connexion inter arte e natura, scientia e poesia, religion e litteratura. «Pro philosophia in le senso proprie io non habeva organo», ille admitteva in su essay ''Einwirkung der neueren Philosophie'' (1820). Per isto ille testificava su aversion al abstractiones conceptual, in le sfera del qual ille non se sentiva a su agio. Tamen, le factos e cognoscentias assumite ab le plus diverse campos del sapere fecundava e enrichiva quasi toto lo que ille scribeva.<ref>Hugh Barr Nisbet: ''Religion and Philosophy.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, ISBN 0-521-66211-7, S. 224 und 231.</ref> Pro comprender su pensamento philosophic, scientific-natural e artistic, «intuition» e «pensamento objectal» es conceptos clave particularmente revelatori. [[Immanuel Kant]] e su ''Critica del ration'' Goethe opponeva le exigentia de un ''critica del sensos''. Goethe insisteva super le acquisition de cognoscentias per intuition e reflexion, anque concernente «phenomenos originari» como le «[[planta originari|planta primeva]]».<ref>Il es transmitte le discurso inter Goethe e Schiller super le planta primeva e super idea contra experientia durante lor prime incontro fructuose in 1794; vide Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 391–393.</ref> Pro ille, «intuition» significava le relation empiric al phenomenos per observation e experimento; in isto ille sequeva le methodo [[Induktion (Philosophie)|inductivista]] de [[Francis Bacon]].<ref>Hugh Barr Nisbet: ''Religion and Philosophy.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, S. 231.</ref> «Pensamento objectal» es le expression usate a proposito de Goethe per le professor de psychiatria de Leipzig [[Johann Christian August Heinroth|Heinroth]], expression que Goethe gratemente adoptava in su essay ''Bedeutende Fördernis durch ein einziges geistreiches Wort''.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Bedeutende Fördernis durch ein einziges geistreiches Wort.'' In: ''Theoretische Schriften.'' [http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Theoretische+Schriften/Bedeutende+F%C3%B6rdernis+durch+ein+einziges+geistreiches+Wort zeno.org] (abgerufen am 9. März 2015).</ref> Goethe concordava con Heinroth anque in que «mi contemplation mesme es un pensamento, mi pensamento un contemplation». In le continuation de su essay ille applicava iste pensamento tanto a su recercas in le scientias natural como a su «poesia objectal». Friedrich Schiller judiciava apud Körner que le philosophia de Goethe «trahe troppo ab le mundo sensorial».<ref>Schiller an Körner, 1. November 1790.</ref> [[Heinrich Heine]] recognosceva con admiration le «facultate de contemplation, sentimento e pensamento plastic» de Goethe.<ref>Heinrich Heine: ''Reisebilder. Zweyter Theil. Die Nordsee. Dritte Abtheilung''. In: Düsseldorfer Heine-Ausgabe, Band 6: ''Briefe aus Berlin. Über Polen. Reisebilder I/II (Prosa)''. S. 148.</ref> [[Andreas Bruno Wachsmuth]], le presidente de longe tempore del [[Societate Goethe|Goethe-Gesellschaft]], lo nominava «desiro de apprender ab le cosas».<ref>[[Andreas Bruno Wachsmuth]]: ''Geeinte Zwienatur. Aufsätze zu Goethes naturwissenschaftlichem Denken.'' Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 1966, S. 14.</ref> === Comprension del natura === [[File:Hanf Cannabis femina@Goethe's botanical objects.JPG|thumb|upright|Planta de cannabis, parte del [[Herbario]] de Goethe]] Le investigador de Goethe [[Dieter Borchmeyer]] es del opinion que Goethe dedicava le major parte de su vita al scientias natural.<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Edition novemente actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 183.</ref> [[Stefan Bollmann]] constata in un monographia super le investigationes de Goethe concernente le natura: «On debera habituar se al idea que le major poeta de Germania esseva un scientista del natura.»<ref>Stefan Bollmann: ''Der Atem der Welt – Johann Wolfgang Goethe und die Erfahrung der Natur.'' Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2021; citate hic secundo ''Süddeutsche Zeitung'', 13 april 2021, p. 14.</ref> In omne caso, tote le vita de Goethe esseva marcate per un contacto intense con le natura, al qual ille se approchava in duo manieras: ''sentiente e experiente como artista, e observante e analysante como erudito e investigator del natura''.<ref>Alfred Schmidt: ''Natur.'' In: ''Goethe Handbuch.'' Band 4/2: ''Personen, Sachen, Begriffe L–Z.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1998, pp. 755 ss.</ref> Pro Goethe, le natura, con su infinitas facietas, esseva impossibile de apprehender como un toto: «illo non ha systema; illo ha, illo es vita e sequentia ab un centro incognite usque a un limite non recognoscibile. Le contemplation del natura es ergo interminabile […]».<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Schriften zur Morphologie.'' Frankfurter Ausgabe, Band 24. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1987, p. 582.</ref> Su «pensamento del natura» offere le clave pro comprender tanto su biographia intellectual como su obra litterari.<ref>Alfred Schmidt: ''Natur.'' In: ''Goethe Handbuch.'' Band 4/2: ''Personen, Sachen, Begriffe L–Z.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1998, p. 757.</ref> Secundo Andreas Wachsmuth, Goethe elevava «le natura como dominio de experientia e cognition al plus alte occupation formative del esser human».<ref>Andreas Bruno Wachsmuth: ''Geeinte Zwienatur. Aufsätze zu Goethes naturwissenschaftlichem Denken.'' Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 1966, p. 7.</ref> Desde su annos a Strasbourg, e sub le impulsion de Herder, Goethe attribueva al natura un loco central in su vita. Al initio, sub le influentia de [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], Klopstock e [[Ossian]], esseva le ''experientia e le sentimento del natura'' lo que le impressionava; a partir de 1780, in Weimar, se disveloppava un interesse crescente pro le investigation e le scientias natural. Le philosopho [[Alfred Schmidt (Philosoph)|Alfred Schmidt]] appella iste processo le «passo del sentimento del natura al cognoscimento del natura».<ref name="Alfred Schmidt 1998">Alfred Schmidt: ''Natur.'' In: ''Goethe Handbuch.'' Band 4/2: ''Personen, Sachen, Begriffe L–Z.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1998, p. 764.</ref> Como erudito qui observava le natura, Goethe investigava numerose disciplinas: [[Morphologie (Biologie)|morphologia]], [[Geologie|geologia]], [[Mineralogie|mineralogia]], [[Optik|optica]], [[Botanik|botanica]], [[Zoologie|zoologia]], [[Anatomie|anatomia]] e [[Meteorologie|meteorologia]]. Como ille rememorava plus tarde in un conversation con Eckermann, le interessava «objectos que me circondava sur le terra e que poteva esser percipite directemente per le sensos».<ref>Citate secundo Alfred Schmidt: ''Natur.'' In: ''Goethe Handbuch.'' Band 4/2: ''Personen, Sachen, Begriffe L–Z.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1998, p. 766.</ref> Inter su conceptos clave se trovava, de un latere, le [[Metamorphose (botanica)|metamorphose]] e le ''typo'', e del altere, le [[Polaritate (Goethe)|polaritate]] e le ''ascension''. Goethe comprendeva le metamorphose como un transformation gradual del forma intra le limites fixate per le typo correspondente («[[Urpflanze]]», «planta primordial», e «Urtier», «animal primordial»). Le transformation occurre in un processo continue de ''attraction e repulsion (polaritate)'' que conduce a un ascension verso formas plus alte.<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Erläuterungen zu dem aphoristischen Aufsatz „Die Natur“'' [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Theoretische+Schriften/Erl%C3%A4uterung+zu+dem+aphoristischen+Aufsatz+%C2%BBDie+Natur%C2%AB zeno.org] (consultate le 10 martio 2015).</ref> In le conception [[Pantheismo|pantheistic]] de considerar natura e Deo como identic, le conception del natura e le conception religiose de Goethe se ligava. [[Werner Heisenberg]] scribeva super le conception goethean del natura: «Anque hodie nos pote ancora apprender de Goethe que nos non debe, in favor de un sol organo, le analyse rational, lassar atrofiar tote le alteres…».<ref>Werner Heisenberg: ''Das Naturbild Goethes und die Technisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Welt''. In: ''Die Großen'', Band VII/1. Kindler-Verlag, 1977, pp. 64–73.</ref> === Comprension del religion === Abstrahente de un breve periodo de approximation al conceptiones del fide [[Pietismo|pietistic]], que attingeva su culmine durante le [[convalescentia]] de Goethe post un grave morbo in le annos 1768–1770, ille remaneva critic verso le religion christian.<ref>Hugh Barr Nisbet: ''Religion and Philosophy.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, pp. 219 ss.</ref> Jam in su juventute ille habeva declarate a su amico, le theologo [[Johann Caspar Lavater]], in un littera de responsa in 1782, que ille esseva «non un adversario de Christo, non un non-christiano, ma tamen un non-christiano decidite».<ref>Goethe a Lavater, 29 de julio 1782, citate secundo [[Terence James Reed]]: ''Der säkulare Goethe und seine Religion.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 130, 2013, pp. 59–64, hic p. 61.</ref> Le investigador de Goethe [[Werner Keller (Germanist)|Werner Keller]] resume le objectiones de Goethe contra le christianismo in tres punctos: «Le symbolismo del cruce esseva pro Goethe un offensa, le doctrina del [[peccato original]] un humiliation del creation, le divinisation de Jesus in le [[Dreifaltigkeit|Trinitate]] un [[Blasphemie|blasphemia]] contra le Deo unic».<ref>[[Werner Keller (Germanist)|Werner Keller]]: ''Altersmystik? Der späte Goethe und das Christentum seiner Zeit. Ein Fragment in Skizzenform.'' Citate secundo Wolfgang Frühwald: ''Goethe und das Christentum. Anmerkungen zu einem ambivalenten Verhältnis.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 130, 2013, p. 47.</ref> Secundo [[Heinrich Heine]], Goethe esseva cognoscite «le grande pagano […] generalmente in Germania».<ref>Heinrich Heine: ''Sämtliche Werke.'' Band III: ''Schriften zur Literatur und Politik I.'' Darmstadt 1992, p. 295.</ref> In su conception resolutemente optimista del natura human, ille non poteva acceptar le [[Dogma|dogmas]] del peccato original e del damnation eternal.<ref>Hugh Barr Nisbet: ''Religion and Philosophy.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 220.</ref> Su «pietate del mundo» (un expression de Goethe in ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'') le poneva in opposition a tote le religiones que despreciava le mundo; ille rejectava toto lo supernatural.<ref>Gerhard von Frankenberg: ''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.'' In: [[Karlheinz Deschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Das Christentum im Urteil seiner Gegner.'' Max Hueber, Ismaning 1986, p. 152.</ref> In su grande [[Sturm und Drang|ode del Sturm und Drang]] ''[[Prometheus (Hymne)|Prometheus]]'', le rebellion religiose de Goethe trovava su expression poetic le plus forte.<ref name="Hugh Barr Nisbet 2002">Hugh Barr Nisbet: ''Religion and Philosophy.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, pp. 219–231, hic p. 221.</ref> Nicholas Boyle vide in illo le «refusa explicite e furiose de Goethe del Deo del pietistas e del false consolation de lor redemptor».<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit.'' Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 196.</ref> In le secunde stropha del [[Rollengedicht|poema in forma de monologo]], «Io cognosce nihil plus povre / Sub le sol que vos, deos», le revolta prometeic se intensifica al fin del ode de septe stropha in un provocativo desafio a [[Zeus]], a qui Prometheus lancia: «Hic io sede, io forma homines / Secundo mi imagine, / Un generation que sia simile a me, / Pro suffrer, plorar, / Gauder e allegrar se, / E non prestar attention a te, / Como io.» Ben que Goethe studiava intensemente le christianismo, le judaismo e le islam e lor textos fundamental, ille se opponeva a omne [[Offenbarungsreligion|religion revelate]] e al idea de un Deo creator personal. Le individuo debe trovar le divin in se mesme e non sequer litteralmente un revelation externe.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 566.</ref> Al revelation ille opponeva le ''intuition directa''. [[Navid Kermani]] parla de un «religiositate del intuition directe e del experientia universalmente human», que «se passa sin speculation e quasi sin fide».<ref>Navid Kermani: ''Gott-Atmen. Goethes Religion.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 130, 2013, p. 27.</ref> «Le natura ha ni nucleo ni cortice / Illa es toto in un sol vice», dice le poema de Goethe ''Allerdings. Dem Physiker.'' de 1820, per le qual ille insistentia que le natura revela su essentia in su forma mesme. A [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]] e su scripto contra [[Spinoza]], ille respondeva in 1785 que ille poteva recognoscer un essentia divin solmente in e a partir del cosas individual: Spinoza «non demonstra le existentia de Deo, le existentia es Deo».<ref>Goethe a Jacobi, 9 de junio 1785, citate secundo Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 297.</ref> In un altere littera, ille defendia Spinoza con le parolas: «Io me attacca sempre plus firmemente al culto de Deo del atheista […] e vos lassa toto lo que vos appella religion».<ref>Goethe a Jacobi, 5 de maio 1786, citate secundo Terence James Reed: ''Der säkulare Goethe und seine Religion.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 130, 2013, pp. 59–64, hic p. 59.</ref> In su studios del natura, Goethe trovava pro se mesme fundamentos firme del veritate. Ille se declarava repetitemente [[Pantheismus|pantheista]] in le tradition philosophic de [[Baruch de Spinoza|Spinoza]] e [[Polytheismus|polytheista]] in le tradition del antiquitate classic.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 534.</ref> A iste proposito, il es importante notar que Wolfgang Bartuschat monstra que le philosophia de Spinoza debe esser comprendite como monismo, ma que iste monismo spinozistic non es equivalente a un sacralisation del natura tal como Goethe lo practica.<ref>Wolfgang Bartuschat: ''Spinozas Philosophie. Über den Zusammenhang von Metaphysik und Ethik.'' Meiner-Verlag, Hamburg 2017, pp. 31–52.</ref> Iste divinisation del natura in Goethe se manifesta concretemente in su conviction que le investigation del natura es simultaneemente un exploration del divin. Pro iste ration, il es importante sublinear que Goethe presenta un interpretation particular de Spinoza. In le correspondentia con Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Goethe discuteva in 1774 le philosophia de Spinoza.<ref>Felix Knode: ''Literarische Anthropologie und empfindsame Idyllik. Zum Verhältnis von Literatur und Philosophie im Erzählwerk Friedrich Heinrich Jacobis.'' 1. edition. transcript-Verlag, Bielefeld 2024, pp. 55–77.</ref> Pro Jacobi, le conception goethean del natura es un determinismo que negarea le libero arbitrio del homine, comprendite como activitate autonome de se mesme.<ref>Felix Knode: ''Literarische Anthropologie und empfindsame Idyllik. Zum Verhältnis von Literatur und Philosophie im Erzählwerk Friedrich Heinrich Jacobis.'' 1. edition. transcript-Verlag, Bielefeld 2024, pp. 157–166.</ref> Secundo Jacobi, iste activitate autonome del homine se manifesta in le realitate del vita que nos pote experir, per le action.<ref>Felix Knode: ''Literarische Anthropologie und empfindsame Idyllik. Zum Verhältnis von Literatur und Philosophie im Erzählwerk Friedrich Heinrich Jacobis.'' 1. edition. transcript-Verlag, Bielefeld 2024, pp. 166–175.</ref> Secundo Jacobi, un horizonte de existentia absolute conduce a un conception determinista del homine e del mundo e debe ergo esser problematisate sur le plano anthropologic. Pro Goethe, iste problematisation anthropologic non se presenta in iste maniera, proque ille defendeva differentes conceptiones secundo le contexto del discussion. {{Citation|Nos es pantheistas quando nos studia le natura, polytheistas quando nos crea poesia, monotheistas in le esfera moral.|Maximen und Reflexionen<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Maximen und Reflexionen: Über Literatur und Leben.'' [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Aphorismen+und+Aufzeichnungen/Maximen+und+Reflexionen/Aus+dem+Nachla%C3%9F/%C3%9Cber+Literatur+und+Leben zeno.org] (consultate le 20 de januario 2015).</ref>}} A un viagiator, secundo le relato de [[Dorothea Schlegel]], Goethe explicava que ille esseva «atheista in le scientia natural e philosophia, pagano in le arte e christian secundo le sentimento».<ref>Citate secundo Hans Dieter Betz: ''Antike und Christentum. Gesammelte Aufsätze IV.'' Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1998, p. 86.</ref> Le Biblia e le Coran, con le quales ille se habeva occupate durante le composition del ''West-östlicher Divan'', esseva pro ille «libros poetic de historia, hic e illac plen de sapientias, ma anque de insipientias ligate al tempore».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 564.</ref> Ille considerava le maestros de religion e le poetas como «adversarios natural» e rivales: «le maestros religiose vole ‘reprimer’ le obras del poetas, ‘remover los de via’, ‘render los innocue’».<ref>[[Katharina Mommsen]]: ''Goethe und die arabische Welt.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1988, p. 436.</ref> Separate del dogmas, ille trovava in le [[Ikonografie|iconographia]] e le tradition narrative de tote le religiones importante, includente le [[Islam]] e le [[Hinduismus|hinduismo]], fontes ric de symbolos poetic e [[Allusion|allusiones]]; le testimonio le plus forte de isto se trova in le ''Faust'' e le ''West-östlicher Divan''.<ref>Hugh Barr Nisbet: ''Religion and Philosophy.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 224.</ref> Goethe amava le representation plastic del deos e semideos del antiquitate, del templos e sanctuarios, durante que le cruce e le representation de corpore martirisate le esseva quasi odiose.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 568.</ref> {{Citation|Io pote supportar multe cosas. Le major parte del cosas penose / Io suffre con tranquille corage, como un deo me lo commanda. / Ma pauc cosas me es tan odiose como veneno e serpente, / Quatro: fumo de tabaco, cimices, allio e cruce.|Epigrammas venetian 66<ref>Pro iste e altere expressiones critic del religion vide: [[http://www.dober.de/religionskritik/goethe.html ''Goethe und die Religion'']</ref>}} Goethe se confrontava al islam con respecto, ma non sin critica.<ref>Vider a iste proposito Hendrik Birus: ''Goethe – „ein Muselmann“?'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 130, 2013, pp. 51–58.</ref> In le ''Noten und Abhandlungen zum besseren Verständnis des West-östlichen Divans'', ille criticava Mohammed pro haber «vestite su tribo de un obscur velo religiose»; inter le aspectos criticate ille mentionava le imagine negative del feminas, le prohibition del vino e del intoxicantes e le aversion al poesia.<ref>Katharina Mommsen: ''Goethe und die arabische Welt.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1988, p. 437.</ref> Le ceremonias e processiones ecclesiastic esseva pro ille «pompa sin anima» e «mascheradas». Le ecclesia vole regnar e pro isto necessita «un massa obtuse que se inclina e es inclinate a lassar se governar».<ref>Citate secundo Gerhard von Frankenberg: ''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.'' In: Karlheinz Deschner (Hrsg.): ''Das Christentum im Urteil seiner Gegner.'' Max Hueber, Ismaning 1986, pp. 161 e 163.</ref> Le integre historia ecclesiastic esseva un «confusion de error e de violentia».<ref>Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Gedichte. Nachlese: Zahme Xenien 9.'' [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Gedichte/%28Gedichte.+Nachlese%29/Zahme+Xenien/9.+%5B%C2%BBSag,+was+enth%C3%A4lt+die+Kirchengeschichte%5D zeno.org] (consultate le 20 de januario 2015).</ref> Del altere latere, con participation e humor profunde ille describerea le traditional [[Sankt-Rochus-Fest]] a Bingen — similmente a su description anterior del «Carnaval Roman» (1789) — como un festa popular gaiose, ubi le vita es affirmate como bon e belle e ubi on renuncia a tote ascetismo christian.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens''. Hanser, München 2013, pp. 588 ss.; Karl Heinz Weiers: ''Goethes Erlebnisse auf dem Sankt-Rochus-Fest zu Bingen am 16. August des Jahres 1814 und sein späterer Bericht über dieses Volksfest'', p. 16.</ref> Tamen, ille videva in le christianismo «un potentia ordonante que ille respectava e que ille voleva esser respectate».<ref>Wolfgang Frühwald: ''Goethe und das Christentum. Anmerkungen zu einem ambivalenten Verhältnis.'' In: ''Goethe Jahrbuch.'' Band 130, 2013, p. 46.</ref> Le christianismo debeva promover le cohesion social del populo, ma pro le elite intellectual illo esseva, secundo Goethe, superflue,<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit.'' Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 441.</ref> nam: «Qui possede scientia e arte, ha anque religion; / qui non possede le duo, que ille ha religion.»<ref>''Goethe Gedichte.'' Edite e commentate per Erich Trunz. C. H. Beck, München 2007, p. 367.</ref> Del altere latere, le idea del [[Reinkarnation|reincarnation]] non esseva estranie a ille. Su fide in le [[Unsterblichkeit|immortalitate]] non se basava tamen sur fundamentos religiose, ma philosophic, como le conception [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|leibnizian]] del [[Monade (Philosophie)|monade]] indestructibile o le [[Aristoteles|aristotelic]] [[Entelechie|entelechia]].<ref name="Hugh Barr Nisbet 2002" /> A partir del idea del activitate, ille developpava in conversation con Eckermann le these que le natura debe esser obligate, «si io labora sin pausa usque a mi fin, […] a indicar me un altere forma de existentia, si le forma presente non pote plus esser supportate per mi spirito».<ref>[[Johann Peter Eckermann]]: ''Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens. Gespräch vom 4. Februar 1829.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1981.</ref> === Autocomprension aesthetic === Como [[recensente|recensor]] del ''Frankfurter Gelehrten Anzeigen'', leducte per su amico de Darmstadt [[Johann Heinrich Merck]], Goethe se occupava, durante su periodo de ''[[Sturm und Drang|tempesta e impetu]]'', del [[aesthetica|aesthetica]] de [[Johann Georg Sulzer]], alora multo influente. Al principio, al principio aesthetico traditional que le arte es imitation del natura, Goethe opponeva le [[genio]], qui in su expression creative crea mesme ''como'' le natura.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 129–131.</ref> Le creation poetic es expression del natura sin freno, e Shakespeare es su potentia creative personificate.<ref>Alfred Schmid: ''Natur.'' Eintrag in: ''Goethe Handbuch.'' Band 4/2: ''Personen, Sachen, Begriffe L–Z.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1998, S. 758 f.</ref> Durante su viage in Italia se formava le conception de Goethe super le arte; illo esseva intimemente ligate al nomines de [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] e del architecto classicista [[Andrea Palladio]].<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche''. Studienausgabe. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, S. 129.</ref> In le classicismo de Winckelmann ille recognosceva le veritate artistic valide pro ille, como ja formulate in le caso de Shakespeare: illo non es simplemente natura imitate, sed natura intensificate.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 435.</ref> Plus tarde ille honora Winckelmann per le publication de cartas e sketches in le collection ''Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert'' (1805). Post su retorno de Italia, le ideas del [[autonomia|aesthetica de autonomia]], que [[Karl Philipp Moritz]] habe formulate in le scripto ''Über die bildende Nachahmung des Schönen'' (1788), deveniva de grande importantia pro Goethe.<ref>Karl Philipp Moritz prende le autonomia tanto pro le obra de arte como pro le artista: «Ille es “primo pro se mesme, solmente post pro nos”». Entry ''Autonomie.'' In: Ulrich Pfisterer (Hrsg.): ''Lexikon Kunstwissenschaft''. Metzler, Stuttgart 2003, S. 31.</ref> Secundo Goethe, iste scripto habe originate ex conversationes inter ille e Moritz in Roma. Illo [[Postulat|postulava]] que le obra de arte non servi alcun fin exterior e que le artista non es serviente de nulle persona,<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 359–361.</ref> sed que ille, como ''creator'', sta al mesme nivello que le creator del universo. In iste aspiration Goethe trovava anque le solution de su [[dilemma]] inter existientia curial e artistic: como creator de beltate litterari, le artista pote esser sustentate per un [[mecenate]] sin servir le fines de ille.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 577 f.</ref> Al contrario de Schiller, ille refusava comprender le obras poetic como construction de ideas. Referente a ''Faust'', ille demandava rhetoricamente qual esserea le resultato, «si io habeva volite disponer un vita tanto ric, colorate e maxime multiforme, qual io ha presentate in le ''Faust'', super le magre filo de un sol idea continue!» A isto corresponde le declaration de Goethe, registrate in le mesme conversation per Eckermann: «plus [[Inkommensurabilität (Wissenschaftstheorie)|incommensurabile]] e incomprehensibile pro le intellecto es un production poetic, tanto melior».<ref name="Insel Verlag 1981">[[Johann Peter Eckermann]]: ''Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens. Gespräch vom 6. Mai 1827'' {{projekt-gutenberg.org |a=johann-peter-eckermann |w=johann-peter-eckermann-gespraeche-mit-goethe |n=999 |x=Gespräche mit Goethe |Wex=eckerman/gesprche/gsp3060 |Tex=Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens. Gespräch vom 6. Mai 1827 |Aex=[[Johann Peter Eckermann]]}}{{PGDW/Migration}} Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1981.</ref> Anque le conception de [[Denis Diderot]], que le arte debe offerer un reproduction fidel del natura, ille rejectava. Ille insisteva sur le distinction inter natura e arte. Secundo ille, le natura «organisa un esser vivente e indifferente, le artista un esser morte, sed significative; le natura un cosa real, le artista un apparentia. In le obras del natura le observator debe primo ipse apportar signification, sentimento, pensamento, effecto e impression super le animo; in le obra de arte ille vole e debe trovar ja tote isto».<ref>Ex le traduction commentate per Goethe de ''Diderots Versuch über die Malerei''. Citato secundo Karl Otto Conrady: ''Goethe. Leben und Werk.'' Neuausgabe in einem Band. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, S. 699.</ref> Al arte, conclude Karl Otto Conrady, es reservate un plus decisive que le distingue del natura. Le artista adde al natura alique que non le pertine.<ref>Karl Otto Conrady: ''Goethe. Leben und Werk.'' Neuausgabe in einem Band. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, S. 699 f.</ref> Schiller, in su scripto ''[[Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung]]'' — un «tractato de typologia poetic» multo importante pro le «autodefinition del classicismo de Weimar»<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik Portrait einer Epoche.'' Aktualisierte Neuausgabe. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, S. 318.</ref> — characterisava Goethe como poeta naive e le poneva in un serie de predecessores con [[Homer]] e [[Shakespeare]]. In le poetas naives Schiller videva un effortio verso le «imitation del real»; lor objecto esseva le mundo create per le poeta mediante le arte. Al contrario, le creation del poeta sentimental esseva autorreflexive e orientate verso le «representation del ideal» del natura perdite.<ref>{{PGDW|schiller/naivsent/chap001|Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung. Die sentimentalischen Dichter|[[Friedrich Schiller]]}}</ref> Goethe, realista e optimista, anque se abstineva de finir su dramas e romances con morte e catastrophe. In un carta a Schiller del 9 decembre 1797 ille dubitava que ille «poterrea scriber un ver tragedia».<ref>Zitate secundo Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Aktualisierte Neuausgabe. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, S. 532.</ref> Su dramas e romances fini generalmente de maniera non tragica, con renunciation, como le romance ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', con le significativo subtitulo ''Die Entsagenden'' («Le renunciantes»). In ''Le Wahlverwandtschaften'', ille formava le thema del renunciation, in le persona de Ottilie, in maniera ascetic e sancte; iste romance ille duceva a un fin tragic.<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Weimarer Klassik. Portrait einer Epoche.'' Aktualisierte Neuausgabe. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, S. 531 f.</ref> Con su expression «[[Weltliteratur|litteratura universal]]», le Goethe del ultime annos opponeva al litteraturas national particular un «litteratura universal», que «non pertine ni al populo ni al nobilitate, ni al rege ni al paisano», sed es «patrimonio commun del humanitate».<ref>Zitate secundo Hendrik Birus: ''Goethes Idee der Weltliteratur. Eine historische Vergegenwärtigung.'' [[http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/birus_weltliteratur.pdf In: Goethezeitportal], S. 3 und 4.</ref> In su production litterari, includente traductiones del principal linguas europee, Goethe demonstrava in maniera impressionante le amplitude de su approcho aesthetico al litteraturas de Europa, del Oriente proxime e lontan e del Antiquitate classic. Le reception del poesia persian e chinese es testificate per le cyclo de poemas ''West-östlicher Divan'' e ''Chinesisch-deutsche Tages- und Jahreszeiten''.<ref>Pro le interesse de Goethe pro le poesia e arte chinese, vide le breve panorama in le parte de commentarios de ''Goethe. Gedichte''. Herausgegeben und kommentiert von [[Erich Trunz]] (Jubiläumsausgabe nach dem Text von Band 1 der Hamburger Ausgabe). C. H. Beck, München 2007, S. 774–776.</ref> Goethe manteneva un correspondentia epistolar con scriptores europee, inter illes le essayista scotese e autor de ''The Life of Schiller'' (1825), [[Thomas Carlyle]], [[George Gordon Byron|Lord Byron]] e le italiano [[Alessandro Manzoni]]. Ille traduceva le memores de [[Benvenuto Cellini]], orfebre del [[Renaissance|Renascentia]], e le dialogo satiric-philosophic de Diderot ''[[Rameaus Neffe]]''. Ille legeva regularmente periodicos estranier, como le revista litterari francese ''Le Globe'', le revista italian de historia cultural ''L’Eco'' e le ''Edinburgh Review''.<ref>Gerhard R. Kaiser: ''Mme de Staël „De l’Allemagne“ und Goethes Überlegungen zur „Weltliteratur“.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 128, 2011, S. 228–250, hier: S. 237 und 239 ([[https://web.archive.org/web/20200715025316/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835323193.pdf PDF-Version])</ref> [[Gerhard R. Kaiser]] suppone que in le declarationes de Goethe super le litteratura universal, le autor de ''De l’Allemagne'' (''Über Deutschland'', 1813), Madame [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|de Staël]], es implicitemente presente, proque su obra accelerava le processo de formation del litteratura universal que occurreva in le epocha de Goethe.<ref>Gerhard R. Kaiser: ''Mme de Staël „De l’Allemagne“ und Goethes Überlegungen zur „Weltliteratur“.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 128, 2011, S. 228–250, hier: S. 237 f. ([[https://web.archive.org/web/20200715025316/https://www.goethe-gesellschaft.de/download/jahrbuch/9783835323193.pdf PDF-Version])</ref> In conversation con Eckermann, ille postulava: {{Citation|Le litteratura national non significa multo hodie; le epocha del litteratura universal ha venite, e cata uno debe ora contribuer a accelerar iste epocha.<ref>Zitate secundo Hendrik Birus: ''Goethes Idee der Weltliteratur. Eine historische Vergegenwärtigung.''[[http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/birus_weltliteratur.pdf In: Goethezeitportal], S. 4.</ref>}} Durante su ultime annos, quando ille vix considerava le litteratura german moderne digne de mention, ille legeva «de Francia [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], [[Stendhal]], [[Victor Hugo|Hugo]], de Anglaterra [[Walter Scott|Scott]] e [[George Gordon Byron|Byron]], e de Italia [[Alessandro Manzoni|Manzoni]]».<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, S. 648.</ref> == Opere == Le obra artistic de Goethe es multiforme. Le loco le plus importante es occupate per su obra litterari. A illo se adjunge le obra graphic, con plus de 3.000 labores lassate, le 26 annos de direction del theatro de Weimar e, non ultimemente, le planification del «[[Casa Roman (Weimar)|Casa Roman]]» in le [[Parco al Ilm]].<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore''. Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Francoforte super le Main 2004, p. 7. Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra d’arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 534.</ref> Su obra es traversate e penetrate per su conceptiones del natura e del religion e per su comprehension aesthetic. === Lyric === {{AP|Lyric de Goethe}} De su juventute usque a su etate senile, Goethe esseva un poeta lyric. Con su poemas ille marcava le epochas litterari del [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e del [[Classicismo de Weimar]]. Un grande parte de su lyric attingeva renom mondial e pertine al parte le plus importante del [[Canone del litteratura|canone lyric]] del [[litteratura de lingua german]]. Durante circa 65 annos ille scribeva plus de 3.000 [[Lyric|poemas]], que appareva in parte independentemente e in parte in [[Ciclo de poemas|cyclos]], como le ''[[Elegias Roman|Elegias Roman]]'', le ''Ciclo de sonettos'', le ''[[Divan occidental-oriental|Divan occidental-oriental]]'' o le ''Trilogia del passion''. Le obra lyric monstra un varietate stupefaciente de formas e de expression e corresponde al extension de su experientia interior. A latere de poemas longe, con plure centos de [[Verso (poesia)|versos]], il ha curte [[Couplet (versification)|coupletos]], a latere de versos de alte complexitate linguistic e [[Metaphora|metaphoric]] il ha proverbios simple, a latere de metros stricte e de imitation antique il ha stropha con character de [[canto]] o derisori, assi como poemas sin [[Rima|rimas]] in [[Rhythmos libere|rhythmos libere]]. Con le totalitate de su obra lyric, Goethe «creava vermente per le prime vice» le poema de lingua german e lassava modelos con le quales quasi tote le poetas posterior se mesurava.<ref>Bernd Witte: ''Preliminar, interpretationes.'' In: Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Poemas.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2005, p. 5.</ref> In su production lyric Goethe faceva su proprie, con virtuositate [[Versification|metric]], tote le formas de iste genere litterari cognoscite del [[Litteratura mundial|litteratura mundial]] ancian e moderne. Su capacitate de expression poetic deveniva pro ille tanto natural «como mangiar e respirar».<ref>John R. Williams: ''Goethe le poeta.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (ed.): ''Le Companion de Cambridge a Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 42.</ref> In le compilation de su poemas, ille rarmente procedeva chronologicamente, sed secundo criterios de [[Coherentia (linguistica)|coherentia thematic]], per le qual le poemas individual se completava reciprocamente, ma poteva etiam contradicer se. Isto pone le investigation goethian, in le publication de su obra lyric in editiones complete critic, ante grande problemas. Un division que se revelava influente e es facilemente accessibile es illo de [[Erich Trunz]] in le ''Edition de Hamburg''.<ref>John R. Williams: ''Goethe le poeta.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (ed.): ''Le Companion de Cambridge a Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, pp. 43 f.</ref> Le duo volumines edite per Trunz es organisate in le prime volumine, ''Poemas e epicos I'', in un ordine facilemente chronologic: ''Poemas juvene'', ''Tempesta e Impetu'', ''Poemas del prime annos del etate viril'', ''Le tempore del classicismo'', ''Obras del etate senile''. Le secunde volumine, ''Poemas e epicos II'', contine le ''Divan occidental-oriental'' e le poemas epic ''Reineke Fuchs'', ''Hermann e Dorothea'' e ''Achilleis''. === Epica === Le obra epic de Goethe comprende, como le dramatic, quasi tote le formas del litteratura epic: le [[Fabula|fabula]] animal ''([[Reineke Fuchs]])'', le [[Epopeia|epopeia]] in versos ''([[Hermann e Dorothea]])'', le [[Novella]] ''([[Novella (Goethe)|Novella]])'', le [[Romanzo]] ''([[Affinitates elective]]'', ''[[Annos de apprendimento de Wilhelm Meister]] e ''[[Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister|Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister]])'' e le [[Romanzo epistolar|romanzo epistolar]] ''([[Le dolores del juvene Werther]])'', le [[Relation de viage|relation de viage]] ''([[Viage italian]])'' e [[Autobiographia|scriptos autobiographic]] ''([[De mi vita. Poesia e veritate|Poesia e veritate]]'', ''[[Campania in Francia]])''. Le prime romanzo de Goethe, ''Le dolores del juvene Werther'', deveniva un del plus grande successos del historia del litteratura german. Le autor usava un forma narrative typic pro le 18e seculo, le [[Romanzo epistolar]]. Ma ille radicalisava iste [[Genere litterari|genere]], perque ille non presentava un intercambio de cartas inter le personas del romanzo, sed scribeva un romanzo epistolar monologic.<ref>Entrata ''Le dolores del juvene Werther.'' In: Frank Rainer Max, Christine Ruhrberg (eds.): ''Lexico de romanzos de Reclam.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2000, p. 335.</ref> In ''Poesia e veritate'' ille confessa que con le romanzo ille usava pro le prime vice su vita in maniera poetic.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra d’arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 152.</ref> Con le representation [[Sensibilitate|sensibile]] de su historia amorose non complite con Charlotte Buff in Wetzlar, ille provocava un ver [[Werther|«moda Werther»]]. On se vestiva como ille (redingote blau, pantalones jalne, botas brun), parlava e scribeva como ille. Il habeva etiam numerose imitatores [[Suicidio|suicidari]], pro le quales le suicidio de Werther serviva de modello (vide [[Effetto Werther]]). Su prime renom europee Goethe lo debeva a iste romanzo, que in 1800 esseva disponibile in le majoritate del linguas europee.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Francoforte super le Main 2004, p. 208.</ref> Mesmo [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]] mentionava iste libro durante le rencontre historic con Goethe le 2 de octobre 1808 in Erfurt.<ref>Gustav Seibt: ''Goethe e Napoleon. Un rencontre historic.'' C. H. Beck, München 2008, pp. 131–135.</ref> Un position central in le obra epic de Goethe es occupate per le romanzos de ''Wilhelm Meister''. Le romanzo ''Annos de apprendimento de Wilhelm Meister'' esseva considerate per le romanticos como un evento epocal e un «[[Paradigma]] del romanzo romantic» (Novalis),<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Classicismo de Weimar. Portrait de un epocha.'' Nove edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 345.</ref> e per le narratores realistas como le «initio del historia del [[Romanzo de formation|romanzo de formation]] e del [[Romanzo de evolution|romanzo de evolution]]» in le area de lingua german.<ref>Entrata ''Annos de apprendimento de Wilhelm Meister.'' In: Frank Rainer Max, Christine Ruhrberg (eds.): ''Lexico de romanzos de Reclam.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2000, p. 339.</ref> Specialmente pro narratores realistas como [[Karl Immermann]], [[Gottfried Keller]] e [[Adalbert Stifter]], e plus tarde etiam [[Wilhelm Raabe]] e [[Theodor Fontane]], illo serviva como paradigma pro le reproduction poetic del realitate real.<ref name="Gerhard Hoffmeister 2002">Gerhard Hoffmeister: ''Reception in Germania e al exterior.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (ed.): ''Le Companion de Cambridge a Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, p. 238.</ref> In contrasto, le obra tarde ''Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister'' appare, per su forma aperte, con le tendentia a renunciar al instancia de contento de un heroe central e de un narrator omnisciente, como un «obra d’arte altemente moderne», que offere al lector «un multitude de possibilitates de [[Reception (arte)|reception]]».<ref>Entrata ''Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister.'' In: Frank Rainer Max, Christine Ruhrberg (eds.): ''Lexico de romanzos de Reclam.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2000, p. 346.</ref> Le precursor ''[[Mission theatral de Wilhelm Meister]]'', publicate solmente post mortem (1911) — un fragmentari «Urmeister» — es ancora plus proxime, quanto al contento, al [[Tempesta e Impetu]] e es classificate formalmente in le genere del romanzo theatral e del [[Romanzo de artista|romanzo de artista]].<ref>Entrata ''Mission theatral de Wilhelm Meister.'' In: Frank Rainer Max, Christine Ruhrberg (eds.): ''Lexico de romanzos de Reclam.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2000, pp. 335 f.</ref> Le romanticos habeva ja recipite ''Annos de apprendimento de Wilhelm Meister'' sub iste [[Genere litterari|genere]].<ref name="Gerhard Hoffmeister 2002" /> Le ''Affinitates elective'' esseva designate per Goethe, in un conversation, como su «melior libro».<ref>Transmitte per [[Heinrich Laube]], hic citate secundo: Walter Benjamin: ''Le affinitates elective de Goethe.'' In: Idem: ''Illuminationes. Scriptos seligite.'' Edition de tasca. Suhrkamp, Francoforte super le Main 1977, p. 101.</ref> In un sorta de arrangiamento experimental, ille reuni duo pares, cuje destino legate al natura ille forma secundo le modello de fortias chimic de attraction e repulsion, applicante lor regularitate al relationes inter le duo pares. Un [[Ambivalentia|ambivalentia]] de formas de vita moral e de passiones enigmatic determina le action del romanzo. Le romanzo rememora le prime romanzo de Goethe, le ''Werther'', principalmente per le «exigentia amorose absolute, mesmo sin consideration» de un del personas principal (Eduard), «in contrasto con le renunciation autocontrolate» del altere.<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Classicismo de Weimar. Portrait de un epocha.'' Edition actualisate. Beltz Athenäum, Weinheim 1998, p. 529.</ref> [[Thomas Mann]] lo considerava «le obra ideal de Goethe»,<ref>Thomas Mann: ''A proposito del Affinitates elective de Goethe.'' In: Idem: ''Scriptos e discursos super litteratura, arte e philosophia.'' Prime volumine. Fischer, München 1968, p. 243.</ref> le sol producto de grande extension que Goethe, secundo su proprie testimonio, habeva «elaborate secundo le representation de un idea dominante».<ref name="Insel Verlag 1981" /> Le obra aperiva le serie de romanzos europee super le matrimonio e le [[Adulterio|adulterio]]: le ''[[Madame Bovary]]'' de Flaubert, le ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' de Tolstoj, le ''[[Effi Briest]]'' de Fontane. Illo esseva criticate como immoral, ben que le autor face compler le adulterio solmente in le pensamento. Le ''Viage italian'' esseva publicate per Goethe decennios post su viage. Illo non es un libro de viage in le senso usual, sed un representation de se mesme in le incontro con le sud, un parte de autobiographia. In su prime impression illo appareva in 1816–1817 como «Secunde parte» de su autobiographia ''De mi vita'', cuje «Prime parte» contineva ''Poesia e veritate''. Como base Goethe usava su diario de viage italian, inviate a [[Charlotte von Stein]] in series irregular, e le cartas de ille tempore a illa e a Herder. Solmente in 1829 le obra appareva sub le titulo ''Viage italian'' con un secunde parte: «Secunde residentia roman». Ibi cartas original redigite alterna con reportos scribite plus tarde.<ref>''Postface'' a Goethe: ''Viage italian'' (edition jubilar secundo le texto del volumine 11 del edition de Hamburg). C. H. Beck, München 2007, pp. 574–578.</ref> Con ''[[De mi vita. Poesia e veritate|Poesia e veritate]]'' Goethe in le prime decennio del 19e seculo incipeva le redaction de un grande autobiographia. Su conception original esseva un historia de formation del poeta stilisate como metamorphose. Durante le labor super le tertie parte, ille entrava in un crise con iste modello interpretative; ille lo substitueva per le categoria del «Demonic», con le qual ille cercava apprehender le aspecto incontrollabile de un connexion superpotente del natura e del historia.<ref>Entrata: ''De mi vita. Poesia e veritate.'' In: Frank Rainer Max, Christine Ruhrberg (eds.): ''Lexico de romanzos de Reclam.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2000, p. 343.</ref> Le representation non ultrapassava le description del infantia, juventute, studios e prime successos litterari. === Dramatic === Desde su juventute usque a su ultime annos Goethe scribeva plus de vinti [[Drama|drammas]], inter le quales ''[[Götz von Berlichingen (Goethe)|Götz von Berlichingen]]'', ''[[Clavigo]]'', ''[[Egmont (Goethe)|Egmont]]'', ''[[Stella (Goethe)|Stella]]'', ''[[Iphigenia in Tauride]]'', ''[[Torquato Tasso (Goethe)|Torquato Tasso]]'' e specialmente le duo partes de ''[[Faust. Un tragedia|Faust]]'' pertine ancora hodie al [[Repertorio|repertorio]] classic del theatros german. Ben que su obras theatral comprende tote le extension del formas theatral — [[Pastoralia|joco pastoral]], [[Farça (theatro)|farça]], [[Farsa|farsa]], [[Comedia]], drama [[Heroe|heroic]], [[Tragedia|tragedia]] — le drammas e tragedias classic tamen constitue le centro de su production dramatic. Tres de su obras theatral deveniva pivotes del litteratura dramatic german. Con le drama del Tempesta e Impetu ''Götz von Berlichingen con le mano de ferro'', Goethe obteneva su successo como dramaturgo; illo lo rendeva celebre de un die al altere.<ref>''Nove Lexico litterari de Kindler.'' Volumine 6, p. 472.</ref> Contemporaneos videva in illo «aliquid del spirito de Shakespeare», e mesmo in Goethe le «Shakespeare german».<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Francoforte super le Main 2004, p. 175.</ref> Ultra le «[[Saluto svebe|citation de Götz]]», etiam le exclamation «Es un voluptuositate vider un grande homine», referite al persona principal, entrava in le vocabulario proverbial del germanos. Un altere drama historic, ''[[Egmont (Goethe)|Egmont]]'', es equalmente organisate circa un character dominante singular, anque ille in un function representative del autor, qui considerava su obras como «fragmentos de un grande confession».<ref>David V. Pugh: ''Goethe le dramaturgo.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (ed.): ''Le Companion de Cambridge a Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, ISBN 0-521-66560-4, p. 66.</ref> Le drama ''[[Iphigenia in Tauride]]'' es considerate exemplar pro le [[Classicismo (litteratura)|classicismo]] de Goethe. Goethe mesme lo qualificava, in un conversation con Schiller, como «completemente diabolicamente human».<ref>''Correspondentia inter Schiller e Goethe – Secunde volumine. Goethe a Schiller, 19 de januario 1802'' {{projekt-gutenberg.org |a=johann-wolfgang-von-goethe |w=briefwechsel-zwischen-schiller-und-goethe-zweiter-band |n=999 |x=Correspondentia inter Schiller e Goethe. 2e volumine |Wex=goethe/brschil2/chap005 |Tex=Correspondentia inter Schiller e Goethe – Secunde volumine. Goethe a Schiller, 19 de januario 1802}}{{PGDW/Migration}}</ref> [[Friedrich Gundolf]] videva in illo mesmo le «Evangelio del humanitate german in senso absolute».<ref>[[Friedrich Gundolf]]: ''Goethe''. Bondi, Berlin 1918, p. 318.</ref> Le version original in prosa esseva transformate in le version definitive (1787), como ''[[Torquato Tasso (Goethe)|Torquato Tasso]]'', completate al mesme tempore e designate como le «prime drama pur de artista del litteratura mundial»,<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Commentario'' a Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Drammas 1776–1790.'' Edition de Frankfurt, prime section, volumine 5, Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Francoforte super le Main 1988, p. 1416.</ref> in versos blanc. Le tragedia ''Faust'', super le qual Goethe laborava durante plus de sexanta annos, es designate per le [[Albrecht Schöne|experto de Faust]] e editor del volumine con le poemas de ''Faust'' in le edition de Frankfurt, [[Albrecht Schöne]], como le «summa de su arte poetic».<ref>[[Albrecht Schöne]]: ''Preliminarios a le poesia de Faust de Goethe.'' In: Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Faust. Commentarios.'' Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1999, p. 11.</ref> Con ''Faust'' Goethe repriseva un [[Materia de Faust|materia de Faust]] del Renaissance super le [[Hybris]] del homine e lo accentuava verso le question de si le aspiration al cognoscentia pote esser reconciliate con le desiro de felicitate.<ref>[[Hans Robert Jauß]]: ''Experientia aesthetic e hermeneutica litterari.'' Suhrkamp, Francoforte super le Main 1991, ISBN 3-518-28555-6, pp. 513 f.</ref> [[Heinrich Heine]] nominava le drama de ''Faust'' «le biblia secular del germanos».<ref>Heinrich Heine: ''Obras complete. Volumine III'': ''Scriptos super litteratura e politica I.'' Con annotationes de Uwe Scheikert. 2a edition. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1992, p. 299.</ref> Le philosopho [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] laudava le drama como le «tragedia philosophic absolute», in le qual «de un latere le insatisfaction in le scientia, del altere le vitalitate del vita del mundo e del jouissance terren […] da un extension del contento tal qual in un mesme obra […] nulle altere poeta dramatic habeva osate antea».<ref>Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: ''Aesthetic.'' Volumine II. Aufbau, Berlin 1955, p. 574.</ref> Post le [[Fundation del Imperio German|fundation del Imperio German]], Faust esseva elevate al rango de «mytho national», de «[[Incarnation]] del essentia german e del conscientia de mission german».<ref>Albrecht Schöne: ''Preliminarios a le poesia de Faust de Goethe.'' In: Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Faust. Commentarios.'' Deutscher Klassiker-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1999, pp. 37 f.</ref> Interpretationes plus recente reduse le optimismo interpretative traditional del «Faustian» con su figura exemplar del impetu infatigabile verso le perfection e indica in vice isto le «prohibition del reposo» e le «compulsion al movimento» del character moderne del «Faust Global Player».<ref>Exemplarmente: Michael Jaeger: ''Faust Global Player o le disparition del presente. Super le actualitate de Goethe.'' 2a edition. Siedler, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-937989-34-1.</ref> Le theoria del theatro de [[Johann Christoph Gottsched]], fixate super le [[Drama regulate|drama francese]] (principalmente illo de [[Pierre Corneille]] e [[Jean Racine|Jean Baptiste Racine]]), esseva rejectate per Goethe, como ja ante ille per [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]. Post que Herder lo habeva familiarisate in Strasbourg con le drammas de Shakespeare, al Stürmer e Dränger que ille esseva, le unitate de loco, action e tempore exigite per Gottsched secundo [[Aristotele]] appareva «ansiosamente carcereal» e «cadenas molestissime pro nostre imagination».<ref>Citate secundo Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra d’arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 99. Vide le original: Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Pro le die de Shakespeare'', [[s:Pro le die de Shakespeare|online a Wikisource]].</ref> Con le narration de Götz von Berlichingen super su vita, un materia le cadeva in le manos que, como «materia [[Nationalismo german|german-national]] […] correspondeva al materia anglo-national de Shakespeare».<ref>Otto Mann: ''Historia del drama german'' (= ''[[Edition de tasca de Kröner]].'' Volumine 296). Kröner, Stuttgart 1960, {{DNB|453202950}}, p. 205.</ref> Le forma dramatic aperte eligite in ''Götz'' Goethe tamen osava usar ancora solmente in ''Faust''.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Francoforte super le Main 2004, p. 144.</ref> Secundo Albrecht Schöne, le drama ja in su prime parte «sortiva del ordinari articulos dramatic» del «regulas traditional aristotelic de unitate»; in le secunde parte le «signos de dissolution» esseva «impossibile de non vider».<ref>Albrecht Schöne: ''Preliminarios a le poesia de Faust de Goethe.'' In: Johann Wolfgang Goethe: ''Faust. Commentarios.'' Deutscher Klassiker-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1999, p. 44.</ref> Le drammas posterior al ''Götz'' se approximava — sub le influentia de Lessing — al drama burgese ''([[Stella (Goethe)|Stella]], [[Clavigo]])'' e al formas classic, le ultime le plus evidentemente in ''Iphigenia'', ubi le unitate del loco (bosco ante le templo de Diana) e del tempore es preservate.<ref>Otto Mann: ''Historia del drama german.'' Kröner, Stuttgart 1960, pp. 211 e 225.</ref> === Scriptos super arte e litteratura === Comenciante con su obras juvenil, Goethe se exprimeva durante tote su vita super questiones de arte e litteratura. Al initio esseva duo «prosahymnos» del prime annos del decennio 1770: le ''Discurso al die de Shakespeare'' (1771) e le hymno al cathedral de Strasbourg e a su constructor [[Erwin von Steinbach]] con le scripto ''[[De le architectura german|De architectura german]]'' (1772).<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Francoforte super le Main 2004, p. 143.</ref> In su etate senile ille scribeva un appreciation detaliate del pictura de [[Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo]], ''Le Cena'' (1818),<ref>''Joseph Bossi super le Cena de Leonardo da Vinci a Milano''. In: ''Super arte e antiquitate.'' Prime volumine, tertie quaderno, martio 1818.</ref> in le qual ille negligebat le character sacramental del obra e monstrava in illo, como exemplo, le autonomia artistic con su proprie legalitate interior.<ref>Entrata ''Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)''. In: Andreas Beyer, Ernst Osterkamp (eds.): ''Manual de Goethe''. Supplementos, volumine 3: ''Arte''. Metzler, Stuttgart 2011, pp. 509–511, hic 510.</ref> Inter iste obras se trovava numerose labores super theoria del arte e del litteratura, como le essayo ''Super Laocoon'', publicate in 1798 in le prime volumine de su revista ''[[Propileos (revista)|Propileos]]'', e le traduction del autobiographia del artista italian del [[Renaissance]], ''Vita de Benvenuto Cellini'' (1803), insimul con le obra collective ''Winckelmann e su seculo. In cartas e essayos'' (1805), edite per ille e continente su esquissos super le persona e le obra de Winckelmann, assi como numerose essayos super le litteratura europee e extraeuropee, que confirmava le conception de Goethe de un [[Litteratura mundial|litteratura mundial]] emergente. === Cartas === Secundo le judicio de Nicholas Boyle, Goethe esseva «un del plus grande scriptores de cartas del mundo»; le carta esseva pro ille le «forma litterari le plus natural». Circa 12.000 cartas de ille e 20.000 a ille se ha conservate.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Francoforte super le Main 2004, pp. 7, 108.</ref> Solmente le importante correspondentia inter Goethe e Schiller comprende 1015 cartas conservate.<ref>Fundation Classic de Weimar: [http://www.klassik-stiftung.de/forschung/digitale-dokumente/digitalisierte-bestaende/goethe-schiller-briefwechsel/ Correspondentia Goethe-Schiller]</ref> Circa un millia e cinquecentos cartas esseva dirigite per ille a Charlotte von Stein.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra d’arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 203.</ref> === Designos === [[File:Goethe, Die Solfatara von Pozzuoli, 1787.jpg|thumb|''Le [[Solfatara]] de [[Pozzuoli]],'' [[Lavatura|designo a tinta lavate]] per [[Pictura a tinta|tinta]] de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, 1787]] Durante tote su vita Goethe designava, «preferentemente con [[Crayon|graphite]], carbon, craie e tinta colorate», e il ha etiam alcun [[Acquaforte|acquafortes]] juvenile conservate.<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Le poeta in su tempore.'' Volumine I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Francoforte super le Main 2004, pp. 84 f.</ref> Su subjectos preferite esseva retratos de capites, scenas theatral e paisages. Centos de designos nasceva durante su prime viage in [[Suissa]] con le [[Stolberg (familia nobiliar)|fratres Stolberg]] in 1775 e durante su viage italian de 1786–1788. In Roma su colleghas artistas le inseniava le pictura e designo in perspectiva e le motivava a studiar le anatomia human. Assi ille acquireva cognoscentias de anatomia presso le famose chirurgo [[Johann Friedrich Lobstein (medico, 1736)|Lobstein]].<ref>Volker Hesse: [https://www.aerzteblatt.de/archiv/12756/Auxiologie-und-Anatomie-bei-Goethe-Groesser-als-die-Zeitgenossen ''Auxiologia e anatomia presso Goethe: plus grande que su contemporaneos.''] In: ''Deutsches Ärzteblatt.'' Volumine 95, quaderno 34–35, 1998, p. A 2038 (B 1725, C 1621).</ref> Tamen, in isto campo, ille recognosceva tamben su limites.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe. Obra d’arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 339.</ref> === Scriptos scientifico-natural === [[File:Goethe Ginkgo Biloba.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Ginkgo#In der Literatur|Ginkgo biloba]];'' Goethe preparava de iste poema — con le addition de duo folios siccate de ginkgo — un version fair copiate separate in 1815; prime version sub [[Gingo biloba]]]] [[File:Goethe, Farbenkreis zur Symbolisierung des menschlichen Geistes- und Seelenlebens, 1809.jpg|thumb|upright|''Circulo de colores pro le symbolisation del vita del spirito e del anima human,'' designo a penna aquarellate de Goethe, 1809]] Le medio de Goethe pro cognoscer le natura esseva le observation; ille se monstrava diffidente verso instrumentos como le [[Microscopio|microscopio]]: {{Citation|Le homine in se mesme, in tanto que ille usa su sensos san, es le apparato physic le plus grande e le plus exacte que pote exister; e isto es precisemente le major mal del physica moderne, que on ha quasi separate le experimentos del homine e vole cognoscer le natura solmente in lo que monstra le instrumentos artificial, e mesmo restringer e provar per illos lo que le natura pote facer.|Johann Wolfgang Goethe, ''Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister.''<ref>''Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister'' {{projekt-gutenberg.org |a=johann-wolfgang-von-goethe |w=johann-wolfgang-goethe-wilhelm-meisters-wanderjahre |n=999 |x=Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister |Wex=goethe/meisterw/mstw401b |Tex=Annos de peregrination de Wilhelm Meister}}{{PGDW/Migration}}</ref>}} Il aspirava a cognoscer le natura in su connexion total, includente le homine. Le abstraction, que le scientia comenciava tunc a usar, Goethe considerava con diffidentia propter le isolation del objectos ab le observator que illo implicava. Su methodo tamen non es compatibile con le moderne scientia natural exacte: {{" |ille […] non ha ultrapassate le dominio del impression immediatemente sensorial e del intuition immediatemente spiritual in direction de un legalitate abstracte, mathematicamente verificabile e insensibile, |Autor=[[Karl Robert Mandelkow]] |ref=<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Germania: historia del reception de un classic.'' Volumine 1: ''1773–1918''. C. H. Beck, München 1980, ISBN 3-406-07907-5, p. 183 (Hermann von Helmholtz: ''Super le labores scientifico-natural de Goethe'').</ref>}} constatava le physico [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] in 1853. Le occupation de Goethe con le scientia natural entrava frequentemente in su poesia, per exemplo in ''Faust'' e in le poemas ''Le metamorphose del plantas'' e ''[[Gingo biloba]]''. Le ''Faust'', que occupava Goethe durante tote su vita, registra pro le philosopho [[Alfred Schmidt (philosopho)|Alfred Schmidt]] «le succession de stratos petrose, le stades de su cognoscentia del natura».<ref name="Alfred Schmidt 1998" /> Goethe imaginava le natura vivente como essente in transformation constante. Assi, in le [[Botanica|botanica]], ille tentava primo reducer le differente species de plantas a un forma fundamental commun, le «[[Planta primordial|planta primordial]]», ex le qual tote le species se haberea developpate. Plus tarde ille dirigeva su attention al planta individual e credeva recognoscer que le partes del flor e le fructo es in ultime analyse folios transformate. Ille publicava le resultatos de su observationes in le scripto ''[[Essay pro explicar le metamorphose del plantas]]'' (1790).<ref>''Essay pro explicar le metamorphose del plantas'' {{projekt-gutenberg.org |a=johann-wolfgang-von-goethe |w=der-versuch-die-metamorphose-der-pflanzen-zu-erklaeren |x=Le essay pro explicar le metamorphose del plantas |Wex=goethe/metamorp/metamorp |Tex=Essay pro explicar le metamorphose del plantas}}{{PGDW/Migration}} ISBN 3-927795-32-1.</ref> In le [[Anatomia|anatomia]], Goethe, in 1784 e insimul con le professor de anatomia [[Justus Christian Loder]], per su grande gaudio faceva le (supposite) discoperta del [[Os intermaxillar|os intermaxillar]] presso le [[Embryo|embrion]] human.<ref>Klaus Seehafer: ''Mi vita, un sol aventura. Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Biographia.'' Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 1998, p. 180.</ref> Le os intermaxillar, cognoscite al epocha presso altere mammiferos, se fusiona presso le homine ante le nascentia con le ossos adjacente del maxilla superior. Su existentia presso le homine esseva negate per le majoritate del anatomistas de ille tempore. Ma ja quatro annos ante le observation de Goethe, le anatomista francese [[Félix Vicq d’Azyr]] habeva reportate ante le [[Académie des sciences|Académie Royale des Sciences]] super su existentia in un [[Feto|feto]] human.<ref>Manfred Wenzel, Mihaela Zaharia: ''1776, 1781–1788: <span style="font-family:serif;">Contribution al historia natural pro le Fragmentos physiognomic de Lavater</span> – <span style="font-family:serif;">Essay del osteologia comparative que le os intermaxillar del maxilla superior es commun al homine e al altere animales</span> – Labor super le os intermaxillar – Studios in Italia: evolution e epigenese.'' In: Manfred Wenzel (ed.): ''Manual de Goethe. Supplementos.'' Volumine 2: ''Scientias natural.'' Metzler, Stuttgart/Weimar 2012, ISBN 978-3-476-01983-7, pp. 10–18, hic p. 11.</ref> Su demonstration presso le homine esseva considerate al epocha un indicio importante de su parentela — negate per multe scientistas — con le animales.<ref>Rüdiger Safranski: ''Goethe – Obra d’arte del vita. Biographia.'' Hanser, München 2013, p. 299.</ref> Su ''[[Theoria del colores (Goethe)|Theoria del colores]]'' (publicate in 1810) Goethe considerava como su obra principal de scientia natural e defendava tenacemente le theses que illo contineva contra numerose criticos. In su etate senile ille declarava que ille estimava le valor de iste obra plus alte que illo de su poesia. Con le ''Theoria del colores'' Goethe se opponeva a illo de [[Isaac Newton]], qui habeva demonstrate que le lumine blanc es componite de [[Color spectral|lumines de differente colores]]. Goethe, in vice, credeva poter concluder ex su proprie observationes «que le lumine es un unitate indivisibile e que le colores nasce del interaction inter clar e obscur, lumine e tenebras, e isto per le mediation de un medio “turbide”». Assi, per exemplo, le sol appare rubie quando un strato turbid de nebula se expande ante illo e lo obscura.<ref>Karl Otto Conrady: ''Goethe. Vita e obra.'' Nove edition in un sol volumine. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994, p. 841.</ref> Ja in le tempore de Goethe on recognosceva tamen que iste phenomenos pote tamben esser explicate per le theoria de Newton. Le ''Theoria del colores'' esseva ja tosto rejectate in su nucleo per le mundo specialisate, ma exerceva un grande influentia super le pictores contemporanee e posterior, specialmente [[Philipp Otto Runge]]. In plus, Goethe se revelava assi como un «pionero del [[Psychologia del colores|psychologia scientific del colores]]». Hodie on concede «in parte ration e in parte torto tanto a Newton como a Goethe»; ambes investigadores es «exemplos de typos differente de labor experimental intra le systema del scientia natural moderne».<ref>Helga W. Kraft: ''Le theoria del colores de Goethe e ''Le conto''. Magia o scientia del colores?'' In: Monika Schausten (ed.): ''Le colores de mundos imaginabile. Pro un historia cultural de lor codification in le litteratura e le arte ab le Medievo usque al presente.'' Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-05-005081-2, p. 92.</ref> In le [[Geologia|geologia]], Goethe se occupava principalmente del construction de un collection de [[Mineral|minerales]], que al momento de su morte habeva crescite a 17.800 petras. Per le cognoscentia individual del typos de rocca ille voleva obtener comprehensiones general super le composition material del Terra e le historia del Terra. Ille sequeva con grande interesse le nove cognoscentias del [[Chemia|investigation chimic]]. In le quadro de su responsabilitate pro le Universitate de Jena, ille fundava le prime catedra de chemia in un institution de alte education german. === Transcriptiones de conversationes === Pro le [[Studios goethian|studios goethian]] es de grande importantia le extensive transcriptiones de [[Johann Peter Eckermann]] in ''Conversationes con Goethe durante le ultime annos de su vita'',<ref>Johann Peter Eckermann: ''Conversationes con Goethe. Texto e commentario.'' Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, Francoforte super le Main 1999. Edition de tasca 2011, ISBN 978-3-618-68050-5.</ref> le ''Conversationes de Goethe con le cancellero [[Friedrich von Müller (politico)|Friedrich von Müller]]''<ref>Friedrich von Müller: ''Conversationes con Goethe.'' C. H. Beck, München 1982, ISBN 3-406-08497-4.</ref> e le ''Communicationes super Goethe'' de [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer]],<ref>Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer: ''Communicationes super Goethe.'' 2 volumines. 1841. [https://archive.org/details/mitteilungenbe00riem Communicationes super Goethe; edite per Arthur Pollmer (1921) sur le base del edition de 1841 e del hereditate manuscripte]</ref> que es de grande importantia pro le comprehension del obra e del personalitate de Goethe. Le transcriptiones publicate per Eckermann post le morte de Goethe in duo partes in 1836 e un tertie parte in 1848 comprende le periodo 1823–1832. Le cancellero von Müller, qui esseva amico de Goethe e que ille habeva designate como su executor testamentari, redigeva in 1808 le prime ''Conversation con Goethe''. Durante le annos sequente sequeva altere reportos de conversationes, primo in su diario e postea elaborate sur folios separate. Duo discursos commemorative super Goethe, publicate ja durante su vita in 1832, monstrava le ricchessa de su notas goethian,<ref>{{NDB|18|375|377|Müller, Friedrich von (Adel 1807)|Renate Grumach|117580104}}</ref> que tamen esseva publicate collectemente solmente in 1870 post mortem, ex su hereditate.<ref>''Conversationes de Goethe con le cancellero Friedrich von Müller.'' Edite per C. A. H. Burckhardt. Cotta, Stuttgart 1870 ([http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb11001483_00001.html digitalisat]).</ref> Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer, universalista del linguas e bibliothecario in Weimar, esseva al servicio de Goethe durante tres decennios, primo como tutor domestic de su filio August, postea como scriptor e secretario. Immediatemente post le morte de Goethe ille publicava su correspondentia con Zelter e participava al grande editiones del obras. Su ''Communicationes'' appareva pro le prime vice in 1841 in duo volumines. === Traductiones === Goethe esseva un traductor assiduo e versatile. Ille transfereva obras del francese ([[Voltaire]], [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]], [[Jean Racine]], [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|de Staël]]), del anglese ([[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[James Macpherson|Macpherson]], [[George Gordon Byron|Lord Byron]]), del italiano ([[Benvenuto Cellini]], [[Alessandro Manzoni|Manzoni]]), del espaniol ([[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]]) e del grec ancian ([[Pindaro|Pindar]], [[Homero]], [[Sophocles]], [[Euripides]]). Ille traduceva de novo etiam del Biblia le [[Cantico del canticos|Cantico del Canticos]] de [[Salomon]].<ref>[http://www.deutsche-liebeslyrik.de/lied/h_l_goethe_1775.htm ''Le Cantico del Canticos de Salomon.'' In le traduction de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe].</ref> {{AP|Lista del traductiones de Goethe}} == Reception == [[File:MK38275 Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Goethe-Schiller-Denkmal]] in Weimar]] Goethe es considerate un autor «que quasi como nulle altere ha influentiate in tote le campos del vita in tote le mundo e ha lassate su marcas formante».<ref>[[Karl Robert Mandelkow]]: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, ISBN 3-406-07907-5, S. 11.</ref> === Reception durante su vita in le pais e al exterior === Con ''Götz von Berlichingen'' (prime impression 1773, prime representation 1774), Goethe obteneva un successo fulminante apud le publico literariemente cultivate ja ante le prime representation al [[Döbbelinsches Theater|Berliner Comödienhaus]]. Pro Nicholas Boyle, ille esseva «a partir de iste momento e durante le resto de su longe vita un figura public, e multo tosto on videva in ille le representante plus eminente de un movimento»,<ref>Nicholas Boyle: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 176.</ref> que in le 19e seculo esseva appellate ''Sturm und Drang''. Goethe attingeva le culmine de su popularitate a etate de 25 annos con le roman ''Werther''. Le obra attingeva lectores de tote le strata social e provocava un large debatte, pois que illo tractava «problemas religiose, philosophic e socio-politic central», que poneva in question le «principios del ordine de vita burgese».<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland. Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 41.</ref> Le historiographos german del litteratura divide generalmente le poesia de Goethe in tres periodos: ''Sturm und Drang'', ''Classicismo de Weimar'' e obra del senectute, durante que, foras de Germania, le «epocha de Goethe» es considerate como un unitate e como parte del «epocha del [[Romantik|romanticismo]] europee».<ref name="Hoffmeister233">Gerhard Hoffmeister: ''Reception in Germany and abroad.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, S. 233.</ref> Como opponent del poesia romantic, Goethe esseva e es considerate per le critica litterari german; su parola «Classic es le san, romantic le malade»<ref>Wolfgang von Goethe, ''Maximen und Reflexionen: Über Literatur und Leben.'' [[http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Aphorismen+und+Aufzeichnungen/Maximen+und+Reflexionen/Aus+dem+Nachla%C3%9F/%C3%9Cber+Literatur+und+Leben](http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Aphorismen+und+Aufzeichnungen/Maximen+und+Reflexionen/Aus+dem+Nachla%C3%9F/%C3%9Cber+Literatur+und+Leben) zeno.org] (abgerufen am 20. Januar 2015)</ref> es un del citationes le plus frequentemente reproducite. Iste perspectiva generalisante tamen negligencia le opposition e conduce al imagine de un periodo classic-romantic, de [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock|Klopstock]] a [[Heinrich Heine]], in le qual Goethe habe habite le rol importante de romper le conventional classic de origine francese per medio de ideas romantic e practicas poetic innovative.<ref name="Hoffmeister233" /> Le perception que le romanticos german contemporanee habeva de Goethe esseva ambivalente. De un latere, ille esseva le «foco intellectual»<ref>Gerhard Hoffmeister: ''Reception in Germany and abroad.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, S. 237.</ref> del romanticos de Jena, qui le glorificava como «le ver representante del spirito poetic sur le terra» ([[Novalis]]) e su poesia como «le aurora de arte authentic e de belle derein» ([[Friedrich Schlegel]]).<ref>Citate secundo Dieter Borchmeyer: ''Goethe (1749–1832).'' In: [[http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/borchmeyer_goethe.pdf](http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/borchmeyer_goethe.pdf) ''Goethezeitportal.''] Eingestellt am 15. Dezember 2003.</ref> Con lor concepto de ''[[Universalpoesie|poesia universal]]'', illes anticipava le notion de ''[[litteratura universal|litteratura del mundo]]'' de Goethe. Del altere latere, post lor conversion al catolicismo, illes criticava le roman ''Wilhelm Meister'', que antea habeva essite laudate, como «atheismo artistic» (Novalis), e Goethe como «Voltaire german» (Friedrich Schlegel).<ref>Gerhard Hoffmeister: ''Reception in Germany and abroad.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, S. 236.</ref> Heinrich Heine, equalmente ambivalente ma in un altere maniera, appreciava le personalitate e le poesia de Goethe in su scripto ''[[Die romantische Schule|Le schola romantic]]'': de un latere ille celebrava le como Olympian e «poeta absolute», al qual tote lo que ille scribeva deveniva un «obra de arte complete», comparabile solmente a [[Homer]] e Shakespeare; ma del altere latere ille criticava su indifferentia politic concernente le evolution del populo german.<ref>Heinrich Heine: ''Sämtliche Werke. Band III'': ''Schriften zur Literatur und Politik I.'' Mit Anmerkungen von Uwe Scheikert. 2. Auflage. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1992, S. 294 und 298. Siehe auch Gerhard Hoffmeister: ''Reception in Germany and abroad.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, S. 236 f.</ref> Con su libro ''De l’Allemagne'' ''([[Über Deutschland|Super Germania]])'', publicate in 1813, [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|Madame de Staël]] faceva cognoscer le cultura e le litteratura german a Francia e, in consequentia, anque a Anglaterra e Italia. In iste libro, recipite in tote Europa, illa caracterisava le litteratura german contemporanee como un arte romantic con Weimar como centro e Goethe como figura exemplar,<ref>Gerhard Hoffmeister: ''Reception in Germany and abroad.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, S. 244.</ref> e mesmo como le «maxime poeta german».<ref>Gerhard R. Kaiser: ''Mme de Staël „De l’Allemagne“ und Goethes Überlegungen zur „Weltliteratur“.'' In: ''Goethe-Jahrbuch.'' Band 128, 2011, S. 235.</ref> Solmente postea Weimar deveniva, anque ultra le frontieras german, le symbolo del litteratura german, e «solmente postea le peregrinationes de intellectuales de tote Europa verso le Frauenplan comenciava; solmente postea habeva loco le processos de intercambio international associate con nomines como [[Alessandro Manzoni|Manzoni]], [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]] o [[Walter Scott]]».<ref>Olaf Müller: ''Madame de Staël und Weimar. Europäische Dimensionen einer Begegnung.'' In: Hellmut Th. Seemann (Hrsg.): ''Europa in Weimar. Visionen eines Kontinents.'' Jahrbuch der Klassik Stiftung Weimar 2008, S. 296.</ref> Verso le fin de su vita, Goethe se sentiva minus acceptate per su contemporaneos german que per le contemporaneos estranier con qui ille habeva entrate in intercambio e qui publicava articulos super su obras.<ref>Gerhard Hoffmeister: ''Reception in Germany and abroad.'' In: Lesley Sharpe (Hrsg.): ''The Cambridge Companion to Goethe.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, S. 232.</ref> === Transformation del imagine de Goethe === Post le morte del poeta e usque al fundation del Reich, le philologia academic de Goethe parlava de «un epocha de distantia e hostilitate verso Goethe» e appellava su centesime anniversario de nascentia le «puncto le plus basse de su reputation in le nation». In facto, inter 1832 e 1871 «nulle biographia de Goethe de valor durabile» esseva publicate.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 85.</ref> Ma, como rapporte Mandelkow, iste periodo del historia del effecto de Goethe formava un «campo de tension inter negation e [[apotheose]]». Le amicos del arte de Weimar e le collaboratores de Goethe — le tres administratores testamentari de su succession (Eckermann, [[Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer|Riemer]], cancellero [[Friedrich von Müller (Politiker)|Friedrich Müller]]) e alteres del circulo proxime — fundava justo post le morte de Goethe le prime «Societate Goethe» e poneva con lor editiones e documentationes del succession «le prime fundamento de un philologia de Goethe».<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 88 f.</ref> Contra iste veneration de Goethe se poneva le appropriation critic de Goethe per Heinrich Heine e [[Ludwig Börne]]. Ambes criticava su «comfort artistic», orientate verso tranquillitate e ordine, in un epocha de [[Restauration (Geschichte)|restauration]] politic; ma, in opposition fundamental a Börne, le amarul «hater de Goethe», Heine appreciava le poesia de Goethe como le plus alte. Pro le [[Junges Deutschland (Literatur)|Jovene Germania]], Goethe remaneva in le umbra de Schiller, cuje tendentias revolutionari correspondeva melio al tempore del [[Vormärz]] que le attitude politic conservator de Goethe.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 104 f., 110 ff.</ref> Anque un opposition christian, tanto catholic como protestante, se formava contra le vita e obra de Goethe, con specialmente ''Wahlverwandtschaften'' e ''Faust'' como objectos de critica. Con «severitate non dissimulate», varie libellos polemic de partisanos ecclesiastic se dirigeva contra le culto del classic e de Goethe que se delineava durante le ultime tertio del 19e seculo. Le [[jesuita]] Alexander Baumgartner scribeva un vaste presentation de Goethe, in le qual tamen ille caracterisava Goethe como un poeta «brillantemente dotate», ma condemnava su conducta «immoral», su «joie de viver despreoccupate e amor del placer»: «In le medio de un societate christian ille se declarava apertemente pro le paganismo e, con equal apertura, conduceva su vita secundo su principios.»<ref>Referite e citate secundo Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 170 f.</ref> Post que Goethe ja desde le annos 1860 pertineva al canon de lectura in le scholas german,<ref>Wolfgang Leppmann: ''Goethe und die Deutschen. Vom Nachruhm eines Dichters.'' Kohlhammer, 1962, S. 169 ff.</ref> ille deveniva gradualmente, post le [[Deutsche Reichsgründung|fundation del Reich]] in 1871, le genio del nove Reich. Un exemplo de isto esseva le conferentias de Goethe date per Herman Grimm in 1874/75. Secundo ille, Goethe habeva influentiate «le atmosphera spiritual de Germania […] como un evento telluric, que augmentava nostre calor climatic de tante e tante grados in media». — «Le prosa de Goethe deveniva gradualmente un maniera de expression exemplar pro tote le campos del vita spiritual. Per [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]] illo entrava in le philosophia, per [[Friedrich Carl von Savigny|Savigny]] in le [[Rechtswissenschaft|jurisprudentia]], per [[Alexander von Humboldt]] in le scientias natural, per [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] in le erudition [[Philologie|philologic]].»<ref>Herman Grimm: ''Goethe. Vorlesungen, gehalten an der Kgl. Universität zu Berlin.'' Erster Band. Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin 1877, S. 2 und 4.</ref> Un inundation de editiones de Goethe e litteratura secundari super Goethe appareva. Desde 1885, le [[Goethe-Gesellschaft]] se dedica al studio e diffusion del obra de Goethe; inter su membros se trovava le plus alte strata del societate in le pais e al exterior, includite le pare imperial german. Characteristic pro le culto de Goethe del Imperio esseva le deslocamento del interesse ab le obra de Goethe verso «le obra de arte de su vita ben conducite, animate e ric, ma tamen mantenite completemente in unitate harmoniose»,<ref>[[David Friedrich Strauß]] – Zitiert nach Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 262.</ref> detra le qual le production poetic esseva in risco de disparer del conscientia general. Assi scribeva le scriptor [[Wilhelm Raabe]] in 1880: «Goethe non esseva date al nation german pro le poesia etc., ma ut illa poteva apprender ex su vita un homine complete e plen desde le initio usque al fin.»<ref>Constantin Bauer, Hans Martin Schultz (Hrsg.): ''Raabe-Gedenkbuch zum 90. Geburtstage des Dichters.'' Hermann Klemm, Berlin-Grunewald 1921, [[https://archive.org/stream/raabegedenkbuch00baueuoft#page/138/mode/2up](https://archive.org/stream/raabegedenkbuch00baueuoft#page/138/mode/2up) S. 139.]</ref> Ex le studio del vita de Goethe, considerate exemplar, on sperava obtener consilios e utilitate pro le proprie maniera de viver. Tamen, il habeva anque voces que sublineava le vacuitate del culto de Goethe in partes del population. [[Gottfried Keller]] observava in 1884: «Cata conversation es dominate per le nomine sacrate, cata nove publication super Goethe es applaudite — ma ille mesme non es plus legite, e dunque on non plus cognosce le obras, e le cognoscentia non se continua.»<ref>Citate secundo Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band I: ''1773–1918.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 230.</ref> E [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] scribeva in 1878: «Goethe es in le historia del Germanos un incidente sin consequentias: qui esserea capace, per exemplo, de monstrar un fragmento de Goethe in le politica german del ultime septanta annos!»<ref>Citate secundo Dieter Borchmeyer: ''„Dichtung der Zukunft“? Goethe der Überdeutsche, im Bilde Nietzsches.'' [[http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/borchmeyer_nietzsche.pdf](http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/borchmeyer_nietzsche.pdf) In: Goethezeitportal], S. 1.</ref> In le [[Weimarer Republik|Republica de Weimar]], Goethe esseva invocate como fundamento spiritual del nove stato. In 1919 le futuro presidente del Reich [[Friedrich Ebert]] proclamava que ora il esseva necessari transformar «le imperialismo in idealismo, le potentia mundial in grandezza spiritual. […] Nos debe tractar le grande problemas social in le spirito in le qual Goethe los comprendeva in le secunde parte de Faust e in ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahren''».<ref>Citate secundo Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 9.</ref> Le «spirito de Weimar» esseva opponite al «spirito de Potsdam», considerate superate. Tamen, iste confession non habeva effecto practic. Le sinistra politic criticava le culto del genio de Goethe per medio del «parco natural» de Weimar ([[Egon Erwin Kisch]]). [[Bertolt Brecht]] respondeva in un conversation radiophonic: le classics moriva in le guerra.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 11 f.</ref> [[Herbert Ihering|Herbert Jhering]] considerava, in un conversation con Brecht, le culto de Goethe como funeste pro le theatro german, proque con le venerar le experientias private de Goethe e su horas de pastores on poneva al centro le «experientias private de un strata ascendente […] del burguesia» e promoveva un «arte del experientia incontrolabile».<ref>Bertolt Brecht: ''Gespräch über Klassiker.'' In: B. Brecht: ''Über Klassiker.'' Ausgewählt von Siegfried Unseld. Sammlung Insel. Frankfurt 1963, S. 96.</ref> Tamen, il habeva anque scriptores importante como [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Thomas Mann]] e [[Hugo von Hofmannsthal]], qui opponeva un imagine positive de Goethe al critica del classics per le sinistra. Hermann Hesse demandava in 1932: «Forsan ille esseva vermente, como le marxistas naive qui non le habeva legite pensa, solmente un heroe del burguesia, le co-creatore de un ideologia subordinate e de breve duration, ja desde longe florate?»<ref>[[Hermann Hesse]]: ''Dank an Goethe. Betrachtungen, Rezensionen, Briefe.'' Insel, Berlin 1999, ISBN 3-458-33950-7, S. 118.</ref> A differentia de Schiller, [[Heinrich von Kleist|Kleist]] e [[Friedrich Hölderlin|Hölderlin]], le politica cultural del [[Nationalsozialismus|national-socialismo]] habeva difficultates a appropriar Goethe pro su proprie fines. [[Alfred Rosenberg]] habeva declarate in 1930, in su libro ''[[Der Mythus des 20. Jahrhunderts|Le mytho del 20e seculo]]'', que Goethe non esseva utile pro le veniente «tempore de luctas acerbe», «proque ille detestava le fortia de un idea que forma typos e non recognosceva ni in le vita ni in le poesia un dictatura de un idea».<ref>Citate secundo Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland. Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1989, S. 78.</ref> Tamen, non mancava tentativas de appropriar anque Goethe al ideologia del regime nazi, per exemplo in scriptores como ''Goethes Sendung im Dritten Reich'' (August Raabe, 1934) o ''Goethe im Lichte des neuen Werdens'' (Wilhelm Fehse, 1935). Iste scriptores esseva le fontes principal a que se refereva le officiales del partito, inter illes [[Baldur von Schirach]] in su discurso al inauguration del Festivales de Juventute de Weimar de 1937. Le poesia de ''Faust'' esseva abusate como un reservoir de citationes (specialmente le phrase de Mephisto: «Sanguine es un succo multo particular») e Faust esseva elevate al rango de «figura guida del nove typo de homine national-socialista».<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland. Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1989, S. 81.</ref> In le duo estados german post 1945, Goethe experientiava un [[Renaissance|renascentia]]. Il appareva ora como representante de un Germania melior e humanista, que pareva capace de transportar le memoria ultra le annos precedente de barbaria. Tamen, le appropriation de Goethe in Oriente e Occidente habeva signos differente. In le [[Deutsche Demokratische Republik|Republica Democratic German]], sub le inspiration principal de [[Georg Lukács]], se stabilisava un interpretation marxista-leninista. Le poeta esseva ora declarate un alliato del Revolution Francese e un precursore del [[Deutsche Revolution 1848/1849|Revolution de 1848/1849]], e su ''Faust'' deveniva un «forza productive pro le erection de un societate socialista».<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1989, S. 190, 213 f.</ref> In contrasto, in le [[Westdeutschland|Republica Federal de Germania]] on inicialmente continuava le imagine traditional de Goethe, id es, le figura de un poeta elevate a mito, «qui pareva esser sortite sin damnification ni alteration del barbaria del previe dece-duo annos del domination nazi».<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1989, S. 135.</ref> Ab le fin del annos 1960, tamen, occurreva un reevaluation del Illumination, del Revolution Francese e del Classicismo de Weimar. Mandelkow parla de un «critica del classicismo» per le [[Neue Linke|Nove Sinistra]], que construeva [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], le «revolutionario fallite», como figura de contraste con Goethe.<ref>Le germanista francese [[Pierre Bertaux]] dava con su libro ''Hölderlin und die Französische Revolution'' (1969) le impulso pro le conferentia de Martin Walser ''Hölderlin zu entsprechen'' (1970) e le peça de Peter Weiss ''Hölderlin'' (1971).</ref> Verso le fin del annos 1970 se delineava un [[Entpolitisierung|depolitisation]] del reception de Goethe per medio de perspective plus objective e un perspective de analyse socio-historic.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1989, S. 238 f.</ref> Con su imagine positive de Goethe e del classicismo, [[Peter Hacks]] esseva un exception in le litteratura del RDA durante le annos 1970.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band II: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1989, S. 232.</ref> === Influence super le litteratura e le musica === Le influentia de Goethe super le poetas e scriptores germanophone posterior es omnipresente,<ref>Wolfgang Leppmann: ''Goethe und die Deutschen. Vom Nachruhm eines Dichters.'' Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1962, S. 206.</ref> de maniera que hic pote esser mentionate solmente alcun autores qui se occupava particularmente de ille e de su obra. [[File:DBP 1961 356 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|50-[[Deutsche Mark|Pf]]-[[Dauermarke]] del [[Briefmarken-Jahrgang 1961 der Deutschen Bundespost|Posta Federal German (1961)]] del serie ''[[Bedeutende Deutsche (Briefmarkenserie)|Germanos eminente]]'']] Le poetas e scriptores del [[Romanticismo]] se ligava al exuberantia emotional del ''Sturm und Drang''. [[Franz Grillparzer]] considerava Goethe su modello e compartiva con ille, ultra certe particularitates de stilo, le aversion al radicalismo politic de qualcunque sorta. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] venerava Goethe durante tote su vita e se sentiva particularmente como su successor in su attitude skeptic verso Germania e le christianismo. [[Hugo von Hofmannsthal]] considerava que «Goethe pote reimplaciar un cultura complete como fundamento del education» e que «hodie, le sentencias de Goethe in prosa forsan ha plus valor educative que tote le universitates german insimul».<ref>[[Hugo von Hofmannsthal]]: ''Buch der Freunde.'' Mit Quellennachweisen herausgegeben von [[Ernst Zinn (Philologe)|Ernst Zinn]]. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1965, S. 68 und 78.</ref> Il scribeva numerose essays super le obra de Goethe. [[Thomas Mann]] sentiva un profunde sympathia pro Goethe. Il se sentiva congenere a ille non solmente in su rol como poeta, ma anque in un serie de characteristicas e habitos. Thomas Mann scribeva numerose [[Essay|essays]] e articulos super Goethe e pronuntiava le discursos central al celebrationes del anniversario de Goethe in 1932 e 1949. In su roman ''[[Lotte in Weimar]]'' ille face viver le poeta, e con le roman ''[[Doktor Faustus]]'' ille reprendeva de nove le materia de Faust. [[Hermann Hesse]], qui reveniva constantemente al obra de Goethe e qui in un scena de su ''[[Der Steppenwolf|Steppenwolf]]'' se opponeva a un falsification del imagine de Goethe, confessava: «Inter tote le poetas german, Goethe es ille a qui io debe le plus, qui me ha occupate le plus, molestate, incoragiate, e fortiate a sequer o contradicer su exemplo.»<ref>Hermann Hesse: ''Dank an Goethe. Betrachtungen, Rezensionen, Briefe.'' Insel, Berlin 1999, S. 9.</ref> [[Ulrich Plenzdorf]] transferiva in su roman ''[[Die neuen Leiden des jungen W.|Le nove suffrentias del juvene W.]]'' le historia de ''Werther'' al RDA del annos 1970. [[Peter Hacks]] faceva del relation de Goethe con le dame de corte Charlotte von Stein le thema de su monodramma ''[[Ein Gespräch im Hause Stein über den abwesenden Herrn von Goethe|Un conversation in le domo de Stein super le absente senior von Goethe]]''. In le [[Dramolett|dramoletta]] ''In Goethes Hand. Szenen aus dem 19. Jahrhundert'' [[Martin Walser]] faceva de Johann Peter Eckermann le protagonista e le presentava in su relation delicate con Goethe. Le ultime amor de Goethe pro Ulrike von Levetzow in Marienbad serviva a Walser como materia pro su roman ''Ein liebender Mann''. In le narration de [[Thomas Bernhard]] ''[[Goethe schtirbt]]'', le figura Goethe se appella «un paralysator del litteratura german», qui insuper habeva ruinate le carriera de numerose poetas (Kleist, Hölderlin).<ref>Thomas Bernhard: [[http://www.zeit.de/1982/12/goethe-schtirbt](http://www.zeit.de/1982/12/goethe-schtirbt) ''Goethe schtirbt.''] In: ''[[Die Zeit]].'' 19. März 1982.</ref> Numerose poemas de Goethe esseva ponite in musica per [[Komponist|compositores]] e [[Liste von Komponistinnen|compositoras]], specialmente durante le 19e seculo, per lo que le poeta stimulava le evolution del [[Kunstlied|canto artistic]], ben que ille categoricamente refusava le canto [[Durchkomponierte Form|completemente componite]] de [[Franz Schubert]]. Nonobstante, Schubert, con 52 adaptationes de Goethe, esseva le plus productive del interpretes musical de Goethe. Inter su adaptationes se trova le cantos devenite popular ''Heidenröslein'', ''Gretchen am Spinnrade'' e ''[[Erlkönig (Ballade)|Erlkönig]]''. [[Carl Loewe]] poneva in musica plure del [[Ballade (Gedicht)|balladas]] de Goethe. [[Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy]], qui cognosceva personalemente Goethe, poneva in musica le ballada ''[[Die erste Walpurgisnacht]]''. In 1822 anque [[Fanny Hensel]] cognosceva Goethe, post haber lamentate que il habeva troppo pauc poemas facilemente ponibile in musica. Goethe, qui habeva un alte opinion de illa como pianista e compositora, le dedicava su poema ''Wenn ich mir in stiller Seele''. Illa lo poneva alora anque in musica.<ref>[[http://www.klemmdirigiert.de/pdf/Hensel_Hiob_c_EkkehardKlemm.pdf](http://www.klemmdirigiert.de/pdf/Hensel_Hiob_c_EkkehardKlemm.pdf) Fanny Hensel: ''Hiob – Ein wichtiges, ein schönes Werk''] (PDF).</ref> Ultra [[Robert Schumann|Robert]] e [[Clara Schumann]], anque [[Hugo Wolf]] lassava adaptationes musical de Goethe. Robert Schumann poneva in musica non solmente ''Szenen aus Goethes Faust'', ma anque textos poetic de ''Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre'' e un ''Requiem für Mignon''. Hugo Wolf poneva in musica inter alteres poemas de ''Wilhelm Meister'' e del ''West-östlicher Divan''. Anque in le 20e e 21e seculos numerose compositores se occupava del obra de Goethe, ben que le representation musical, ultra le tradition del canto pro piano, habeva frequentemente loco con nove instrumentationes e formas de recitation. De [[Gustav Mahler]] proveni le «plus potente e importante» adaptation musical de Goethe, cuje «influentia super le musica del Schola Viennese circa Arnold Schönberg, Alban Berg e Anton Webern non debe esser subestimate»<ref>Dieter Borchmeyer: „Die Genies sind eben eine große Familie …“ Goethe in Kompositionen von Richard Strauss; [[http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/borchmeyer_strauss.pdf](http://www.goethezeitportal.de/db/wiss/goethe/borchmeyer_strauss.pdf) goethezeitportal.de] Stand: 23. März 2017.</ref>: le ample 8e symphonia («Symphonia del Mille») culmina in un adaptation del scena del ravinas montan del ''Faust II'' (1910). Durante tote su vita, [[Richard Strauss]] poneva regularmente poemas de Goethe in musica. Le compositores usava crescente, ultra poemas, anque altere textos del poeta. Assi le compositora austriac [[Olga Neuwirth]] incorporava parve passages del ''Italienische Reise'' e del ''Metamorphose der Pflanzen'' in su ''…morphologischen Fragmenten…'' pro soprano e ensemble de camera (1999). Le tractato scientific de Goethe super le metamorphosis serviva anque a [[Nicolaus A. Huber]] como base pro ''Lob des Granits'' pro soprano e ensemble de camera (1999). Extractos de le cartas de Goethe, insimul con poemas como ''Gretchen am Spinnrade'', forma le base del ''Goethe-Musik'' (2000) del compositor suisse [[Rudolf Kelterborn]]. Anque notabile es le ''Römischen Elegien'' de [[Giselher Klebe]] (1952), marcate per le spirito del stricte technique de dece-duo tonos, in le qual le parte vocal non es executate per un voce cantante, ma per un recitator. Le ''Proserpina'' de Goethe serviva a [[Wolfgang Rihm]] como libretto pro un opera del mesme nomine (''[[Proserpina (Rihm)|Proserpina]]'', Schwetzingen 2009). Le mesme compositor univa sex textos de Goethe de origines differente in su cyclo ''Goethe-Lieder'' (2004/07). [[Aribert Reimann]] componeva un scena pro soprano e piano con le titulo ''Ein Blick war’s, der mich ins Verderben riss. Zweiter Monolog der Stella aus dem gleichnamigen Schauspiel von Johann Wolfgang von Goethe'' (publicate in 2014). [[Jörg Widmann]] non vole que su adaptation musical de ''Wanderers Nachtlied'' pro soprano e ensemble instrumental (1999) sia comprendite ni como «transportation de texto» ni como «mise in musica» in le senso conventional. Plus tosto, secundo ille, per «ascultar de novo e prestar orecchio» se creava un «scena» de densitate opprimente.<ref>Axel Bauni, Kilian Sprau, Klaus Hinrich Stahmer: „Von der Nachkriegszeit bis heute“ in: ''Reclams Liedführer.'' 6. Auflage, Stuttgart 2008, S. 1077.</ref> === Reception como scientista del natura === Le labor scientific natural de Goethe esseva recognoscite e prendite seriemente per su contemporaneos specialist; ille esseva in contacto con investigadores renominate como [[Alexander von Humboldt]], con qui ille realisava experimentos anatomic e galvanic durante le annos 1790,<ref>[[Andreas W. Daum]]: ''Social Relations, Shared Practices, and Emotions: Alexander von Humboldt’s Excursion into Literary Classicism and the Challenges to Science around 1800.'' In: ''Journal of Modern History'' 91 (2019), 1‒37.</ref> le chemico [[Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner]] e le medico [[Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland]], qui esseva su [[Liste von Goethes Ärzten|medico domestic]] de 1783 a 1793.<ref>Heinrich Arnold, Werner Köhler u. a. (Hrsg.): ''Der Chemiker Doebereiner und sein Minister Goethe – Eine Rezeptionsstudie.'' In: Vitalprinzip Akademie. Festgabe der Akademie gemeinnütziger Wissenschaften zu Erfurt zur 450-Jahrfeier der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena. Erfurt 2008, S. 211–232. ([[http://www.db-thueringen.de/servlets/DocumentServlet?id=12685](http://www.db-thueringen.de/servlets/DocumentServlet?id=12685) Sekundärausgabe])</ref> In le litteratura specialist, su scripto, ante toto le ''Farbenlehre'', esseva discutite controversemente desde le initio; con le progresso del scientias natural, le theorías de Goethe esseva considerate in grande parte como obsolete. Il habeva un renaissance temporari a partir de 1859, anno del publication del obra de [[Charles Darwin]] ''[[Über die Entstehung der Arten|Super le origine del species]]''. Le supposition de Goethe de un transformation constante del mundo vivente e del reduction del formas organic a un forma ancestral commun conduceva alora a considerar le como un precursore del [[theorias del evolution]].<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band 1: ''1773–1918''. C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 187.</ref> Secundo [[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker]], Goethe non succedeva «a converter le scientia natural a un melior comprehension de su proprie essentia […]. Nos physicos de hodie es […] discipulos de Newton e non de Goethe. Ma nos sape que iste scientia non es veritate absolute, ma un procedura metodologic particular.»<ref>Citate secundo Alfred Schmidt: ''Natur.'' Eintrag in: ''Goethe Handbuch.'' Band 4/2: ''Personen, Sachen, Begriffe L–Z.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-476-01447-9, S. 757.</ref> Le Klassikstiftung Weimar organizava del 28 augusto 2019 al 16 februario 2020 le exposition special ''Abenteuer der Vernunft: Goethe und die Naturwissenschaften um 1800'', pro le qual appareva un catalogo.<ref>Kristin Knebel, Gisela Maul, Thomas Schmuck (Hrsg.): ''Abenteuer der Vernunft. Goethe und die Naturwissenschaften um 1800.'' Sandstein, Dresden 2019, ISBN 978-3-95498-486-2.</ref> === Monographias e biographias exemplar === Debite al enorme quantitate de litteratura, se presenta infra solmente alcun obras exemplar, que analysa e interpreta le phenomeno Goethe in un vista de conjunto. Inter le obras prime de iste genere se trova: * [[Herman Grimm]]: ''Goethe. Vorlesungen, gehalten an der Kgl. Universität zu Berlin.'' (2 volumines. 1. edition. W. Hertz, Berlin 1877; 10. edition. Cotta, Stuttgart 1915).<br />Le legendari conferentias de Goethe de Grimm, date durante le semestre hibernal 1874/75 e le semestre estival 1875, esseva publicate in un obra de duo volumines de plus de 600 paginas (prime edition), con numerose nove editiones. Illos formava le comprehension de Goethe de generationes de lectores e studentes. Como un del essayistas le plus importante del 19e seculo, Grimm, con su maniera de reviver in un maniera «holistic» le grande personalitates artistic e lor obras, es considerate un precursore del considerationes intellectual-historic del arte e del litteratura in le senso de [[Wilhelm Dilthey]]. Le mundo academic contemporanee le considerava plus tosto un essayista eccentric que un scientista. Grimm esseva cofundator del [[Goethe-Gesellschaft]] e membro del comité editorial del edition Weimar de Goethe, de 143 volumines.<ref>Eintrag ''Grimm, Herman.'' In: Walther Killy ''Literaturlexikon. Autoren und Werke deutscher Sprache.'' Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag. Digitale Bibliothek, S. 6.656-6.658 (Band 4, S. 352).</ref> * [[Georg Simmel]]: ''Goethe.'' (1. edition. Klinkhardt & Biermann, [https://archive.org/details/goethevon00simmuoft] Leipzig 1913;] 5. edition. 1923)<br />Le monographia philosophic de Simmel, reimprimite plure vices e «recipite quasi unanimemente in maniera positive», comprende solmente 264 paginas. Con un «allontanamento programmatic del typo de biographia positivista»<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band 1: ''1773–1918''. C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 272.</ref>, illo usa le datos biographic de Goethe pro presentar le como un existentia spiritual exemplar e le incarnation de un individualitate inimitabile, que «non es solmente un puncto in le mundo, ma mesme un mundo». Iste conception del individualitate, secundo ille, Goethe habeva anque transferite a su figuras principal, «cata un del qual es le centro de un mundo spiritual individual».<ref>Georg Simmel: ''Goethe.'' Klinkhardt & Biermann, Leipzig 1913, S. 157 und 161.</ref> * [[Friedrich Gundolf]]: ''Goethe.'' (1. edition. Bondi, Berlin 1916; [https://archive.org/details/goethevon00gunduoft 7. edition 1920;] 13. edition. 1930).<br />Gundolf, un discipulo de [[Stefan George|George]], presentava in su obra de quasi 800 paginas Goethe como un persona symbolic de su epocha; Goethe appareva a ille como «le german formator per excellentia». Su publication provocava un discussion inusualmente vehemente, a qual participava eminente specialistas. Le revista [[Euphorion (Zeitschrift)|Euphorion]] dedicava un numero special in 1921 al controversia super le publication. Le disputa se concentrava super le methodo intellectual-historic de Gundolf, que le representantes de un investigation litterari orientate historic e philologic considerava le «opposition le plus nette» al philologia de Goethe. Illes appellava Gundolf un «artista del scientia».<ref>Wolfgang Höppner: ''Zur Kontroverse um Friedrich Gundolfs „Goethe“.'' In: Ralf Klausnitzer, [[Carlos Spoerhase]] (Hrsg.): ''Kontroversen in der Literaturtheorie / Literaturtheorie in der Kontroverse.'' Peter Lang, Bern 2007, ISBN 978-3-03911-247-0, S. 186 und 195 f.</ref> [[Walter Benjamin]] criticava in le libro de Gundolf que illo habeva «adoptate le dogma le plus inconsiderate del culto de Goethe, le confession le plus pallide del adeptos: que inter tote le obras de Goethe le plus grande es su vita […]» e dunque non distingueva rigorosemente inter le vita de Goethe e su obras.<ref>Walter Benjamin: ''Goethes Wahlverwandtschaften''. In: Ders.: ''Illuminationen. Ausgewählte Schriften''. 63–135, hier S. 96.</ref> Pro le scientia litterari contemporanee, iste tres monographias non offere punctos de contacto directe. Duo obras importante del annos 1950/1960 enrichiva le reception de Goethe per lor approches innovative: * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Goethe.'' Band I: ''1749–1786''; Band II: ''1786–1814''; Band III: ''1814–1832''. 1. edition. Artemis & Winkler, Zürich 1958–1960; 5. edition. 1978.<br />In su monographia in tres volumines, Staiger cerca «le poeta in le conditiones de su tempore e de su spatio».<ref>Emil Staiger: ''Goethe.'' Band I: ''1749–1786''. 5. Auflage. Artemis & Winkler, Zürich, S. 8.</ref> Le conditiones sub le quales se trova le obra poetic e scientific natural include historia, historia del ideas e psychologia, ben que le interpretation remane le centro del obra.<ref>''Staiger, Emil.'' In: Walther Killy ''Literaturlexikon. Autoren und Werke deutscher Sprache.'' Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag. Digitale Bibliothek, S. 18.846 (Band 11, S. 137).</ref> Pro Karl Robert Mandelkow, iste publication es «non solmente le tentativa le plus importante de un presentation general del poeta desde Gundolf, ma anque le prestation le plus representative del investigation de Goethe del annos cinquanta».<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band 2: ''1919–1982.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 172.</ref> Le impressionante reception de Goethe per Staiger, con su [[werkimmanente Interpretation|interpretation intrinsec del obra]], que laborava con le instrumentos del nove scientia litterari [[Strukturalismus|structural-analytic]] del tempore, retirava su objecto al clima spiritual [[Nihilismus|nihilista]] del epocha.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band 2: ''1919–1982.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 172 f.</ref> * [[Richard Friedenthal]]: ''Goethe. Sein Leben und seine Zeit.'' (1. edition Piper, München 1963, 16. edition. 1989).<br />Con iste obra de circa 800 paginas, «un labor de grande amplitude e meticulose […] Friedenthal obteneva un successo mundial».<ref>Eintrag ''Friedenthal, Richard.'' In: Walther Killy: ''Literaturlexikon. Autoren und Werke deutscher Sprache.'' Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag. Digitale Bibliothek, S. 5.510 (Band 4, S. 16).</ref> Con le biographia, ille non seligeva un forma academic, ma un maniera de presentation similar a un roman o «reportage spiritual».<ref>Thomas Halbe: ''Goethes Größe ohne Legende'' (Rezension). In: ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'', 3. Oktober 1963.</ref> Proque Friedenthal delineava le ambiente historic, sociologic e politic — id es, le miseria del conditiones de Weimar in le quales Goethe produceva su obras — su libro deveniva un precursore del «orientation verso le interpretation politic del litteratura e verso le historia social del litteratura» que se developpava in le Republica Federal desde le medietate del annos 1960.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band 2: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 67.</ref> Mandelkow considera inter le partes le plus debile del altrimenti meritorie biographia le partes super le scientista natural Goethe, que caracterisava su morphologia e teoria del colores como false e sin effecto.<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band 2: ''1919–1982''. C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 177 f.</ref> Tres altere obras biographic comprensive merita esser sublineate: * [[Karl Otto Conrady]]: ''Goethe. Leben und Werk.'' Band I: ''Hälfte des Lebens.'' Band II: ''Summe des Lebens.'' (2 volumines. 1. edition. Athenäum, Königstein/Ts. 1985; nove edition in un sol volumine. Artemis & Winkler, München 1994).<br />Con su biographia de 1100 paginas, Conrady pretende transmitir habilmente le cognoscentia erudite del philologo sin recurrer a apparato scientific. Como le prime biographo de Goethe, ille renuncia a un perspective autoritative super su objecto «in favor de un methodo de presentation que lassa aperte le possibilitate de altere interpretationes».<ref>Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland: Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' Band 2: ''1919–1982.'' C. H. Beck, München 1980, S. 272.</ref> * [[Nicholas Boyle]]: ''Goethe: der Dichter in seiner Zeit'' (2 volumines. Band I: 1749–1790; Band II: 1790–1803. C. H. Beck, München 1995 und 1999. TB-Ausgabe Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004).<br />Le germanista britannic del Universitate de Cambridge comenciava un monumental biographia de Goethe, considerate de longe le plus ample post 1945. Le prime duo volumines comprende circa 2.000 paginas; le tertie e ultime volumine non ha ancora essite publicate. Le autor es «al nivello del investigation german de Goethe» e, in le abundantia de detalios, es «plus exhaustive que su predecessores [Staiger, Friedenthal, Conrady] del decennios precedente».<ref>[[Hans-Christof Kraus]]: Rezension von Band 1 in: ''Historische Zeitschrift''. Band 265, 1997, S. 790.</ref> * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Goethe. Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' (1. edition Hanser, München 2013; 11. edition. 2013).<br />Como Friedenthal, Safranski pone al centro le relation intime inter vita e obra in iste «libro domestic del amantes de Goethe» ([[Lorenz Jäger]]). Safranski monstra al mesme tempore que le «arte de viver» de Goethe consisteva in separar le spheras del poesia e del responsabilitate politico-administrative;<ref>Lorenz Jäger: ''Der urbanisierte Olympier'' (Rezension). In: ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'', 30. August 2013.</ref> ambe areas es presentate in detalio in le libro de 750 paginas. === Goethe como donator de nomines === Le importantia eminente de Goethe pro le cultura german e le litteratura germanophone se reflecte in le nomination de numerose premios, monumentos, sitos memorial, institutiones, museos e societates, como quasi nulle altere german ha attingite in le vita cultural de su pais. Assi le instituto al qual es affidate le diffusion del cultura e lingua german foras del pais porta su nomine: [[Goethe-Institut]], que ha acquirite grande reputation con su succursales in tote le mundo. Le loco de nascentia del poeta, Frankfurt, e su principal loco de activitate, Weimar, le honora con le [[Goethe-Nationalmuseum (Weimar)|Museo National Goethe]] (Weimar), le [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main|Universitate Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] (Frankfurt) e le [[Goethepreis der Stadt Frankfurt am Main|Premio Goethe del citate de Frankfurt]]. Le [[Goethe-Gesellschaft]], existente desde 1885 e con sede principal in Weimar, reuniva plure milles de lectores e scientistas in le pais e al exterior. Finalmente, le poeta dava su nomine a un epocha litterari integre, que comprende classicismo e romanticismo: [[epocha de Goethe]]. {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == '''Auto-testimonios:''' * ''Goethe erzählt sein Leben.'' Nach Selbstzeugnissen Goethes und Aufzeichnungen seiner Zeitgenossen zusammengestellt von [[Hans Egon Gerlach]] und Otto Herrmann. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1982, ISBN 978-3-596-25600-6. '''Bibliographias:''' * [[Jörg Drews]]: ''Sichtung und Klarheit – Kritische Streifzüge durch die Goethe-Ausgaben und die Goethe-Literatur der letzten fünfzehn Jahre.'' P. Kirchheim, München 1999, ISBN 3-87410-082-0. * [[Karl Goedeke]]: ''Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung aus den Quellen.'' Zweite, ganz neu bearbeitete Auflage. Band IV/2–IV/5. Ehlermann, Dresden 1916ff. * Helmut G. Hermann (Zusammenstellung): ''Goethe-Bibliographie – Literatur zum dichterischen Werk.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1991, ISBN 3-15-008692-2. * [[Siegfried Seifert (Germanist)|Siegfried Seifert]], Rosel Gutsell, Hans-Jürgen Malles: ''Goethe-Bibliographie 1950–1990.'' 3 Bände. Saur, 1999, ISBN 3-598-11286-6. * ''Goethe-Bibliographie.'' Begründet von [[Hans Pyritz]] unter redaktioneller Mitarbeit von [[Paul Raabe]]. Fortgeführt von [[Heinz Nicolai]] und [[Gerhard Burkhardt (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Gerhard Burkhardt]] unter redaktioneller Mitarbeit von [[Klaus Schröter (Literaturwissenschaftler)|Klaus Schröter]]. 2 Bände. Winter, Heidelberg 1955–1968. '''Lexicos e obras de referentia:''' * {{ADB|9|413|448q|Goethe, Johann Wolfgang|[[Michael Bernays]]|ADB:Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von}} * [[Effi Biedrzynski]]: ''Goethes Weimar – Das Lexikon der Personen und Schauplätze.'' Artemis & Winkler, Zürich 1992, ISBN 3-7608-1064-0. * [[Richard Dobel]]: ''Lexikon der Goethe-Zitate.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 1995, ISBN 3-423-03361-4. * {{NDB|6|546|575|Goethe, Johann Wolfgang v|[[Wilhelm Flitner]]|118540238}} * ''[[Goethe-Wörterbuch]]''. Herausgegeben von der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen und der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart. Bisher erschienen: Bd. 1 – Bd. 7, Lieferung 10 (schön-schwach); online zugänglich bis „schleifen“: [https://woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=GWB&lemid=S02057 Goethe-Wörterbuch im Wörterbuch-Portal] * Martin Müller: ''Goethes merkwürdige Wörter.'' 2. Auflage. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2006, ISBN 3-534-19078-5. * Robert Steiger, Angelika Reimann: ''Goethes Leben von Tag zu Tag. Eine dokumentarische Chronik''. 8 Bände. Artemis, Zürich 1982–2011. * Rose Unterberger: ''Die Goethe-Chronik''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2002, ISBN 3-458-17100-2. * [[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Goethe-Lexikon'' (= ''[[Kröners Taschenausgabe]].'' Band 407). Kröner, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-520-40701-9. * Bernd Witte, [[Theo Buck]], Hans-Dietrich Dahnke, Regine Otto, Peter Schmidt (Hrsg.): ''Goethe-Handbuch.'' Sonderausgabe 6 Bände inkl. Registerband. Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02022-3. '''Introductiones:''' * [[Peter Boerner]]: ''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe'' (= Rowohlt Monographie. 50577). Rowohlt, Reinbek 2004, ISBN 3-499-50577-0. * [[Dieter Borchmeyer]]: ''Goethe''. Reihe DuMont Schnellkurs, DuMont, Köln 2005, ISBN 3-8321-7628-4. * [[Peter Matussek]]: ''Goethe zur Einführung''. 2. verbesserte Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-88506-972-5. * [[Gero von Wilpert]]: ''Die 101 wichtigsten Fragen: Goethe.'' Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-55872-6. '''Vita e opera:''' * [[Jeremy Adler]]: ''Goethe. Die Erfindung der Moderne. Eine Biographie''. Beck, München 2022. * [[Albert Bielschowsky]]: ''Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke.'' 43. Auflage. 2 Bände, Beck, München 1925. * [[Dieter Borchmeyer]]: ''Goethe. Der Zeitbürger''. Hanser, München/Wien 1999, ISBN 3-446-19643-9. * [[Nicholas Boyle]]: ''Goethe. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit''. Band I: ''1749–1790''. Band II: ''1790–1803''. Aus dem Englischen übersetzt von Holger Fliessbach. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-458-34725-9 und ISBN 3-458-34750-X. * [[Christa Bürger]]: ''Goethes Eros'' (= ''Insel Taschenbuch'' Nr. 3325). Insel, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2009, ISBN 978-3-458-35025-5 ([https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/buecher/rezensionen/sachbuch/abgruendiges-liebeswissen-1759897.html Rezension]). * [[Wolfgang Butzlaff (Philologe)|Wolfgang Butzlaff]]: ''Goethe. „Trostlos zu sein ist Liebenden der schönste Trost“. Gesammelte Studien zu Werk und Rezeption'' (= Germanistische Texte und Studien, Bd. 66). Olms, Hildesheim 2000, ISBN 3-487-11154-3. * Francis Claudon: ''Goethe: Essai de biographie.'' Édition Kimé, Paris 2011, ISBN 978-2-84174-543-2. * [[Karl Otto Conrady]]: ''Goethe – Leben und Werk.'' Artemis, Zürich 1994. * [[Richard Friedenthal]]: ''Goethe – sein Leben und seine Zeit.'' 15. Auflage. Piper, München 2005, ISBN 3-492-20248-9. * Bernd Hamacher: ''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Entwürfe eines Lebens.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2010, ISBN 978-3-534-21561-4. * [[Friedrich Gundolf]]: ''Goethe.'' Bondi, Berlin 1916. * [[Erich Heller]]: ''Essays über Goethe''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1970. * [[Rainer Matthias Holm-Hadulla]]: ''Leidenschaft: Goethes Weg zur Kreativität. Eine Psychobiographie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-525-40409-6. * [[Petra Maisak]]: ''Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Zeichnungen.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 1996. * [[Albert Meier (Germanist)|Albert Meier]]: ''Goethe. Dichtung – Kunst – Natur. ''Philipp Reclam jun. Verlag, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-15-010806-2. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Goethe – Kunstwerk des Lebens. Biographie.'' Hanser, München 2013, ISBN 978-3-446-23581-6. * [[Georg Simmel]]: ''Goethe.'' Klinkhardt, Leipzig 1913. * [[Emil Staiger]]: ''Goethe.'' Atlantis, Zürich/Freiburg i. Br. 1958–1960. * [[Thomas Steinfeld]]: ''Goethe. Porträt eines Lebens, Bild einer Zeit.'' Rowohlt, Berlin 2024. * [[Torsten Unger]]: ''Fürstenknecht und Idiotenreptil – Goethes Kritiker.'' Sutton, Erfurt 2012, ISBN 978-3-95400-103-3. '''Vita e opera in detalio:''' * [[Jörn Göres]] (Hrsg.): ''Goethes Leben in Bilddokumenten.'' Bechtermünz, Augsburg 1999, ISBN 3-8289-0236-7. * Christoph Michel (Hrsg.): ''Goethe – Sein Leben in Bildern und Texten.'' 2. Auflage. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1982, ISBN 3-458-04768-9. * [[Hans-Jürgen Schings]]: ''Zustimmung zur Welt. Goethe-Studien.'' Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2011, ISBN 978-3-8260-4663-6. * [[Hans Wahl (Germanist)|Hans Wahl]] und [[Anton Kippenberg]] (Hrsg.): ''[[Goethe und seine Welt]]''. Unter Mitwirkung von [[Ernst Beutler]], Insel Verlag, Leipzig 1932. * [[Hans Ludwig Oeser]]: ''Menschen und Werke im Zeitalter Goethes. Ein Bilderwerk.'' Paul Franke Verlag, Berlin 1932. '''Periodos del vita:''' * [[Theo Buck]]: ''Der Poet, der sich vollendet. Goethes Lehr- und Wanderjahre''. Böhlau, Köln u. a. 2008, ISBN 978-3-412-20091-6. * Sigrid Damm: ''Sommerregen der Liebe. Goethe und Frau von Stein.'' Suhrkamp 2015, ISBN 978-3-458-17644-2. * [[Sigrid Damm]]: ''Christiane und Goethe: Eine Recherche.'' 7. Auflage. Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-458-34500-0. * Sigrid Damm: ''[[Goethes letzte Reise]]''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-458-17370-0. * [[Wolfgang Frühwald]]: ''Goethes Hochzeit.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-458-19294-7. * Birgit Himmelseher: ''Das Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung. Kunstanspruch und Kulturpolitik im Konflikt''. De Gruyter, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-023150-2. * [[Helmut Koopmann]]: ''Willkomm und Abschied. Goethe und Friederike Brion.'' Beck, München 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-65998-0. * [[Elisabeth Mentzel]]: ''Der Frankfurter Goethe''. Rütten & Loening, Frankfurt am Main 1900 ([https://archive.org/stream/derfrankfurterg00mentgoog#page/n6/mode/2up Digitalisat] bis S. 78 aus dem [[Internet Archive]]). * [[Stephan Oswald]]: ''Im Schatten des Vaters. August von Goethe.'' Beck, München 2023, ISBN 978-3-406-79139-0. * [[Rüdiger Safranski]]: ''Goethe und Schiller. Geschichte einer Freundschaft''. Hanser, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-446-23326-3. * Simone Francesca Schmidt: ''1774. Als die jungen Genies die Freiheit suchten''. Biografie. Südverlag, Konstanz 2022, ISBN 978-3-87800-155-3. * [[Gustav Seibt]]: ''Goethe und Napoleon. Eine historische Begegnung.'' Beck, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-57748-2. * Gustav Seibt. ''„Mit einer Art von Wut“. Goethe in der Revolution.'' Beck, München 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-67055-8. * [[Johannes Urzidil]]: ''Goethe in Böhmen.'' 3. Auflage. Artemis, Zürich/München 1982, ISBN 3-7608-0251-6. * Margrit Wyder, [[Barbara Naumann]], Robert Steiger (Hrsg.): ''Goethes Schweizer Reisen''. Band I: ''Tagebücher, Briefe, Bilder''. Band II: ''25 Wanderungen''. Schwabe, Basel 2023, ISBN 978-3-7965-4771-3. * [[Roberto Zapperi]]: ''Das Inkognito – Goethes ganz andere Existenz in Rom.'' Beck, München 1999, ISBN 3-406-44587-X. '''Scientia del natura e scientias:''' * [[Stefan Bollmann]]: ''Der Atem der Welt. Johann Wolfgang Goethe und die Erfahrung der Natur.'' Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2021. * Georg Balzer: ''Goethe als Gartenfreund.'' F. Bruckmann, München 1966; Neuauflage 1976, ISBN 3-453-42014-4. * [[Hartmut Böhme]]: ''„Natur und Figur“. Goethe im Kontext''. Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2016. * [[Gustav Friedrich Hartlaub]]: ''Goethe als Alchemist.'' [[Euphorion (Zeitschrift)|Euphorion]] 3. Folge, 48 (1954), S. 19–40 ([http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/2611/1/Hartlaub_Goethe_als_Alchemist_1954.pdf Digitalisat] aus dem archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de). * Aeka Ishihara: ''Goethes Buch der Natur.'' Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2005, ISBN 3-8260-2994-1. * [[Stephan Koranyi]]: ''Autobiographik und Wissenschaft im Denken Goethes.'' Bouvier, Bonn 1984, ISBN 3-416-01815-X. * [[Otto Krätz]]: ''Goethe und die Naturwissenschaften.'' Callwey, München 1992. * Manfred Menzel: ''Goethe und die Medizin. Selbstzeugnisse und Dokumente. (= Insel Taschenbuch, Band 1350).'' Insel Verlag, Frankfurt am Main / Leipzig 1992.<ref>Enthält Goethes Todesanzeige, aufgegeben von der Schwiegertochter Ottilie von Goethe. S. 109.</ref> * [[Elmar Mittler]], Elke Purpus, [[Georg Schwedt]]: ''»Der gute Kopf leuchtet überall hervor«. Goethe, Göttingen und die Wissenschaft.'' Wallstein, Göttingen, 1999, ISBN 3-89244-367-X. * [[Olaf L. Müller]]: ''„Mehr Licht“. Goethe mit Newton im Streit um die Farben.'' S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2015, ISBN 978-3-10-403071-5. * Frank Nager: ''Der heilkundige Dichter. Goethe und die Medizin.'' Artemis, Zürich/München 1990; 4. Auflage ebenda 1992, ISBN 3-7608-1043-8. * Maren Partenheimer: ''Goethes Tragweite in der Naturwissenschaft.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1989. * [[Georg Schwedt]]: ''Goethe als Chemiker.'' Springer, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-540-64354-0. * Wolfram Voigt, Ulrich Sucker: ''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe'' (= ''[[Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner]].'' Band 38). Teubner, Leipzig 1987. '''Politica:''' * Rüdiger Scholz: ''Goethe und die Hinrichtung von Johanna Höhn. Kindsmorde und Kindsmörderinnen im Weimar Carl Augusts. Die Akten zu den Fällen Johanna Catharina Höhn, Maria Sophie Rost und Margarethe Dorothea Altwein''. 2. Auflage. Königshausen und Neumann, Würzburg 2019, ISBN 978-3-8260-6760-0. * [[Hans Tümmler]]: ''Goethe als Staatsmann''. Musterschmidt, Göttingen u. a. 1976, ISBN 3-7881-0091-5. * [[Ekkehart Krippendorff]]: ''Wie die Großen mit den Menschen spielen – Versuch über Goethes Politik.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1988, ISBN 3-518-11486-7. * Wolfgang Rothe: ''Der politische Goethe.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1998, ISBN 3-525-01220-9. * [[W. Daniel Wilson]]: ''Das Goethe-Tabu – Protest und Menschenrechte im klassischen Weimar.'' Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 1999, ISBN 3-423-30710-2. * W. Daniel Wilson: ''Goethe und die Juden. Faszination und Feindschaft.'' Beck, München 2024. '''Musica:''' * [[Hermann Abert]]: ''Goethe und die Musik.'' Engelhorn, Stuttgart 1922; Nachdruck der Originalausgabe aus dem Jahr 1903: Europäischer Literaturverlag, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-86267-571-5, sowie: Dearbooks 2013, ISBN 3-95455-485-2. * Barbara Mühlenhoff: ''Goethe und die Musik – Ein musikalischer Lebenslauf.'' Lambert Schneider, Darmstadt 2011, ISBN 978-3-650-40116-8. * Hanns Stahmer: ''Goethes Wege zur Musik.'' Hannsens, Neustadt am Rübenberge 2016, ISBN 978-3-945207-11-6. '''Esthetica:''' * Rabea Kleymann: ''Formlose Form. Epistemik und Poetik des Aggregats beim späten Goethe.'' Wilhelm Fink, Leiden 2021, ISBN 978-3-7705-6643-3. '''Aspectos psychologic:''' * [[Kurt Eissler|Kurt R. Eissler]]: ''Goethe – Eine psychoanalytische Studie 1775–1786.'' 2 Bände. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 1987, ISBN 3-423-04457-8. * Rainer J. Kaus: ''Der Fall Goethe – ein deutscher Fall. Eine psychoanalytische Studie.'' Winter, Heidelberg 1994, ISBN 3-8253-0241-5. * [[Josef Rattner]]: ''Goethe, Leben, Werk und Wirkung in tiefenpsychologischer Sicht''. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 1999, ISBN 3-8260-1660-2. * [[Rainer M. Holm-Hadulla]]: ''Leidenschaft. Goethes Weg zur Kreativität. Eine Psychobiographie.'' 3., erweiterte Auflage, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2019, ISBN 978-3-525-40669-4. '''Reception:''' * Eva Axer, [[Eva Geulen]], Alexandra Heimes: ''Aus dem Leben der Form. Studien zum Nachleben von Goethes Morphologie in der Theoriebildung des 20. Jahrhunderts.'' Wallstein, Göttingen 2021, ISBN 978-3-8353-3880-7. * [[Wilfried Barner]]: ''Von Rahel Varnhagen bis Friedrich Gundorf. Juden als deutsche Goethe-Verehrer.'' Wallstein, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-89244-023-9 * [[Hartmut Fröschle]]: ''Goethes Verhältnis zur Romantik.'' Königshausen und Neumann, Würzburg 2002, ISBN 978-3-8260-2298-2. * [[Karl Robert Mandelkow]] (Hrsg.): ''Goethe im Urteil seiner Kritiker. Dokumente zur Wirkungsgeschichte Goethes in Deutschland.'' 4 Bde. Beck, München 1975–1984. * Karl Robert Mandelkow: ''Goethe in Deutschland. Rezeptionsgeschichte eines Klassikers.'' 2 Bde. Beck, München 1980–1989. * Bettina Meier: ''Goethe in Trümmern. Zur Rezeption eines Klassikers in der Nachkriegszeit.'' Deutscher Universitätsverlag, Wiesbaden 1989, ISBN 3-8244-4036-9. * Astrida Ment: ''Goethe zwischen den Kriegen. Gedenkreden in der Weimarer Republik (1919–1933).'' Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2010, ISBN 978-3-631-59220-5. * Jana Piper: ''Goethe und Schiller in der filmischen Erinnerungskultur.'' Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2019, ISBN 978-3-8260-6589-7. '''Altere litteratura basic:''' * Michael Botor: ''Gespräche mit Goethe. Studien zu Funktion und Geschichte eines biographischen Genres'' (= ''Kasseler Studien – Literatur, Kultur, Medien.'' Bd. 4). Carl Böschen, Siegen 1999, ISBN 3-932212-20-7. * [[Karl-Josef Kuschel]]: ''Goethe und der Koran.'' Patmos, Ostfildern 2021, ISBN 978-3-8436-1246-3. * Peter Meuer (Hrsg.): ''Abschied und Übergang – Goethes Gedanken über Tod und Unsterblichkeit.'' Artemis & Winkler, Zürich 1993, ISBN 3-7608-1081-0. * [[Katharina Mommsen]]: ''Goethe und die arabische Welt.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1988. * Katharina Mommsen: ''Goethe und der Islam.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2001, ISBN 3-458-34350-4. * Emil Schaeffer, Jörn Göres: ''Goethe – seine äußere Erscheinung''. Insel, Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-458-33975-2. * [[Albrecht Schöne]]: ''Der Briefschreiber Goethe.'' Beck, München 2015, ISBN 978-3-406-67603-1. * [[Hans-Joachim Simm]] (Hrsg.): ''Goethe und die Religion.'' Insel, Frankfurt am Main/Leipzig 2000, ISBN 3-458-33900-0. * [[Renate Wieland]]: ''Schein Kritik Utopie. Zu Goethe und Hegel''. Edition text + kritik, München 1992, ISBN 3-88377-419-7. {{DEFAULTSORT:Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von}} [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Romanceros]] [[Categoria:Dramaturgos]] [[Categoria:Romanticos]] [[Categoria:Litteratura in le lingua german]] o3l1z9fkmlb3vpjomtv1b1vrvxufnt0 102 32803 699489 699368 2026-09-02T19:03:41Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699489 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P298 ?iso3 } |columns=item,P474,P298,P984,P41,P94,label,P242,P300,P30,P31,description |sort=P474 |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! prefixo telephonic international ! ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 ! codigo de pais per IOC ! imagine del bandiera ! imagine del scuto ! label ! position geographic ! 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name="ref_bf25a9001b8462c071bbee32380ffaa44c643c8b3b5593348fbfcea6e912638a">https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/iso_3166-3_newsletter_i-6.pdf</ref> | AHO | [[File:Flag of the Netherlands Antilles (1986–2010).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Netherlands Antilles (1986-2010).svg|center|48px]] | [[Antillas Nederlandese]] | [[File:Kingdom of the Netherlands in its region (Caribbean special).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q31063|Q31063]] | | CXR | | [[File:Flag of Christmas Island.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Insula de Natal]] | [[File:Christmas Island on globe (Southeast Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]] | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>[[insula]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q37024|Q37024]] | | SCG<ref name="ref_a998332fc626f8b32ec1bc2e0ca26894f577cc645a6f823d717ad80c0c92bc11">https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/iso_3166-3_newsletter_i-4.pdf</ref> | SCG | [[File:Flag of Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q37024|Serbia and Montenegro]]'' | [[File:Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q47863|Q47863]] | | MID | | | | ''[[:d:Q47863|Midway Atoll]]'' | [[File:Midway Atoll in United States.svg|center|48px]] | UM-71 | | ''[[:d:Q1550680|unorganized territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q83286|Q83286]] | | YUG | | [[File:Flag of Yugoslavia (1946-1992).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Yugoslavia (1963–1992).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | [[File:Yugoslavia 1956-1990.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q129003|Q129003]] | | ATF | | [[File:Flag of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries Terres australes et antarctiques françaises.svg|center|48px]] | [[Terras Austral Francese]] | [[File:French Southern and Antarctic Lands in France (zoomed).svg|center|48px]] | FR-TF<ref name="ref_b358201b6f12d036d1d725230e7d6741d07c711fce3b940b1cb25462f96118c0">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:FR</ref> | [[Africa]]<br/>[[Antarctica]] | ''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q129237|Q129237]] | | PCI | | [[File:Flag of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands seal.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q129237|Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]]'' | [[File:TTPI-locatormap.png|center|48px]] | | | ''[[:d:Q985073|United Nations trust territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q131008|Q131008]] | | JTN | | [[File:Flag of the United States.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great Seal of the United States (obverse).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q131008|Johnston Atoll]]'' | [[File:LocationJohnstonAtoll.png|center|48px]] | UM-67 | [[Oceania]] | ''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>[[Atollo]]<br/>''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q139595919|reef island]]''<ref name="ref_ecbd17383f1f46dc7954797b33cfc4f55f90a08051dd0f28e2baa19799e70c36">''[[:d:Q57859044|Classifying Pacific islands]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q131198|Q131198]] | | HMD | | [[File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Insula de Heard e Insulas de McDonald]] | [[File:Heard Island and McDonald Islands on the globe (Antarctica centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Antarctica]] | ''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]''<br/>[[archipelago]]<br/>''[[:d:Q38048753|natural cultural heritage site]]''<ref name="ref_61c66ae5b30ad6078e22b9f22c9b9b78d9794dff664cca19b7133532d8da93fd">http://data.gov.au/dataset/2016-soe-her-aus-national-heritage</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q165783|Q165783]] | | ATB | | [[File:Flag of the British Antarctic Territory.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the British Antarctic Territory.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q165783|British Antarctic Territory]]'' | [[File:BritishAntarcticTerritory.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Antarctica]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q783953|territorial claims in Antarctica]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q189999|Q189999]] | | ATN | | [[File:Flag of Norway, state.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q189999|Queen Maud Land]]'' | [[File:Antarctica, Norway territorial claim.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Antarctica]] | ''[[:d:Q5260616|dependency of Norway]]''<ref name="ref_7db06d5476b3f5c24f5ebb17af080c176272f9c7a4682401c5d83cbd2bb2d168">https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/1930-02-27-3</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q783953|territorial claims in Antarctica]]''<ref name="ref_7db06d5476b3f5c24f5ebb17af080c176272f9c7a4682401c5d83cbd2bb2d168">https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/1930-02-27-3</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q212429|Q212429]] | | FXX | | | | ''[[:d:Q212429|metropolitan France]]'' | | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q192498|administrative territorial entity of France]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q752431|Q752431]] | | NHB | | [[File:Flag of New Hebrides (1969).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of New Hebrides.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q752431|New Hebrides]]'' | [[File:LocationVanuatu.png|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q734818|condominium]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q797422|Q797422]] | | HVO | VOL | [[File:Flag of Upper Volta.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Upper Volta.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q797422|Republic of Upper Volta]]'' | [[File:LocationBurkinaFaso.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]] | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q798431|Q798431]] | | DHY | | [[File:Flag of Benin.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Dahomey (1958–1964).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q798431|Republic of Dahomey]]'' | [[File:Benin in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]] | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1138279|associated state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q838261|Q838261]] | | YUG | | [[File:Flag of Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q838261|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | [[File:Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q842829|Q842829]] | | SJM | | No/unknown value<br/>[[File:Flag of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q842829|Svalbard and Jan Mayen]]'' | [[File:Svalbard and Jan Mayen in the world (W3).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q15042037|statistical territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1050859|Q1050859]] | | GEL | | [[File:Flag of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1937–1976).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1937-1979).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q1050859|Gilbert and Ellice Islands]]'' | [[File:LocationGilbertandEllice.png|center|48px]] | | | ''[[:d:Q133156|colonia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1450765|Q1450765]] | | AFI | | | | ''[[:d:Q1450765|French Territory of the Afars and the Issas]]'' | | | | ''[[:d:Q133156|colonia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1620908|historical region]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2618621|Q2618621]] | | CTE | | | | ''[[:d:Q2618621|Canton and Enderbury Islands]]'' | | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q734818|condominium]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3405693|Q3405693]] | | CRQ | | [[File:Flag of Sark.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Sark.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q3405693|Sark]]'' | [[File:Guernsey-Sark.png|center|48px]] | | | [[insula]]<br/>''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q64953083|car-free place]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16|Q16]] | +1 | CAN | CAN | [[File:Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal Coat of arms of Canada.svg|center|48px]] | [[Canada]] | [[File:CAN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_e171e0277f9d5d9c526b1a4c0a95293daaba9cdf6db99b96253f3b627413064a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/canada</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q30|Q30]] | +1 | USA<ref name="ref_4d80a9e7ddc84c2bda41cb23318f27faf6fe7628d4c9954662c5c77f43af71a8">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:US</ref> | USA | [[File:Flag of the United States (DDD-F-416E specifications).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg|center|48px]] | [[Statos Unite de America]] | [[File:United States - Location Map (2013) - USA - UNOCHA.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_a2c50115ba8fd8fe7aad116280f4d98d9286995c98da34321d783b05ad96c032">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/united-states</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_fb44dbd8e36ba0b1337ed6b2078b4ca9e01a621aeb978bf3115574eb73965cec">https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States</ref><ref name="ref_c1dc48b76c664759133329f1e6125b7e8b014aa98e54ea77b635f7141d81ac32">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/</ref><ref name="ref_ec56b845d70b983ce9320cbf0ed603da1d146d7a3f4277abc7d8a633a8c69bed">''[[:d:Q113012671|NCI Thesaurus OBO Edition]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b6dead0d44acfe6a7b1c36ae1c0f2eb8a2a5fab45c851d9436c852977010ee7e">''[[:d:Q199897|Medical Subject Headings]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q778|Q778]] | +1242 | BHS | BAH | [[File:Flag of the Bahamas.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Bahamas.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bahamas]] | [[File:Bahamas in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_dc208dc74ffeb5aca1f9f7fff7711206ab88f6c284cfe4b9e0550cb30d365fd6">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/the-bahamas</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q244|Q244]] | +1246 | BRB | BAR | [[File:Flag of Barbados.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Barbados (2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Barbados]] | [[File:BRB orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_11799d3be9df75a40f35faf1d3391efa4d32ed26b946bbca02357974f9ed5627">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/barbados</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q25228|Q25228]] | +1264 | AIA | | [[File:Flag of Anguilla.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Anguilla.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25228|Anguilla]]'' | [[File:Anguilla on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q781|Q781]] | +1268 | ATG | ANT | [[File:Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Antigua and Barbuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Antigua e Barbuda]] | [[File:ATG orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_09f1d5ff44ff7736d3d1bae71b93da1c59b126ac12fc4617d1e90d69b88c6ddd">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/antigua-and-barbuda</ref> | [[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3244203|monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25305|Q25305]] | +1284 | VGB | IVB | [[File:Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the British Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25305|British Virgin Islands]]'' | [[File:British Virgin Islands on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | VG | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11703|Q11703]] | +1340 | VIR | ISV | [[File:Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the United States Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q11703|United States Virgin Islands]]'' | [[File:United States Virgin Islands on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | VI | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5785|Q5785]] | +1345 | CYM | CAY | [[File:Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Cayman Islands Coat of Arms.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q5785|Cayman Islands]]'' | [[File:Cayman Islands in United Kingdom.svg|center|48px]] | KY | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q23635|Q23635]] | +1441 | BMU | BER | [[File:Flag of Bermuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Bermuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bermuda]] | [[File:United Kingdom on the globe (Bermuda special) (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<ref name="ref_062d6a907457c2cd5018246f8dbe44927859fc0e258af56b43a0695d3e0dfd2d">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bermuda/</ref><br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | |- | [[:d:Q769|Q769]] | +1473 | GRD | GRN | [[File:Flag of Grenada.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Grenada.svg|center|48px]] | [[Grenada]] | [[File:Grenada in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_3f0562f88c5f83143020992c291623aa07812993a62211117ad5a61498725aa7">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/grenada</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q18221|Q18221]] | +1649 | TCA | | [[File:Flag of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q18221|Turks and Caicos Islands]]'' | [[File:Turks and Caicos Islands in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | |- | [[:d:Q13353|Q13353]] | +1664 | MSR | | [[File:Flag of Montserrat.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Montserrat.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q13353|Montserrat]]'' | [[File:Montserrat in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>[[insula]] | |- | [[:d:Q16644|Q16644]] | +1670 | MNP<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ab6934192ea8c6c60b949cb7f56be9c127a7421c2660ed39599b39c49ad0119c">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui#iso:code:3166:MP</ref> | | [[File:Flag of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q16644|Northern Mariana Islands]]'' | [[File:Northern Mariana Islands in Oceania (small islands magnified).svg|center|48px]] | US-MP<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]''<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_e2f611e48ca35a2ee76d828427ab1313b3e8e3f9874fc92a31963fc7fd56005b">https://www.doi.gov/oia/budget/authorities-public-law</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_e2f611e48ca35a2ee76d828427ab1313b3e8e3f9874fc92a31963fc7fd56005b">https://www.doi.gov/oia/budget/authorities-public-law</ref><ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q609591|commonwealth]]''<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q16635|Q16635]] | +1671 | GUM | GUM | [[File:Flag of Guam.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of Guam.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guam]] | [[File:Guam on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | US-GU | [[Oceania]] | ''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_e2f611e48ca35a2ee76d828427ab1313b3e8e3f9874fc92a31963fc7fd56005b">https://www.doi.gov/oia/budget/authorities-public-law</ref><br/>[[insula]]<br/>''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_d0f09ed15666b50e8d9a68ba9dbc619bb6d784d90a7618c64f8a2f648668f919">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/gq.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3337001|nationality for sports]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16641|Q16641]] | +1684 | ASM | ASA | [[File:Flag of American Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of American Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q16641|American Samoa]]'' | [[File:American Samoa on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | US-AS | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q26273|Q26273]] | +1721 | SXM | | [[File:Flag of Sint Maarten.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Wapen van Sint Maarten.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sint Maarten]] | [[File:Sint Maarten on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | NL-SX<br/>SX | [[America del Nord]] | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q760|Q760]] | +1758 | LCA | LCA | [[File:Flag of Saint Lucia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Saint Lucia.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q760|Saint Lucia]]'' | [[File:Saint Lucia on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_fb441f96bc19e51bbad4888d2165c239dfe62ed0a81da8c4ed161778650c8b5f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/st-lucia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q784|Q784]] | +1767 | DMA | DMA | [[File:Flag of Dominica.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Dominica.svg|center|48px]] | [[Dominica (pais)|Dominica]] | [[File:Dominica on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_ce2ca7ee5a6aee5e4345061162899de6bc67957888919023f4aa0408e117652f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/dominica</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q757|Q757]] | +1784 | VCT | VIN | [[File:Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sancte Vincente e le Grenadinas]] | [[File:VCT orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_e9f717b19c71c60963608cbbcd52fffbd7ee75971c650b5ac85d42c4ca5d17a4">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/st-vincent-and-the-grenadines</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1183|Q1183]] | +1787<br/>+1939 | PRI | PUR | [[File:Flag of Puerto Rico.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.svg|center|48px]] | [[Porto Rico]] | [[File:LocationPuertoRico.svg|center|48px]] | US-PR | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_dfc403209caf0578c8559357b9205638ab0e828262f336253dc24a8fdeb22bd0">https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6444&context=faculty_scholarship</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7252696|Provincial deputation in Spanish America]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3502482|region cultural]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q609591|commonwealth]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q786|Q786]] | +1809<br/>+1829<br/>+1849 | DOM | DOM | [[File:Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Dominican]] | [[File:Dominican Republic (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_2d3317b8f28cb2ab48a69a5b94320185ab9cd34a03d00ab68371545440bfbcaf">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/dominican-republic</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q754|Q754]] | +1868 | TTO | TTO | [[File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago (2025).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q754|Trinidad e Tobago]]'' | [[File:Trinidad and Tobago (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_6b24ef5766d6593f3bca14f6db720c265ecb22ed13e07a68c31c0bad40b21ebc">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/trinidad-and-tobago</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q763|Q763]] | +1869 | KNA | SKN | [[File:Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sancte Kitts e Nevis]] | [[File:KNA orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_572a680bf2df81619d989b05b7e918f4e013ffc89fac4dcf74747630757dc0ad">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/st-kitts-and-nevis</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais insular caribe |- | [[:d:Q766|Q766]] | +1876 | JAM | JAM | [[File:Flag of Jamaica.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Jamaica.svg|center|48px]] | [[Jamaica]] | [[File:Jamaica (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_29e2b19937e6da0259be4f72a6eb2f505c9ce8dd4ebc4b84b148e0a76e890ec8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/jamaica</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q918240|territorial evolution of the British Empire]]''<ref name="ref_7fd3330f2d80033c175da2dfd52ded267e02db5ca01cb0080f78f14d38bee1ac">''[[:d:Q87326082|МСЭ2/Ямайка]]''</ref><br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q79|Q79]] | +20 | EGY | EGY | [[File:Flag of Egypt.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg|center|48px]] | [[Egypto]] | [[File:EGY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_ed424f60b984d0f7e4fbdf509c1407bc29f1273d084de2e07da8d3b59211bc0d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/egypt</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais transcontinental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q958|Q958]] | +211<ref name="ref_75070a596399354e56de25935a4456671bf660c31ae1108e470be9e01babf2c6">http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/newslog/New+Country+New+Number+Country+Code+211+Officially+Assigned+To+South+Sudan.aspx</ref> | SSD | SSD | [[File:Flag of South Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of South Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sudan del Sud]] | [[File:LocationSouthSudan.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_3ad676ef4ff211fdab637b8c1fbeb62388cd3b4d7539610cca0866b5ec1d6a6f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/south-sudan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1028|Q1028]] | +212 | MAR | MAR | [[File:Flag of Morocco.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Morocco.svg|center|48px]] | [[Marocco]] | [[File:Morocco WS-excluded (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_7fe6c7628fb1d2077eccf0ed994887b11a993b407cd4bc92a569c96b51db30b6">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/morocco</ref> | [[Monarchia constitutional]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q6250|Q6250]] | +212 | ESH | | | | [[Sahara Occidental]] | [[File:Location Western Sahara AU Africa.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]] | ''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q262|Q262]] | +213 | DZA | ALG | [[File:Flag of Algeria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National Emblem of Algeria (bronze effect).svg|center|48px]] | [[Algeria]] | [[File:Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_ee95f4536e5a883aedf388ace8d9cdb0f5ce274fd904d98594462ed3604d1235">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/algeria</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<ref name="ref_0d68ad2342f20c5aedf1007877b78f219bf3c78c3bafc42a9ec6a9bf41b84f47">''[[:d:Q111513095|Algérie, la tierce rive en Méditerranée]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q948|Q948]] | +216<ref name="ref_5e89d1a314dd29839cdb51eedeeac8edf77cced867af145d85275b4d4f93297a">http://www.lincmad.com/world.html</ref><ref name="ref_32afd4aaf77ac08422830adc1157b155457aa0b10f5598cc364ccd262778e3dc">https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-E.164D-2016-PDF-E.pdf</ref><ref name="ref_7973cab252e7ab99b8674d2a939c3d0347e6d9452b837eccc968be606349fc51">http://www.wtng.info/wtng-216-tn.html</ref> | TUN | TUN | [[File:Flag of Tunisia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tunisia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tunisia]] | [[File:Tunisia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_ac576d7796fb72c4a756c7d4ca4266554dd3db3d387207612ab0c25aa0ed1eee">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/tunisia</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1016|Q1016]] | +218 | LBY | LBA | [[File:Flag of Libya.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Government of National Unity (Libya).svg|center|48px]] | [[Libya]] | [[File:Libya (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_7e38f88226d0b9ae38c754fa7562839a0ea71de798c8df4f53e4272c480dc61d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/libya</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1005|Q1005]] | +220 | GMB | GAM | [[File:Flag of The Gambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of The Gambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Gambia]] | [[File:Gambia (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_80edda68a00697376c3eea9450e37159a7541dc0fe4aeec63b7c53b3da7dfa30">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/the-gambia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1041|Q1041]] | +221 | SEN | SEN | [[File:Flag of Senegal.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Senegal.svg|center|48px]] | [[Senegal]] | [[File:LocationSenegal.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_3d3b7f537cc23372add2ccb60849cb34789a8b935fd6a7f97b7b055676874a90">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/senegal</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1025|Q1025]] | +222 | MRT | MTN | [[File:Flag of Mauritania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National Seal of Mauritania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mauritania]] | [[File:LocationMauritania.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_5e70311e8908f1020e1c20e67f022310cf140c2b943ba9ff4dfc7fc7cd2fbfb7">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mauritania</ref> | [[Republica islamic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q912|Q912]] | +223 | MLI | MLI | [[File:Flag of Mali.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Mali.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mali]] | [[File:Mali (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_d57e8ee5b41d783aa6987e6fc110bb141ff779fe93cdd6eef507978d1039b307">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mali</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1006|Q1006]] | +224 | GIN | GUI | [[File:Flag of Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guinea]] | [[File:Guinea (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_b37c6657d01d288c2c6f56657182225ef8b81d696802693da55a3391c1482a0e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/guinea</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1008|Q1008]] | +225 | CIV | CIV | [[File:Flag of Côte d'Ivoire.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ivory Coast (2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Costa de Ebore]] | [[File:CIV orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_407653e0871137b25d1f805a69a6c73a331e192b4b29789fbbd06bc849013d31">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/cote-d-ivoire</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<ref name="ref_ca070e9a5eb15c3dccfde88694c68f2863907488ea9e5eec31ad0622694ece24">https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/dossiers-pays/cote-d-ivoire/presentation-de-la-cote-d-ivoire/</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_0dad73dd85c33cae8349a2e2ca72f0917d0ffc3785f00eede7e40d57c79381da">https://www.presidence.ci/presentation-ci/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q965|Q965]] | +226 | BFA | BUR | [[File:Flag of Burkina Faso.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Burkina Faso.svg|center|48px]] | [[Burkina Faso]] | [[File:BFA orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_5964f81f18ecdaff0f7e224d8b8c637c58d73620022c3ef2b6317605d1f49963">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/burkina-faso</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1032|Q1032]] | +227 | NER | NIG | [[File:Flag of Niger.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Niger.svg|center|48px]] | [[Niger]] | [[File:LocationNiger.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_7bf28e07b81e655cb04dde3e6f298819601bdf0e3a33dfa8048ab006e00eb8a2">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/niger</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q945|Q945]] | +228 | TGO | TOG | [[File:Flag of Togo (3-2).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries du Togo.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_fffc7b435c279fc8e3b1f7f88e349523ca571e2226ff624cc2995bee274222ae">https://novissi.gouv.tg/en/home-new-en/</ref> | [[Togo]] | [[File:Togo on the globe (Africa centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_9b84245c581d4eb0c6d5286c3a008d0d2c41f9a57f4c5fe3987adaa802884588">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/togo</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q962|Q962]] | +229 | BEN | BEN | [[File:Flag of Benin.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Benin.svg|center|48px]] | [[Benin]] | [[File:Benin (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_5f18767bd2d98da3806a4be03fc3e0914161790d0489a7458a73e6e4df7f3652">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/benin</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1027|Q1027]] | +230 | MUS | MRI | [[File:Flag of Mauritius.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Mauritius.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mauritio]] | [[File:Mauritius (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_cd7c9c5c115de492113d029f3708fa8b03faa30e67fd271d607256934089be12">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mauritius</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_cd7c9c5c115de492113d029f3708fa8b03faa30e67fd271d607256934089be12">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mauritius</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1014|Q1014]] | +231 | LBR | LBR | [[File:Flag of Liberia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Liberia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Liberia]] | [[File:Liberia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_868cd0a7e8501049422594c75ef7c0e7c364d3647d871ef7998c0a37a4085157">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/liberia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1044|Q1044]] | +232 | SLE | SLE | [[File:Flag of Sierra Leone.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Sierra Leone.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sierra Leone]] | [[File:Sierra Leone (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_78eb41018084cad06dfc1204555bfb6bc9603332ae5be910a6b475bbcd95da36">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/sierra-leone</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q117|Q117]] | +233 | GHA | GHA | [[File:Flag of Ghana.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ghana.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ghana]] | [[File:Ghana (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_764eb912fc07e35ce8a25c3b8b210b7412379c722d24082650b3de9744a90880">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/ghana</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1033|Q1033]] | +234 | NGA | NGR | [[File:Flag of Nigeria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Nigeria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nigeria]] | [[File:LocationNigeria.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_bf7ab02390aa28ad9c923dcdfdba88d815a2df540c887ede6da7c0db60a0dede">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/nigeria</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q512187|republica federal]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_b8c50fa2d8e3156c148a83db2383a7989df01611ed6cdf3e2f2974120c846783">https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/nigeria</ref><ref name="ref_7c16b139c1c51716df89b9fa1b129d4c530567a8ed5b275075fd91aaa2b1a2f9">https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/nigeria.htm</ref><ref name="ref_85f1e39a5788c1aa07c69ec708f789307f51c414537a388e555de05af05c6fc5">https://photos.state.gov/libraries/nigeria/487468/pdfs/Nigeria%20overview%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf</ref><ref name="ref_76c1c3d9335871d3018c93daa405050159f0c30ae60630766a04d7d5a9c48396">https://www.forbes.com/places/nigeria/?sh=171606ed4b80</ref><ref name="ref_20e6f4914c5b7943b46d51c4f77d5302928b5e184ea5d6fa9bb5b6d4bc73b833">https://www.lonelyplanet.com/nigeria</ref><ref name="ref_ac96336048c4cbe3228acfb72a8083a12fdf9afbfeb00ef881255ae3f37b5dd7">https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/nigeria/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q657|Q657]] | +235 | TCD | CHA | [[File:Flag of Chad.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Chad.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tchad]] | [[File:TCD orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_093e9b3617bf3a7edb26bce4dc4e4b1128e50c15e45160dfc6e401040f81d570">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/chad</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q929|Q929]] | +236 | CAF | CAF | [[File:Flag of the Central African Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Central African Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Centroafrican]] | [[File:CAF orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_4b47c62a69dfeac290d5413d021f657bd6aa45f5c0c9471c4bce26618d61aa65">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/central-african-republic</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[republica]] | |- | [[:d:Q1009|Q1009]] | +237 | CMR | CMR | [[File:Flag of Cameroon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cameroon.svg|center|48px]] | [[Camerun]] | [[File:CMR orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_d20e0d837999104a09d98560c25da0c1abaee593df6f8d5cd402c7fc67be1237">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/cameroon</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1011|Q1011]] | +238 | CPV | CPV | [[File:Flag of Cape Verde (10-17).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cape Verde.svg|center|48px]] | [[Capo Verde]] | [[File:CPV orthographic NaturalEarth.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_3357aaa6b6e577600ac27a0eee2a61668a2659ecdfa4ad79e4969df1cf5f6171">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/cabo-verde</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1039|Q1039]] | +239 | STP | STP | [[File:Flag of São Tomé and Príncipe.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of São Tomé and Príncipe.svg|center|48px]] | [[São Tomé e Príncipe]] | [[File:Sao Tome and Principe on the globe (Africa centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_94f880423f8876888de93690d580a38559b71ebab1a3afb7fda0708c1741963b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/sao-tome-and-principe</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4198907|parliamentary republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q158454|biosphere reserve]]''<ref name="ref_f15cce0aaf4bcc7168adeb395beefca9131e69ae44ffbb3ed154c895c8968bd8">https://www.rfi.fr/fr/environnement/20250927-l-unesco-d%C3%A9signe-26-nouvelles-r%C3%A9serves-de-biosph%C3%A8re-dont-l-%C3%AEle-de-s%C3%A3o-tom%C3%A9-et-principe</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q983|Q983]] | +240 | GNQ | GEQ | [[File:Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Equatorial Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guinea Equatorial]] | [[File:GNQ orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_b546b878db5c1e3df6a721f9a40187e57b40547f563f650b4b5dfd3f833cfd22">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/equatorial-guinea</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1000|Q1000]] | +241 | GAB | GAB | [[File:Flag of Gabon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Gabon.svg|center|48px]] | [[Gabon]] | [[File:Gabon (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_0999b25be8bb5308dedff7663f3b7af24eea6a5ee116b573189107227ff29588">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/gabon</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q971|Q971]] | +242 | COG | CGO | [[File:Flag of the Republic of the Congo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Republic of the Congo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica del Congo]] | [[File:LocationRepublicoftheCongo.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_86686282cb84d15b07d8af7a9af14e9e25c3afdbee5412730461876f2a5e11ef">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/congo</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q974|Q974]] | +243 | COD | COD | [[File:Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (black spear).svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Democratic del Congo]] | [[File:COD orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_ed806c47cd810026be18b273086c4a0bce497d753577b6badca4efc5741bf580">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/dem-rep-congo</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_ed806c47cd810026be18b273086c4a0bce497d753577b6badca4efc5741bf580">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/dem-rep-congo</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q916|Q916]] | +244 | AGO | ANG | [[File:Flag of Angola.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Angola.svg|center|48px]] | [[Angola]] | [[File:Angola (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_43e908f02d57f4e04d4c97ead4830eee0748c5289b4804757e33bc11ce7ee885">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/angola</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1007|Q1007]] | +245 | GNB | GBS | [[File:Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Guinea-Bissau.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guinea-Bissau]] | [[File:Guinea-Bissau on the globe (Africa centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_f6e9d3d38179dc6428bb907333e2bbe8c43f333436d77a9671070f601fd72daf">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/guinea-bissau</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q43448|Q43448]] | +246 | IOT | | [[File:Flag of the Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q43448|British Indian Ocean Territory]]'' | [[File:British Indian Ocean Territory on the globe (Afro-Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q192184|Q192184]] | +247<br/>+27<br/>+290 | SHN | | [[File:Flag of the United Kingdom (1-2).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q192184|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]]'' | [[File:Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q31890709|Q31890709]] | +247 | ASC | | [[File:Flag of Ascension Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Ascension Island.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q31890709|Ascension]]'' | | SH-AC<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<ref name="ref_28e067ba6d443e585cc6bae200ecabedea38d4555441bfa6e50598093c75548b">''[[:d:Q1194038|Geographic Names Server]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1042|Q1042]] | +248 | SYC | SEY | [[File:Flag of Seychelles.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Seychelles.svg|center|48px]] | [[Seychelles]] | [[File:SYC orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_f9f1b404f98d745554d8407c28c693b61b03004cb428c553574d86973dcb54d3">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/seychelles</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1049|Q1049]] | +249 | SDN | SUD | [[File:Flag of Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sudan]] | [[File:Sudan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_8754a1422e0bab03629555e9b4197b99533e6965af8742fd10369e08dd5ae6f6">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/sudan</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1088391|rump state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1037|Q1037]] | +250 | RWA | RWA | [[File:Flag of Rwanda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Rwanda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ruanda]] | [[File:LocationRwanda.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_30e70b61f5d9350df30630fecb2b58752cddae729d177d4989a865fcfe3cbd8b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/rwanda</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[republica]] | |- | [[:d:Q115|Q115]] | +251 | ETH | ETH | [[File:Flag of Ethiopia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Ethiopia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ethiopia]] | [[File:Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_edc2fab86e50cec4422ea17373796e8bf33c96df1568995feb78f6aff375f401">''[[:d:Q87326639|МСЭ2/Эфиопия]]''</ref><ref name="ref_827fd2f42dc61f872c0ef41b7b34f8cfa5795fdf443c0db470cc9144b7cb32df">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/ethiopia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_edc2fab86e50cec4422ea17373796e8bf33c96df1568995feb78f6aff375f401">''[[:d:Q87326639|МСЭ2/Эфиопия]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1045|Q1045]] | +252 | SOM | SOM | [[File:Flag of Somalia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Somalia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Somalia]] | [[File:Somalia (orthographic projection)2.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_e00d7da220a8570d8c21f3e5ecb549474fb0d3ca5dfb3b5481417e5a9a7fc2d0">https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Somalia;4169147.html</ref><ref name="ref_ab54ba9bbaed152730dfaca4b87a26581fef0a018ab9d4440ad47a7148aee172">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/somalia</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q512187|republica federal]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q977|Q977]] | +253 | DJI | DJI | [[File:Flag of Djibouti.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Djibouti.svg|center|48px]] | [[Djibuti]] | [[File:Djibouti (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_edb9210d1f33512c9b2e4c283bd3111f992bec0fcf02dc288f7db18596b87b0e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/djibouti</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | pais de Africa |- | [[:d:Q114|Q114]] | +254 | KEN | KEN | [[File:Flag of Kenya.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Kenya (Official).svg|center|48px]] | [[Kenya]] | [[File:Kenya (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_7fe23413cfa8cc8f594b7429792f91299730e0f35a44a5ff91dc250b2d7cefa0">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/kenya</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q924|Q924]] | +255 | TZA | TAN | [[File:Flag of Tanzania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tanzania]] | [[File:Tanzania (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_b832e4a1abfe6aeb0fa4b3bd6518bd955b8fdd2387b7e6b9ffe61a4413bcd83a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/tanzania</ref> | [[republica]]<ref name="ref_66afe8a0af55b4c72538a606d569b267b8291b8e859cb3431b45dfa5e7e740d0">https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/united-republic-tanzania</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1036|Q1036]] | +256 | UGA | UGA | [[File:Flag of Uganda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Uganda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Uganda]] | [[File:Uganda (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_ca313d9a5c34631458f5293cc2377562c8fcabf68f6f5c3aafbbafaec8ebf5d4">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/uganda</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_96c78443365f47d6b9190ab9c0a9f169f7cc2ed3f7942acfef00afdbabc34b44">https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/special-reports/what-uganda-has-gone-through-since-1962--4787868#story</ref><br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q967|Q967]] | +257 | BDI | BDI | [[File:Flag of Burundi.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Burundi.svg|center|48px]] | [[Burundi]] | [[File:Burundi (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_da83a16073ca8fd5065adcb0e7e6c916123f70236d0dd5b67ae3499ab33a4765">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/burundi</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_6cac7bdde4be279b526ef08604ad918b112e3faa287696c1b915fbb81f2f4f0b">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/by.html</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1029|Q1029]] | +258 | MOZ | MOZ | [[File:Flag of Mozambique.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Mozambique.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mozambique]] | [[File:Mozambique (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_c00027422ebc98e9b9a93e17dde4b494de50fad77bdc2d30d007e9d18b7fea61">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mozambique</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q953|Q953]] | +260 | ZMB | ZAM | [[File:Flag of Zambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Zambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Zambia]] | [[File:Zambia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_f33f7da773f54e96f1f031902c01c743d43e8c7b4bc2097744109b40bbe5bfdb">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/zambia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1019|Q1019]] | +261 | MDG | MAD | [[File:Flag of Madagascar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of Madagascar.svg|center|48px]] | [[Madagascar]] | [[File:MDG orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_7f77aada61884fa2e07e488f8f9f265ddc7904291d07a68b8832730785fbc4cd">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/madagascar</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q17063|Q17063]] | +262 | MYT | | [[File:Flag of Mayotte (Local).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Mayotte.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q17063|Mayotte]]'' | [[File:Mayotte (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | FR-976 | [[Africa]] | ''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>[[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]] | |- | [[:d:Q17070|Q17070]] | +262 | REU | | [[File:Proposed flag of Réunion (VAR).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries Réunion.svg|center|48px]] | [[Reunion]] | [[File:Département 974 in France.svg|center|48px]] | FR-974 | [[Africa]] | [[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q954|Q954]] | +263 | ZWE | ZIM | [[File:Flag of Zimbabwe.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Zimbabwe.svg|center|48px]] | [[Zimbabwe]] | [[File:Zimbabwe (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_d5722fe0537cb5a5e7c27c67a8f413daa932cd5a87b5817ece423b7e7cabc73a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/zimbabwe</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1030|Q1030]] | +264 | NAM | NAM | [[File:Flag of Namibia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Namibia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Namibia]] | [[File:LocationNamibia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_d648354f17344fc616dbc2270eafa426f710d848c89f5d67dded07dfb8f13b23">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/namibia</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1020|Q1020]] | +265 | MWI | MAW | [[File:Flag of Malawi.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Malawi.svg|center|48px]] | [[Malawi]] | [[File:LocationMalawi.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_ec0a43d9c70b905117bd8563e77de7f3ed50e42caddcfaf2ad01ab2205b2c573">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/malawi</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1013|Q1013]] | +266 | LSO | LES | [[File:Flag of Lesotho.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Lesotho.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lesotho]] | [[File:Lesotho (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_a29a68435169aae19610bac77ae706a93a8195152d416fc9764d782f0a3df451">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/lesotho</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q171441|enclave]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q963|Q963]] | +267 | BWA | BOT | [[File:Flag of Botswana.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Botswana.svg|center|48px]] | [[Botswana]] | [[File:Botswana (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_0daac7d680dd6eeb4c12f04e6a412000c70d57bdc03b315e279e490f62f63344">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/botswana</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1050|Q1050]] | +268 | SWZ | SWZ | [[File:Flag of Eswatini.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Eswatini.svg|center|48px]] | [[Eswatini]] | [[File:Location Eswatini.png|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_5d90bc90a2a32192880fa038f13ddcc43a369ed2aa94d56c667901da8408ced1">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/eswatini</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais in Africa |- | [[:d:Q970|Q970]] | +269 | COM | COM | [[File:Flag of the Comoros.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Comoros.svg|center|48px]] | [[Comores]] | [[File:Comoros (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_aa0206c562d2b4f753a32b37af1bf862bec7f35e26ef7e5a40e21f1388193cdb">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/comoros</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q258|Q258]] | +27 | ZAF | RSA | [[File:Flag of South Africa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of South Africa (heraldic).svg|center|48px]] | [[Africa del Sud]] | [[File:LocationSouthAfrica.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_6dd295942ca33418478ee7e92381e7b39e612a8688e8065c0efd5f6b104b0238">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/south-africa</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q986|Q986]] | +291 | ERI | ERI | [[File:Flag of Eritrea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Eritrea (or argent azur).svg|center|48px]] | [[Eritrea]] | [[File:Eritrea (Africa orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Africa]]<ref name="ref_55c0f57c296108bdac91dac571469eab5712aa66cc56e9853a861cc3e22e1d28">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/eritrea</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q21203|Q21203]] | +297 | ABW | ARU | [[File:Flag of Aruba.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Aruba wapen.svg|center|48px]] | [[Aruba]] | [[File:Aruba in its region.svg|center|48px]] | NL-AW | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q107390|stato federate]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q4628|Q4628]] | +298 | FRO | FRO | [[File:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Faroe Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Feroe]] | [[File:Europe-Faroe Islands.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q66724388|autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | pais constitutive del Regno de Danmark |- | [[:d:Q223|Q223]] | +299 | GRL | | [[File:Flag of Greenland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Greenland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Groenlandia]] | [[File:Greenland (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | DK-GL | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_e1a1438fffe26481dcce7a3a041a830eca669d0de2adf0aaaaa56bd581a8ce1d">http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nth/og/pubs/prosp/c6_ba-eng.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q66724388|autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q788176|autonomous administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | Pais autonome intra le Regno de Danmark |- | [[:d:Q41|Q41]] | +30 | GRC | GRE | [[File:Flag of Greece.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Greece.svg|center|48px]] | [[Grecia]] | [[File:Greece on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_fbcd7da80077a1bc2938b596c96446109645525fc27e4c3c5b470d37779a5e20">http://www.britannica.com/nations/Greece</ref><ref name="ref_919eb75a9d61674a213fc961a84ae3d02bc6358d230df24385ec1cfca9d01dfd">http://www.justgreece.org</ref><ref name="ref_bbccf96b5d48698decad5413c8b90dacd924a8ba54e80d8c7e2a8f52fe06c774">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gr.html</ref><ref name="ref_c2d67b9e3a07d872ee28f66d2f0e22aa78db5c8eb2e9b18c4acd26b41f3eea1f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/greece</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_c2d67b9e3a07d872ee28f66d2f0e22aa78db5c8eb2e9b18c4acd26b41f3eea1f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/greece</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q29999|Q29999]] | +31<ref name="ref_fdf1ab678fe59093d6331cd3a6439e9bdb1149acefa85346c0263c5ac6f4e3cd">http://www.countrycallingcodes.com/country.php?country=Netherlands</ref> | NLD | | [[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal coat of arms of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Regno del Paises Basse]] | [[File:Kingdom of the Netherlands in its region (special marker).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20181813|colonial power]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1250464|realm]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q31|Q31]] | +32 | BEL | BEL | [[File:Flag of Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great coat of arms of Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | [[Belgica]] | [[File:EU-Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_595bd2d9063b0d63ab50f51fdaf3e73b9865533f726f11989b931e54cd295aa2">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/belgium</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q142|Q142]] | +33 | FRA | FRA | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_24586f4cbffe0665081df82c9c5e73f79348356487223b2dc34f514cfc958a02">https://www.europe1.fr/politique/info-e1-le-drapeau-francais-a-change-de-couleur-4076943</ref> | [[File:Arms of the French Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Francia]] | [[File:EU-France (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_a92d077c5f3818620affb2a5d7c48fa8255ac5b86d0bca5eb9961dbcf2aaf058">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/france</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_a92d077c5f3818620affb2a5d7c48fa8255ac5b86d0bca5eb9961dbcf2aaf058">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/france</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q29|Q29]] | +34 | ESP | ESP<br/>SPA<ref name="ref_441ce199c513a152aef7457e8d9baa34eaaafd6b369d45f9de3c14d47f6defc1">''[[:d:Q180672|list of IOC country codes]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of Spain.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de España (variant).svg|center|48px]] | [[Espania]] | [[File:Spain on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_816656db543d7f192ac0f5eedc1b0406efcaf2501630b58d76d99c4105e7ce6b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/spain</ref><ref name="ref_2142a8fd8def11ae59fe9733016dc538b1c6142a96c6a95f190270525975ed16">https://books.google.es/books?id=dciHDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=espa%C3%B1a+forma+Europa+geograf%C3%ADa&hl=es&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwju7ImYhdqKAxUlRvEDHTpLCPsQ6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=espa%C3%B1a%20forma%20Europa%20geograf%C3%ADa&f=false</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_c0734c4a4c9f9a09f2283bfb005697cd4dea47545ed0aea5eb3d79a7b3dc6766">https://books.google.es/books?id=dciHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=espa%C3%B1a+estado+soberano&hl=es&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZvb7YgdqKAxW9TaQEHYi1L-AQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=espa%C3%B1a%20estado%20soberano&f=false</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1250464|realm]]''<ref name="ref_c0734c4a4c9f9a09f2283bfb005697cd4dea47545ed0aea5eb3d79a7b3dc6766">https://books.google.es/books?id=dciHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=espa%C3%B1a+estado+soberano&hl=es&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZvb7YgdqKAxW9TaQEHYi1L-AQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=espa%C3%B1a%20estado%20soberano&f=false</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_816656db543d7f192ac0f5eedc1b0406efcaf2501630b58d76d99c4105e7ce6b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/spain</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<ref name="ref_f6e643aeb8317c43addd1338add17398b2150b82005b8eb7fe9f4a62db4f1a20">https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/biodiversidad/temas/espacios-protegidos/pbl_rn_region_mediterranea_tcm30-197189.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q179671|nation state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1410|Q1410]] | +350 | GIB | | [[File:Flag of Gibraltar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Gibraltar1.svg|center|48px]] | [[Gibraltar]] | [[File:Gibraltar location in Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_3d29c82e3baa841b09d9b9b3d90dfa52de4372e39fcb0938708203ec1cab03f2">https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/press/gibraltar-fact-sheets</ref> | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<ref name="ref_3d29c82e3baa841b09d9b9b3d90dfa52de4372e39fcb0938708203ec1cab03f2">https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/press/gibraltar-fact-sheets</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q2264924|port city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q900119|United Nations list of non-self-governing territories]]''<ref name="ref_48b69b1d187d696733b5fe4c026ed451633a131e2317cfa1a73d9d01cc933ea8">http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgovterritories.shtml</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q902814|border city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<ref name="ref_3d29c82e3baa841b09d9b9b3d90dfa52de4372e39fcb0938708203ec1cab03f2">https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/press/gibraltar-fact-sheets</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1200957|tourist destination]]''<br/>[[citate]]<ref name="ref_90fc85d406f4fa37137ab499b9cce2bfdb857196e9342ab74d8f58415463d6c8">https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62710553</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q45|Q45]] | +351 | PRT | POR | [[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Portugal.svg|center|48px]] | [[Portugal]] | [[File:Portugal on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_7dd3b4f770cc92367bf28c3810ee5f21e0cc00e546274fe622cc301b1595ad35">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/portugal</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_7dd3b4f770cc92367bf28c3810ee5f21e0cc00e546274fe622cc301b1595ad35">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/portugal</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q32|Q32]] | +352 | LUX | LUX | [[File:Flag of Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Greater coat of arms of the grand-duchy of Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | [[Luxemburg]] | [[File:EU-Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_6f6b9cbeea5b73d80fca82c231fa303dace021cea2b19f981218c30adced2e96">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/luxembourg</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q165116|grand duchy]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q27|Q27]] | +353 | IRL | IRL | [[File:Flag of Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica de Irlanda]] | [[File:EU-Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_0226aa9a6623e7b13b638119210b88dfc56094dcf1b162eba78e05b6cfb6b67b">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ei.html</ref><ref name="ref_3c60a482042fbb74b4f5bbbd1cbad0afee30c87787c812bc10f5b7a2791441f0">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/ireland</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q189|Q189]] | +354 | ISL | ISL | [[File:Flag of Iceland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Iceland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Islanda]] | [[File:Iceland (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_2f30bc0710ff0e3662171c0fc9fd97ca39729aade81cead0ece7873b13f2d2a1">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/iceland</ref> | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]''<ref name="ref_98d1b23b41cd51e23b3bfe865c80c37dbf722f949048af4d2eb8b52b7047cc9a">https://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/504/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q222|Q222]] | +355 | ALB | ALB | [[File:Flag of Albania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Albania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Albania]] | [[File:Albania (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_097291be158962d4fd9a39cf0bee371c5e32d0cc0583316874812456c0448b29">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/albania</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q233|Q233]] | +356 | MLT | MLT | [[File:Flag of Malta.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Malta.svg|center|48px]] | [[Malta]] | [[File:EU-Malta.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_b7d4225b765f9a3f3a6ee09618f7d4756f4eeed6e4278db7bd84c056a17e386e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/malta</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_b7d4225b765f9a3f3a6ee09618f7d4756f4eeed6e4278db7bd84c056a17e386e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/malta</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q229|Q229]] | +357 | CYP | CYP | [[File:Flag of Cyprus.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cyprus (2006).svg|center|48px]] | [[Cypro]] | [[File:EU-Cyprus highlighted.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_1d71be780813515197a846a13da1d3e1bbdc5470c1e3a52b378998a62e8c7f47">https://books.google.com/books?id=_bF8n8DaQtoC</ref><ref name="ref_89890a7a7bc1588181d8bf35632c151e020ed8b05fc81718d88ba90b328f393d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/cyprus</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q33|Q33]] | +358 | FIN | FIN | [[File:Flag of Finland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Finland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Finlandia]] | [[File:Finland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_b2fbbe130ed7a86b3cbf749b9ae5e393e0a863eed9fff73c9888f286f28a1c86">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/finland</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_318da0135bfb25d1f42d651688f070b4056ca932b27cf562763c8b665a912c1c">''[[:d:Q14334357|Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q219|Q219]] | +359 | BGR | BUL | [[File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Bulgaria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bulgaria]] | [[File:Bulgaria (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_c15d54ddab3e72940b361236236fc06bc4dff3d83613ac2db29c9204711c91f4">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/bulgaria</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q28|Q28]] | +36 | HUN | HUN | [[File:Flag of Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | [[Hungaria]] | [[File:EU-Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_953180b37fdb8af1a50baf297e99d796da7fca898ce1c64dc2b6b39273134fb7">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/hungary</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_4483f66877946ec33f67c3904523e9d019870bd6fd337507938223bc808df79f">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/hu.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q43|Q43]] | +36<ref name="ref_1469c45d8c5bc6b566b5bd5ef8a84d55c944ca058a1c8f2f7e8c9047f8037c2c">https://www.mistikalem.com/bilim/teknoloji/turkiyenin-uluslararasi-telefon-kodu-neden-36-iken-90-oldu-haberi-16868</ref><br/>+90<ref name="ref_1469c45d8c5bc6b566b5bd5ef8a84d55c944ca058a1c8f2f7e8c9047f8037c2c">https://www.mistikalem.com/bilim/teknoloji/turkiyenin-uluslararasi-telefon-kodu-neden-36-iken-90-oldu-haberi-16868</ref> | TUR | TUR | [[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Turchia]] | [[File:Turkey (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_9d123b803345e5f5fd93f6ed7b47471adbabd6d11e687cc8abae11a1010b52ab">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/turkey</ref><br/>[[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais transcontinental]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_9e59fb0cade2e24af05b8139af1c56c8541241a8b9a620ca0b1c15c7c4c3fc35">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q619610|social state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q339834|regional power]]''<br/>[[stato secular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16957|Q16957]] | +37 | DDR | GDR | [[File:Flag of the German Democratic Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State arms of the German Democratic Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Germania Oriental]] | [[File:East Germany 1956-1990.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q37|Q37]] | +370 | LTU | LTU | [[File:Flag of Lithuania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Lithuania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lituania]] | [[File:Lithuania on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_79a1fa5e385278944beec646bc8f107e57e651278d8346fc564118944b938877">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/lithuania</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q211|Q211]] | +371 | LVA | LAT | [[File:Flag of Latvia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Latvia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lettonia]] | [[File:Latvia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_7479e1fb1e27d7411d1ffd3322266c5f8c8e1729f809fb7e5f9fe281e087b395">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/latvia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | republica in le nord de Europa |- | [[:d:Q191|Q191]] | +372 | EST | EST | [[File:Flag of Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Estonia]] | [[File:EU-Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_89858635d1d4e1e5cf622dbd9ab76a49f5468813d004350e3380e228dd35b83d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/estonia</ref> | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_89858635d1d4e1e5cf622dbd9ab76a49f5468813d004350e3380e228dd35b83d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/estonia</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_54e342fdf5e3df1445603c89567af796e487dcfef339f4a0ae5ed1b3fe9ffe09">https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/521052015001/consolide/current</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q217|Q217]] | +373 | MDA | MDA | [[File:Flag of Moldova.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Moldova.svg|center|48px]] | [[Moldavia]] | [[File:Location Moldova Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_18ec1cec48f5ad51ce97a6876b0c6db3d720e58b0ad76e42e68bf5b1836a8230">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/moldova</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de Europa |- | [[:d:Q399|Q399]] | +374 | ARM | ARM | [[File:Flag of Armenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Armenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Armenia]] | [[File:Armenia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_5456e2b473ba6d1537df5b7e21d19f742275ee23ad78827658777b14690b939b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/armenia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais eurasian del Caucaso Sud |- | [[:d:Q184|Q184]] | +375 | BLR | BLR | [[File:Flag of Belarus.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Belarus (2020–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[Bielorussia]] | [[File:Belarus on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_d249a9563d71da3c3f5d6459610dfca1efa9663c5a5ceff9f792ef86b4a59c48">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/belarus</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q619610|social state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q228|Q228]] | +376 | AND | AND | [[File:Flag of Andorra.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Andorra.svg|center|48px]] | [[Andorra]] | [[File:Andorra on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_332debc29b1bcc8f4b944ce17dc1c2f3f0cbad9f9e18c7814e5af20bc64c5faa">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/andorra</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q235|Q235]] | +377 | MCO | MON | [[File:Flag of Monaco.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Monaco.svg|center|48px]] | [[Monaco (principato)|Monaco]] | [[File:Monaco on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_235dc882e6b895d848f43fc4df01ad49b7ad2acd7a54e338bd4a5c0aff6708ae">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/monaco</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[Principato]]<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q902814|border city]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q238|Q238]] | +378 | SMR | SMR | [[File:Flag of San Marino.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of San Marino.svg|center|48px]] | [[San Marino]] | [[File:Location San Marino Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_f0a15b91b618e1b83cee389e1150eeeda64872ac241f3a1605e645b0d76f1254">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/san-marino</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q171441|enclave]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q244381|microstate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q237|Q237]] | +379<ref name="ref_bc9e3e7286431ef16ca38929df8897e9bcd1dc5065fcdd2b34861b72b58ee370">https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-E.164D-11-2011-PDF-E.pdf</ref> | VAT | | [[File:Flag of Vatican City (2023–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Vatican City (2023–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[Citate Vatican]] | [[File:Location of the Vatican City in Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | [[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q171441|enclave]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q98116669|religious complex]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19691007|institutional complex]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q702492|area urban]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1200957|tourist destination]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10551526|confessional state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7396640|sacerdotal state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q212|Q212]] | +380 | UKR | UKR | [[File:Flag of Ukraine.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_5ed3251867e0b91b05961b69a825c79af31d20592aa1b6c6c02c084f36419866">''[[:d:Q127974|flag of Ukraine]]''</ref> | [[File:Coat of Arms of Ukraine (Pantone).svg|center|48px]] | [[Ukraina]] | [[File:Ukraine (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_d7f3fbf911ccc5e0cabba1efbe3a7d2fe53e36a359a9eb710109378e62030924">''[[:d:Q4041526|Internetowa encyklopedia PWN]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d8fc93073faf2413a7418e9dcfa2147fe213392313ac54f77016b70c806e0b7f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/ukraine</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_6ffc63bfb6be52fa62e52df154cb155bb3608a135ef80e4f6f72beb583682da2">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/up.html</ref><ref name="ref_7f356e30362b34841f34d2d2aa38ba88bf15d98584825e43e49f099d271bd872">http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30096/Ukraine</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>[[republica]]<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q619610|social state]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]''<ref name="ref_26acfc01b6c3b5a18a274ccd29ed3d723b814fc3cbec9643244ef3238ffb54cf">''[[:d:Q1048515|political world map]]''</ref> | pais de Europa oriental |- | [[:d:Q403|Q403]] | +381 | SRB | SRB | [[File:Flag of Serbia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Serbia]] | [[File:Europe-Serbia (2006–2008).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_56178fb2b3ba2afb7bf8122966b7655d29662167cb1f249ac845318eb480993e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/serbia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q236|Q236]] | +382 | MNE | MNE | [[File:Flag of Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | [[Montenegro]] | [[File:LocationMontenegro.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_2cb60dd1db08471e0e95accfd5f62ff8f6c8b16268cef03b4e69cc8e935f7a98">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/montenegro</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1246|Q1246]] | +383 | XKS | KOS | [[File:Flag of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the Republic of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kosovo]] | [[File:Europe-Republic of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10711424|stato non recognoscite]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_aa458e28623f0fe17ade40df0205fb0b44f4aea39e935882d7bc0ce285236eb7">https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kosovo/2013-04-24/kosovo-and-serbia-make-deal</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q224|Q224]] | +385 | HRV | CRO | [[File:Flag of Croatia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Croatia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Croatia]] | [[File:EU-Croatia (orthographic projection).png|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_3672a2a82782c55b216fc45d48687811ab5a0e821a47ce40e8a5b5579b5701eb">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/croatia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q215|Q215]] | +386 | SVN | SLO | [[File:Flag of Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Slovenia]] | [[File:EU-Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_3a191855b72e446ee66c8c377ac37367f78b5eace54eb970b2408cdfd3731602">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/slovenia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q22909549|unitary parliamentary republic]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q225|Q225]] | +387 | BIH | BIH | [[File:Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bosnia e Herzegovina]] | [[File:Bosnia and Herzegovina (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_d8d30cea60639f17b5f61e0794e2d456119e9b044d21fe6a6afc3122899e34a4">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/bosnia-and-herzegovina</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_b8423ba8340e8b33fb505561ed0125432eb23a2565c8790412ae86b19bd45f82">https://www.ustavnisud.ba/public/down/USTAV_BOSNE_I_HERCEGOVINE_engl.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q221|Q221]] | +389 | MKD | MKD | [[File:Flag of North Macedonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of North Macedonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Macedonia del Nord|Republica del Macedonia del Nord]] | [[File:North Macedonia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_36b85b5b3863115ec3948b3809826e138d217113d38e743f3554e586eeb08575">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/north-macedonia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q38|Q38]] | +39 | ITA | ITA | [[File:Flag of Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Italia]] | [[File:Italy on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_fe4898b5ac99c11de0a2928de4169b888882f4443640945f2f432a910b4853d6">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/italy</ref> | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref> | Italia es un pais del sud de Europa, membro del Union Europee |- | [[:d:Q218|Q218]] | +40 | ROU | ROU | [[File:Flag of Romania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Romania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Romania]] | [[File:Romania on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_3d755d4b97dd1829ec35094fc9d098713ef5e2284882ef097aad95113b338f4b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/romania</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179671|nation state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q39|Q39]] | +41 | CHE | SUI | [[File:Flag of Switzerland.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_ab7fc05533a6a1045f2ce8ad338b0792ed51296f1397b7e775499d19e43c8e57">https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20091656/index.html#app1ahref0</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of Switzerland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Switza]] | [[File:Switzerland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_dd92ac4d34f2a75f0a50a741fe8e7d2946841a2df58853aef2804394d2df61a5">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/switzerland</ref> | [[stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170156|confederation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43702|federation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | republica federal in Europa occidental |- | [[:d:Q33946|Q33946]] | +42 | CSK | TCH | [[File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Czechoslovakia (1960–1990).svg|center|48px]] | [[Checoslovachia]] | [[File:Czechoslovakia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q213|Q213]] | +420<ref name="ref_df79ecfd6cebe09b4d21d14e878829878d442d477e525f5c08223b432e633c9c">https://www.itu.int/oth/T0202.aspx?parent=T0202</ref> | CZE | CZE | [[File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Chec]] | [[File:EU-Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_8645e6affd6454487e5530ed31ed7a90de88f9b018af1bac5423f56ba4bfad7f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/czech-republic</ref> | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_8645e6affd6454487e5530ed31ed7a90de88f9b018af1bac5423f56ba4bfad7f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/czech-republic</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_3e5b9bab813465412853331eda013f076fbcdd7ad1a4220fc096b9ec9c3819bf">''[[:d:Q2948382|Constitution of the Czech Republic]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | pais de Europa |- | [[:d:Q214|Q214]] | +421 | SVK | SVK | [[File:Flag of Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Slovachia]] | [[File:EU-Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_1424c4194101285151107afadf98760d8d7016023fc10c482db8b7d6ec89b87f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/slovak-republic</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q347|Q347]] | +423 | LIE | LIE | [[File:Flag of Liechtenstein.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Staatswappen-Liechtensteins.svg|center|48px]] | [[Liechtenstein]] | [[File:Liechtenstein on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_0d937f1eaa0a8ce3c1dbab48fbc6a3a1758a45e720a52f371696280451670afc">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/liechtenstein</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q40|Q40]] | +43 | AUT | AUT | [[File:Flag of Austria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Austria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Austria]] | [[File:EU-Austria.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_e33536185a3a577767c4df8815505e3839cdb3ac340226ff3e9f0263fb53a77a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/austria</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_8c9140023642283c5ce8f0054419301e4e661b4d544d74f911a04dbe4e1b2919">''[[:d:Q1005391|Federal Constitutional Law]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<ref name="ref_8c9140023642283c5ce8f0054419301e4e661b4d544d74f911a04dbe4e1b2919">''[[:d:Q1005391|Federal Constitutional Law]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_e33536185a3a577767c4df8815505e3839cdb3ac340226ff3e9f0263fb53a77a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/austria</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q145|Q145]] | +44 | GBR | GBR | [[File:Flag of the United Kingdom (3-5).svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_2e1423dcb8b790e2e90a3897a27b6871f1f66485f3fef42b8884658e2a229779">https://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/resources/union-flag-approved-designs</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (2022, variant 2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Regno Unite]] | [[File:Europe-UK.svg|center|48px]] | GB-UKM | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_dfdffa9d57b2fb35a670d3ccd0f5108d106431f778afe76ae9340c6b22d4a968">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/united-kingdom</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_07aba9f4379b9bcc0a6454827692516fc6c733e43765fde9ef8e09c53c9b2bab">https://www.legislation.gov.uk/aip/Geo3/40/38</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q20181813|colonial power]]''<br/>[[stato insular]] | |- | [[:d:Q785|Q785]] | +44 | JEY<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca652d7e17bcaf3c9763053fbd648993f635d0474f5bfa63eea979be1687f653">''[[:d:Q1520117|Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names]]''</ref> | | [[File:Flag of Jersey.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Jersey.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q785|Jersey]]'' | [[File:Europe-Jersey.svg|center|48px]] | GB-JSY | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]''<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q9676|Q9676]] | +44<ref name="ref_b714df18ef994aabad5b33575fae9a331bb1a7dc5b689b12caafedbcadefb338">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/isle-of-man/</ref> | IMN | | [[File:Flag of the Isle of Man.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Isle of Man.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insula de Man]] | [[File:Europe-Isle of Man.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25230|Q25230]] | +44 | GGY | | [[File:Flag of Guernsey.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guernsey.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25230|Guernsey]]'' | [[File:Europe-Guernsey.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | ''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4996207|bailiwick]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q35|Q35]] | +45 | DNK | DEN | [[File:Flag of Denmark.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National coat of arms of Denmark.svg|center|48px]] | [[Danmark]] | [[File:Denmark (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_2ab2d3efd2b6883b381ce9a652bd0a5322344d6df7b3edab85734fc96927cc79">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/denmark</ref> | [[stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q20181813|colonial power]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q66724388|autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q34|Q34]] | +46 | SWE | SWE | [[File:Flag of Sweden.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great coat of arms of Sweden.svg|center|48px]] | [[Svedia]] | [[File:Sweden on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_85068a0db46453daf483b5ba47c8fa4ab52bb44c01b35806a36e5e3a58b5717f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/sweden</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[Monarchia constitutional]] | |- | [[:d:Q20|Q20]] | +47 | NOR | NOR | [[File:Flag of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | [[Norvegia|Norvega]] | [[File:Europe-Norway.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_fc099a57536d047473ad7df4ff76be5a912448e57d6a1fbd89f6dff87c3affb7">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/norway</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_238811c00bbde06ebcef712fe55f6c4e005d6573d58ef9fc61e20136bd11c169">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/no.html</ref> | pais in Europa |- | [[:d:Q36|Q36]] | +48 | POL | POL | [[File:Flag of Poland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Herb Polski.svg|center|48px]] | [[Polonia]] | [[File:Poland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_1141d2922ee6e0af6cb7b1552630080174d486c3a0ec7527e3f165a83465e88e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/poland</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q183|Q183]] | +49 | DEU | GER<ref name="ref_7051b4fa8b9e1fd011a3751668a1a7d17dace442ab69f795ae7cd785f21ca7e6">https://www.laenderdaten.de/kuerzel/olympia.aspx</ref><ref name="ref_14f12b58ecf7e955915f42a62d53c127443a3805dc49bc5b11cfcbf6a89c6802">''[[:d:Q28796597|Olympic.org athletes database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79e4d44474c511272c7ee74bc50614da858523aec6ef10464aea6ef133b76b29">https://www.worlddata.info/countrycodes.php</ref> | [[File:Flag of Germany.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_1d422822f174182146a3ebf7ed95f411618ba7c64ac7d21c1e4fe9147edeb999">''[[:d:Q56045|Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]]''</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of Germany.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_7b1be4b5c5406071713a14f29b675da8b4bf2fcf605c1e15c08f26ab8844ae1f">''[[:d:Q836156|Bundesgesetzblatt]]''</ref> | [[Germania]] | [[File:Germany (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_8994a5d7462aefdbea449b87b3c75500724d67a43898039a18a6f10e06f8d2ce">https://tuerkei.diplo.de/tr-de/themen/08-kids-corner/-/1602334</ref><ref name="ref_28b4a876afe5bc29aa93ea5e1d077508e10499391b0dca5ba9a493d360bd35a8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/germany</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_0e8d288976e5fc82ece1969aac468ee1b37e61ce5becb93cfcc5ed975493294e">''[[:d:Q1206379|General Treaty]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0aaaa5a7a82b0a7c136905d5fdcea358424e8a04be48b9d47cb8e8cd8be10345">https://www.ndr.de/geschichte/chronologie/Deutschlandvertrag-Wie-die-Bundesrepublik-souveraen-wurde,deutschlandvertrag100.html</ref><ref name="ref_2ebe9814d2917c7003bf83a374e6ebc357663e1b2a5ad7faa6d40ad2e07afc3d">https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/579364/034b11190e6f59ada9686600ee020f37/wd-3-119-09-pdf-data.pdf</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q9648|Q9648]] | +500 | FLK | FLK | [[File:Flag of the Falkland Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Falkland Islands (relief).svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Falkland]] | [[File:Location map of the Falklands – Alternative version 4.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_203f3398d59e1eab4d90d7772b9082a662f7d5689d7d159c89ce7bc067c1b4bb">https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/south-america-human-geography/print/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | archipelago in le Atlantico meridional, e un territorio britannic de ultramar, disputate per Argentina |- | [[:d:Q35086|Q35086]] | +500 | SGS | | [[File:Flag of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q35086|South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]'' | [[File:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in United Kingdom.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]] | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q242|Q242]] | +501 | BLZ | BIZ | [[File:Flag of Belize.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Belize.svg|center|48px]] | [[Belize]] | [[File:BLZ orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_3c98eafb0d4c40878e965dfadc6441c2c87d66ccc85fd5c1f1a72495d062fb80">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/belize</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q774|Q774]] | +502 | GTM | GUA | [[File:Flag of Guatemala.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guatemala.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guatemala]] | [[File:Guatemala on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_98679fcaebc52997a11177fc30555e916cfc69b530f2421ecb540aecf9db30e9">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/guatemala</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q171751|banana republic]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q792|Q792]] | +503 | SLV | ESA | [[File:Flag of El Salvador.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of El Salvador.svg|center|48px]] | [[El Salvador]] | [[File:Orthographic Map of El Salvador.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_70b20e416ca5a00772ef3965e3330e0d5b9bbce4968b133f3a416e50f7bda5ce">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/el-salvador</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q783|Q783]] | +504 | HND | HON | [[File:Flag of Honduras (1949–2022, 2026–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Honduras.svg|center|48px]] | [[Honduras]] | [[File:Honduras (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_0d1c3e1552324fe47da2fcbd9bd42258c5818c866757f0381d5aaeee643cab10">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/honduras</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q811|Q811]] | +505 | NIC | NCA | [[File:Flag of Nicaragua.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Nicaragua.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nicaragua]] | [[File:Nicaragua (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_a75c072cecb60eed6d2fdbf2f67c23b4730f13f79c6a5af8702cd2bb43554ec8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/nicaragua</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q800|Q800]] | +506 | CRI | CRC | [[File:Flag of Costa Rica.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Costa Rica.svg|center|48px]] | [[Costa Rica]] | [[File:Costa Rica (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_ddab406ed76bc355fe46531eaf50bcae55bbbe305380b0bc0306ebb912b36599">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/costa-rica</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_ddab406ed76bc355fe46531eaf50bcae55bbbe305380b0bc0306ebb912b36599">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/costa-rica</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q804|Q804]] | +507 | PAN | PAN | [[File:Flag of Panama.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Panama.svg|center|48px]] | [[Panama]] | [[File:PAN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q34617|Q34617]] | +508 | SPM | | [[File:Flag of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries SaintPierreetMiquelon.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q34617|Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]'' | [[File:Saint Pierre and Miquelon in France.svg|center|48px]] | FR-PM | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q790|Q790]] | +509 | HTI | HAI | [[File:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Haiti.svg|center|48px]] | [[Haiti]] | [[File:Haiti (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_905bef37a7c7392a2f0df8827fe0818ee03e71dcf51b29d39e3ca3f7d65c6bba">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/haiti</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q419|Q419]] | +51 | PER | PER | [[File:Flag of Peru.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo nacional del Perú.svg|center|48px]] | [[Peru]] | [[File:Peru (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_1fd5d6cd2fb26be70c8c8fcd6dd3496cda984b2d1f36def17dca285aeeab3b64">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/peru</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q96|Q96]] | +52 | MEX<ref name="ref_48d0ce6be950795de8ca7fff8e44dbc620d6e5a7b241a75d037258726867406a">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:MX</ref> | MEX | [[File:Flag of Mexico.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Mexico.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | [[Mexico]] | [[File:MEX orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_ed55f80116d256bcda4e59c84019208f7437ab56659e14f04b1fc61d7bea6a61">http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm</ref><ref name="ref_57a61da440053f5fb9c595807f0e40a5716a527552ffc7b6563d171d0c18dcc6">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mexico</ref><ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q241|Q241]] | +53 | CUB | CUB | [[File:Flag of Cuba.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|center|48px]] | [[Cuba]] | [[File:Cuba (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]]<ref name="ref_5c70ac92f86e31f55867c9d14bb707f54acdbbfff2caa8898681ac3b65c9a30d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/cuba</ref> | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849866|communist state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q414|Q414]] | +54 | ARG | ARG | [[File:Flag of Argentina.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Argentina.svg|center|48px]] | [[Argentina]] | [[File:ARG orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_e616ef27e84dce01a65dcb178dbd75b7dbceb23fb4bff8a3c79f35707040b686">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/argentina</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[nation]]<br/>''[[:d:Q10551526|confessional state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q155|Q155]] | +55 | BRA | BRA | [[File:Flag of Brazil.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg|center|48px]] | [[Brasil]] | [[File:BRA orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_fddb9d0df98a18a5136998def2603820369b7f646426d22a09005e177fde7afc">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/brazil</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><ref name="ref_5c82beb1fb4dd02d663f37b907e0cca990987aef221d1fbf12883eefd4a2f8b1">https://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<ref name="ref_02c70ce7e82c7b584465384c48cfa48df62e8157043980dd85c87ac7ede9f667">https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/constituicao.htm?lang=pt</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q298|Q298]] | +56 | CHL | CHI | [[File:Flag of Chile.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Chile (c).svg|center|48px]] | [[Chile]] | [[File:CHL orthographic (+all claims).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_e1310045a66773c61bd0e84b83324cf1e2fa4d46dfe527c44eb0b834a66ec172">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/chile</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[nation]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5255892|republica democratic]]''<br/>[[pais transcontinental]] | |- | [[:d:Q739|Q739]] | +57 | COL | COL | [[File:Flag of Colombia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Colombia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Colombia]] | [[File:COL orthographic (San Andrés and Providencia special).svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_994d63c4bc3c8f9e8f60ac8f00f3f218cd213b0e0a0ed07075aeface0e40a86e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/colombia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q717|Q717]] | +58 | VEN | VEN | [[File:Flag of Venezuela.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Venezuela.svg|center|48px]] | [[Venezuela]] | [[File:VEN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_34753d3ee3e55d18087148c8246f9edac384974ed010dee94db2716ef96bed2d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/venezuela</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q17012|Q17012]] | +590 | GLP | | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guadeloupe.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guadalupe|Guadeloupe]] | [[File:Guadeloupe in France 2016.svg|center|48px]] | FR-971 | [[America del Nord]] | [[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25362|Q25362]] | +590 | BLM | | [[File:Flag of Saint Barthélemy (local).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Blason St Barthélémy TOM entire.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25362|Saint Barthélemy]]'' | [[File:Saint Barthelemy in France.svg|center|48px]] | FR-BL | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]''<ref name="ref_acb678d6cb9dd51a3fd3981405e68362fe227c398b2f88f9205d3f195172710d">''[[:d:Q47486150|loi organique n° 2007-223 du 21 février 2007 portant dispositions statutaires et institutionnelles relatives à l'outre-mer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q126125|Q126125]] | +590 | MAF | | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:St Martin Coat.png|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q126125|Saint-Martin]]'' | [[File:Saint Martin in its region (zoom).svg|center|48px]] | FR-MF | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q750|Q750]] | +591 | BOL | BOL | [[File:Flag of Bolivia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de Bolivia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bolivia]] | [[File:BOL orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_2514490d267edd0ccf67aeebd5cdef6d1a6d46658d0144e8b169f7a5d0e7fcb4">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/bolivia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q734|Q734]] | +592 | GUY | GUY | [[File:Flag of Guyana.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guyana.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guyana]] | [[File:GUY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_67a868b6b67f9a228949dd4acfd83f0001226596d8ef5d369cd4e6cafa99769a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/guyana</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q736|Q736]] | +593 | ECU | ECU | [[File:Flag of Ecuador.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ecuador.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ecuador]] | [[File:ECU orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_e295c77e6eef104bd08bdae6da90dff1b51e9bdd08fddcf3e2a516176409d6ac">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador/</ref><ref name="ref_1549cd7b08d3efa66a50a207465ae84b898d1ee78b3472cd0f637050f3df5674">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/ecuador</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q3769|Q3769]] | +594 | GUF | | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of French Guiana, according to the original displayed at the Museum Franconie, at Cayenne.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q3769|French Guiana]]'' | [[File:French Guiana (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | FR-973 | [[America del Sud]] | ''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>[[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]] | |- | [[:d:Q733|Q733]] | +595 | PRY | PAR | [[File:Flag of Paraguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Paraguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[Paraguay]] | [[File:PRY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_498e84adec1a718348a511c10a611145cd12143230bf83cba372af4ddc8f5ca8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/paraguay</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q17054|Q17054]] | +596 | MTQ | | [[File:Flag-of-Martinique.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Martinica]] | [[File:Martinique-CIA WFB Map.png|center|48px]] | FR-972 | [[America del Nord]] | [[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q730|Q730]] | +597 | SUR | SUR | [[File:Flag of Suriname.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Suriname.svg|center|48px]] | [[Suriname]] | [[File:SURINAME orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q116052725|national geopolitical entity]]''<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q77|Q77]] | +598 | URY | URU | [[File:Flag of Uruguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Uruguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[Uruguay]] | [[File:URY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Sud]]<ref name="ref_3fc46b9f24a8ea483e8de2a69e4e9850b7ca55f5a20994df6ed612892cc8a304">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/uruguay</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1520223|republica constitutional]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27561|Q27561]] | +599 | BES<ref name="ref_b487e18951526d42430f1cf1c21ee328d29004b78388d2bd2e82fab9d7187199">https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/iso_3166-1_newsletter_vi-8_split_of_the_dutch_antilles_final-en.pdf</ref> | | | | ''[[:d:Q27561|Caribbean Netherlands]]'' | [[File:BES islands location map.svg|center|48px]] | | [[America del Nord]] | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25279|Q25279]] | +5999 | CUW | | [[File:Flag of Curaçao.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Curaçao.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25279|Curaçao]]'' | [[File:Curacao in its region.svg|center|48px]] | NL-CW<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[America del Nord]] | ''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q833|Q833]] | +60 | MYS<ref name="ref_91ced5a92c53470c76e4c318a3e14e7348c772d5741a91228cccdd5a43e6e26a">''[[:d:Q292649|AGROVOC]]''</ref> | MAS | [[File:Flag of Malaysia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Malaysia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Malaysia]] | [[File:Malaysia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_4db31c2abbd25705c252d2a83966507548cf6104716341bf45b5502c200016d5">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/malaysia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]''<ref name="ref_87e6c82e5f9b0556ae953ae2489ab52303f0d0299fb57a9cf6edfcb59ff06036">https://web.archive.org/web/20230703175319/https://books.google.com/books?id=hmIDAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Norfolk+Island+,+New+Zealand+,+and+some+smaller%22&pg=PA458</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q408|Q408]] | +61<ref name="ref_3c8ec2e7664ec852051e6cd9f0b6b2fbb0da9322c5c9c9cf52343863015308a9">http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/telephone-country-and-area-codes</ref> | AUS<ref name="ref_63f5ca7a183963ae457d8f89197c39e30c3e1963bcf902fb3e780d1dbf4e9c8a">''[[:d:Q25275|ISO 3166-1]]''</ref> | AUS | [[File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_81c89a07f6d8245f3f610a5338eb4d06b8867ad0833011281075a438da9ceee8">https://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/symbols/flag.cfm</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Australia]] | [[File:AUS orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]]<ref name="ref_55b989eb7cce48a09a35b5932d4bfe396cfa0c87723f34b78db550924ba8e125">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/australia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43702|federation]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q36004|Q36004]] | +61891 | CCK | | [[File:Flag of the Cocos (Keeling) Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Clunies-Ross family arms.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q36004|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]'' | [[File:Cocos (Keeling) Islands on the globe (Southeast Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]] | ''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q252|Q252]] | +62 | IDN | INA | [[File:Flag of Indonesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg|center|48px]] | [[Indonesia]] | [[File:Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_970dd6a46d4f65845c7cbd5220c7d0d74219a48387ec0cabf1594edb82643050">https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/continent/</ref><ref name="ref_c55e382eccb9df0acee0cc1da5d37980fd422383f9c3ecf6120f084c3ec5f28d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/indonesia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1520223|republica constitutional]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q928|Q928]] | +63 | PHL | PHI | [[File:Flag of the Philippines.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Philippines.svg|center|48px]] | [[Philippinas]] | [[File:Philippines on the globe (Philippines centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_90ddd9118d68da7e61f33410d7080c6b560febc48a82e4ce29895642ab46bf64">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/philippines</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_81ccc0a78ceeb0d2999af5af7bc2806ac346781fcd398871eaf267afc8de71d0">http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[stato insular]] | |- | [[:d:Q664|Q664]] | +64 | NZL | NZL | [[File:Flag of New Zealand.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of New Zealand.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nove Zelanda]] | [[File:NZL orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]]<ref name="ref_43526c89d88275bc84852dc4b538fedc841dc0a120e0c438af7a537de4086408">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/new-zealand</ref> | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_c6871316bdeb1556c2cb74d8cc18cbb2d6fdef879d68bebda378e8b70461e1f2">https://www.parliament.nz/en/pb/research-papers/document/00PLLawRP07041/new-zealand-sovereignty-1857-1907-1947-or-1987</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[stato insular]] | |- | [[:d:Q35672|Q35672]] | +64 | PCN | | [[File:Flag of the Pitcairn Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Pitcairn Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Pitcairn]] | [[File:Pitcairn Islands on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>[[archipelago]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q334|Q334]] | +65 | SGP | SGP | [[File:Flag of Singapore.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Singapore.svg|center|48px]] | [[Singapur]] | [[File:Singapore on the globe (Southeast Asia centered) zoom.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_591a47b973127214527a344ead22a6b9c5a29e61cecdefd3efe8549371974412">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/singapore</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[citate]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2264924|port city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1549591|citate grande]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q902814|border city]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[Citate global]]<br/>''[[:d:Q108178728|national capital]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q869|Q869]] | +66 | THA | THA | [[File:Flag of Thailand.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Thailand.svg|center|48px]] | [[Thailanda]] | [[File:Thailand (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_1662d307f567064dc266b2cfac2a07109ffb99efbaf1b75321fe85a45954972d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/thailand</ref> | [[Monarchia constitutional]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q574|Q574]] | +670 | TLS | TLS | [[File:Flag of East Timor.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of East Timor.svg|center|48px]] | [[Timor Oriental]] | [[File:Timor Leste (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_8362efb05122fa36809795881d4668b18e17bdd60c854c2c5fab6a7f55182648">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/timor-leste</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q51|Q51]] | +672 | ATA | | | | [[Antarctica]] | [[File:Antarctica (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | | [[continente]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_683b2661c49be29f69007bda6012994faeb7dbcefb33fdba8ec0685c5503f9be">''[[:d:Q43400782|БСЭ1 / Антарктида]]''</ref><br/>[[region]]<br/>''[[:d:Q312461|terra nullius]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2418896|part of the world]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2221906|geographic location]]'' | continente |- | [[:d:Q10372207|Q10372207]] | +672 | ATA | | [[File:Flag of the Antarctic Treaty.svg|center|48px]] | No/unknown value | ''[[:d:Q10372207|Antarctic Treaty area]]'' | [[File:Mapa Polo Sur.png|center|48px]] | | [[Antarctica]] | ''[[:d:Q734818|condominium]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q312461|terra nullius]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q31057|Q31057]] | +6723 | NFK | | [[File:Flag of Norfolk Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Norfolk Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[Norfuk Ailen]] | [[File:Australia in its region (Norfolk Island special).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14192199|territory of Australia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q921|Q921]] | +673 | BRN<ref name="ref_85f197c05a3a50ab610b9354a76864571e64192440bbfe1f06301e0f182262ec">https://www.ISO.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:BN</ref> | BRU | [[File:Flag of Brunei.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Brunei.svg|center|48px]] | [[Brunei]] | [[File:Brunei on the globe (Southeast Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_4becd3be642e592e77e314fc7d958e6dad76a875a3179bc1ff6f9d1916367001">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/brunei</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[Sultanato]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_85f197c05a3a50ab610b9354a76864571e64192440bbfe1f06301e0f182262ec">https://www.ISO.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:BN</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q697|Q697]] | +674<ref name="ref_f445a3c22990f1d62e6cc18fc0fe03673e9da07854dda7c809cfb12ee03b8b84">''[[:d:Q373|Wikivoyage]]''</ref> | NRU | NRU | [[File:Flag of Nauru.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Nauru (2020).svg|center|48px]] | [[Nauru]] | [[File:Nauru on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q691|Q691]] | +675 | PNG | PNG | [[File:Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Papua New Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Papua Nove Guinea]] | [[File:Papua New Guinea (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]] | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[Monarchia constitutional]] | |- | [[:d:Q678|Q678]] | +676 | TON | TGA | [[File:Flag of Tonga.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tonga.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tonga]] | [[File:Tonga on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]] | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q918240|territorial evolution of the British Empire]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q685|Q685]] | +677 | SLB | SOL | [[File:Flag of the Solomon Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Solomon Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Salomon]] | [[File:Solomon Islands on the globe (Oceania centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]]<ref name="ref_7f5ca980c7c2189a89782643533e6234e580f7f98aa6844d2d32279248a3e8ad">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/solomon-islands</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q686|Q686]] | +678 | VUT | VAN | [[File:Flag of Vanuatu.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Vanuatu.svg|center|48px]] | [[Vanuatu]] | [[File:Vanuatu on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q712|Q712]] | +679<ref name="ref_202d137c6425b2a43a20e310db64cbd63e6934c5462ed66403c3e1a2d82eeab6">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html</ref> | FJI | FIJ | [[File:Flag of Fiji.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Fiji.svg|center|48px]] | [[Fiji]] | [[File:Fiji (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]''<ref name="ref_202d137c6425b2a43a20e310db64cbd63e6934c5462ed66403c3e1a2d82eeab6">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html</ref> | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q695|Q695]] | +680 | PLW | PLW | [[File:Flag of Palau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of Palau.svg|center|48px]] | [[Palau]] | [[File:Palau on the globe (Southeast Asia centered) (small islands magnified).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]''<br/>[[Oceania]]<ref name="ref_daf169b91264e60c8364612cb2060080f814d06ec09d7ebceeda0cfaba3360c4">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/palau</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q35555|Q35555]] | +681 | WLF | | [[File:Flag of Wallis and Futuna.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:BlasonWallisetFutuna.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q35555|Wallis and Futuna]]'' | [[File:Wallis and Futuna in France (zoomed).svg|center|48px]] | FR-WF | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q26988|Q26988]] | +682 | COK | COK | [[File:Flag of the Cook Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Cook Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q26988|Cook Islands]]'' | [[File:Cook Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1138279|associated state]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q34020|Q34020]] | +683 | NIU | | [[File:Flag of Niue.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Niue.jpg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q34020|Niue]]'' | [[File:Niue on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1138279|associated state]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q683|Q683]] | +685 | WSM | SAM | [[File:Flag of Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Public Seal of Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | [[Samoa]] | [[File:Samoa on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q710|Q710]] | +686 | KIR | KIR | [[File:Flag of Kiribati.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Kiribati.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kiribati]] | [[File:Kiribati on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]''<br/>[[Oceania]]<ref name="ref_d7c103e6ebce9cca16cd4b40558d38bf1c32b659302b6caf56e1517ac3078a0b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/kiribati</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q33788|Q33788]] | +687 | NCL | | [[File:Flag of FLNKS.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of New Caledonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nove Caledonia]] | [[File:New Caledonia in France (zoomed).svg|center|48px]] | FR-NC | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q672|Q672]] | +688 | TUV | TUV | [[File:Flag of Tuvalu.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tuvalu.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tuvalu]] | [[File:Tuvalu in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]''<br/>[[Oceania]]<ref name="ref_7cd05220d2aea3511b2677c79066753c92268a3a67a0a57bd82accd0e6458f8c">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/tuvalu</ref> | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30971|Q30971]] | +689 | PYF | | [[File:Flag of French Polynesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of French Polynesia.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q30971|French Polynesia]]'' | [[File:French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | FR-PF | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q36823|Q36823]] | +690 | TKL | | [[File:Flag of Tokelau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Badge of Tokelau.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q36823|Tokelau]]'' | [[File:LocationTokelau.png|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q538|Oceania]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q702|Q702]] | +691 | FSM | FSM | [[File:Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Statos Federate de Micronesia|Micronesia]] | [[File:Micronesia on the globe (Micronesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]]<ref name="ref_35ec7f61ba88d07db6051a9635d5a80b6346c204c801f053db14ed60df06a80f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/micronesia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q709|Q709]] | +692 | MHL | MHL | [[File:Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Marshall Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q709|Marshall Islands]]'' | [[File:Marshall Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oceania]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q159|Q159]] | +7 | RUS | RUS | [[File:Flag of Russia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg|center|48px]] | [[Russia]] | [[File:LocationRussia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_a3e468da529f6170ebe537841394006365958e82b1c66e74caf70fcb621997a4">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/russia</ref><br/>[[Asia]]<br/>[[Eurasia]] | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_51cfe82ebe6b6b1410c83f0e5d300685a554345e61cbb37d2ecf3e5be2d6b1ad">''[[:d:Q11836865|Declaration of the Council of Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR No. 142-N of 26 December 1991]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f61b0d5d011a8872156b5d698bf39e3bbdc7397313a70de6d7d097c7048b5b4c">''[[:d:Q652062|Constitution of Russia]]''</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<ref name="ref_f61b0d5d011a8872156b5d698bf39e3bbdc7397313a70de6d7d097c7048b5b4c">''[[:d:Q652062|Constitution of Russia]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[pais transcontinental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q232|Q232]] | +7<ref name="ref_869fc93f19bd3db0d26985eae23a7cdc35e3955bcc025f142ba7028febd1acc8">http://countrycode.org/kazakhstan</ref> | KAZ | KAZ | [[File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Kazakhstan latin.svg|center|48px]] | [[Qazaqstan|Kazakhstan]] | [[File:Kazakhstan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]]<ref name="ref_0c2352a80be92c3210ce7156d90b4c25cf17b2997c3c354578a49c50ae82e7e0">http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H-Xref-ViewHTML.asp?FileID=9998</ref><br/>[[Asia]]<ref name="ref_00f4a00217006243f1f5d216b71903ba86d97ebca781de7880fb7d1ae44c389b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/kazakhstan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]''<br/>[[pais]] | stato euroasiatic |- | [[:d:Q17|Q17]] | +81 | JPN | JPN | [[File:Flag of Japan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Kamon of the Imperial House of Japan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Japon]] | [[File:Japan on the globe (de-facto) (Japan centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_18b47b49cacad6ae73f045f727a828dab6f9032777e094eaacf4f43697017d32">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/japan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_abc3a7b6a82b0e7dce0ee5331c624e8c53edf38da63fef7cf24d52e956bcedd7">''[[:d:Q66481470|МСЭ2 / Япония]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_abc3a7b6a82b0e7dce0ee5331c624e8c53edf38da63fef7cf24d52e956bcedd7">''[[:d:Q66481470|МСЭ2 / Япония]]''</ref> | pais de Asia |- | [[:d:Q884|Q884]] | +82 | KOR | KOR | [[File:Flag of South Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of South Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Corea del Sud]] | [[File:South Korea (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_ed06a6210c3250c4513da4dbeeeef173390ab6ec6bc7e2ebb62135ead8e6dd31">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/korea</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1520223|republica constitutional]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_b56d7a5874cc979de67507be4b9d0ec0309a3055065d3b2c94872cb63e655bc8">https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Korea</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q881|Q881]] | +84 | VNM | VIE | [[File:Flag of Vietnam.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Vietnam.svg|center|48px]] | [[Vietnam]] | [[File:Vietnam on the globe (Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_3cdd1c3c0f83a1f617d30538f8f473fd74f6c0ec9f6c4f795af39aa128e1f9cb">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/vietnam</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849866|communist state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q423|Q423]] | +850 | PRK | PRK | [[File:Flag of North Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of North Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Corea del Nord]] | [[File:LocationNorthKorea.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_5d92736853365d9e85e7b28bcbfce24d004923f1f10cf7563666126117dfd42d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/dem-people-s-rep-korea</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q465613|republica popular]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1309121|hermit kingdom]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3303230|pariah state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q8646|Q8646]] | +852 | HKG | HKG | [[File:Flag of Hong Kong.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Regional Emblem of Hong Kong.svg|center|48px]] | [[Hong Kong]] | [[File:Hong Kong in China (zoomed) (+all claims hatched).svg|center|48px]] | CN-HK | [[Asia]] | ''[[:d:Q779415|region administrative special]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[citate]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1549591|citate grande]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q200250|metropole]]''<br/>[[Citate global]]<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q125470455|customs territory of China]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3337001|nationality for sports]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q14773|Q14773]] | +853 | MAC | MAC | [[File:Flag of Macau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Regional Emblem of Macau.svg|center|48px]] | [[Macao]] | [[File:Macau locator map.svg|center|48px]] | CN-MO | [[Asia]] | ''[[:d:Q779415|region administrative special]]''<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1549591|citate grande]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1200957|tourist destination]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q125470455|customs territory of China]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q424|Q424]] | +855 | KHM | CAM | [[File:Flag of Cambodia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal arms of Cambodia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Cambodja|Cambodgia]] | [[File:Cambodia on the globe (Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_abe4358184070f9b6797681a5adb73e29bd1da4d11a88cd83ae1664ab59a73bd">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/cambodia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1250464|realm]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q819|Q819]] | +856 | LAO | LAO | [[File:Flag of Laos.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Laos (1991-2025).svg|center|48px]] | [[Laos]] | [[File:Laos on the globe (Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_39b1fd2e1c22a49137d4e9548d1988e3f3e9aa478b87789b44044b20140fc4b9">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/lao-pdr</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849866|communist state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q465613|republica popular]]''<br/>[[pais]] | stato soveran in Asia del sud-est |- | [[:d:Q148|Q148]] | +86 | CHN | CHN | [[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:中華人民共和國國徽.svg|center|48px]] | [[China]] | [[File:CHN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_a99460e35c29523fbc64f3e501526e4e548dc1a24bf60644edd14ee96b8d9f75">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/china</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q902|Q902]] | +880 | BGD | BAN | [[File:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Bangladesh.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bangladesh]] | [[File:Bangladesh (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_ab9a52b2415e4258c2ccb5504794704ed5046ee1482b61e585b8669706229b8b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/bangladesh</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q865|Q865]] | +886 | TWN | TPE<ref name="ref_57a0ad33f5b6f27f02f92a9efa64f01b99937ab26de151c23288f5b72c3c0fb2">https://olympics.com/en/news/paris-2024-olympics-full-list-ioc-national-olympic-committee-codes</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National Emblem of the Republic of China.svg|center|48px]] | [[Taiwan|Republica de China]] | [[File:Locator map of the ROC Taiwan.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]] | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5255892|republica democratic]]''<ref name="ref_a9f70626dc74e5b985084e8b1f64ad3ff7e0f85a25e82df819ca2f9557c85049">''[[:d:Q213099|Constitution of the Republic of China]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c1a15e1a1d9b909b4bb07e4dc4f5be3a202d16916c872c87fb7d5f3047286520">''[[:d:Q10926890|Fundamentals of National Reconstruction]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q668|Q668]] | +91 | IND | IND | [[File:Flag of India.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of India.svg|center|48px]] | [[India]] | [[File:India (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_7f529af02bea9f37111f5ff64a1ecb27e4148cfe3bfa74c586f9e3fcf2ca8574">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/india</ref> | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q843|Q843]] | +92 | PAK | PAK | [[File:Flag of Pakistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State emblem of Pakistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Pakistan]] | [[File:Pakistan on the globe (de-facto and claimed hatched) (Afro-Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_37b442a17714a61e024650736f93e269f286a7c916ba24fac9139775925b34e0">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/pakistan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q889|Q889]] | +93 | AFG | AFG | [[File:Flag of the Taliban.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Arms of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Afghanistan]] | [[File:Afghanistan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_d1b2dd0c80f9f9d33adddf70d21067d1f1739a3646ccb2c797f0d93469c08730">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/afghanistan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q854|Q854]] | +94 | LKA | SRI | [[File:Flag of Sri Lanka.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sri Lanka]] | [[File:Sri Lanka (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_a5b2f7f145888ef200ccfcec3e73bef97ccbd3157ddbbbb6160bd6803f7b51b2">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/sri-lanka</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q836|Q836]] | +95 | MMR | MYA | [[File:Flag of Myanmar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State Seal of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar.svg|center|48px]] | [[Birmania]] | [[File:Myanmar on the globe (Myanmar centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_a20b46494326aff210a40fb9b2eea5e738e9385f36f0c36a24f790b010ba6e27">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/myanmar</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[republica]] | |- | [[:d:Q826|Q826]] | +960 | MDV | MDV | [[File:Flag of Maldives.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Maldives.svg|center|48px]] | [[Maldivas]] | [[File:Maldives (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_ca38c12334a859eed2ac9814492e6f861112b0460ba2b09b781f89acd2373b49">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/maldives</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | pais archipelagic de Asia |- | [[:d:Q822|Q822]] | +961 | LBN | LBN | [[File:Flag of Lebanon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Lebanon.svg|center|48px]] | [[Libano]] | [[File:Lebanon (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_852f696db1749aeed11812ff08d49b6ee67c7dd78b8c7b135092052ed9cac018">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/lebanon</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q810|Q810]] | +962 | JOR | JOR | [[File:Flag of Jordan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Jordan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Jordania]] | [[File:Jordan on the globe (Afro-Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_9f846bfa4bc40138822f26e7705b2f459bb74eee955fcfddfa745ba4c26b853a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/jordan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[Monarchia constitutional]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q858|Q858]] | +963 | SYR | SYR | [[File:Flag of Syria (2025-).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Syria (2025–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[Syria]] | [[File:Syria (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_412fa4b836a6613010597160bf80f588d683992c3a7c230e40132d4d1dd5909a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/syrian-arab-republic</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q796|Q796]] | +964 | IRQ | IRQ | [[File:Flag of Iraq.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Iraq.svg|center|48px]] | [[Irak]] | [[File:Iraq (orthographic-projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_8235b932b9266c6c4a026faf3ec34936d71d553e259e66933aff9d02b124a1ea">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/iraq</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q817|Q817]] | +965 | KWT | KUW | [[File:Flag of Kuwait.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the State of Kuwait.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kuwait]] | [[File:KWT orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_3ace251482c28923d1f51ac0d92f9a6660ecff6563b0ba65d49cf6d4240edd98">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/kuwait</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q851|Q851]] | +966 | SAU | KSA | [[File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Saudi Arabia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Arabia Saudita]] | [[File:Saudi Arabia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_26784e44a0327d74d0bef416db5c974641a0f4599932def46a46ff3cab16958e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/saudi-arabia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q805|Q805]] | +967 | YEM | YEM | [[File:Flag of Yemen.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Yemen (2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Yemen]] | [[File:Yemen (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_a8ffbdbb020752731956fe0b761b6fb68d783b10c1a0bb0d7af2c800aef460f8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/yemen</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q842|Q842]] | +968 | OMN | OMA | [[File:Flag of Oman.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Oman.svg|center|48px]] | [[Oman]] | [[File:Oman (better) (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_01586d2a30f5bcd896fe98d3b34625be88b8acaacdc447a62f9c38744cb89b8e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/oman</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[Sultanato]] | |- | [[:d:Q219060|Q219060]] | +970 | PSE<ref name="ref_3f75e303bf4853c467c06725a05dba6eeb7112ce137fb140bdc7a80e567b6d9a">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#search</ref> | PLE | [[File:Flag of Palestine.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Palestine.svg|center|48px]] | [[Stato de Palestina]] | [[File:State of Palestine (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_2eb2aafc86ec576fb04cf58b8c5a6b5ccc975adff5e06377af3f6986e526b197">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/west-bank-and-gaza</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>[[region]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_61cb9542cfec0192ac28895ad39604419ece3afcc2d24629fa49d44e66ca8713">https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-statehood-idUSBRE8AR0EG20121129</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q10711424|stato non recognoscite]]''<ref name="ref_1aa0d02a4d329d277dd84e6b641dfc97d3cea6ca9ee7087854a9c8096d827e5d">https://www.visualcapitalist.com/recognition-of-israel-and-palestine-map/</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]'' | stato partialmente recognoscite in Asia |- | [[:d:Q407199|Q407199]] | +970 | PSE | | [[File:Flag of Palestine.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q407199|Occupied Palestinian territories]]'' | [[File:Palestinian territories (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]] | ''[[:d:Q2577883|occupied territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q878|Q878]] | +971 | ARE | UAE | [[File:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the United Arab Emirates.svg|center|48px]] | [[Emiratos Arabe Unite]] | [[File:United Arab Emirates (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_59a1d652766a06f92458495e7cef738309868b7ba5a287d913c5709c1714791e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/united-arab-emirates</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q801|Q801]] | +972 | ISR | ISR | [[File:Flag of Israel.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Israel.svg|center|48px]] | [[Israel]] | [[File:Israel (orthographic projection) with disputed territories.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_333461128a2048d57dd11c82262c851de1f5550ad2f5f6ffcd74b818b46835a7">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/israel</ref> | ''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[region]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10711424|stato non recognoscite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q398|Q398]] | +973 | BHR | BRN | [[File:Flag of Bahrain.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of The Kingdom of Bahrain.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bahrain]] | [[File:Map of Bahrain.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_2dc5aa10c6e6e1dca2838777318ef05bd87fb4d13951325b8aebc61573ab766d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/bahrain</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[archipelago]] | |- | [[:d:Q846|Q846]] | +974 | QAT | QAT | [[File:Flag of Qatar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Qatar-2022.svg|center|48px]] | [[Qatar]] | [[File:QAT orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_524121d7265c4d0c8f3f7af1dc2f6c1b7e2c6f762b4df1d0540d05fec95dbf91">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/qatar</ref> | ''[[:d:Q189898|emirato]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q917|Q917]] | +975 | BTN | BHU | [[File:Flag of Bhutan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Bhutan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bhutan]] | [[File:Bhutan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_8006f2781cb69049dfa601b23976a7cca3397823cd5645fa63a657e7aba6ada8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/bhutan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1309121|hermit kingdom]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q711|Q711]] | +976<ref name="ref_7d1c754bbb9c79f4e261ec07b06c3412be495db3ef2a3f0b65778cafa7f09ce7">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mongolia/</ref> | MNG | MGL | [[File:Flag of Mongolia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State emblem of Mongolia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mongolia]] | [[File:Mongolia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_b08be61c8e97998a5328bd0e6b1c3a8fd62dade52c1805737707718aca51b1d1">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mongolia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q837|Q837]] | +977 | NPL | NEP | [[File:Flag of Nepal.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Nepal.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nepal]] | [[File:Nepal (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_b578e9b2d5b6f56d16b4b36cbb6fe645ba081b193d8db1718aa578c3ced4e709">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/nepal</ref> | ''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[region]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q842112|staato socialista]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q794|Q794]] | +98 | IRN | IRI | [[File:Flag of Iran.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Iran.svg|center|48px]] | [[Iran]] | [[File:Iran (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_706c979762a1bfe0bb4d75a7fa59245b9273be5b15e78cd69c3f108939e0d350">''[[:d:Q3462918|Mo'in Encyclopedic Dictionary]]''</ref><ref name="ref_5a63f22cd00dda7cb42010c027da62f2730910950ae460faa8e9903ff6b486c1">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/iran</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_706c979762a1bfe0bb4d75a7fa59245b9273be5b15e78cd69c3f108939e0d350">''[[:d:Q3462918|Mo'in Encyclopedic Dictionary]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q863|Q863]] | +992 | TJK | TJK | [[File:Flag of Tajikistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Tajikistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tajikistan]] | [[File:Tajikistan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_4393707e56515aadf68c912d8642d7702233b42c189aaed34d5f97897b12aa9f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/tajikistan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q874|Q874]] | +993 | TKM | TKM | [[File:Flag of Turkmenistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Turkmenistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Turkmenistan]] | [[File:Turkmenistan on the globe (Turkmenistan centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_1efe86a44bb88263ac1c1ec613c2b2610305f571ffcc443c0ceacd65ddfaa25e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/turkmenistan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q227|Q227]] | +994 | AZE | AZE | [[File:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Azerbaijan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Azerbaijan]] | [[File:Azerbaijan orthographic projection.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_c64cca2d5d5e7de7d1c417b5b3491c2239c382f1b3289d13f432b1df36ca5d11">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/azerbaijan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q230|Q230]] | +995 | GEO | GEO | [[File:Flag of Georgia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Greater coat of arms of Georgia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Georgia (pais)|Georgia]] | [[File:Europe-Georgia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Europa]] | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q236036|republic of the Soviet Union]]''<ref name="ref_5c230e70bc98bbb5feb57eebe6a26f1f466f19895c08275dad9169e8102d4f75">https://iverieli.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/274221/1/Komunisti_1921_N1.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q813|Q813]] | +996 | KGZ | KGZ | [[File:Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Kyrgyzstan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kirghizistan]] | [[File:Kyrgyzstan on the globe (Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_6de0896fad4919ad7aff39f603c5366c3771f0a85c09be612a9ba5642f156cfc">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/kyrgyz-republic</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]] | stato soveran in Asia central |- | [[:d:Q265|Q265]] | +998 | UZB | UZB | [[File:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Uzbekistan]] | [[File:UZB orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asia]]<ref name="ref_d4949d4e544e92e3c5cdacf99f8862cb8fa6d1da83b12f3804a9bb8ca0b650c3">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/uzbekistan</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q136361597|doubly landlocked country]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |} {{Wikidata list end}} mpebaurpzz1wavf1kosrsybbjwga04w 102 38952 699513 699373 2026-09-03T11:54:15Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699513 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P105 wd:Q38348 } |wdq= |columns=item,label,P225,P171,P18,description |thumb=32 |links=red |references=all |summary=itemnumber }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! nomine del taxon ! taxon superior immediate ! imagine ! description |- | [[:d:Q1360|Q1360]] | [[arthropodo]] | Arthropoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Asian forest scorpion in Khao Yai National Park.JPG|center|32px]] | phylo de animales |- | [[:d:Q5182|Q5182]] | [[Kinorhyncha]] | Kinorhyncha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b2443bdb8eb065e0d3e88ce0d3b6b6fc0fba0b6a252f6528d420213f2db3c710">''[[:d:Q19317420|Phylum Kinorhyncha]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Echinoderes hwiizaa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5183|Q5183]] | [[Loricifera]] | Loricifera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Pliciloricus enigmatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5184|Q5184]] | [[Priapulida]] | Priapulida<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Priapulus caudatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5185|Q5185]] | [[Nematoda]] | Nematoda<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Soybean cyst nematode and egg SEM.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5186|Q5186]] | [[Nematomorpha]] | Nematomorpha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Paragordius tricuspidatus.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5189|Q5189]] | [[Lobopodia]] | Lobopodia | [[Panarthropoda]] | [[File:20210000 Lobopodia lobopodians lobopods.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5191|Q5191]] | [[Onychophora]] | Onychophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e06a7e3c469f277c9344b5a5e835660a166c141af045136b523115727e6294ed">''[[:d:Q19329296|Phylum Onychophora Grube, 1853]]''</ref><ref name="ref_663c79fc9d0f4631a1ea8eaf1b8cddf2861b4797951760a3d62ca7c951bdb680">''[[:d:Q19329389|A world checklist of Onychophora (velvet worms), with notes on nomenclature and status of names]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Onycophora.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5194|Q5194]] | [[Tardigrada]] | Tardigrada<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_26601dc35694ad6f9ddc6db4b950317a802ee25d8b7bc8aa116c4b82ffe824c6">''[[:d:Q20019958|Phylum Tardigrada Doyère, 1840]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Ecdysozoa]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Hypsibiusdujardini.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10915|Q10915]] | [[chordato]] | Chordata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[deuterostome]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_de89d1d7a3b9861aa896c2763db458e8269d1d9fb76891ffc54e0793ca104151">''[[:d:Q34008832|The mitochondrial DNA of Xenoturbella bocki: genomic architecture and phylogenetic analysis]]''</ref> | [[File:Chordata.png|center|32px]] | phylo de animales |- | [[:d:Q18960|Q18960]] | [[Porifera]] | Porifera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0dd0ecf7bf278d95aad8a405c4bd6fb82e01ce9d874347b2258c1e1c513a4305">''[[:d:Q19317985|Phylum Porifera Grant, 1836]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[animal]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Vaasspons2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25326|Q25326]] | [[Molluscos|Mollusca]] | Mollusca<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Lophotrochozoa]] | [[File:Mollusca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25441|Q25441]] | [[Cnidari]] | Cnidaria<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Eumetazoa]] | [[File:Schleiden-meduse-2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25522|Q25522]] | [[Annelida]] | Annelida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Nereis pelagica.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q41579|Q41579]] | [[acidobacterio]] | Acidobacteria<ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Acidobacterium.jpg|center|32px]] | phylo de bacterios |- | [[:d:Q44631|Q44631]] | [[Echinodermata]] | Echinodermata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ec6fcf770918be7d2fba2367606625b26ee439302860547d0a1fcfc8d330b2ce">''[[:d:Q54802324|Morphological diagnoses of higher taxa in Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) in support of a new classification]]''</ref> | [[deuterostome]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><br/>[[Ambulacraria]] | [[File:Ophionereis reticulata 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q93315|Q93315]] | [[Cyanobacteria]] | Cyanobacteria<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_53a0f2b03daa7019b2710ec8dd21755784650fbdc972046fa802842c113a1dae">''[[:d:Q693148|International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants]]''</ref> | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:201208 Cyanobacteria.png|center|32px]]<ref name="ref_fc1deb0c6e0726d35b5ca72104428b2a8286c0c11e4a9316bd654855cbfc0a80">http://togotv.dbcls.jp/ja/togopic.2012.18.html</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q102778|Q102778]] | [[Ctenophora|Ctenophoro]] | Ctenophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Eumetazoa]] | [[File:Ctenophore.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q106345|Q106345]] | [[Ciliophora]] | Ciliophora<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c7329662afc81d018cfa327740fedc871a21a94ccd87455d4b66bb43e6687bdf">''[[:d:Q51379118|Die Protozoen als Parasiten und Krankheitserreger nach biologischen Gesichtspunkten dargestellt]]''</ref> | [[Alveolata]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0c75e9b8c29938e8ceeb68b324f0e6d093cc688bc34ab84739dfb06955fed89d">''[[:d:Q54018828|The Ciliated Protozoa]]''</ref> | [[File:Isotricha intestinalis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q107027|Q107027]] | [[Foraminifera]] | Foraminifera | [[Rhizaria]] | [[File:Ammonia tepida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q107920|Q107920]] | [[Radiolaria]] | Radiolaria | [[Rhizaria]] | [[File:Haeckel Stephoidea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q120490|Q120490]] | [[Dinoflagellata]] | Dinoflagellata | [[Dinozoa]] | [[File:Ceratium furca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q124900|Q124900]] | [[Plathelminthes|Platyhelminthes]] | Platyhelminthes<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Platodes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q130914|Q130914]] | [[Actinobacteria]] | Actinobacteria<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Actinomyces israelii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q130999|Q130999]] | [[Proteobacteria]] | Proteobacteria<ref name="ref_620a847fbcac205b5a1c11ec93ed90db3e61acbe9fb1eae72bc08d4501f60cad">''[[:d:Q45316252|Validation List no. 106: Validation of publication of new names and new combinations previously effectively published outside the IJSEM]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131032|Q131032]] | [[Orthonectida]] | Orthonectida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[protostome]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Orthonetida dict flat and cylinder.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q131040|Q131040]] | [[Placozoa]] | Placozoa<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_40ddf737f368df45185f884350efa239024ce874f019eac59549d5ac5b0dd455">''[[:d:Q45817173|Ultrastructural analyses support different morphological lineages in the phylum Placozoa Grell, 1971]]''</ref> | [[animal]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Trichoplax mic.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q133219|Q133219]] | [[Charophyta]] | Charophyta | [[Viridiplantae]] | [[File:Chara braunii 1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134869|Q134869]] | [[Rhombozoa]] | Rhombozoa<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[protostome]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Dicyema macrocephalum.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q134886|Q134886]] | [[Deinococcus-Thermus]] | Deinococcus-Thermus<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q137449|Q137449]] | [[Haplosporidia]] | Haplosporidia<ref name="ref_3e058715a18b00e3a22f9b5eb0650695fe4514068aaa169d060a0a28df4e00d5">''[[:d:Q108908969|Sur le genere Aplosporidium (nov.) et l'ordre nouveau des Aplosporidies]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c980fa20222306284d97e6128fcd535cd1bce8c8adf8489d2e8e896c8b6dfc99">''[[:d:Q108913858|Ergebnisse der neueren Sporozoenforschung]]''</ref> | [[Ascetosporea]] | | |- | [[:d:Q148134|Q148134]] | [[Bryozoa]] | Bryozoa<ref name="ref_6256a42967f0c0c32e9bbc0ffd2476e19bd0099fd27c9064d1af61288bdfb39c">''[[:d:Q21069476|Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Bryozoa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q149075|Q149075]] | [[Firmicutes]] | Firmicutes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bacillus subtilis Gram.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q162907|Q162907]] | [[Phoronida]] | Phoronida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Nur03506.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q174301|Q174301]] | [[Hemichordata]] | Hemichordata<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[deuterostome]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Eichelwurm.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q174698|Q174698]] | [[Basidiomycota]] | Basidiomycota<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Dikarya]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Haeckel Basimycetes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q174726|Q174726]] | [[Ascomycota]] | Ascomycota<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ddbcc7e85480f79a67652de9848eb190a612c56b4a88fde67c8d1ff4a91a1692">''[[:d:Q22065662|A revised six-kingdom system of life]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Dikarya]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Xylaria polymorpha a1.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q178235|Q178235]] | [[Acanthocephalo|Acanthocephala]] | Acanthocephala<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:C wegeneri.JPG|center|32px]] | phylo de vermes parasitic |- | [[:d:Q178272|Q178272]] | [[Brachiopoda]] | Brachiopoda<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:LingulaanatinaAA.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q180148|Q180148]] | [[Rotifera]] | Rotifera<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Habrotrocha rosa 1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q185631|Q185631]] | [[Nemertea]] | Nemertea<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Micrura verrilli.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q189808|Q189808]] | [[Marchantiophyta]] | Marchantiophyta<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_15301d99d1ade1e5ecd1e0a19335fb2228f21fc8dc86f538b4814f324f2aa7e5">''[[:d:Q55952715|A Checklist of the Liverworts and Hornworts of North America]]''</ref><ref name="ref_e792f138d9d7ef71de54888c5770402ead4c342a7bfb3038ff616d954ddf4174">''[[:d:Q42319604|Correct author citations for some upper rank names of liverworts (Marchantiophyta)]]''</ref><ref name="ref_976bddadb39e933a9d91d0266ee5437aa9f02c00d56726e49f8588f6c7dbd601">''[[:d:Q75186175|Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta]]''</ref> | [[Embryophyta]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Assortment of Hepaticae from Kunstformen der Natur (1904), plate 82.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q190115|Q190115]] | [[Gastrotricha]] | Gastrotricha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Gastrotrich.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q192416|Q192416]] | [[Chaetognatha]] | Chaetognatha<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Gnathifera]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Chaetoblack.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q193030|Q193030]] | [[Apicomplexa]] | Apicomplexa<ref name="ref_a98611b933e05d46231f4bb4ff0ddb9ad643f023b1ca6561ce02d731ab2f2fc2">''[[:d:Q105882484|Taxonomy of the sporozoa]]''</ref> | [[Alveolata]]<br/>[[Protisto|Protista]] | [[File:Malaria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q204219|Q204219]] | [[Euryarchaeota]] | Euryarchaeota<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Methanobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Halobacteria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q208580|Q208580]] | [[Entoprocta]] | Entoprocta<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Barentsa discreta suzukokemusi02.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q264543|Q264543]] | [[Chlorophyta]] | Chlorophyta<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Viridiplantae]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Ulvophyceae composite.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q459276|Q459276]] | [[Gnathostomulida]] | Gnathostomulida<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Gnathostomula paradoxa Sylt.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q473747|Q473747]] | [[Chytridiomycota]] | Chytridiomycota<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Eumycota]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><br/>[[Chytridiomyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Spizellomycete.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q473809|Q473809]] | [[Amoebozoa]] | Amoebozoa<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ab4245d171ca4bc134853c75bbd29156738ecf599972dfd7a09b5d32fc4166fc">''[[:d:Q110094490|Handbuch der Morphologie der wirbellosen Tiere. Vol. 1]]''</ref> | [[Amorphea]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref><br/>[[Sarcomastigota]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Amoebozoa.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q499078|Q499078]] | [[Crenarchaeota]] | Crenarchaeota<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:RT8-4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q499091|Q499091]] | [[Metamonada]] | Metamonada<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Excavata]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Giardia lamblia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q500497|Q500497]] | [[Cercozoa]] | Cercozoa<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Rhizaria]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><br/>[[Cabozoa]]<ref name="ref_eb8f4182b34c0bc6aa9cf61e20312bb1c51fa4ad39fc1e8a71abf212f4f4c12b">''[[:d:Q28261633|Principles of protein and lipid targeting in secondary symbiogenesis: euglenoid, dinoflagellate, and sporozoan plastid origins and the eukaryote family tree]]''</ref> | [[File:Cercomonas sp.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q500531|Q500531]] | [[Haptophyta]] | Haptophyta<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_802acaa704182f044c5fde26b8cc8b7b63c1c9c3d15f61f10a60433407ac57fa">''[[:d:Q110221064|Phylogenetic reconstructions of the Haptophyta inferred from 18S ribosomal DNA sequences and available morphological data]]''</ref> | [[Haptista]]<ref name="ref_c9efd199c533dacedb4c96fcb7c6c45d8a130638058ce8c9b4536dd171de77e0">''[[:d:Q127708157|The closest lineage of Archaeplastida is revealed by phylogenomics analyses that include Microheliella maris]]''</ref> | [[File:Coccolithus pelagicus 07.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q502012|Q502012]] | [[Cycliophora]] | Cycliophora<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Symbion pandora wikipedia.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q504947|Q504947]] | [[Korarchaeota]] | Korarchaeota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Korarchaeota.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q548074|Q548074]] | [[Nanoarchaeota]] | Nanoarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Urzwerg.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q597831|Q597831]] | [[Aquificae]] | Aquificae<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Venenivibrio.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q623375|Q623375]] | [[Chlorobacteria]] | Chlorobacteria | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Phylum-Chloroflexi-isolate-Anaerolineae-bacterium-HOT-439-is-dependent-on-a-helper-strain.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q645245|Q645245]] | [[Apusozoa]] | Apusozoa | [[Bikonta]] | [[File:Apusomonas.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q753723|Q753723]] | [[Glomeromycota]] | Glomeromycota<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3294b4563ef87fe76b2d4f35ae5f36e88603ea86ee1f9f7ffbe5c63d420f6d6b">''[[:d:Q21972835|A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution]]''</ref> | [[Eomycota]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><br/>[[Mucoromyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Gigaspora margarita.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q851406|Q851406]] | [[Aschelminthes]] | Aschelminthes | [[protostome]] | [[File:Ascaris lumbricoides.jpeg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q875679|Q875679]] | [[Chlamydiae]] | Chlamydiae<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlusskörperchen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q908484|Q908484]] | [[Tenericutes]] | Tenericutes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Spiro.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q921087|Q921087]] | [[Hyolitha]] | Hyolitha | [[Lophophorata]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | [[File:Hyoliths01.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q968988|Q968988]] | [[Heliozoa]] | | [[Hacrobia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Heliozoen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1041942|Q1041942]] | [[Retaria]] | Retaria<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Rhizaria]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Ammonia tepida.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1048772|Q1048772]] | [[Ochrophyta]] | Ochrophyta | [[Heterokonta]] | [[File:Kelp In Freycinet Tasmania.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1061265|Q1061265]] | [[Bacteroidetes]] | Bacteroidetes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bacteroides biacutis 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1096964|Q1096964]] | [[Myzozoa]] | Myzozoa | [[Protozoa]] | [[File:Haeckel Peridinea.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1137677|Q1137677]] | [[Fusobacteria]] | Fusobacteria<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Fusobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Fusobacterium novum 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1140791|Q1140791]] | [[Blastocladiomycota]] | Blastocladiomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[fungo]]<br/>[[Blastocladiomyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Rozella allomycis2.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1146853|Q1146853]] | [[Thermotogae]] | Thermotogae<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Thermotoga sketch.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1147292|Q1147292]] | [[Gemmatimonadetes]] | Gemmatimonadetes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Gemmatimonas aurantiaca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1186957|Q1186957]] | [[Thaumarchaeota]] | Thaumarchaeota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1197160|Q1197160]] | [[Cephalorhyncha]] | Cephalorhyncha | [[Ecdysozoa]] | [[File:Pliciloricus enigmatus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1200941|Q1200941]] | [[Fibrobacteres]] | Fibrobacteres<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1261437|Q1261437]] | [[Vetulicolia]] | Vetulicolia | [[deuterostome]] | [[File:Vetucolia.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1289758|Q1289758]] | [[Chloroflexi]] | Chloroflexi<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Phylum-Chloroflexi-isolate-Anaerolineae-bacterium-HOT-439-is-dependent-on-a-helper-strain.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1318124|Q1318124]] | [[Synergistetes]] | Synergistetes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Synergistetes.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1349731|Q1349731]] | [[Chrysiogenetes]] | Chrysiogenetes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q1437858|Q1437858]] | [[Fornicata]] | Fornicata | [[Metamonada]] | [[File:DysnectesBrevis.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q1782621|Q1782621]] | [[Telonemia]] | Telonemia<ref name="ref_3a6d30a20d30e94a37d36018cc8eecf43380d007805fcf21ed2359bc9642a9c4">''[[:d:Q23379060|Telonemia, a new protist phylum with affinity to chromist lineages]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ba96fb62023284fe1730c23752a29651d8fdd25e0b3f2d15de16bde335da90d">''[[:d:Q23380247|Large-scale phylogenomic analyses reveal that two enigmatic protist lineages, telonemia and centroheliozoa, are related to photosynthetic chromalveolates]]''</ref> | [[TSAR]] | [[File:Telonema rivulare (contrast micrography).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2294279|Q2294279]] | [[Sarcomastigophora]] | Sarcomastigophora<ref name="ref_77dc7c512b6e5462385cf5b7c49ae88daf74152e08857d54d9948f20bc38a850">''[[:d:Q54493498|A Revised Classification of the Phylum Protozoa*]]''</ref> | [[Protozoa]]<br/>[[Protisto|Protista]] | [[File:Gbulloides.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2334797|Q2334797]] | [[Trilobozoa]] | Trilobozoa | [[Eumetazoa]]<br/>[[animal]] | [[File:Tribrachiidae.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2512784|Q2512784]] | [[Vendozoa]] | Vendobionta<ref name="ref_fe61fc438eba64bbeb2f5b429d77af9885216792315cff23c26e3a2ec3734728">''[[:d:Q55895557|Vendobionta and Psammocorallia: lost constructions of Precambrian evolution]]''</ref> | [[animal]] | [[File:DickinsoniaCostata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2566978|Q2566978]] | [[Proarticulata]] | Proarticulata | [[Bilateria]] | [[File:Dickinsonia Archaeaspinus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2823622|Q2823622]] | [[Actinopoda]] | Actinopoda<ref name="ref_3d36609571cf0428a374b752f5c308e8434d1421a68d06061b54862fc9652ea9">''[[:d:Q29452358|A short biography of Hubert Ludwig and a note on the publication dates of his monograph Die Seewalzen (1889–1892)]]''</ref> | [[eucaryote]] | [[File:Actinophrys sol.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3347027|Q3347027]] | [[Nemathelminthes]] | Nemathelminthes | [[animal]] | [[File:Roundworm.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3376321|Q3376321]] | [[Petalonamae]] | Petalonamae | [[animal]] | [[File:Charnia.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3508193|Q3508193]] | [[Syndermata]] | Syndermata | [[Platyzoa]] | [[File:Bdelloid.JPG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3555432|Q3555432]] | [[Vendozoa]] | Vendozoa<ref name="ref_7a692d549cfcd9ca82e792db888888ffae536fdaa97b630b7e62602bd301ad7e">''[[:d:Q56001354|Vendozoa: Organismic construction in the Proterozoic biosphere]]''</ref> | [[animal]] | [[File:DickinsoniaCostata.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3570860|Q3570860]] | [[Xenacoelomorpha]] | Xenacoelomorpha<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[deuterostome]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><br/>[[Bilateria]]<ref name="ref_32b050f9596d0885e951362d83811c4173a265bfe5c3607fb865c64500abb104">''[[:d:Q29305163|Xenacoelomorpha is the sister group to Nephrozoa]]''</ref><br/>[[Xenambulacraria]] | [[File:Proporus sp.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q4033604|Q4033604]] | [[Aigarchaeota]] | Aigarchaeota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4792907|Q4792907]] | [[Armatimonadetes]] | Armatimonadetes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_02ef276519854a01f66486d26a78484b187383278872729a929c119896f92f7f">''[[:d:Q33630155|Armatimonas rosea gen. nov., sp. nov., of a novel bacterial phylum, Armatimonadetes phyl. nov., formally called the candidate phylum OP10.]]''</ref> | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q4907045|Q4907045]] | [[Bigyra]] | Bigyra | [[Heterokonta]] | [[File:Aplanosem.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5031741|Q5031741]] | [[Saccharibacteria]] | Saccharibacteria | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q5113799|Q5113799]] | [[Chromerida]] | Chromerida | [[Alveolata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5114906|Q5114906]] | [[Chrysophyta]] | Chrysophyta | [[Stramenopiles]]<br/>[[Protisto|Protista]]<br/>[[Chromista]]<ref name="ref_73dc4ac66b0c56ff1c8223c8dca9fe47b52d0c3701e24bab7c504112ae78d664">''[[:d:Q604063|World Register of Marine Species]]''</ref> | [[File:Alger, Botydium granulatum, Nordisk familjebok.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26827901|Q26827901]] | [[Aminicenantes]] | Aminicenantes | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26827906|Q26827906]] | [[Hydrogenedentes]] | Hydrogenedentes | [[Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria group]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26827909|Q26827909]] | [[Micrarchaeota]] | Micrarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26827910|Q26827910]] | [[Woesearchaeota]] | Woesearchaeota | [[DPANN]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26827912|Q26827912]] | [[Pacearchaeota]] | Pacearchaeota | [[DPANN]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26827914|Q26827914]] | [[Bathyarchaeota]] | Bathyarchaeota | [[TACK]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26827915|Q26827915]] | [[Geoarchaeota]] | Geoarchaeota | [[archeo]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26869732|Q26869732]] | [[Ignavibacteriae]] | Ignavibacteriae<ref name="ref_51ce1d7c1b510fc1cc914c148b06054cf3f25e3e422923184555cad17f3922c6">''[[:d:Q45327616|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26920574|Q26920574]] | [[Calescibacteriota]] | Calescamantes | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26920948|Q26920948]] | [[Pyropristinus]] | Pyropristinus | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26921036|Q26921036]] | [[Latescibacteriota]] | Latescibacteriota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26959588|Q26959588]] | [[Cloacimonetes]] | Cloacimonetes | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26962485|Q26962485]] | [[Fervidibacteria]] | Fervidibacteria | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26967716|Q26967716]] | [[Gracilibacteria]] | Gracilibacteria | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26970560|Q26970560]] | [[Marinimicrobia]] | "Candidatus Marinimicrobia" | [[Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria group]] | | |- | [[:d:Q26997057|Q26997057]] | [[Parcubacteria]] | Parcubacteria | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q27001824|Q27001824]] | [[Omnitrophica]] | Omnitrophica | [[Planctobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27067426|Q27067426]] | [[Modulibacteria]] | Modulibacteria | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27067589|Q27067589]] | [[Berkelbacteria]] | Berkelbacteria | [[CPR group]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27075862|Q27075862]] | [[Absconditabacteria]] | Absconditabacteria | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27076080|Q27076080]] | [[Katanobacteria]] | Katanobacteria | [[CPR group]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27077239|Q27077239]] | [[Zixibacteria]] | Zixibacteria | [[Sphingobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27101797|Q27101797]] | [[Kryptonia]] | Kryptonia | [[Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria group]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27102094|Q27102094]] | [[Rokubacteria]] | Rokubacteria | [[Gracilicutes]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27102375|Q27102375]] | [[Peregrinibacteria]] | Peregrinibacteria | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27114078|Q27114078]] | [[Wirthbacteria]] | Wirthbacteria | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27116672|Q27116672]] | [[Beckwithbacteria]] | Beckwithbacteria | [[Microgenomates]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27116707|Q27116707]] | [[Collierbacteria]] | Collierbacteria | [[Microgenomates]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27146460|Q27146460]] | [[Adlerbacteria]] | Adlerbacteria | [[CPR group]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27668676|Q27668676]] | [[Thorarchaeota]] | Thorarchaeota | [[Asgard]] | | |- | [[:d:Q27928169|Q27928169]] | [[Mucoromycota]] | Mucoromycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[fungo]] | [[File:Mucoromycota.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q28052236|Q28052236]] | [[Entorrhizomycota]] | Entorrhizomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Dikarya]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q28777755|Q28777755]] | [[Balneolaeota]] | Balneolaeota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q29166402|Q29166402]] | [[Haplospora]] | Haplospora | [[Protoctista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q43032442|Q43032442]] | [[Corbihelia]] | Corbihelia | [[Cryptista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q45909159|Q45909159]] | [[Entamoebia]] | Entamoebia<ref name="ref_6a3224ed9e9612f3b161f90deafb215ffecae36153e66735b907fd7bacda7748">''[[:d:Q24634634|Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla]]''</ref> | [[Opimoda|Neozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q48846920|Q48846920]] | [[Myxococcota]] | Myxococcota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q49408504|Q49408504]] | [[Gemmatimonadota]] | Gemmatimonadota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Gemmatimonas aurantiaca.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q53818217|Q53818217]] | [[Aphelidiomycota]] | Aphelidiomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Aphelidiomyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Amoeboaphelidium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q53818226|Q53818226]] | [[Basidiobolomycota]] | Basidiobolomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Basidiobolomyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q54281951|Q54281951]] | [[Kickxellomycota]] | Kickxellomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[fungo]]<ref name="ref_b8c256ef49f76a6773946589846ce8cc2fc176141191f08a0f5375fe804cab79">''[[:d:Q117487849|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q54463178|Q54463178]] | [[Monoblepharomycota]] | Monoblepharomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[Chytridiomycota]]<br/>[[Chytridiomyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[File:Monoblephs 002.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q54463182|Q54463182]] | [[Mortierellomycota]] | Mortierellomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[fungo]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q54653006|Q54653006]] | [[Olpidiomycota]] | Olpidiomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[Olpidiomyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q56354566|Q56354566]] | [[Rhodothermota]] | Rhodothermota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q56354595|Q56354595]] | [[Calditrichaeota]] | Calditrichaeota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q56354628|Q56354628]] | [[Balneolota]] | Balneolota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q56702807|Q56702807]] | [[Heimdallarchaeota]] | Heimdallarchaeota | [[Asgard]] | | |- | [[:d:Q56704336|Q56704336]] | [[Calditrichota]] | Calditrichota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q56706714|Q56706714]] | [[Odinarchaeota]] | Odinarchaeota | [[Promethearchaeati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q57737752|Q57737752]] | [[Negarnaviricota]] | Negarnaviricota<ref name="ref_6b59cf7c993039ecd827a0daedf01e9cff413914331272d22962b5f910d625ee">''[[:d:Q57700017|ICTV Master Species List 2018a v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f23c41f011ca49f9252d0ff4436e8c393a0b2e3ed4560797f4e9f6edf16126b5">''[[:d:Q62075759|ICTV Master Species List 2018b.v2]]''</ref><ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Orthornavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Negarnaviricota montage.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q57899030|Q57899030]] | [[Coprothermobacterota]] | Coprothermobacterota<ref name="ref_5adebfffdd6e1a7375f0d21bc4d1d54f640873304318658c72f86dbab967138f">''[[:d:Q51143933|Proposal for a new classification of a deep branching bacterial phylogenetic lineage: transfer of Coprothermobacter proteolyticus and Coprothermobacter platensis to Coprothermobacteraceae fam. nov., within Coprothermobacterales ord. nov., Coprotherm]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q58687931|Q58687931]] | [[Hemimastigophora]] | Hemimastigophora<ref name="ref_58dfc1d83951e35703b2a2a1aba78948c7015d0ae4a435375316002039078fa3">''[[:d:Q85570914|The hemimastigophora (Hemimastix amphikineta nov. gen., nov. spec.), a new protistan phylum from gondwanian soils]]''</ref> | [[eucaryote]] | [[File:Hemimastix amphikineta.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q60572600|Q60572600]] | [[Nitrospirota]] | Nitrospirota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q61057246|Q61057246]] | [[Abditibacteriota]] | Abditibacteriota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q62066295|Q62066295]] | [[Kiritimatiellaeota]] | Kiritimatiellaeota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q62573436|Q62573436]] | [[Actinomycetota]] | Actinomycetota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Actinomyces israelii.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q65598611|Q65598611]] | [[Helarchaeota]] | Helarchaeota | [[Asgard]] | | |- | [[:d:Q73346622|Q73346622]] | [[Acidobacteraeota]] | Acidobacteraeota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q73346628|Q73346628]] | [[Acidobacterium group]] | Acidobacterium group | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q73346630|Q73346630]] | [[Acidobacterio|Acidobacteriota]] | Acidobacteriota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Acidobacterium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q79918695|Q79918695]] | [[Verstraetearchaeota]] | Verstraetearchaeota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q79969204|Q79969204]] | [[Altiarchaeota]] | Altiarchaeota | [[DPANN]] | | |- | [[:d:Q81642167|Q81642167]] | [[Rozellomycota]] | Rozellomycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b8c256ef49f76a6773946589846ce8cc2fc176141191f08a0f5375fe804cab79">''[[:d:Q117487849|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021]]''</ref> | [[Rozellomyceta]]<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q87745169|Q87745169]] | [[Hydrothermarchaeota]] | Hydrothermarchaeota | [[Methanobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q87991691|Q87991691]] | [[Marsarchaeota]] | Marsarchaeota | [[TACK]] | | |- | [[:d:Q88926185|Q88926185]] | [[Deinococcota]] | Deinococcota | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q92194055|Q92194055]] | [[Peploviricota]] | Peploviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Heunggongvirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194132|Q92194132]] | [[Uroviricota]] | Uroviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Heunggongvirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194209|Q92194209]] | [[Hofneiviricota]] | Hofneiviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Loebvirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194276|Q92194276]] | [[Phixviricota]] | Phixviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Sangervirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194353|Q92194353]] | [[Cossaviricota]] | Cossaviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Shotokuvirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194437|Q92194437]] | [[Cressdnaviricota]] | Cressdnaviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Shotokuvirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194516|Q92194516]] | [[Saleviricota]] | Saleviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Trapavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194594|Q92194594]] | [[Duplornaviricota]] | Duplornaviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Orthornavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194673|Q92194673]] | [[Kitrinoviricota]] | Kitrinoviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Orthornavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194739|Q92194739]] | [[Lenarviricota]] | Lenarviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Orthornavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194811|Q92194811]] | [[Pisuviricota]] | Pisuviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Orthornavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92194888|Q92194888]] | [[Artverviricota]] | Artverviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Pararnavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Retrovirus.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q92194946|Q92194946]] | [[Nucleocytoviricota]] | Nucleocytoviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Bamfordvirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[File:Megavirus.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q92195021|Q92195021]] | [[Preplasmiviricota]] | Preplasmiviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Bamfordvirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q92195085|Q92195085]] | [[Dividoviricota]] | Dividoviricota<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Helvetiavirae]]<ref name="ref_86248ee29065b1dbfae06cdca4f80714ef7bc68d41623ae8e4c64e65d9eda18a">''[[:d:Q91806681|ICTV Master Species List 2019.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q93682123|Q93682123]] | [[Margulisbacteria]] | Margulisbacteria | [[Cyanobacteriota/Melainabacteria]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q96376180|Q96376180]] | [[Delphibacteria]] | Delphibacteria | [[Sphingobacteria]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96377874|Q96377874]] | [[Fermentibacteria]] | Fermentibacteria | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96379822|Q96379822]] | [[Altimarinota]] | Altimarinota | [[CPR group]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q96394625|Q96394625]] | [[NC10 phylum]] | NC10 | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96406155|Q96406155]] | [[Psilophytophyta]] | Psilophytophyta | [[Embryophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q97066136|Q97066136]] | [[Candidatus Cryosericota]] | Cryosericota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q97381227|Q97381227]] | [[Thermotogota]] | Thermotogota | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Thermotoga sketch.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q98163206|Q98163206]] | [[Prasinodermatophyta]] | Prasinodermatophyta<ref name="ref_5631ca20a38193263affb5106e125eff9a45b825d04393ee636b119cdad1bec1">''[[:d:Q96641117|The genome of Prasinoderma coloniale unveils the existence of a third phylum within green plants]]''</ref> | [[Chloroplastida]] | [[File:Palmophyllum crassum as Palmophyllum flabellatum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q98569717|Q98569717]] | [[Dormibacteraeota]] | Dormibacteraeota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q98608871|Q98608871]] | [[Kiritimatiellota]] | Kiritimatiellota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q99238832|Q99238832]] | [[Nomurabacteria]] | Nomurabacteria | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q100742333|Q100742333]] | [[Eumycophyta]] | Eumycophyta | [[fungo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q100742412|Q100742412]] | [[Myxomycophyta]] | Myxomycophyta | [[fungo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q100787227|Q100787227]] | [[Eremiobacteraeota]] | Eremiobacteraeota | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q105320684|Q105320684]] | [[Nitrospinota]] | Nitrospinota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q106691990|Q106691990]] | [[Sifarchaeota]] | Sifarchaeota | [[Asgard]] | | |- | [[:d:Q106938144|Q106938144]] | [[Taleaviricota]] | Taleaviricota<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | [[Zilligvirae]]<ref name="ref_07776f326281d5e24cbcc830e5a6299a7fcd41305594d7aca61bc802b1d479b9">''[[:d:Q106917282|ICTV Master Species List 2020.v1]]''</ref><ref name="ref_366e4bf484d4214841243da83f659ace184bbeecf9fc0cd66df4467b6c755511">''[[:d:Q116118382|ICTV Master Species List 2021.v3]]''</ref><ref name="ref_d916964a5fca18117bde82d5e828f40b1d39919a12b6db1f9e1e08d14d8fa271">''[[:d:Q118434107|ICTV Master Species List 2022.v1]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q108072710|Q108072710]] | [[Caulochytriomycota]] | Caulochytriomycota | [[Chytridiomyceta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q108389880|Q108389880]] | [[Sanchytriomycota]] | Sanchytriomycota | [[fungo]]<ref name="ref_25e2d10666311fea92ecdca7bade98031d9ac2b0b211147759a9262408609954">''[[:d:Q133256687|The 2024 Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:Sanchytrid cells Fig1.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q109377432|Q109377432]] | [[Huberarchaeota]] | Huberarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q110712107|Q110712107]] | [[Thermomicrobia]] | Thermomicrobia | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q110746365|Q110746365]] | [[Atribacterota]] | Atribacterota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:41467 2020 20149 Fig1f.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q110917266|Q110917266]] | [[Nanohaloarchaeota]] | Nanohaloarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q111169035|Q111169035]] | [[Bdellovibrionota]] | Bdellovibrionota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Slice from electron cryotomogram of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus cell.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q111686092|Q111686092]] | [[Undinarchaeota]] | Undinarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q113867475|Q113867475]] | [[Njordarchaeota]] | Njordarchaeota | [[Promethearchaeati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q113882847|Q113882847]] | [[sporae dispersae]] | sporae dispersae | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117089091|Q117089091]] | [[Moresnetiophyta]] | Moresnetiophyta | [[Cycadophytanae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q117323675|Q117323675]] | [[Actinobacteriota]] | Actinobacteriota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119526751|Q119526751]] | [[Caldisericota]] | Caldisericota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119788827|Q119788827]] | [[Annelida]] | Annelida | [[Lophozoa]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119788837|Q119788837]] | [[Cnidaria]] | Cnidaria | [[Radiata]]<ref name="ref_742573e81966c74fcb0897653cc500a68a280889d67427e580b4a02e8de39024">''[[:d:Q82575|Integrated Taxonomic Information System]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119822695|Q119822695]] | [[Saccharimonadota]] | Saccharimonadota | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q119841401|Q119841401]] | [[Spironematellophyta]] | Spironematellophyta | [[Protozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121290984|Q121290984]] | [[Candidatus Auribacterota]] | Auribacterota<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q121887854|Q121887854]] | [[Priapula]] | Priapula | | | |- | [[:d:Q121887868|Q121887868]] | [[Acanthocephala (cins)]] | Acanthocephala | | | |- | [[:d:Q122973879|Q122973879]] | [[Nanobdellota]] | Nanobdellota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Urzwerg.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q123461054|Q123461054]] | [[Methylomirabilota]] | Methylomirabilota | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q123631188|Q123631188]] | [[Thermomicrobiota]] | Thermomicrobiota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q124140374|Q124140374]] | [[Langiophytophyta]] | Langiophytophyta | [[Bryobiotina]] | [[File:Aglaophyton major reconstruccion en.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q124318339|Q124318339]] | [[Microcaldota]] | Microcaldota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q124653641|Q124653641]] | [[Brockarchaeota]] | Brockarchaeota | [[archeo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124736019|Q124736019]] | [[Aminicenantota]] | Aminicenantota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q125044953|Q125044953]] | [[Saccorhytida]] | Saccorhytida | [[Ecdysozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q127598725|Q127598725]] | [[Candidatus Babelota]] | Candidatus Babelota<ref name="ref_a2a626b36040c9cc7c50aecc55770281ec611775daf45f37c012f15102a0c642">''[[:d:Q36647264|Comparative Genomics of Candidate Phylum TM6 Suggests That Parasitism Is Widespread and Ancestral in This Lineage.]]''</ref> | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q127686997|Q127686997]] | [[Nebulidia]] | Nebulidia | [[Provora]] | | |- | [[:d:Q127687643|Q127687643]] | [[Halobacteriota]] | Halobacteriota | [[Methanobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128247205|Q128247205]] | [[Cloacimonadota]] | Cloacimonadota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128247315|Q128247315]] | [[Muiribacteriota]] | Muiribacteriota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128247694|Q128247694]] | [[Elulimicrobiota]] | Elulimicrobiota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128504387|Q128504387]] | [[Hadarchaeota]] | Hadarchaeota | [[Methanobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128598620|Q128598620]] | [[Desulfobacterota]] | Desulfobacterota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128598652|Q128598652]] | [[Bipolaricaulota]] | Bipolaricaulota | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q128635785|Q128635785]] | [[Asgardarchaeota]] | Asgardarchaeota | [[archeo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q128788757|Q128788757]] | [[Promethearchaeota]] | Promethearchaeota | [[Promethearchaeati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q130259571|Q130259571]] | [[Thermoplasmatota]] | Thermoplasmatota<ref name="ref_4c90cde234f10f42a4d5ba252a0894f21547c3717d68972f14682f2b81766ad7">''[[:d:Q123289567|Proposal of names for 329 higher rank taxa defined in the Genome Taxonomy Database under two prokaryotic codes]]''</ref> | [[Methanobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q130427981|Q130427981]] | [[Nibbleridia]] | Nibbleridia | [[Provora]] | [[File:Outline drawing of Ubysseya fretuma.svg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q130693641|Q130693641]] | [[Ambiviricota]] | Ambiviricota | [[Orthornavirae]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131299205|Q131299205]] | [[Campylobacterota]] | Campylobacterota<ref name="ref_ab8cedfdaeb57dda04aad9965d1c480c5f2185b2fae158f356311076ef6983f1">''[[:d:Q124791084|Valid publication of the names of forty-two phyla of prokaryotes]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131585232|Q131585232]] | [[Sysuimicrobiota]] | Sysuimicrobiota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q131585276|Q131585276]] | [[Eremiobacterota]] | Eremiobacterota | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131822313|Q131822313]] | [[Iainarchaeota]] | Iainarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131987420|Q131987420]] | [[Nanohalarchaeota]] | Nanohalarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q131988525|Q131988525]] | [[Poseidoniota]] | Poseidoniota | [[Methanobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q132852528|Q132852528]] | [[Minisyncoccota]] | Minisyncoccota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q133292922|Q133292922]] | [[Patescibacteriota]] | Patescibacteriota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q134283829|Q134283829]] | [[Fidelibacterota]] | Fidelibacterota | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q134389434|Q134389434]] | [[Vulcanimicrobiota]] | Vulcanimicrobiota | [[bacterio]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135012866|Q135012866]] | [[Freyrarchaeota]] | Freyrarchaeota | [[archeo]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135031819|Q135031819]] | [[Hodarchaeota]] | Hodarchaeota | [[archeo]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135038427|Q135038427]] | [[Nezhaarchaeota]] | Nezhaarchaeota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135489975|Q135489975]] | [[Hydrothermota]] | Hydrothermota | [[Pseudomonadati]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135494149|Q135494149]] | [[Augarchaeota]] | Augarchaeota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135494257|Q135494257]] | [[Aenigmatarchaeota]] | Aenigmatarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q135657034|Q135657034]] | [[Dormibacterota]] | Candidatus Dormibacterota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135686940|Q135686940]] | [[Muellerivitota]] | Muellerivitota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135686941|Q135686941]] | [[Oederibacteriota]] | Oederibacteriota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136768066|Q136768066]] | [[Acidulidesulfobacteriota]] | Acidulidesulfobacteriota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136773909|Q136773909]] | [[Desulfotomaculota]] | Desulfotomaculota | | | |- | [[:d:Q136912989|Q136912989]] | [[Caelestes]] | Caelestes | [[Membrifera]] | | |- | [[:d:Q136956224|Q136956224]] | [[Ryujiniota]] | Ryujiniota | [[bacterio]] | | |- | [[:d:Q138425208|Q138425208]] | [[Dictyoglomerota]] | Dictyoglomerota<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q140571826|Q140571826]] | [["Candidatus Acetithermota" corrig. Rinke et al. 2013]] | "Candidatus Acetithermota" | [[Thermotogati]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140577645|Q140577645]] | [[Caldifarciminota]] | Caldifarciminota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q141198607|Q141198607]] | [[Methanomethylicota]] | Methanomethylicota | [[archeo]] | | |- | [[:d:Q141224092|Q141224092]] | [[Neoluka]] | Neoluka | [[Excavata]] | [[File:Ancyromonadida.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5365047|Q5365047]] | [[Pseudofungi]] | Pseudofungi<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Stramenopiles]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Water mold Mizukabi colony.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q5367954|Q5367954]] | [[Elusimicrobia]] | Elusimicrobia<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q5376372|Q5376372]] | [[Endomyxa]] | Endomyxa | [[Rhizaria]]<ref name="ref_d6ddbab10ac7ee97f02e92018dda7d2b18e4bf25576f2edb4e27e7c9b4ff16e4">''[[:d:Q125775961|On the phenology of protists: recurrent patterns reveal seasonal variation of protistan (Rhizaria: Cercozoa and Endomyxa) communities in tree canopies]]''</ref> | [[File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 427-1-1 Gromia brunneri.tif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q7576782|Q7576782]] | [[Sphingobacteria]] | Sphingobacteria | [[bacterio]] | [[File:Bacteroides biacutis 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9358965|Q9358965]] | [[Pyrrophyta]] | Pyrrophyta | [[eucaryote]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9642991|Q9642991]] | [[Bacillariophyta]] | Bacillariophyta | [[Chromista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q9810870|Q9810870]] | [[Bacteroidota]] | Bacteroidota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bacteroides biacutis 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q9850230|Q9850230]] | [[Conjugatophyta]] | Conjugatophyta | [[Chlorobionts]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10278368|Q10278368]] | [[Euthallophyta]] | Euthallophyta | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10286677|Q10286677]] | [[Elusimicrobiota]] | Elusimicrobiota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10317255|Q10317255]] | [[Lentisphaerota]] | Lentisphaerota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q10334205|Q10334205]] | [[Myxomycota]] | Myxomycota | [[Protisto|Protista]] | [[File:Tubifera ferruginosa 52288.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q10640455|Q10640455]] | [[Picozoa]] | Picozoa<ref name="ref_6f84893f17d7dac5f1f35e78e801676446c737f5807c18239365a578d6349f8b">''[[:d:Q21089798|Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as ‘Picobiliphytes’]]''</ref> | [[Archaeplastida]] | [[File:Picomonas judraskeda.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11299399|Q11299399]] | [[Cryptista]] | Cryptista<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pancryptista]]<ref name="ref_c9efd199c533dacedb4c96fcb7c6c45d8a130638058ce8c9b4536dd171de77e0">''[[:d:Q127708157|The closest lineage of Archaeplastida is revealed by phylogenomics analyses that include Microheliella maris]]''</ref><br/>[[Hacrobia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 6743 SEM Cryptophyte.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12063165|Q12063165]] | [[Fibrobacterota]] | Fibrobacterota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | phylo de bacterios |- | [[:d:Q12217510|Q12217510]] | [[Armatimonadota]] | Armatimonadota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q12651951|Q12651951]] | [[Chlorobi]] | Chlorobi<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Green d winogradsky.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12652693|Q12652693]] | [[Deferribacteres]] | Deferribacteres<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q12673555|Q12673555]] | [[Spirochaete]] | Spirochaetae<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:20100905 211652 Spirochetes.jpg|center|32px]] | phylo e classe de bacterios |- | [[:d:Q12746761|Q12746761]] | [[Preaxostyla]] | Preaxostyla | [[Excavata]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12772144|Q12772144]] | [[Myxosporidia]] | Myxosporidia | [[Protisto|Protista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q12962137|Q12962137]] | [[Pseudomonadota]] | Pseudomonadota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12962791|Q12962791]] | [[Chlorobiota]] | Chlorobiota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Green d winogradsky.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12963338|Q12963338]] | [[Dictyoglomi]] | Dictyoglomi<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Negibacteria]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q12963847|Q12963847]] | [[Methanobacteriota]] | Methanobacteriota | [[Methanobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Halobacteria.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12968254|Q12968254]] | [[Mycoplasmatota]] | Mycoplasmatota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Spiro.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q12971472|Q12971472]] | [[Synergistota]] | Synergistota | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Synergistetes.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q13012345|Q13012345]] | [[Cyanophyta]] | Cyanophyta | [[Negibacteria]]<ref name="ref_ed6a5d9605b0cd838b6d9340f4bb33ff8536a0c347663334e025d2753d4a8996">''[[:d:Q796451|Fossilworks]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q13014476|Q13014476]] | [[Schizomycophyta]] | Schizomycophyta | [[Prokaryota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q13392618|Q13392618]] | [[Entomophthoromycota]] | Entomophthoromycota<ref name="ref_25c6a9aea8701af24f6d298405ca9409b4ad92c1cbe2b0c8f4d0d9b6f549e013">''[[:d:Q54803234|High-level classification of the Fungi and a tool for evolutionary ecological analyses]]''</ref> | [[fungo]]<ref name="ref_b8c256ef49f76a6773946589846ce8cc2fc176141191f08a0f5375fe804cab79">''[[:d:Q117487849|Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021]]''</ref> | [[File:Entomophthora muscae on Scathophaga stercoraria (lateral view).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q14562931|Q14562931]] | [[Magnoliophyta]] | Magnoliophyta<ref name="ref_b11b218b4e78afdf4e1a12aa41014c142cf7927e54dc9a0ba50bffaa21b01589">''[[:d:Q22061791|A checklist of familial and suprafamilial names for extant vascular plants]]''</ref><ref name="ref_3f07815f8d9c6b2b79b3c9023407930cdd8834c3373e899b3932628a9d941fb5">''[[:d:Q14916673|Reveal System of Classification]]''</ref><ref name="ref_52c422a3a63aa15cea70f788af0d98a62756f3c860fdd8b758b51fe95d8330a2">''[[:d:Q55869373|Flowering Plants]]''</ref> | [[Spermatophyta]]<br/>[[Cycadophytanae]] | [[File:Magnoliafraseri rt1.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q15156941|Q15156941]] | [[Perkinsozoa]] | Perkinsozoa<ref name="ref_77dfd8970bd2bf14090bf4300c1d002007cc78a4a2b6e598d9de32feee6f3950">''[[:d:Q56038565|Parvilucifera infectans norén et moestrup gen. et sp. nov. (perkinsozoa phylum nov.): a parasitic flagellate capable of killing toxic microalgae]]''</ref> | [[Alveolata]] | | taxon |- | [[:d:Q15283231|Q15283231]] | [[Loukozoa]] | Loukozoa<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Excavata]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Malawimonasms.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q16118567|Q16118567]] | [[Nitrososphaerota]] | Nitrososphaerota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:ThaspiviridaeFig1rv2.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q17504643|Q17504643]] | [[Aphelida]] | Aphelida<ref name="ref_185afa0acd75b325098430683495cb0acd61ad3f71735cb5b4e6cd28db4cd38c">''[[:d:Q21131107|Morphology, phylogeny, and ecology of the aphelids (Aphelidea, Opisthokonta) and proposal for the new superphylum Opisthosporidia]]''</ref> | [[Opisthosporidia]] | [[File:Amoeboaphelidium.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18636217|Q18636217]] | [[Micrognathozoa]] | Micrognathozoa<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Spiralia]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Limnognathia maerski.PNG|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18647867|Q18647867]] | [[Lentisphaerae]] | Lentisphaerae<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q18667425|Q18667425]] | [[Verrucomicrobia]] | Verrucomicrobia<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_14a405d37222afc2a5fd122a43b7ba0323ff94c1ffc61672c369b6afa236fe03">''[[:d:Q36882454|Verrucomicrobia div. nov., a new division of the bacteria containing three new species of Prosthecobacter]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f60752922dfd8784bc96d8c8f468baf4600cf2b4a9fb2b90ed69204c6e6cde49">''[[:d:Q33637195|Cerasicoccus maritimus sp. nov. and Cerasicoccus frondis sp. nov., two peptidoglycan-less marine verrucomicrobial species, and description of Verrucomicrobia phyl. nov., nom. rev.]]''</ref><ref name="ref_66f98747a61f78fa1304ca6a2d59d4a7d0e46fcf53c694f3106fdaf46252872c">''[[:d:Q45322085|List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:TEM - Epixenosomes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18668442|Q18668442]] | [[Spirochaete]] | Spirochaetota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:20100905 211652 Spirochetes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18674593|Q18674593]] | [[Planctomycetota]] | Planctomycetota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Figure-2-Scanning-electron-micrograph-of-P.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q18674594|Q18674594]] | [[Planctomycetes]] | Planctomycetes<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Santarella plosbio 2010 gemmata obscuriglobus fig3.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q19683970|Q19683970]] | [[Deferribacterota]] | Deferribacterota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q19868361|Q19868361]] | [[Lokiarchaeota]] | Lokiarchaeota<ref name="ref_4adb43d2d2facce52a651d6074856d685756fa9a52691580162aadfb614c76d2">''[[:d:Q22809057|Complex archaea that bridge the gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes]]''</ref> | [[Promethearchaeati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20388896|Q20388896]] | [[Chlamydiota]] | Chlamydiota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlusskörperchen.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q20641774|Q20641774]] | [[Mastigomycota]] | Mastigomycota | [[Eumycota]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20643853|Q20643853]] | [[Thermodesulfobacteria]] | Thermodesulfobacteria<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20721206|Q20721206]] | [[Melainabacteria]] | Melainabacteria | [[Cyanobacteriota/Melainabacteria]]<ref name="ref_02fb502a2a6b6efb132679c32918d7c22997787e0bcc199d551c4afb7bea4a79">''[[:d:Q12159796|Taxonomy database of the U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20751938|Q20751938]] | [[Nitrospirae]] | Nitrospirae<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q20804840|Q20804840]] | [[Caldiserica]] | Caldiserica<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref><ref name="ref_2f1338e18d27781ad188f99c4efb0138bd47ca4011fafa0455d096c8b78ff992">''[[:d:Q33486346|Caldisericum exile gen. nov., sp. nov., an anaerobic, thermophilic, filamentous bacterium of a novel bacterial phylum, Caldiserica phyl. nov., originally called the candidate phylum OP5, and description of Caldisericaceae fam. nov., Caldisericales o]]''</ref> | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21092088|Q21092088]] | [[Sulcozoa]] | Sulcozoa<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Sarcomastigota]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Apusomonas.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21286613|Q21286613]] | [[Heterokontophyta]] | Heterokontophyta | [[Heterokonta]] | [[File:Giantkelp2 300.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21293795|Q21293795]] | [[Monoblastozoa]] | Monoblastozoa<ref name="ref_1564da301e83b5d97bf5a357b80f94ddc4320ba1509c91b52cbd38a11c2bcb66">''[[:d:Q51456687|Classification of the animal kingdom]]''</ref> | [[animal]] | [[File:Salinella salve Frenzel.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21397920|Q21397920]] | [[Clostridium tetani E88]] | Clostridium tetani E88 | [[Clostridium tetani]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21439067|Q21439067]] | [[Aquificota]] | Aquificota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Venenivibrio.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21439314|Q21439314]] | [[Chrysiogenota]] | Chrysiogenota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q21441825|Q21441825]] | [[Fusobacteriota]] | Fusobacteriota | [[Fusobacteriati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Fusobacterium novum 01.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21442539|Q21442539]] | [[Chloroflexota]] | Chloroflexota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Phylum-Chloroflexi-isolate-Anaerolineae-bacterium-HOT-439-is-dependent-on-a-helper-strain.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21445621|Q21445621]] | [[Neomonada]] | Neomonada | [[Opimoda|Neozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21445839|Q21445839]] | [[Opalozoa]] | Opalozoa | [[Bigyra]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446030|Q21446030]] | [[Granuloreticulosa]] | Granuloreticulosa | [[Protozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446061|Q21446061]] | [[Ascetospora]] | Ascetospora<ref name="ref_05b76844e293ed05b5e8d83c431f65580cf714a96e7fafa867717d1a6ed1c182">''[[:d:Q108899521|Classification of the Haplosporidia]]''</ref> | [[Protisto|Protista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446189|Q21446189]] | [[Haptomonada]] | Haptomonada | [[Protozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446445|Q21446445]] | [[Plasmodiophoromycota]] | Plasmodiophoromycota | [[Protisto|Protista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446765|Q21446765]] | [[Protomonada]] | Protomonada | [[Flagelloopalinida]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446795|Q21446795]] | [[Prymnesiophyta]] | Prymnesiophyta | [[Protoctista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446800|Q21446800]] | [[Karyoblastea]] | Karyoblastea | [[Rhizopoda]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446920|Q21446920]] | [[Pyrrhophyta]] | Pyrrhophyta | [[Pyrrophyta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21446977|Q21446977]] | [[Chrysomonada]] | Chrysomonada | [[Protozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447010|Q21447010]] | [[Raphidophyta]] | Raphidophyta | [[Protoctista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447146|Q21447146]] | [[Dicyemida]] | Dicyemida | [[protostome]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Dicyema macrocephalum.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447237|Q21447237]] | [[Thermoproteota]] | Thermoproteota | [[Thermoproteati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:RT8-4.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447509|Q21447509]] | [[Dinophyta]] | Dinophyta | [[Protozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447667|Q21447667]] | [[Miozoa]] | Miozoa<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Alveolata]]<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[File:Oxyrrhis marina.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447813|Q21447813]] | [[Tetramastigota]] | Tetramastigota | [[eucaryote]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21447826|Q21447826]] | [[Thermodesulfobacteriota]] | Thermodesulfobacteriota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Thermodesulfobacterium hydrogeniphilum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q21447831|Q21447831]] | [[Thraustochytriacea]] | Thraustochytriacea | [[Protisto|Protista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21448006|Q21448006]] | [[Xanthophyta]] | Xanthophyta | [[Chromista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21448056|Q21448056]] | [[Zoomastigina]] | Zoomastigina | [[Protoctista]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21573733|Q21573733]] | [[Rappemonada]] | Rappemonada | [[Hacrobia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q22094454|Q22094454]] | [[Percolozoa]] | Percolozoa<ref name="ref_d95c01ce3120736f46039a59308ab5d0f2123e346203e57a6823d2596a976565">''[[:d:Q19858624|A higher level classification of all living organisms]]''</ref> | [[Discoba]]<ref name="ref_88ff74caebbdff69adae1309530f8930d8ba5d8e8ac089aa0eb81bf4fefdaad6">''[[:d:Q57086550|Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes]]''</ref> | [[File:Naegleria (formes).png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q22113496|Q22113496]] | [[Dictyoglomota]] | Dictyoglomota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q22159986|Q22159986]] | [[Hepatophyta]] | Hepatophyta | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23044259|Q23044259]] | [[Sphenophyta]] | Sphenophyta | [[planta]] | | |- | [[:d:Q23419047|Q23419047]] | [[Problematica]] | Problematica | [[animal]] | [[File:Problematica Silurica (Plate 2) (7629246330).jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q24088016|Q24088016]] | [[Discomitochondria]] | Discomitochondria | [[Protozoa]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24150684|Q24150684]] | [[Agmata]] | Agmata | [[animal]] | [[File:StadtmuseumBerlin GeologischeSammlung SM-2012-1604.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q24975421|Q24975421]] | [[Poribacteria]] | Poribacteria | [[bacterio]] | [[File:Poribacteria localisation using correlative microscopy.gif|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25228461|Q25228461]] | [[Verrucomicrobiota]] | Verrucomicrobiota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:TEM - Epixenosomes.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25508584|Q25508584]] | [[Parvarchaeota]] | Parvarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:25K15pA9Def4sec Arman 4 Box1.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25508587|Q25508587]] | [[Diapherotrites]] | Diapherotrites | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25508591|Q25508591]] | [[Aenigmarchaeota]] | Aenigmarchaeota | [[Nanobdellati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q25519942|Q25519942]] | [[Bacillota]] | Bacillota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:Bacillus subtilis Gram.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25539559|Q25539559]] | [[Psilophyta]] | Psilophyta | [[planta]] | [[File:Psilotum.jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25577567|Q25577567]] | [[Cyanobacteriota]] | Cyanobacteriota | [[Bacillati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | [[File:201208 Cyanobacteria.png|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25834462|Q25834462]] | [[Euglenozoa]] | Euglenozoa<ref name="ref_f9911c01cb81196762d2c6675b2d790f9a923331f602282f796e7af4ea25d82d">http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=536202</ref><ref name="ref_e42897ef28ca1fbc09977e9a4a2b32bbcf01800c47a324caca5014b17fe73964">''[[:d:Q22919249|Eukaryote kingdoms: Seven or nine?]]''</ref> | [[Euglenozoa]]<ref name="ref_f9911c01cb81196762d2c6675b2d790f9a923331f602282f796e7af4ea25d82d">http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=536202</ref><ref name="ref_772a9b96f11299bb1ce0d28c2a3a6e4244c6b6d8b24ff822acd47644eb07410d">http://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/?id=117576</ref><br/>[[Discicristata]]<ref name="ref_614fb8f075f79819a8e5dacfa2ef160947f7237cfd6bac90b82407d11bdf8b00">''[[:d:Q30885386|The excavate protozoan phyla Metamonada Grassé emend. (Anaeromonadea, Parabasalia, Carpediemonas, Eopharyngia) and Loukozoa emend. (Jakobea, Malawimonas): their evolutionary affinities and new higher taxa]]''</ref> | [[File:Euglena sp..jpg|center|32px]] | |- | [[:d:Q26209713|Q26209713]] | [[Rhodothermaeota]] | Rhodothermaeota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26220359|Q26220359]] | [[Ignavibacteriota]] | Ignavibacteriota | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26714852|Q26714852]] | [[Nitrospinae]] | Nitrospinae | [[Pseudomonadati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26827889|Q26827889]] | [[Acetothermia]] | Acetothermia | [[Thermotogati]]<ref name="ref_75166a3751e44a76afd29552f137fa790b12a7ddb54109baee5751e24ccfd858">''[[:d:Q6595107|List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]''</ref> | | |- | [[:d:Q26827898|Q26827898]] | [[Aerophobetes]] | Aerophobetes | [[bacterio]] | | |} ---- &sum; 370 items. {{Wikidata list end}} 589moqb7sihy8dg6je6n1poq4hvusd5 3 38969 699508 698921 2026-09-03T04:57:40Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Votation */ 699508 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Benvenite}} [[User:Radagastor|Rad]] ^{[[User talk:Radagastor|talk]]} 18:26, 17 februario 2016 (UTC) == Colombia verso Columbia == Mi dictionarios varia re si le orthographia correcte es ''Columbia'' o ''Colombia''. Personalmente, io prefiere le orthographia 'Colombia', basate in le linguas fonte: {{en}} Colombia, {{es}} Colombia, {{fr}} Colombie, {{it}} Colombia, {{pt}} Colômbia; e sol {{ru}} Колу́мбия (Kolumbija). Ma iste require clarification del UMI; pro ora, nos debe usar 'Colombia'/'colombian' ante clarification. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] ([[Discussion Usator:Almafeta|discussion]]) 21:29, 17 junio 2016 (UTC) :Salute [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]]! :Ai! E io pensava que [[Gabriel García Márquez]] (scriptor [[Colombia]]n) esseva finite! :Io creava [[:Categoria:Gente columbian]] inadvertentemente (pardono!) e corrigeva le error (assi io pensava) immediatemente. Le [[:Categoria:Gente colombian]] jam existeva e essava create in 2009. Le articulo [[Colombia]] esseva create in 2003, e le indirection [[:Columbia]] a Colombia etiam esseva create in 2003. Il habeva un discussion super Colombia verso Columbia in [[Discussion Appendice:Lista de statos e entitates soveran]] in 2011. :Nos es de accordo super le regula de tres. Quando en:Colombia, es:Colombia, fr:Colombie, it:Colombia, e pt:Colômbia es unanime, nos non debe considerar ru:Колу́мбия (ni de:Kolumbien). Ergo ''Colombia'', nobstante que le IED ha ''Columbia''. (Le [[http://www.interlingua.com/paisesdelmundo lista de paises]] al sito web del UMI ha ''Colombia'', sed illo non es definitive, in mi opinion, proque illo contine assatis de errores.) :Il ha 81 paginas con ligamines a [[Colombia]]. Pote un error dactylographic vermente cascadar a 81 modificationes? Ben, per favor face me saper le decision; si il es necessari, io dividera le labor con te. :Cordialmente, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:56, 18 junio 2016 (UTC) ::Fortunatemente, nos non ha que corriger nihil hodie; ma il appare que ha duo formas dictionaric 'correcte'. Io solo lo mentionava proque me interessava, e me pareva que tu esseva editante altere articulos de interesse colombian. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] ([[Discussion Usator:Almafeta|discussion]]) 23:03, 18 junio 2016 (UTC) == Share your experience and feedback as a Wikimedian in this global survey == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> Hello! The Wikimedia Foundation is asking for your feedback in a survey. We want to know how well we are supporting your work on and off wiki, and how we can change or improve things in the future.<ref>This survey is primarily meant to get feedback on the Wikimedia Foundation's current work, not long-term strategy.</ref> The opinions you share will directly affect the current and future work of the Wikimedia Foundation. You have been randomly selected to take this survey as we would like to hear from your Wikimedia community. 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[[Special:Contributiones/77.179.125.200|77.179.125.200]] 18:12, 14 martio 2017 (UTC) == STOP - communa de Italia == STOP https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azzano_Mella&diff=569719&oldid=568673 [[Special:Contributiones/78.55.49.230|78.55.49.230]] 17:29, 15 martio 2017 (UTC) ==É== Hello Tortoise, I'm sorry not being able to answer you in interlingua. I understand it rather well as it has roots in languages I'm fluent. I don't care about the troll hiding under an IP address, he won't touch me. I take note about this lack of diacritics in IA. I've to say I don't understand it. I can easily understand refusing diacritics from foreign alphabets like japonese (Tōkyō seems definitively weird and it isn't even the real name of the city) but latin diacritics are the real writing of the names. You're anglophone, you don't have "é" but you will write café, résumé or cliché. In French (and in every other language), we don't have polish diacritics but everybody serious will write Wrocław and Łódź to respect the name even if most of us don't know what it means concerning the pronunciation. Have a nice week-end. [[Usator:Birdie|Birdie]] ([[Discussion Usator:Birdie|discussion]]) 21:37, 31 martio 2017 (UTC) :Hello again, how are you? My Sunday was enlighted by the fun of seeing a request for 16 (!) vandalisms. I'm worst than Atilla. )) Well, the en:wp says about '''Loanwords''': ''Unassimilated foreign loanwords, or borrowed words, are pronounced and spelled as in their language of origin. Their spelling may contain diacritics, or accent marks. If the diacritics do not affect pronunciation, they are removed.'' With a citation from Alexander Gode. So you're not following this rule even if, like in the Céline's case, it affects the pronunciation? Have a great evening. [[Usator:Birdie|Birdie]] ([[Discussion Usator:Birdie|discussion]]) 16:50, 2 april 2017 (UTC) ::Salute Birdie! ::Le citationes complete de Gode es: ::del Intorduction al Interlingua-English Dictionary, "Spelling and Pronunciation" :::Unassimilated guest words, that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the languages which have borrowed such words dispense with them too. They do so when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. ''defaite'' for French ''défaite'', but ''kümmel'' as in German. ::del Grammar of Interlingua (Gode & Blair) §9 :::Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Interlingua-English Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. ''defaite'' for French ''défaite'', but ''kümmel'' as in German. ::del Grammatica de Interlingua (Gode & Blair, traducite per S. Kayalar) §9 :::"VOCABULOS HOSPITE" non-assimilate, i.e. parolas foranee o prestate le quales es identificate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary quanto a lor origine, retene le pronunciation e orthographia del lingua original. Le signos diacritic original es omittite quando le orthographia simplificate resultante suffice pro suggerer le pronunciation intendite; p.ex. ''defaite'' pro francese ''défaite'', sed ''kümmel'' como in germano. ::Exemplos del IED: :::'''café [F]''' ''n'' coffeehouse, café :::'''defaite [F]''' ''n'' defeat (= loss of a contest) :::'''kümmel [G]''' ''n'' kümmel ::Isto non se refere a nomines proprie que non es sufficientemente nobabile de trovar se in un dictionario. Nostre politica in tal casos, secundo nostre [[Wikipedia:Manual de stilo|Manual de stilo]] es: :::'''Translitterationes''' :::Tote le parolas que non usa le alphabeto latin debe esser translitterate. Le nomines proprie que usa le alphabeto latin debe mantener le accentos original, per exemplo, ''François Petit'', ''José Núñez''. Pro le titulo de un articulo usa le nomine original, sed quando il non ha risco de ambiguitate, adde un redirection con le nomine sin accentos (p.ex., ''Jose Nunez'' deberea rediriger se a ''José Núñez''). ::Ergo tu renomination de ''Celine Dion'' a ''Céline Dion'' esseva exactemente correcte. ::Cordialmente, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 14:39, 20 april 2017 (UTC) == Redactor == Io ha addite te al gruppo del redactores. Principalmente, tu ha un nove poteres: # Revider (e approbar or rejectar) alterationes facite per usatores anonyme. (Iste function essera plure plus facile que revision manual!) # Tu alterationes automaticamente essera considerate revidite. Gratias pro su labor continual. [[Usator:Almafeta|Almafeta]] ([[Discussion Usator:Almafeta|discussion]]) 02:41, 20 april 2017 (UTC) :Gratias, Almafeta!—[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 07:29, 20 april 2017 (UTC) == Gratias/Redirectiones == Salute, io volerea regratiar te pro tu adjuta in alertar me sur le activitate recente de Conradi. Un remarca sur tu requestas de deler le redirectiones lassate post le renomination de paginas: in general, le redirectiones non noce, e consume un quantitate negligibile de ressources; dunque, si le titulo non es totalmente incorrecte o sin senso, io prefere lassar los. Es possibile que in vinti annos alcuno face un wikiligamine a un tal nomine, e in tal caso es bon esser redirigite automaticamente verso le pagina correcte. :) – [[Usator:McDutchie|Martijn]] ([[Discussion Usator:McDutchie|discussion]]) 20:53, 26 april 2017 (UTC) == Administrator == Salute! Esque tu volerea devenir administrator? Deveni un poco solitari esser le unic administrator active. Io non es autorisate a adder te io mesme, ma io pote proponer e recommendar te, si tu ha interesse. – [[Usator:McDutchie|Martijn]] ([[Discussion Usator:McDutchie|discussion]]) 02:34, 31 maio 2017 (UTC) :Salute [[Usator:McDutchie|Martijn]]! Io esserea felice de haber le poteres—e le responsabilitates—e io lo considerarea como un honor. Gratias! —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 07:22, 1 junio 2017 (UTC) ::Salute Tortoise0308! Tu es ora administrator. Congratulationes! --[[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 19:00, 10 junio 2017 (UTC) :::Gratias, [[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]]! E gratias [[Usator:McDutchie|Martijn]] pro me proponer, e gratias [[Usator:Jondel|Jondel]] pro tu supporto! —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 20:08, 10 junio 2017 (UTC) == Lotso == Do you think [[Lotso]] should be moved to [[Toy Story 3]] to match the fact that the article in English redirects to the list of Toy Story 3 characters? Also I think [[Beauty and the Beast]] should be renamed [[Beauty and the Beast (film de 1991)]] because there's more than one film with the name, including the [[en:Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)|2017 film]]. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 02:59, 14 junio 2017 (UTC) :Actually the article in English redirects to a list of characters from all the Toy Story movies. This is separate from the (English) article on Toy Story 3, and is criticized (see [[en:Talk:List of Toy Story characters|its talk page]]) for being too long and detailed. So no, I don't think you need to match the structure of the English pages. The Spanish wikipedia has a [[es:Lotso|separate article on the character]]. You could revert your article to your previous version, mention that he is the chief antagonist in Toy Story 3, but also had a cameo appearance in Up and (in undeveloped form) in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. The material in your current version could be the basis for a separate article on Toy Story 3. :I agree that [[Beauty and the Beast]] should be renamed to [[Beauty and the Beast (film de 1991)]]. This will leave a redirection page named ''Beauty and the Beast'', which could be turned into a disambiguation page with pointers to the 1991 film and an article (not yet written) on the 2017 film. Do you think you might write such an article? —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 20:33, 14 junio 2017 (UTC) ::OK, I fixed Lotso, mostly. But it's partially in Spanish, can you translate the Spanish? The part "que es antagonista" means "who is the antagonist", but I don't know what it should be in Interlingua. Then "También tuvo cortas aparicións en le films" means "[He] also had short appearances in the films". But of course, it really should say, "He also had cameo appearances (in undeveloped form) in the films", like you said. As for the articles, I ''tried'' to create the Toy Story 3 article, but it was blocked by the abuse filter as counter-productive. The material I attempted to write was copied from [https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lotso&oldid=586390 this edit] to Lotso. What I realized is that, while the article was not vandalism, it was pretty short. Maybe that's why it was blocked? I also attempted to move Beauty and the Beast 6 months ago, but that too was blocked. In fact, I looked in the abuse filter log, and that's what it said about Toy Story 3: that the article was too short. Can you help me write a longer one? Thanks. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 06:14, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) ::: I believe ''antagonista'' is OK in interlingua. I changed ''curtes aparicións'' to ''breve apparitiones'' (adjectives in interlingua don't have to agree in number [singular vs. plural] with the nons they modify; ''curte apparitiones'' would have been all right too,) I made a few other minor changes; see what you think. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:47, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) :::We have been under assault by a vandal who, among other disruptions, was creating large numbers of micro-articles with no encyclopedic content, such as "Donald John Trump esse un persona human." (period). An anti-abuse filter was installed to prevent creating such extremely short articles. It was later relaxed a bit, though not removed. I had no trouble creating [[Toy Story 3]] from [https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lotso&oldid=586390 your edit]. If that hadn't worked I would probably have added something like "Illo esseva le tertie film in le serie ''Toy Story'', sequente [[Toy Story 2]]." —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:52, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) ::::I added the line you mentioned. But how do you say franchise in Interlinga? It's really a franchise, so it should be something like "It is the third film in the ''Toy Story'' franchise, following ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995) and ''[[Toy Story 2]]'' (1999)." We kind of have that, but on the other hand, I believe we should use the present tense for this, and change series to franchise. But thanks for the help on Lotso. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 18:49, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) :::::OK, I searched for franchise, and it seems OK (I think?). Similar to how antagonista wasn't wrong (I searched that too, just to be sure). Also I believe it would be better to mention it like this: "Ille etiam habeva breve apparitiones in forma non disveloppate in le films ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995), ''[[Toy Story 2]]'' (1999), e ''[[Up (film de 2009)|Up]]'' (2009).​", because all three films were released before ''Toy Story 3''. Is that OK? Also I'm making Beauty and the Beast a disambiguation page if it will let me move it. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 19:33, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) === IMDb === :::Also, I realized that there needs to be a template called [[Patrono:IMDb título]] for titles (of works) at IMDb. The template being used on [[Bambi]] was linking to Carmen Argenziano, who is a person and has nothing to do with Bambi. I don't want to write the template unless it will let me, due the abuse filter. Plus I might make an error. Maybe import it from the English version ([[en:Template:IMDb title]]). Also, [[Patrono:Imdb]] needs to be more specific, because it's called Template:IMDb name in English. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 07:49, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) ::::You might try making a copy of our [[ia:Patrono:Imdb]] with "name" changed to "title" and "nm" changed to "tt". I see no harm in creating a redirection from [[:Patrono:Imdb nomine]] to [[:Patrono:Imdb]]. I wouldn't simply rename [[:Patrono:Imdb]] because of the number of existing pages that use the latter. Let me know how it works. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 16:15, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) :::::OK, I will do it. But on the other hand, can I rename the template if it leaves behind a redirect? I was for sure it would, and redirects work in templates like they do in articles. But I'm asking for permission first. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 18:49, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) ::::::I created the template, and I also checked the pages linked in the other template. There's only 12 articles, so it's not to much to have to correct. I could correct them all though if I need to. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 19:33, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) === Dumbo === ::::One other page I found was [[Dumbo (film de 1941)]], which has its own history and even its own [[Discussion:Dumbo (film de 1941)|talk page]]. Furthermore, the [[Dumbo|original article]] was deleted in the past, but I believe that it would be a good idea to merge the histories of the two pages and restore the original history, especially since Disney has announced a live-action remake of the original 1941 animated film that is due for a release in 2019. Just like ''Beauty and the Beast'', Dumbo should be moved into a disambiguation page since it exists [[en:Dumbo (disambiguation)|in English]]. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 08:59, 18 decembre 2017 (UTC) :::::I moved Dumbo (film de 1941) to [[Dove Cameron]] after attempting to create that article failed, but moved it back to create the article. Can you restore the history of the original Dumbo article? Meanwhile Discussion:Dove Cameron needs to be deleted, because it was a leftover redirect. The Dumbo article needs to be moved back as well, or at least merged history wise. The history needs to be preserved. The only reason for not having the disambiguation page is because of the fact that the remake hasn't come out yet, but it's due for a release in 2019, so it should get an article then. [[Usator:Kkjj|Kkjj]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kkjj|discussion]]) 01:52, 19 decembre 2017 (UTC) == Aida == Alo, me vole demanda tu se tu ta pote elimina alga pajes cual me ia crea. Los es esta pajes: * [[Usator:Chabi/Bibliotheca]] * [[Usator:Chabi/Articulos]] * [[Usator:Chabi/Provas]] * [[Usator:Chabi/Historias pro infantes]] Grasias per tua aida. --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi|discussion]]) 11:43, 13 novembre 2017 (UTC) :Facite. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 16:06, 13 novembre 2017 (UTC) == Tino Insana == <s>I am adding [[Tino Insana]] to the wiki, but for some reason, it does not let me, no matter how many times I revise it! Please help me get it created. -- [[Special:Contributiones/2600:8800:3981:7A80:194E:E87A:2510:F53C|2600:8800:3981:7A80:194E:E87A:2510:F53C]] 22:52, 6 januario 2018 (UTC)</s> :Usator globalmente blocate [[Usator:MisterAnthony]] evadente blocage. IP blocate. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 23:50, 6 januario 2018 (UTC) == [[Pais Basse]] o [[Nederland]] o [[Hollanda]] == Salute Tortoise0308 [[Pais Basse]] o [[Nederland]] o [[Hollanda]]? Vide [[:Categoria:Pais Basse|le confusion]] Cordialmente [[Usator:Adailton|Adailton]] ^{[[Discussion Usator:Adailton|msg]]} 22:30, 15 februario 2018 (UTC) : Salute [[Usator:Adailton|Adailton]] : Gratias pro tu enorme labor a disfacer le disruptiones de Conradi. Lo que tu ha complite in tres septimanas—io habeva expectate que illo requirerea annos. : Il ha vermente grande confusion super le nomine del pais. Il ha paginas que se refere a: :* [[Paises Basse]] (circa 40 referentias directe) :* [[Nederlandia]] (redirection; circa 28 referentias) :* [[Nederland]] (redirection; circa 46 referentias) :* [[Pais Basse]] (redirection; circa 130 referentias) :* [[Hollanda]] (circa 14 referentias al articulo; in plures le intention es referer se al pais, ben que le articulo es super le region intra le pais). : Plus sequera. : Cordialmente —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 22:41, 18 februario 2018 (UTC) ::[[Paises Basse]] es similante [[:pt:Países Baixos]], [[:it:Paesi Bassi]], [[:fr:Pays-Bas]] e [[:es:Países Bajos]]. Totevia, [[:de:Niederlande]], [[:en:Netherlands]], [[:eo:Nederlando]] e [[:ru:Нидерланды]] es similante [[:nl:Nederland]] (in le [[lingua nederlandese]]). Io no sabere que facer. (Ha [[:Categoria:Gente hollandese]] e [[:Categoria:Gente nederlandese]]. Le correct esseva ''Gente de Paises Basse'', o?. Io es confuse). [[Wikipedia:Taverna‎]]? [[Usator:Adailton|Adailton]] ^{[[Discussion Usator:Adailton|msg]]} 23:24, 18 februario 2018 (UTC) :::Le [[:Categoria:Paises Basse|confusion]] es resolveva ([[Paises Basse]] o nederlandese‎). Mais necessite [[Patrono:revision|revision]]. [[Usator:Adailton|Adailton]] ^{[[Discussion Usator:Adailton|msg]]} 14:16, 10 martio 2018 (UTC) Totevia uno remarca hic, si il place: In IED 1951, on trova: '''pais (-ís)''' ''n'' land, country; Paises Basse Low Countries (= Belgium, Holland, and Luxemburg); Pais Basse Netherlands, Holland; -- [[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 00:08, 5 januario 2019 (UTC) :"Plus sequera"—Pardono pro le multo tarde responsa; il habeva intrusiones del mundo real. :Gratias, [[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]]. Exactemente: :In le ''IED'', :: '''Paises Basse''' Low Countries (= Belgium, Holland, and Luxemburg); :: '''Pais Basse''' Netherlands, Holland; :malgrado le linguas fonte: ::[[:en:Netherlands]] ::[[:fr:Pays-Bas]] ::[[:it:Paesi Bassi]] ::[[:es:Países Bajos]] ::[[:pt:Países Baixos]] ::[[:de:Niederlande]] ::[[:ru:Нидерланды]] / Niderlandy :totes plural. Proque ha Gode optate pro le singular? Speculation: :# Illo evita confusion con le paises Benelux. :# Illo es un calco del nomine native. :# Le pais es un pais. :Pro iste rationes io ha un preferentia personal pro ''Pais Basse'', sed io non pote arguer contra le regula de tres. :In le ''Dictionario Nederlandese-Interlingua'' de Piet Cleij, ::'''Nederland''' ''ZN EIGN'' [nomine proprie] :::'''1''' Nederland, Hollanda, le Paises Basse :::'''Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden''' = Le Regno del Paises Basse :[[Usator:McDutchie|McDutchie]] ha renominate Pais Basse a [[Paises Basse]] (e Paises Basse a [[Paises Basse (region historic)]]) :Il remane 125 paginas con ligamines verso [[Pais Basse]] (e 3 a [[Pais basse]] [''b'' minuscule]). Per revision del patronos [[Patrono:Paises de Europa|Paises de Europa]], [[Patrono:UE|UE]], e [[Patrono:Members of the Union for the Mediterranean|Members of the Union for the Mediterranean]] on pote reducer le numero significantemente, sed multes remanera que debera esser individualmente considerate. :''Nederlandia'' es un forma neolatin non ben appoiate per le linguas fonte. Il ha ::pt:Nederlândia 1. (rare) Obsolete form of ''Neerlândia''. :secundo le wiktionario anglese, sed illo non occurre in le wiktionario portugese. ::pt:Neerlândia e ::es:Neerlandia :existe secundo le wiktionario anglese, sed non occurre in le wiktionario portugese o le espaniol. :In le wikipedia espaniol, ''Neerlandia'' es un redirection a [[:es:Países Bajos]]. :In le wikipedia portugese, ''Neerlândia'' es un redirection a [[:pt:Países Baixos]]. ::''Neerlandia'' non occurre in le wikipedia de interlingua. :Il ha 30 paginas con ligamines a [[Nederlandia]]. :''Nederland'' es le nomine native. :Io non pote trovar ulle appoio pro ''Nederland'' in le linguas fonte, salvo que, in le wikipedia francese, Néerlande redirige a Pays-Bas; ::fr:Néerlande 1. (obsolete) Les Pays-Bas, :secundo le wicktionario francese. :Vide [[Discussion Appendice:Lista de statos e entitates soveran]] pro un discussion super ''Nederland'' e altere nomines in le [http://www.interlingua.com/paisesdelmundo lista de paises] que se trova in le sito del [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua|UMI]] e esseva extrahite de un dictionario per Karel Wilgenhof. Iste lista, in mi opinion, contine frequente errores. Le discussion conclude que ''Nederland'' non es interlingua e "non pote esser justificate secundo le regulas de interlingua" (a minus forsan como un retroformation del adjectivo). Proque ha Cleij includite ''Nederland''? Forsan ille acceptava non criticamente le contento del lista de Wilgenhof. :Il ha 46 paginas con ligamines a [[Nederland]]. :''Hollanda'' es un region in le [[Paises Basse]] que consiste del provincias [[Hollanda del Nord]] e [[Hollanda del Sud]]. Totevia, un nomine equivalente a ''Hollanda'' es frequentemente usate informalmente pro tote le pais in le linguas fonte, e mesmo in le nederlandese, ben que le usage es technicamente incorrecte. :De nlwiki: ''Le nomine es al estraniero frequentemente usate como metonymia pro tote le Paises Basse, ben que isto es incorrecte. Iste forma de ''pars pro toto'' es a vices usate in le Paises Basse.'' :In le ''IED'' ::'''Hollanda''' ''npr'' Holland, the Netherlands; :In le ''Dictionario Nederlandese-Interlingua'' de Piet Cleij, ::'''Holland''' ''ZN EIGN'' [nomine proprie] :::'''1''' '''(Noord- en Zuid-Holland)''' Hollanda :::'''2''' '''(Nederland)''' Hollanda, le Paises Basse :Il ha 13 paginas con ligamines a [[Hollanda]], un articulo super le region. In alicun casos, un referentia al pais es intendite, e correction es necessari. :— [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 10:20, 17 februario 2019 (UTC) ::Gratias cordial pro iste responsa detaliose e pro evocar le Regula de tres. Io ya es in le stadio de apprender e colliger experientias. -- [[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 10:32, 17 februario 2019 (UTC) == Dubita in le categoria Litteratura per pais == Salute Tortoise0308 Un dubita in [[:Categoria:Litteratura per pais]]: debeva esser ''Litteratura italian‎'' (pais o lingua?) o ''Litteratura de Italia]]? (vide [[Litteratura de Mexico]]) In [[:Categoria:Litteratura per lingua]] io alterava per ''Litteratura in le lingua ...'', totevia in ''Litteratura per pais'' es dubio. Cordialmente [[Usator:Adailton|Adailton]] ^{[[Discussion Usator:Adailton|msg]]} 12:28, 20 martio 2018 (UTC) == Share your experience and feedback as a Wikimedian in this global survey == <div class="mw-parser-output"> <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> Hello! The Wikimedia Foundation is asking for your feedback in a survey. We want to know how well we are supporting your work on and off wiki, and how we can change or improve things in the future. The opinions you share will directly affect the current and future work of the Wikimedia Foundation. You have been randomly selected to take this survey as we would like to hear from your Wikimedia community. 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This wiki was recently under attack by a persistent and aggressive vandal, and we had to install a number of anti-abuse filters. Your problems were due to unintended consequences of the filters. I have tried to modify the filters (though I am not an expert) and I hope that you will now be able to create your page if you use <nowiki>{{infobox/articulo/persona}}</nowiki> instead of simply <nowiki>{{infobox}}</nowiki>. Please let me know if that doesn't work. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:08, 8 augusto 2018 (UTC) ::: I used <nowiki>{{infobox/articulo/persona}}</nowiki> and it worked. I have question also how can I create redirect (#redirect doesn't worked)? [[Usator:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[Discussion Usator:Eurohunter|discussion]]) 19:36, 20 augusto 2018 (UTC) ==Lista de patronos== Salute Tortoise e gratias pro tu message de benvenite! Sape tu si il existe un lista del patronos interlinguan de Wikipedia, como <code><nowiki>{{Categoria:}}, {{infobox}}</nowiki></code> per exemplo? Io so un poco perdite... [[Usator:Melv douc|Melv douc]] ([[Discussion Usator:Melv douc|discussion]]) 22:53, 27 augusto 2018 (UTC) == Un novicio == Salute! Si, io consenti plenmente que Interlingua es le juste solution in nostre tempore - principalmente pro le scientias e mathematica. Anque io vole inricchir iste Wikipedia in Interlingua. Si io committeva errores, non hesita, si il place, corriger les. Gratias e adeo -- [[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 17:46, 4 januario 2019 (UTC) Dele, por favor: [[Diocese de Aquisgran]], [[Aquisgrano]], [[Aquisgran]], [[Region urban de Aquisgran]], [[Tractato de Aquisgran]], e [[Xxxxx]]. Gratias -- 10:46, 4 maio 2019 (UTC) : Gratias -- [[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 19:45, 9 maio 2019 (UTC) == Redirect == Hello. Do you know how I can add redirects ("#redirect" is blocked)? [[Usator:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[Discussion Usator:Eurohunter|discussion]]) 13:53, 21 julio 2019 (UTC) :I have tried to modify the filters. Please try again to create the redirections; let me know if it doesn't work. —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 14:33, 27 julio 2019 (UTC) == Delete duplicate categories == Hi! I tried to mark [[:Categoria:Symphonia]] for deletion because it is a duplicate of [[:Categoria:Symphonias]], but an antivandalism filter prevented me from doing it and advised to ask an admin. Could you do it? Thank you, --[[Usator:Epìdosis|Epìdosis]] ([[Discussion Usator:Epìdosis|discussion]]) 16:46, 23 augusto 2019 (UTC) :Another case: [[:Categoria:Guerra Civil American]] is a duplicate of [[:Categoria:Guerra Civil statounitese]]. Bye, --[[Usator:Epìdosis|Epìdosis]] ([[Discussion Usator:Epìdosis|discussion]]) 17:18, 23 augusto 2019 (UTC) ::Another case: [[:Categoria:Mar]] is a duplicate of [[:Categoria:Mares]]. --[[Usator:Epìdosis|Epìdosis]] ([[Discussion Usator:Epìdosis|discussion]]) 17:26, 23 augusto 2019 (UTC) :::Another case: [[:Categoria:Drogas psychoactive]] is a duplicate of [[:Categoria:Droga psychoactive]]. --[[Usator:Epìdosis|Epìdosis]] ([[Discussion Usator:Epìdosis|discussion]]) 17:57, 23 augusto 2019 (UTC) ::::Another case: [[:Categoria:Region de Italia]] is a duplicate of [[:Categoria:Regiones de Italia]]. --[[Usator:Epìdosis|Epìdosis]] ([[Discussion Usator:Epìdosis|discussion]]) 17:58, 23 augusto 2019 (UTC) :::::Another case: [[:Categoria:Diagnosis medical]] is a duplicate of [[:Categoria:Diagnose in medicina]]. --[[Usator:Epìdosis|Epìdosis]] ([[Discussion Usator:Epìdosis|discussion]]) 17:59, 23 augusto 2019 (UTC) Done, thanks!<br /> Facite, gratias! :–[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 13:32, 30 augusto 2019 (UTC) == Community Insights Survey == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> '''Share your experience in this survey''' Hi {{PAGENAME}}, The Wikimedia Foundation is asking for your feedback in a survey about your experience with {{SITENAME}} and Wikimedia. 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Sincerely, </div> [[User:RMaung (WMF)|RMaung (WMF)]] 17:02, 4 octobre 2019 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RMaung (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=CI2019List(other,act2)&oldid=19433639 --> Multe gratias pro le benvenita. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 20:01, 19 junio 2020 (UTC) == Aladdin (film de Disney de 1992) == I noticed that [[Aladdin (film de Disney de 1992)]] is still untranslated (well, not untranslated, but it's an incomplete translation) since last year, after about 11 months. Can there be improvement to that page? Also to similar pages such as [[The Lion King (film de 1994)]], [[The Lion King (film de 2019)]], [[Aladdin (film de 2019)]], and the recently created [[Cinderella]]. On Cinderella, it may not be incomplete, but it may need more content. The page was started as a redirect and had to be converted to a proper article. However, the current article may need more information, like many Disney movie pages. [[Special:Contributiones/104.58.147.208|104.58.147.208]] 23:36, 20 junio 2020 (UTC) == Redirect == It worked. Thanks. [[Usator:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[Discussion Usator:Eurohunter|discussion]]) 15:48, 27 junio 2020 (UTC) == Dubita == Hallo! Esque tu poterea dicer me como dicer "there is/are" in interlingua, si il vos place? --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 17:05, 28 junio 2020 (UTC) :"il ha" :[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 14:03, 29 junio 2020 (UTC) :: Gratias, Esque on poterea usar "on ha"? --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 14:43, 29 junio 2020 (UTC) Esque on dice "Provincia de Cosenza" o "Provincia Cosenza". Io credeva que on usa le preposition de, ma io videva que multe articulos non lo ha. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 18:25, 3 julio 2020 (UTC) : "[[Provincia de Cosenza]]" es correcte. Multes del articulos sin "de" es debite a disruptiones per un sol persona. Durante 2016 e le parte initial de 2017 iste wiki esseva sub attacco per un vandalo aggressive e persistente qui habeva essite bannite permanentemente de tote projectos de MediaWiki. Vide [[Usator:Tobias Conradi]] pro detalios. In iste wiki ille continuava su activitates, usante varie pseudonymos (contos marionette) por evader le banno, includente [[:Usator:Julius Tominius]] e [[:Usator:Bernd Muller]] (vide [[:Categoria:Wikipedia:Marionettes de Tobias Conradi]]). Un de su obsessiones esseva le idea que le nomine de omne entitate geographic debe consister de un classificator prefixate al nomine proprie. Si le statos mexican e staounitese acquireva "Stato": [[Jalisco]] deveniva [[Stato Jalisco]] e [[California]] deveniva [[Stato California]]. E (le absurditate ultimate) [[Grande Britannia]] deveniva [[Insula Grande Britannia]]. Dozenas de provincias italian e espaniol perdeva lor prepositiones. : Gratias pro tu vigilantia. (Plus sequera) Cordialmente, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 09:17, 23 julio 2020 (UTC) ::Io ha cambiate tote le provincias sin "de". [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 12:59, 5 decembre 2022 (UTC) == Categorias == Esque le categorias que appare in le categoria "Categoria:Litteratura per lingua" non deberea esser "Litteratura in <s>le</s> lingua anglese" o "Litteratura in anglese"? --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 14:20, 15 julio 2020 (UTC) == Deletion == No problem. I haven't been active in Interlingua for a while so I wasn't going to use it. Thanks. --[[Usator:Chabi|Chabi]] ([[Discussion Usator:Chabi|discussion]]) 12:08, 14 decembre 2020 (UTC) == Deletion == Hi, sorry for writing in English, but I don't speak Interlingua. I tried to tag my userpage for deletion (to replace it with the central MediaWiki page), but the system refused to make the edit and displayed a note that a harmful edit was being made... Can you please delete my userpage for me? Thanks! --[[Usator:Randykitty|Randykitty]] ([[Discussion Usator:Randykitty|discussion]]) 10:15, 12 maio 2021 (UTC) :Done! :Facite! ::Cordialmente, —[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 12:39, 12 maio 2021 (UTC) == Annos - Seculos - Unitates de Tempore == Salute, Tortoise! Como sta vos? Spera que ben! Io vos scribe pro demandar su consilio. Io ha comenciate a crear alcun articulos re annos e seculos. Io credeva que toto sta ben, ma io volerea peter vos que si vos trova alcun errores, por favor, insenia me a facer lo melior. Pardono, mi habilitate con interlingua es ancora multo povre, ma le proposito de apprenderla es in constante evolution. Multe gratias! [[Usator:Manandez|Manandez]] ([[Discussion Usator:Manandez|discussion]]) 19:11, 8 decembre 2021 (UTC) == How we will see unregistered users == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin=content/> Hi! You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki. When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed. Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help. If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]]. We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January. Thank you. /[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]<section end=content/> </div> 18:15, 4 januario 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johan_(WMF)/Target_lists/Admins2022(4)&oldid=22532508 --> == Translation request == Hello. Can you translate and upload the articles [[:en:Chess in Azerbaijan]] and [[:en:Public holidays in Azerbaijan]] in Interlingua Wikipedia? They do not need to be long or complex. Yours sincerely, [[Usator:Multituberculata|Multituberculata]] ([[Discussion Usator:Multituberculata|discussion]]) 06:42, 12 februario 2022 (UTC) == Cancellation immediate de iste tres articulos, per favor!!! == [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion:Homeomorphismo], [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion:Homeomorphismox], e [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion:Homeomorphismoxx]. Io preca de excusar le chaos causate per me. Dele, por favor [[Homeomorphismo]], [[Homeomorphismox]], e [[Homeomorphismoxx]]. Alora [[Homeomorfismo]] con F debe esser con PH. Gratias!!!! [[Usator:Quenke|Quenke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Quenke|discussion]]) 11:45, 10 septembre 2022 (UTC) == Articulos eminente == Como on pote facer por seliger un articulo eminente? Io proponeva un [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente#Septembro_2022 hic] ma nemo respondeva. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 08:55, 6 octobre 2022 (UTC) :Car [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] — :De accordo! [[Vulpe]] ben merita esser seligite. Io ha votate ''si''. Io non sape como attentativemente [[Discussion Wikipedia:Articulos eminente|le pagina]] es observate. (Ante tu addition, le pagina habeva essite inactive depost Octobre 2014). Io suggere poner le question a [[Usator:Julian Mendez|Julian Mendez]], qui creava le pagina, e in le [[Wikipedia:Taverna|Taverna]]. :Cordialmente, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:51, 6 octobre 2022 (UTC) ::@[[Usator:Julian Mendez|Usator:Julian Mendez]] Nos volerea saper como le pagina re [[Discussion Wikipedia:Articulos eminente|Articulos eminente]] es observate. Quante tempore nos deve attender pro seliger un articulo como eminente? [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 15:59, 6 octobre 2022 (UTC) :[[Discussion Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente|Articulos eminente]] non esseva multo active recentemente. Forsan, tu poterea annunciar in le [[Wikipedia:Taverna]] que illo essera plus active. Como regula general, nos poterea seliger le articulos con al minus un mense in avantia. [[User:Julian Mendez|Julian]] ([[User talk:Julian Mendez|disc.]]) 19:19, 10 octobre 2022 (UTC) == Articulo eminente == Salute! Io ha finite le traduction de [[Scientia e technologia del dinastia Song|iste]] articulo e io desirarea haber lo como uno eminente. An tu poterea revisar lo, per favor, (proque mi competencia in interlingua non es tanto elevate)? --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 06:05, 4 april 2023 (UTC) == Articulo eminente == Io ha proposte [[Photographia columbari|iste]] articulo como un articulo eminente. An tu poterea per favor [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente#Articulos_eminente votar] pro illo? --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:41, 16 april 2023 (UTC) == Revision == Salute! Pote tu per favor revisar [[Edgar de Wahl|iste]] articulo? Io vole presentar lo pro un votation pro facer lo un articulo eminente. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 06:29, 20 april 2023 (UTC) ==Velocitate de lumine== Salute! Gratias pro tu correctiones del pagina [[Velocitate de lumine]]. Que dice le paragrapho 18 concernante le expression "velocitate de[l] lumine"?. In omne linguas romanic, se utilisa el articulo definite: "[[d:Q2111|de la/della/da]]". --[[Special:Contributiones/77.205.46.21|77.205.46.21]] 19:34, 25 april 2023 (UTC) == Scientia e technologia del dynastia Song == Salute Tortoise0308! Io volerea demandar te si le articulo [[Scientia e technologia del dynastia Song]] es correcte, car io volerea presentar lo pro esser un articulo eminente. Gratias. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 07:35, 15 maio 2023 (UTC) An tu poterea votar [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente#Scientia_e_technologia_del_dynastia_Song hic]? --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 14:11, 21 maio 2023 (UTC) == Edgar de Wahl == An tu poterea votar [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente#Edgar_de_Wahl hic]? --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 17:21, 2 junio 2023 (UTC) == Historia del physica == Salve, gratias pro tu message. Io volerea demandar te si tu poterea revisar [[Historia del physica|iste]] articulo, proque io non parla Interlingua assatis ben. --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 08:27, 6 januario 2024 (UTC) == Historia del scientia in le Renascentia == Salute, pote tu revisar [[Historia del scientia in le Renascentia|iste]] articulo, per favor? Io volerea presentar lo como candidato a esser un bon articulo. --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 10:21, 12 januario 2024 (UTC) == renomination == Salute. Poterea vos renominar le titulo del ligamine [[Le Protesto sur le Ponte Sitong]]? Illo es mal orthographiate, e "protesto" deberea esser "protesta". Gratias. [[Usator:AlexandreDupont123|AlexandreDupont123]] ([[Discussion Usator:AlexandreDupont123|discussion]]) 08:16, 20 februario 2024 (UTC) == Grammatica de lingua franca nova == Salve. Io volerea demandar te si tu poterea revisar [[Grammatica de lingua franca nova|iste]] articulo, proque io non parla Interlingua assatis ben. --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 08:05, 1 april 2024 (UTC) == Request writing about Isabelle de Charrière (Q123386) == Hello Tortoise0308, Would you like to write about Isabelle de Charrière (Q123386) for the IA Wikipedia? It would be appreciated if it's done. [[Usator:Boss-well63|Boss-well63]] ([[Discussion Usator:Boss-well63|discussion]]) 18:41, 25 augusto 2024 (UTC) :Thanks for the invitation, but I have so many other distractions that I could not get to it in a reasonable time. I suggest you place the request on our [[Wikipedia:Taverna|Taverna]], where more people would see it. :Cordialmente, ::[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 22:09, 25 augusto 2024 (UTC) ::Thanks for suggestion! [[Usator:Boss-well63|Boss-well63]] ([[Discussion Usator:Boss-well63|discussion]]) 01:13, 6 septembre 2024 (UTC) == False positives == [https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Registro_de_abusos&wpSearchUser=TenWhile6] - Please make sure that this doesn't happen anymore to global patrollers. Maybe use the ''global_user_editcount'' variable and the ''global_user_groups'' variable. As I am a sysop on two wikis, I am familiar with abuse filters and can help you, if you want. [[Usator:TenWhile6|TenWhile6]] ([[Discussion Usator:TenWhile6|discussion]]) 21:44, 22 octobre 2024 (UTC) :Thanks! Please suggest any changes to the filter code that you think would be helpful. :May I ask what you were trying to accomplish? The targets of the redirections were correct. (Compare Quatro, which redirects to 4 (numero).) They were red links because they had been deleted by WikiBayer in a frenzy of indiscriminate deletions last December. The proper fix (in my view) is to restore the deleted pages, which I have done. :Sincerelly, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 07:06, 23 octobre 2024 (UTC) ::Hello, ::I don't know about the content of the pages deleted by WikiBayer - I am not a global sysop. If it's the best option to restore them, thanks for doing it. ::Regarding the filter: you could add <code><nowiki>global_user_editcount < 50</nowiki></code> to the filter. (I can't see it, cause its private) [[Usator:TenWhile6|TenWhile6]] 07:11, 23 octobre 2024 (UTC) :::Hello, :::Here is the code as it now stands: :::<br> :::<nowiki></nowiki> :::<nowiki>( user_age==0</nowiki> :::<nowiki>| user_editcount<10</nowiki> :::<nowiki>) /* usatores anonyme o con minus que 10 editationes */</nowiki> :::<nowiki>& </nowiki> :::<nowiki>( contains_any(added_lines,"{{infobox}}", "{{delete", "{{autopagina")</nowiki> :::<nowiki>| action='move'</nowiki> :::<nowiki>)</nowiki> :::<nowiki>&</nowiki> :::<nowiki>!(summary contains 'Pagina renominate automaticamente in le curso de renominar le usator')</nowiki> :::<nowiki>&</nowiki> :::<nowiki>(global_user_editcount < 50)</nowiki> :::<br> :::The last two line are new. Does this seem reasonable? :::I ask again: what specific changes were you trying to make in those two pages? :::Sincerely, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 10:06, 23 octobre 2024 (UTC) ::::Hello, ::::yes, the abuse filter looks good and reasonable now :-) ::::and, uh, I tried to request the deletion of them, as they were "Broken redirects". So I tried adding <nowiki>{{delete</nowiki>. ::::Best regards, [[Usator:TenWhile6|TenWhile6]] 10:09, 23 octobre 2024 (UTC) == Thank you for being a medical contributors! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;" |rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|130px]] |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" |'''The 2024 Cure Award''' |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" |In 2024 you '''[[mdwiki:WikiProjectMed:WikiProject_Medicine/Stats/Top_medical_editors_2024_(all)|were one of the top medical editors in your language]]'''. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We really appreciate you and the vital work you do! Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider joining for 2025]]''', there are no associated costs. Additionally one of our primary efforts revolves around translating health content. We invite you to '''[https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/index.php try our new workflow]''' if you have not already. Our dashboard automatically [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php collects statistics] of your efforts and we are working on [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/fixwikirefs.php tools to automatically improve formating]. |} Thanks again :-) -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|<span style="color:#0000f1">'''Doc James'''</span>]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 06:24, 26 januario 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message inviate per User:Doc James@metawiki usante le lista sur https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Other_Language_Editors_2024&oldid=28172893 --> == Requesta de deletion == Hi. Can you, please, delete the page [[Canto]] for the purpose of renaming of the article [[Cantion]]? -- [[Usator:Imrek|Imrek]] ([[Discussion Usator:Imrek|discussion]]) 19:52, 20 martio 2025 (UTC) :I have renamed [[Cantion]] to [[Canto]]. Such confusion! It's doubtful that ''cantion'' is proper interlingua. At least we are left with just [[Canto]] and [[Canto (action)]]. [[Canto]] contains massive amounts of non-encyclopedic content, which should be deleted. And now to sort out what other pages refer to the exting and deleted pages. :Thanks for your vigilance. :Cordialmente, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 02:40, 21 martio 2025 (UTC) == Revision == Hallo! An tu poterea revisar le section de historia in le articulo re [[Canada]], per favore? [[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 06:59, 25 martio 2025 (UTC) == Patrono:Peter Ramsey == This template is only in English, and only has redlinks. Can you delete it? I tried marking it for delete, but was blocked by the abuse filter. [[Special:Contributiones/2600:1700:C910:2960:FC3C:7C4F:4EC9:E3BB|2600:1700:C910:2960:FC3C:7C4F:4EC9:E3BB]] 21:21, 16 april 2025 (UTC) :See also: [[Special:Contributiones/62.11.3.128]]. This IP made more of these templates copy-pasted from enwiki. [[Special:Contributiones/2600:1700:C910:2960:FC3C:7C4F:4EC9:E3BB|2600:1700:C910:2960:FC3C:7C4F:4EC9:E3BB]] 21:30, 16 april 2025 (UTC) == Universitate de Oxford == Hi, I edited the page in 2022 and my edit is still "attende revision", could you possibly review it? You were the previous editor of the page. [[Usator:TSventon|TSventon]] ([[Discussion Usator:TSventon|discussion]]) 03:50, 22 april 2025 (UTC) :Done! :As aa matter of fact there are many pages with many versions that "attend revision"; this is of no practical importance. But thanks for your vigilance. :Cordialmente, :: [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 08:53, 22 april 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you, it is nice to have my single contribution to article space here in blue. I thought readers would not see the unreviewed edit, but as the article gets less than one view a day, perhaps that doesn't matter much. ::I was impressed by how similar the college names are to their Latin names. [[Usator:TSventon|TSventon]] ([[Discussion Usator:TSventon|discussion]]) 17:16, 22 april 2025 (UTC) == Musa == Salve! Io notava que le situation in relation al nomine del pagina [[musa]] esse un pauco ambigue: mesmo si su nomine scientific esse “musa”, on lo appella plus communmente “banana”, ergo ego pensa que le pagina deberea esser movite a “banana” e facer de [[musa]] un redirection a [[musas]], quod illo esse le signification le plus probabile que on va cercar pro “musa”. --[[Usator:Laurbereth|Laurbereth]] ([[Discussion Usator:Laurbereth|discussion]]) 07:30, 25 april 2025 (UTC) : Gratias! : Il ha grande confusion, create per [[:Categoria:Wikipedia:Marionettes de Tobias Conradi|marionettes del vandalo Tobias Conradi]]. Il ha tres notiones: :: Le fructo (Q503 in wikidata). [[Banana (fructo)]] existe sin contento encyclopedic. :: le genere (Q8666090 in wikidata), nomine scientific ''Musa''. Nostre pagina [[Musa]] esseva renominate (per Conradi) sin rescription, de ''Banana''. :: Le planta (Q1849414 in wikidata). Le IED non ha distincte parolas pro le fructo (''banana'') e le planta. Le [https://interlingua.fandom.com/wiki/Nederlandese-Interlingua Dictionario Nederlandese Interlingua] per Piet Cleij mentiona ''bananiero'' (e vide le suffixo ''-iero'' in le IED). : Nostre pagina [[Banana]] es un redirection inutile a [[Banana (disambiguation)]], le qual es inadequate e cuje formato es incorrecte. : Nos deberea haber paginas pro le fructo, le planta, e le genere. Le pagina super le genere (con [[:Patrono:Taxobox]] o al minus [[:Patrono:Infobox/articulo/biota]]) poteva haber le nomine ''Musa'' o (si ''Musa'' deveni un redirection a ''Musas'') ''Musa (genere)''. ::Cordialmente, [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 15:52, 25 april 2025 (UTC) ::Va ben. Nos poterea deler le disambiguation inutile de [[Banana (disambiguation)]], e mover le pagina re le fructo a [[Banana]]. Le genere poterea esser movite a [[Musa (botanica)]] sequente le modello del Wikipedia italian que etiam lo appella assi, o simplemente a [[Musa (genere)]] qua vos dice. Assi nos va liberar [[Musa]] que potera in fin devenir un redirection pro [[Musas]]. --[[Usator:Laurbereth|Laurbereth]] ([[Discussion Usator:Laurbereth|discussion]]) 19:27, 25 april 2025 (UTC) == Astana == ¿Por favor, puedes cambiar el nombre de esta página [[Nur-Sultan]] a Astana? Can you please rename [[Nur-Sultan]] to Astana? [[Usator:11USA11|11USA11]] ([[Discussion Usator:11USA11|discussion]]) 21:36, 3 maio 2025 (UTC) :Facite! Gratias pro tu vigilantia. [[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 12:28, 4 maio 2025 (UTC) == Revision == Salve, io voleva demandar tu adjuta pro revisar [[Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies|iste]] articulo, pois mi nivel de Interlingua non es multo alte e io pote haber facite alcun errores. Post que le articulo es revisate, io va comenciar adder referencias a illo. Gratias. --[[Usator:Jon Gua|Jon Gua]] ([[Discussion Usator:Jon Gua|discussion]]) 09:09, 2 julio 2025 (UTC) : Io ha create anque [[Chimia|iste]] e [[Physica|iste]] articulo, an tu poterea revisar los, per favore? Si tu cognosce altere persona con un bon nivello de Interlingua, poterea tu demandar adjuta? Assi on va haber articulos eminente re themas importante. --[[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 19:54, 17 julio 2025 (UTC) == Encanto == Could you please expand the article I wrote on [[Encanto]]? I personally love this film. It's a beautiful tribute to Colombian culture. I couldn't have asked for a better film. It's the best film I've seen since [[The Lion King (film de 1994)]]. [[Special:Contributiones/2600:1700:C910:2960:59A0:834D:35B:4254|2600:1700:C910:2960:59A0:834D:35B:4254]] 17:05, 21 julio 2025 (UTC) == [[David Woodard]] == Hi Tortoise0308, I just noticed that you restored the article [[David Woodard]] (which I deleted as crosswiki spam) because you saw it as an error [https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Registro&page=David+Woodard]? It's of course up to you as a local admin to decide about the article, just leaving [[:en:WP:Wikipedia Signpost/2025-08-09/Disinformation report]], [[:en:User:Grnrchst/David Woodard report]] and [[:m:Special:PermaLink/28911625#Cross-wiki self-promotion campaign]] as explanatory links on this crosswiki promotion campaign which affected more than 300 wikis (until 90% of all translations got deleted so far) in case you want to reconsider. Have a nice weekend! [[Usator:Johannnes89|Johannnes89]] ([[Discussion Usator:Johannnes89|discussion]]) 07:18, 9 augusto 2025 (UTC) : Hi Johannnes89— : I apologize for stepping on your toes. It's an interesting case and has even been commented on outside wikipedia. Nevertheless, as long as the articles on, say, the English, Dutch, and Swedish editions survive, my inclination is to let the article on iawiki stand. Perhaps my perceptions are colored by an incident a couple of years ago, when one of our users, (a global sysop) in a frenzy of indiscriminate deletions, got rid of about 3700 pages in 4 hours; we still haven't sorted out which actually weren't worth keeping. Anyway, for the time being, let's just see how things develop. ::Regards—[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 16:20, 9 augusto 2025 (UTC) == Revision == Salute Tortoise0308, io ha create tres articulos breve re historia, an tu poterea revisar los per favore? Illos es: [[historia de Mexico]], [[historia de Argentina]] e [[historia de Canada]]. Multe gratias [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:28, 22 augusto 2025 (UTC) == Correctiones: esse → es; nate → nascite == Salve! Io ha notate que vos aliquando face correctiones al paginas que io scribe, in particular vos subinde cambia “esse” a “es” pro rationes que io non comprehende totalmente. Il esse mi impression que le forma contracte “es” – assi como le alteres (ha, son, et cetera) – non esse obligatori, ma solo optional. Io comprehende ancora minus le correction ab “nate” a “nascite”, quod le grammatica ipse dice que le participios irregular del verbos esse acceptate tam quam le regulares. --[[Usator:Laurbereth|Laurbereth]] ([[Discussion Usator:Laurbereth|discussion]]) 07:07, 2 septembre 2025 (UTC) Salute! Io presume que isto concerne [[Justina de Padua]]. === esse / es === Il es un question de consistentia stilistic. In nostre [[Wikipedia:Manual de stilo|Manual de stilo]] on vide: :Prefere le formas regular del verbos, excepte quando on pote usar le presente del verbos ''esser'', ''haber'', e ''vader'', isto es, le formas ''es'', ''ha'', e ''va''. (Si non solmente es le irregular forma ''son'' non obligatori, nos deberea non usar lo.) Ben que le Manual indica solmente ''on pote'', non ''on debe'', le majoritate de nostre usatores scribe ''es'' (e ''ha'' e ''va''). Historicamente, ''esse'' ha essite scribite per [[Usator:Almafeta]] (non plus active) e per varie marionettas del vandalo [[Usator:Tobias Conradi]]. In [[Discussion_Usator:Almafeta#Conjugation_irregular_in_interlingua|le pagina de discussion de Almafeta]] on vide que un altere usator sccribe :In interlingua, on generalmente usa "es" pro le tempore de presente del verbo "esser". . . . Il pare que tu in loco vole usar le forma "esse". Proque? Finalmente, il ha 28.287 articulos que contine ''es'', e 350 con ''esse'' (e 12.796 con ''ha,'', 218 con ''habe'', 362 con ''va'', 49 con ''vade''.) Cordialmente-[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 22:26, 29 septembre 2025 (UTC) Plus sequera. :Salve de novo. Pro responder a vostre question: il non habe un ver motivation rational pro le qual io prefere “esse”, si non nam mi gusto stilistic personal e le facto que utilisar le formas extense non esse un error per se, ergo io non comprehende le motivation detra vostre modificationes repetite a mi articulos. Il habe plure casos in omne lingua in que alicun vocabulos – o mesmo formas verbal, ut in iste caso – es usate plus quam alteres habente le ipse signification. Vole isto dicer que on deberea semper “corriger” los con lor synonymos de uso plus commun? Illo esserea sicut editar ''spilled'' a ''spilt'' e ''dived'' a ''dove'' omne vice que on los inveni in un texto in anglese. Cur on facerea isto? Personas differente habe stilos differente, e se exprime differentemente. Sub circumstantias normal, toto hoc non esse un problema si illo non esse un obstaculo al communication e al comprehension. --[[Usator:Laurbereth|Laurbereth]] ([[Discussion Usator:Laurbereth|discussion]]) 09:42, 14 octobre 2025 (UTC) Pardono pro le responsa tarde. Le question non es mie. Illo es un question a Almafeta de un altere usator. Illo esseva monstrate pro monstrar que le majoritate de usatores scribeva "es", e Almafeta, scribente "esse" esseva un exception. Io solmente notara in addition que [https://www.interlingua.com/linguistic/ le sito del UMI] usa "es": "Il es importante que interlingua es usate ...". === nate → nascite === == Requesta de commento == Salute, per favor reguarda mi [[Wikipedia:Taverna#Patrono:Elem|ultime tres entratas in le Taverna]] e adde tu pensatas/opiniones, particularmente al ultime. Gratias – [[Usator:McDutchie|Martijn]] ([[Discussion Usator:McDutchie|discussion]]) 06:20, 13 decembre 2025 (UTC) == Votation == An tu poterea votar [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente#Litteratura_in_Interlingua hic], per favore? [[Usator:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[Discussion Usator:Caro de Segeda|discussion]]) 09:00, 18 decembre 2025 (UTC) == Translation request == Hello, Tortoise0308. Can you translate and upload the articles [[:en:Bazardüzü]] and [[:en:Campi Flegrei]] (a supervolcano) in Interlingua Wikipedia? Kindest regards, [[Usator:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[Discussion Usator:Kurcke|discussion]]) 10:16, 15 martio 2026 (UTC) == You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Greetings, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years. This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required. The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run. In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:33, 28 april 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message inviate per User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki usante le lista sur https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&oldid=30471754 --> == Phishing e alie paginas informatic == Car Tortoise, pote tu cessar de cambiar tote le nomines neolatin del paginas de informatica… in anglese? Qual es le senso de facer un projecto de encyclopedia in interlingua, si tu usa parolas anglese que on non comprende e on non sape ni leger? Per exemplo "Phishing" es incomprehensibile: '''al minus''' il ha besonio de un correspectivo neolatin a adder al latere del parola germanic. E lo mesme es valide pro le alie paginas del mesme typo! Que face nos, nos non disveloppa un vocabulario informatic proque illo ja existe in anglese? Iste cosa va avante desde menses. Io vide que tu ha etiam blocate mi articulo pro evitar modificationes! Absurde, le pagina era create per me e le articulo scripte per me! On non es sur wikipedia anglese, on non es duo milliardos, on es tres personas a laborar a iste parve projecto linguistic, e on se comporta assi? Nostre objectivo deberea esser le proliferation del interlingua e le incentivisation del participantes active al projecto. Non le lucta pro usar parolas anglese e le bloco de articulos pro assecurar se que qui ha laborate a illo, non pote plus adder texto. Vamos evitar iste comportamento. Per favor, vole ben respectar le labor del alies, proque in un projecto al qual labora quasi nemine… omne contribution es multo importante, e super toto le contributiones vaste como le mie! Gratias de tu attention [[Usator:YariDarling|YariDarling]] ([[Discussion Usator:YariDarling|discussion]]) 15:52, 21 augusto 2026 (UTC) : In le linguas fonte e de controlo nos vide: :: en:phishing :: es:phishing / pt:phishing :: fr:hameçonnage :: it:phishing :: de:Phishing :: ru:фишинг (fishing). : Consequentemente le parola in interlingua debe esser: :: ia:phishing : secundo le [[regula de tres (interlingua)|regula de tres]]. : Cordialmente,[[Usator:Tortoise0308|Tortoise0308]] ([[Discussion Usator:Tortoise0308|discussion]]) 23:11, 23 augusto 2026 (UTC) == Votation == Salute! An tu poterea, per favore, votar [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente#Augusto_2026 hic] pro le duo nove articulos eminente? --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 08:57, 23 augusto 2026 (UTC) == Votation == Salute! An tu poterea, per favore, votar [https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_Wikipedia:Articulos_eminente#Septembre_2026 hic] pro le duo nove articulos eminente? --[[Usator:Interlingvisto|Interlingvisto]] ([[Discussion Usator:Interlingvisto|discussion]]) 04:57, 3 septembre 2026 (UTC) emqbnfrfyr2uks2m7ssckw1tjno9qy1 102 40007 699499 699372 2026-09-03T04:29:39Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699499 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} Vide etiam: [[Appendice:Lista de territorios dependente o disputate]] {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P298 ?iso3 } |columns=item,P298,P984,P41,P94,label,P242,P300,P36,P2046,P31,description |sort=P298 |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 ! codigo de pais per IOC ! imagine del bandiera ! imagine del scuto ! label ! position geographic ! ISO 3166-2 ! capital ! area ! instantia de ! description |- | [[:d:Q21203|Q21203]] | ABW | ARU | [[File:Flag of Aruba.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Aruba wapen.svg|center|48px]] | [[Aruba]] | [[File:Aruba in its region.svg|center|48px]] | NL-AW | ''[[:d:Q131243|Oranjestad]]'' | 178.916378 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q107390|stato federate]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q889|Q889]] | AFG | AFG | [[File:Flag of the Taliban.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Arms of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Afghanistan]] | [[File:Afghanistan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kabul]] | 652230 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1dce4a8b917510d678fa50fb5300544652cf231b551806ae27c17c359782f237">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1450765|Q1450765]] | AFI | | | | ''[[:d:Q1450765|French Territory of the Afars and the Issas]]'' | | | [[Djibuti (citate)|Djibuti]] | 23200 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q133156|colonia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1620908|historical region]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q916|Q916]] | AGO | ANG | [[File:Flag of Angola.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Angola.svg|center|48px]] | [[Angola]] | [[File:Angola (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Luanda]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 1246700 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q25228|Q25228]] | AIA | | [[File:Flag of Anguilla.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Anguilla.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25228|Anguilla]]'' | [[File:Anguilla on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q30994|The Valley]]'' | 91 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q5689|Q5689]] | ALA | | [[File:Flag of Åland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Åland.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q5689|Åland]]'' | [[File:Ahvenanmaa sijainti Suomi.svg|center|48px]] | FI-01 | ''[[:d:Q48329|Mariehamn]]'' | 1582.93 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1030d7f1d0e4082c9f02436085355d23f9cf62a32d4b87afc2ea8274a0862a71">https://www.maanmittauslaitos.fi/sites/maanmittauslaitos.fi/files/attachments/2021/01/Vuoden_2021_pinta-alatilasto_kunnat_maakunnat.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q193512|region of Finland]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q782614|autonomous region]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q222|Q222]] | ALB | ALB | [[File:Flag of Albania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Albania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Albania]] | [[File:Albania (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tirana]] | 28748 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1dce4a8b917510d678fa50fb5300544652cf231b551806ae27c17c359782f237">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q228|Q228]] | AND | AND | [[File:Flag of Andorra.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Andorra.svg|center|48px]] | [[Andorra]] | [[File:Andorra on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Andorra la Vella]] | 468 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1dce4a8b917510d678fa50fb5300544652cf231b551806ae27c17c359782f237">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html</ref><ref name="ref_d356c59461c87c3d826cb972c8d71bc2087bff160c84a815a39a320a22612605">https://sig.govern.ad/SIGDDE.Public/Files/Documents/Publicacions/Andorra%20en%20xifres.%20Any%202024.pdf</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25227|Q25227]] | ANT<ref name="ref_bf25a9001b8462c071bbee32380ffaa44c643c8b3b5593348fbfcea6e912638a">https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/iso_3166-3_newsletter_i-6.pdf</ref> | AHO | [[File:Flag of the Netherlands Antilles (1986–2010).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Netherlands Antilles (1986-2010).svg|center|48px]] | [[Antillas Nederlandese]] | [[File:Kingdom of the Netherlands in its region (Caribbean special).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q132679|Willemstad]]'' | 800 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q878|Q878]] | ARE | UAE | [[File:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the United Arab Emirates.svg|center|48px]] | [[Emiratos Arabe Unite]] | [[File:United Arab Emirates (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q1519|Abu Dhabi]]'' | 83600 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q414|Q414]] | ARG | ARG | [[File:Flag of Argentina.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Argentina.svg|center|48px]] | [[Argentina]] | [[File:ARG orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Buenos Aires]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 2780400 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[nation]]<br/>''[[:d:Q10551526|confessional state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q399|Q399]] | ARM | ARM | [[File:Flag of Armenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Armenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Armenia]] | [[File:Armenia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Yerevan]] | 29743.423459 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais eurasian del Caucaso Sud |- | [[:d:Q31890709|Q31890709]] | ASC | | [[File:Flag of Ascension Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Ascension Island.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q31890709|Ascension]]'' | | SH-AC<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q695774|Georgetown]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q10864048|subdivision territorial administrative al prime nivello]]''<ref name="ref_28e067ba6d443e585cc6bae200ecabedea38d4555441bfa6e50598093c75548b">''[[:d:Q1194038|Geographic Names Server]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q16641|Q16641]] | ASM | ASA | [[File:Flag of American Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of American Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q16641|American Samoa]]'' | [[File:American Samoa on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | US-AS | ''[[:d:Q51678|Pago Pago]]'' | 199 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q51|Q51]] | ATA | | | | [[Antarctica]] | [[File:Antarctica (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | | 13720000 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_a3dae1785f071eaf619b80b4e4878aeb35d9305e5edb62e39b883bcd2e73d1b8">https://www.worldometers.info/geography/7-continents/</ref> | [[continente]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_683b2661c49be29f69007bda6012994faeb7dbcefb33fdba8ec0685c5503f9be">''[[:d:Q43400782|БСЭ1 / Антарктида]]''</ref><br/>[[region]]<br/>''[[:d:Q312461|terra nullius]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2418896|part of the world]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2221906|geographic location]]'' | continente |- | [[:d:Q10372207|Q10372207]] | ATA | | [[File:Flag of the Antarctic Treaty.svg|center|48px]] | No/unknown value | ''[[:d:Q10372207|Antarctic Treaty area]]'' | [[File:Mapa Polo Sur.png|center|48px]] | | No/unknown value | 14000000 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q734818|condominium]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q312461|terra nullius]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q165783|Q165783]] | ATB | | [[File:Flag of the British Antarctic Territory.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the British Antarctic Territory.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q165783|British Antarctic Territory]]'' | [[File:BritishAntarcticTerritory.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q1635867|Rothera Research Station]]'' | 1709400 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q783953|territorial claims in Antarctica]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q129003|Q129003]] | ATF | | [[File:Flag of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries Terres australes et antarctiques françaises.svg|center|48px]] | [[Terras Austral Francese]] | [[File:French Southern and Antarctic Lands in France (zoomed).svg|center|48px]] | FR-TF<ref name="ref_b358201b6f12d036d1d725230e7d6741d07c711fce3b940b1cb25462f96118c0">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:FR</ref> | ''[[:d:Q839559|Port-aux-Français]]'' | 7829 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q781|Q781]] | ATG | ANT | [[File:Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Antigua and Barbuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Antigua e Barbuda]] | [[File:ATG orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q36262|St. John's]]'' | 440.29 kilometro quadrate | [[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3244203|monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q189999|Q189999]] | ATN | | [[File:Flag of Norway, state.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q189999|Queen Maud Land]]'' | [[File:Antarctica, Norway territorial claim.svg|center|48px]] | | | 2500000 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q5260616|dependency of Norway]]''<ref name="ref_7db06d5476b3f5c24f5ebb17af080c176272f9c7a4682401c5d83cbd2bb2d168">https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/1930-02-27-3</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q783953|territorial claims in Antarctica]]''<ref name="ref_7db06d5476b3f5c24f5ebb17af080c176272f9c7a4682401c5d83cbd2bb2d168">https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/1930-02-27-3</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q408|Q408]] | AUS<ref name="ref_63f5ca7a183963ae457d8f89197c39e30c3e1963bcf902fb3e780d1dbf4e9c8a">''[[:d:Q25275|ISO 3166-1]]''</ref> | AUS | [[File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_81c89a07f6d8245f3f610a5338eb4d06b8867ad0833011281075a438da9ceee8">https://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/symbols/flag.cfm</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Australia]] | [[File:AUS orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q3114|Canberra]]''<ref name="ref_2c266568d394409c43364c2f4d8b8ea09162a2269fee0e814197c113c625b70a">http://www.australia.gov.au/about-government/states-territories-and-local-government/capital-cities</ref> | 7692024 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_e5de0557d829b6203125373010912e5dbe4da19b4ef922649c7cca8b61d30a07">http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/australias-size-compared</ref><ref name="ref_2400624184620dd514bed85b0ebd035541fc426839c786569d93496fbe599d16">http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/area-of-australia-states-and-territories</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43702|federation]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q40|Q40]] | AUT | AUT | [[File:Flag of Austria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Austria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Austria]] | [[File:EU-Austria.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Vienna]]<ref name="ref_8c9140023642283c5ce8f0054419301e4e661b4d544d74f911a04dbe4e1b2919">''[[:d:Q1005391|Federal Constitutional Law]]''</ref> | 83878.99 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_337104bf542d61ec28a5b64ad960c201fe14eae452e70f309dab87be0ecfd867">http://www.statistik.at/web_de/static/k37_054436.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_8c9140023642283c5ce8f0054419301e4e661b4d544d74f911a04dbe4e1b2919">''[[:d:Q1005391|Federal Constitutional Law]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<ref name="ref_8c9140023642283c5ce8f0054419301e4e661b4d544d74f911a04dbe4e1b2919">''[[:d:Q1005391|Federal Constitutional Law]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_e33536185a3a577767c4df8815505e3839cdb3ac340226ff3e9f0263fb53a77a">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/austria</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q227|Q227]] | AZE | AZE | [[File:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Azerbaijan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Azerbaijan]] | [[File:Azerbaijan orthographic projection.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Baku]] | 86600 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q967|Q967]] | BDI | BDI | [[File:Flag of Burundi.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Burundi.svg|center|48px]] | [[Burundi]] | [[File:Burundi (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Gitega]] | 27834 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_6cac7bdde4be279b526ef08604ad918b112e3faa287696c1b915fbb81f2f4f0b">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/by.html</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q31|Q31]] | BEL | BEL | [[File:Flag of Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great coat of arms of Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | [[Belgica]] | [[File:EU-Belgium.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Brussel]]<ref name="ref_effb07acb78b00e96857dd630ea9dbef3dfa2b85064c06fc36d489bac27ac036">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/be.html</ref><ref name="ref_cf8ffd9fa05b0d7e236b0e111cb1395c12ffa35206a807cfeae261a0752a11b4">http://www.traveldir.org/belgium/</ref> | 30688 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_b6045ba397001d57a685257fa78ba294520cf6abae5c822cb219ab67a689bfa0">''[[:d:Q12480|Statbel]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q962|Q962]] | BEN | BEN | [[File:Flag of Benin.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Benin.svg|center|48px]] | [[Benin]] | [[File:Benin (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Porto-Novo]] | 114763 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q27561|Q27561]] | BES<ref name="ref_b487e18951526d42430f1cf1c21ee328d29004b78388d2bd2e82fab9d7187199">https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/iso_3166-1_newsletter_vi-8_split_of_the_dutch_antilles_final-en.pdf</ref> | | | | ''[[:d:Q27561|Caribbean Netherlands]]'' | [[File:BES islands location map.svg|center|48px]] | | No/unknown value | 322 kilometro quadrate | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q965|Q965]] | BFA | BUR | [[File:Flag of Burkina Faso.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Burkina Faso.svg|center|48px]] | [[Burkina Faso]] | [[File:BFA orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Ouagadougou]] | 274200 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q902|Q902]] | BGD | BAN | [[File:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Bangladesh.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bangladesh]] | [[File:Bangladesh (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Dacca]] | 147570 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q219|Q219]] | BGR | BUL | [[File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Bulgaria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bulgaria]] | [[File:Bulgaria (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Sofia]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 110993.6 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_b935a0a66833771bd7ab112d9853ebe1a287cd8e9aac1b6386fa9e1016b57022">http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0159&g=</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q398|Q398]] | BHR | BRN | [[File:Flag of Bahrain.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of The Kingdom of Bahrain.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bahrain]] | [[File:Map of Bahrain.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Manama]] | 786.5 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f1109f3b1be2275f826e9cf52b9203b986059b8d23dd4954bbc9089530b2748f">https://www.bahrain.bh/wps/wcm/connect/bnp_en/about%20the%20kingdom/about%20bahrain/related%20topics/facts%20and%20figures</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[archipelago]] | |- | [[:d:Q778|Q778]] | BHS | BAH | [[File:Flag of the Bahamas.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Bahamas.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bahamas]] | [[File:Bahamas in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q2467|Nassau]]'' | 13878 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q225|Q225]] | BIH | BIH | [[File:Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bosnia e Herzegovina]] | [[File:Bosnia and Herzegovina (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Sarajevo]] | 51197 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_b8423ba8340e8b33fb505561ed0125432eb23a2565c8790412ae86b19bd45f82">https://www.ustavnisud.ba/public/down/USTAV_BOSNE_I_HERCEGOVINE_engl.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q25362|Q25362]] | BLM | | [[File:Flag of Saint Barthélemy (local).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Blason St Barthélémy TOM entire.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25362|Saint Barthélemy]]'' | [[File:Saint Barthelemy in France.svg|center|48px]] | FR-BL | ''[[:d:Q34112|Gustavia]]'' | 24 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_6fc27494e6c7926015d9eb27d4f5924ae1abcba3d5e6e02ad3d8258d77f9d34c">https://www.touteleurope.eu/fonctionnement-de-l-ue/la-superficie-des-pays-de-l-union-europeenne/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]''<ref name="ref_acb678d6cb9dd51a3fd3981405e68362fe227c398b2f88f9205d3f195172710d">''[[:d:Q47486150|loi organique n° 2007-223 du 21 février 2007 portant dispositions statutaires et institutionnelles relatives à l'outre-mer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q184|Q184]] | BLR | BLR | [[File:Flag of Belarus.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Belarus (2020–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[Bielorussia]] | [[File:Belarus on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Minsk]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | 207596.76 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_19a0807314a71637fb0d564051152981a05e56273c4261bd3fdcb5e073d74eae">http://www.gki.gov.by/docs/gzk_2010.doc</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q619610|social state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q242|Q242]] | BLZ | BIZ | [[File:Flag of Belize.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Belize.svg|center|48px]] | [[Belize]] | [[File:BLZ orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q3043|Belmopan]]'' | 22966 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q23635|Q23635]] | BMU | BER | [[File:Flag of Bermuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Bermuda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bermuda]] | [[File:United Kingdom on the globe (Bermuda special) (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q30985|Hamilton]]'' | 53 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<ref name="ref_062d6a907457c2cd5018246f8dbe44927859fc0e258af56b43a0695d3e0dfd2d">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bermuda/</ref><br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | |- | [[:d:Q750|Q750]] | BOL | BOL | [[File:Flag of Bolivia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de Bolivia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bolivia]] | [[File:BOL orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Sucre]]<br/>[[La Paz]] | 1098581 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q155|Q155]] | BRA | BRA | [[File:Flag of Brazil.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg|center|48px]] | [[Brasil]] | [[File:BRA orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Brasilia]] | 8515767 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><ref name="ref_5c82beb1fb4dd02d663f37b907e0cca990987aef221d1fbf12883eefd4a2f8b1">https://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<ref name="ref_02c70ce7e82c7b584465384c48cfa48df62e8157043980dd85c87ac7ede9f667">https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/constituicao.htm?lang=pt</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q244|Q244]] | BRB | BAR | [[File:Flag of Barbados.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Barbados (2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Barbados]] | [[File:BRB orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q36168|Bridgetown]]'' | 439 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q921|Q921]] | BRN<ref name="ref_85f197c05a3a50ab610b9354a76864571e64192440bbfe1f06301e0f182262ec">https://www.ISO.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:BN</ref> | BRU | [[File:Flag of Brunei.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Brunei.svg|center|48px]] | [[Brunei]] | [[File:Brunei on the globe (Southeast Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q9279|Bandar Seri Begawan]]'' | 5765.313533 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[Sultanato]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_85f197c05a3a50ab610b9354a76864571e64192440bbfe1f06301e0f182262ec">https://www.ISO.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:BN</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q917|Q917]] | BTN | BHU | [[File:Flag of Bhutan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Bhutan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Bhutan]] | [[File:Bhutan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Thimphu]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 38394 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1309121|hermit kingdom]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q23408|Q23408]] | BVT | | [[File:Flag of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Insula de Bouvet]] | [[File:PAT - Bouvet.gif|center|48px]] | | | 49 kilometro quadrate | [[insula]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5260616|dependency of Norway]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q963|Q963]] | BWA | BOT | [[File:Flag of Botswana.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Botswana.svg|center|48px]] | [[Botswana]] | [[File:Botswana (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Gaborone]] | 581737 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q2895|Q2895]] | BYS | | [[File:Flag of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1951–1991).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1981–1991).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q2895|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]'' | [[File:Byelorussian SSR in the Soviet Union.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Minsk]] | 207600 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q929|Q929]] | CAF | CAF | [[File:Flag of the Central African Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Central African Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Centroafrican]] | [[File:CAF orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bangui]] | 622984 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[republica]] | |- | [[:d:Q16|Q16]] | CAN | CAN | [[File:Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal Coat of arms of Canada.svg|center|48px]] | [[Canada]] | [[File:CAN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Ottawa]]<ref name="ref_a9d7cc87fad739a186c62b47b38ed774fc3b97ecdaced733b52b08043d1b30e9">''[[:d:Q868884|Constitution Act, 1867]]''</ref> | 9984670 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q36004|Q36004]] | CCK | | [[File:Flag of the Cocos (Keeling) Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Clunies-Ross family arms.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q36004|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]'' | [[File:Cocos (Keeling) Islands on the globe (Southeast Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q48675|West Island]]'' | 14 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q39|Q39]] | CHE | SUI | [[File:Flag of Switzerland.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_ab7fc05533a6a1045f2ce8ad338b0792ed51296f1397b7e775499d19e43c8e57">https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20091656/index.html#app1ahref0</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of Switzerland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Switza]] | [[File:Switzerland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Berna]]<ref name="ref_0080a764532c5d04f2a034ba39e581993e729ab6db18d709944b4f8bbb323f6a">https://www.bk.admin.ch/bk/de/home/dokumentation/gesetzgebung/rechtsbereiche-der-bk/abgeschlossene-gesetzgebungsprojekte/bundesstadtstatus-stadt-bern.html</ref> | 41291 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_5e2ad7e643fbd628f1fdbcaf44a25a09db7c28f256dd1b609e662806fb674840">https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiques/espace-environnement.html</ref> | [[stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q170156|confederation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q43702|federation]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | republica federal in Europa occidental |- | [[:d:Q298|Q298]] | CHL | CHI | [[File:Flag of Chile.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Chile (c).svg|center|48px]] | [[Chile]] | [[File:CHL orthographic (+all claims).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Santiago de Chile]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 756102 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[nation]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5255892|republica democratic]]''<br/>[[pais transcontinental]] | |- | [[:d:Q148|Q148]] | CHN | CHN | [[File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:中華人民共和國國徽.svg|center|48px]] | [[China]] | [[File:CHN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Beijing]] | 9596961 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1008|Q1008]] | CIV | CIV | [[File:Flag of Côte d'Ivoire.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ivory Coast (2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Costa de Ebore]] | [[File:CIV orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Yamoussoukro]] | 322463 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<ref name="ref_ca070e9a5eb15c3dccfde88694c68f2863907488ea9e5eec31ad0622694ece24">https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/dossiers-pays/cote-d-ivoire/presentation-de-la-cote-d-ivoire/</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_0dad73dd85c33cae8349a2e2ca72f0917d0ffc3785f00eede7e40d57c79381da">https://www.presidence.ci/presentation-ci/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1009|Q1009]] | CMR | CMR | [[File:Flag of Cameroon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cameroon.svg|center|48px]] | [[Camerun]] | [[File:CMR orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Yaoundé]] | 475442 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q974|Q974]] | COD | COD | [[File:Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (black spear).svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Democratic del Congo]] | [[File:COD orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kinshasa]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 2344858 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_ed806c47cd810026be18b273086c4a0bce497d753577b6badca4efc5741bf580">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/dem-rep-congo</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q971|Q971]] | COG | CGO | [[File:Flag of the Republic of the Congo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Republic of the Congo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica del Congo]] | [[File:LocationRepublicoftheCongo.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Brazzaville]] | 342000 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q26988|Q26988]] | COK | COK | [[File:Flag of the Cook Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Cook Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q26988|Cook Islands]]'' | [[File:Cook Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q170482|Avarua]]'' | 240 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q1138279|associated state]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q739|Q739]] | COL | COL | [[File:Flag of Colombia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Colombia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Colombia]] | [[File:COL orthographic (San Andrés and Providencia special).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bogotá]]<ref name="ref_5e9c5041ff4318d908f65eec8765863728691254e0e8d2a8ef3c727c831f4362">https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Kolumbia;4169072.html</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 1141748 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q970|Q970]] | COM | COM | [[File:Flag of the Comoros.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Comoros.svg|center|48px]] | [[Comores]] | [[File:Comoros (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Moroni]] | 2034 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1011|Q1011]] | CPV | CPV | [[File:Flag of Cape Verde (10-17).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cape Verde.svg|center|48px]] | [[Capo Verde]] | [[File:CPV orthographic NaturalEarth.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Praia]] | 4033 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q800|Q800]] | CRI | CRC | [[File:Flag of Costa Rica.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Costa Rica.svg|center|48px]] | [[Costa Rica]] | [[File:Costa Rica (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q3070|San José]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 51179.92 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_285fd8606b2550d805b3727c2d7de01b8b2d241b09c78d835b52e9c55cb22733">https://files.snitcr.go.cr/boletines/ACTUALIZACION_DE_LAS_AREAS_CONTINENTAL_E_INSULAR_DE_COSTA_RICA_02_07_2021.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_ddab406ed76bc355fe46531eaf50bcae55bbbe305380b0bc0306ebb912b36599">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/costa-rica</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q3405693|Q3405693]] | CRQ | | [[File:Flag of Sark.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Sark.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q3405693|Sark]]'' | [[File:Guernsey-Sark.png|center|48px]] | | | 5.5 kilometro quadrate | [[insula]]<br/>''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q64953083|car-free place]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q33946|Q33946]] | CSK | TCH | [[File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Czechoslovakia (1960–1990).svg|center|48px]] | [[Checoslovachia]] | [[File:Czechoslovakia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Praga]] | 127900 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2618621|Q2618621]] | CTE | | | | ''[[:d:Q2618621|Canton and Enderbury Islands]]'' | | | | | ''[[:d:Q734818|condominium]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q241|Q241]] | CUB | CUB | [[File:Flag of Cuba.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|center|48px]] | [[Cuba]] | [[File:Cuba (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Havana]] | 109884 kilometro quadrate | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849866|communist state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q25279|Q25279]] | CUW | | [[File:Flag of Curaçao.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Curaçao.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25279|Curaçao]]'' | [[File:Curacao in its region.svg|center|48px]] | NL-CW<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q132679|Willemstad]]'' | 444 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q31063|Q31063]] | CXR | | [[File:Flag of Christmas Island.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Insula de Natal]] | [[File:Christmas Island on globe (Southeast Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q30980|Flying Fish Cove]]'' | 135 kilometro quadrate | [[entitate territorial administrative]]<br/>[[insula]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q5785|Q5785]] | CYM | CAY | [[File:Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Cayman Islands Coat of Arms.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q5785|Cayman Islands]]'' | [[File:Cayman Islands in United Kingdom.svg|center|48px]] | KY | ''[[:d:Q172996|George Town]]'' | 264 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q229|Q229]] | CYP | CYP | [[File:Flag of Cyprus.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Cyprus (2006).svg|center|48px]] | [[Cypro]] | [[File:EU-Cyprus highlighted.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Nicosia]] | 9242.45 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_d9beda03a013a6c352d53ac5fb5688fc429b1fc4804c0e241d33df84f1b3b758">http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/F2876E52BD240C56C2257EB4003C3ED4/$file/DEGREE_URBANISATION-2016.xls?OpenElement</ref><ref name="ref_d9beda03a013a6c352d53ac5fb5688fc429b1fc4804c0e241d33df84f1b3b758">http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/F2876E52BD240C56C2257EB4003C3ED4/$file/DEGREE_URBANISATION-2016.xls?OpenElement</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q213|Q213]] | CZE | CZE | [[File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Chec]] | [[File:EU-Czech Republic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Praga]]<ref name="ref_3e5b9bab813465412853331eda013f076fbcdd7ad1a4220fc096b9ec9c3819bf">''[[:d:Q2948382|Constitution of the Czech Republic]]''</ref> | 78871 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_9ee41a8991616554164e89056c906d4d44818b64305baad938165ac299409ac2">https://vdb.czso.cz/vdbvo2/faces/en/index.jsf?page=vystup-objekt-vyhledavani&vyhltext=plochy&bkvt=cGxvY2h5&katalog=all&pvo=ZPR15</ref> | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_8645e6affd6454487e5530ed31ed7a90de88f9b018af1bac5423f56ba4bfad7f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/czech-republic</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_3e5b9bab813465412853331eda013f076fbcdd7ad1a4220fc096b9ec9c3819bf">''[[:d:Q2948382|Constitution of the Czech Republic]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | pais de Europa |- | [[:d:Q16957|Q16957]] | DDR | GDR | [[File:Flag of the German Democratic Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State arms of the German Democratic Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Germania Oriental]] | [[File:East Germany 1956-1990.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q56037|East Berlin]]'' | 108179 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q183|Q183]] | DEU | GER<ref name="ref_7051b4fa8b9e1fd011a3751668a1a7d17dace442ab69f795ae7cd785f21ca7e6">https://www.laenderdaten.de/kuerzel/olympia.aspx</ref><ref name="ref_14f12b58ecf7e955915f42a62d53c127443a3805dc49bc5b11cfcbf6a89c6802">''[[:d:Q28796597|Olympic.org athletes database]]''</ref><ref name="ref_79e4d44474c511272c7ee74bc50614da858523aec6ef10464aea6ef133b76b29">https://www.worlddata.info/countrycodes.php</ref> | [[File:Flag of Germany.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_1d422822f174182146a3ebf7ed95f411618ba7c64ac7d21c1e4fe9147edeb999">''[[:d:Q56045|Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]]''</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of Germany.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_7b1be4b5c5406071713a14f29b675da8b4bf2fcf605c1e15c08f26ab8844ae1f">''[[:d:Q836156|Bundesgesetzblatt]]''</ref> | [[Germania]] | [[File:Germany (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Berlin]]<ref name="ref_1d422822f174182146a3ebf7ed95f411618ba7c64ac7d21c1e4fe9147edeb999">''[[:d:Q56045|Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]]''</ref><ref name="ref_22390ecfe75e90e8a84d49610b605c042f29948974bc2059607ac63abe076a08">https://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/themen/verfassung/staatliche-symbole/hauptstadt/hauptstadt-artikel.html</ref><ref name="ref_28b4a876afe5bc29aa93ea5e1d077508e10499391b0dca5ba9a493d360bd35a8">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/germany</ref><br/>[[Berlin]] | 357587.77 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_c30c744cc8d1683921d063fbb9edf67b0445ec100626745fbcbc647782c7bed5">https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/85921/ssoar-2023-seeger_et_al-Kritische_Flachenfragen_-_Flachenveranderungen_und.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&lnkname=ssoar-2023-seeger_et_al-Kritische_Flachenfragen_-_Flachenveranderungen_und.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_0e8d288976e5fc82ece1969aac468ee1b37e61ce5becb93cfcc5ed975493294e">''[[:d:Q1206379|General Treaty]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0aaaa5a7a82b0a7c136905d5fdcea358424e8a04be48b9d47cb8e8cd8be10345">https://www.ndr.de/geschichte/chronologie/Deutschlandvertrag-Wie-die-Bundesrepublik-souveraen-wurde,deutschlandvertrag100.html</ref><ref name="ref_2ebe9814d2917c7003bf83a374e6ebc357663e1b2a5ad7faa6d40ad2e07afc3d">https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/579364/034b11190e6f59ada9686600ee020f37/wd-3-119-09-pdf-data.pdf</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q798431|Q798431]] | DHY | | [[File:Flag of Benin.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Dahomey (1958–1964).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q798431|Republic of Dahomey]]'' | [[File:Benin in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Porto-Novo]] | | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1138279|associated state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q977|Q977]] | DJI | DJI | [[File:Flag of Djibouti.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Djibouti.svg|center|48px]] | [[Djibuti]] | [[File:Djibouti (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Djibuti (citate)|Djibuti]] | 23200 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | pais de Africa |- | [[:d:Q784|Q784]] | DMA | DMA | [[File:Flag of Dominica.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Dominica.svg|center|48px]] | [[Dominica (pais)|Dominica]] | [[File:Dominica on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q36281|Roseau]]'' | 751.096551 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q35|Q35]] | DNK | DEN | [[File:Flag of Denmark.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National coat of arms of Denmark.svg|center|48px]] | [[Danmark]] | [[File:Denmark (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Copenhagen]]<ref name="ref_2ab2d3efd2b6883b381ce9a652bd0a5322344d6df7b3edab85734fc96927cc79">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/denmark</ref> | 42925.46 kilometro quadrate | [[stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q20181813|colonial power]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q66724388|autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q786|Q786]] | DOM | DOM | [[File:Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica Dominican]] | [[File:Dominican Republic (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Santo Domingo]] | 48670.82 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_4abceb84df88466e423d116c50d9971c4498b76c685f15eaca23a783c8e7515f">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominican-republic/summaries/#geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q262|Q262]] | DZA | ALG | [[File:Flag of Algeria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National Emblem of Algeria (bronze effect).svg|center|48px]] | [[Algeria]] | [[File:Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Alger]] | 2381741 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<ref name="ref_0d68ad2342f20c5aedf1007877b78f219bf3c78c3bafc42a9ec6a9bf41b84f47">''[[:d:Q111513095|Algérie, la tierce rive en Méditerranée]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q736|Q736]] | ECU | ECU | [[File:Flag of Ecuador.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ecuador.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ecuador]] | [[File:ECU orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Quito]] | 257204.27 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_41cd80a6a4bbc555bafe2260afacfcf284688b2bea0c2739219b918d0f0e36bc">https://www.censoecuador.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/01_2022_CPV_Estructura_poblacional.xlsx</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q79|Q79]] | EGY | EGY | [[File:Flag of Egypt.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg|center|48px]] | [[Egypto]] | [[File:EGY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Cairo]] | 1010407.87 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais transcontinental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q986|Q986]] | ERI | ERI | [[File:Flag of Eritrea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Eritrea (or argent azur).svg|center|48px]] | [[Eritrea]] | [[File:Eritrea (Africa orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asmara]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 117600 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q6250|Q6250]] | ESH | | | | [[Sahara Occidental]] | [[File:Location Western Sahara AU Africa.svg|center|48px]] | | | 266000 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f226f10d202b7e4f0418bdff05b1a1f1b29872374382df6b8b7442b6cb1ec5b5">https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2016/Table03.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q29|Q29]] | ESP | ESP<br/>SPA<ref name="ref_441ce199c513a152aef7457e8d9baa34eaaafd6b369d45f9de3c14d47f6defc1">''[[:d:Q180672|list of IOC country codes]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of Spain.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de España (variant).svg|center|48px]] | [[Espania]] | [[File:Spain on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Madrid]]<ref name="ref_71f48b845957dc61c36dc7c60d2661c2aebd68d9cc47907d548c76e59c9d3dc3">''[[:d:Q847664|constitution of Spain]]''</ref><ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | 505990 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_71259f2df20025f4f6ebfbd2cea3654df36bc05b2af744c8bb54649653486875">http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario08/anu08_01entor.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_c0734c4a4c9f9a09f2283bfb005697cd4dea47545ed0aea5eb3d79a7b3dc6766">https://books.google.es/books?id=dciHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=espa%C3%B1a+estado+soberano&hl=es&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZvb7YgdqKAxW9TaQEHYi1L-AQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=espa%C3%B1a%20estado%20soberano&f=false</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1250464|realm]]''<ref name="ref_c0734c4a4c9f9a09f2283bfb005697cd4dea47545ed0aea5eb3d79a7b3dc6766">https://books.google.es/books?id=dciHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=espa%C3%B1a+estado+soberano&hl=es&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZvb7YgdqKAxW9TaQEHYi1L-AQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&q=espa%C3%B1a%20estado%20soberano&f=false</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_816656db543d7f192ac0f5eedc1b0406efcaf2501630b58d76d99c4105e7ce6b">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/spain</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<ref name="ref_f6e643aeb8317c43addd1338add17398b2150b82005b8eb7fe9f4a62db4f1a20">https://www.miteco.gob.es/content/dam/miteco/es/biodiversidad/temas/espacios-protegidos/pbl_rn_region_mediterranea_tcm30-197189.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q179671|nation state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q191|Q191]] | EST | EST | [[File:Flag of Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Estonia]] | [[File:EU-Estonia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tallinn]] | 45335 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_4653dfca016f1bd2f5883046c58081f4802a23cbdfacca99b1a6483a87daac2b">https://maaamet.ee/uudised/kingitus-eesti-sunnipaevaks-eesti-sai-95-saare-vorra-rikkamaks</ref> | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_89858635d1d4e1e5cf622dbd9ab76a49f5468813d004350e3380e228dd35b83d">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/estonia</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_54e342fdf5e3df1445603c89567af796e487dcfef339f4a0ae5ed1b3fe9ffe09">https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/521052015001/consolide/current</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q115|Q115]] | ETH | ETH | [[File:Flag of Ethiopia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Ethiopia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ethiopia]] | [[File:Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Addis Abeba]] | 1104300 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_edc2fab86e50cec4422ea17373796e8bf33c96df1568995feb78f6aff375f401">''[[:d:Q87326639|МСЭ2/Эфиопия]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q33|Q33]] | FIN | FIN | [[File:Flag of Finland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Finland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Finlandia]] | [[File:Finland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Helsinki]]<ref name="ref_318da0135bfb25d1f42d651688f070b4056ca932b27cf562763c8b665a912c1c">''[[:d:Q14334357|Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen]]''</ref> | 338478.34 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_45fa35ad65f8e138eaadf805bf5345a74d1792fe016fc52eff727dd0c68b6042">''[[:d:Q117800624|Area of Finland's municipalities 2023-01-01]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_318da0135bfb25d1f42d651688f070b4056ca932b27cf562763c8b665a912c1c">''[[:d:Q14334357|Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q712|Q712]] | FJI | FIJ | [[File:Flag of Fiji.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Fiji.svg|center|48px]] | [[Fiji]] | [[File:Fiji (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Suva]]<ref name="ref_202d137c6425b2a43a20e310db64cbd63e6934c5462ed66403c3e1a2d82eeab6">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html</ref> | 18274 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_202d137c6425b2a43a20e310db64cbd63e6934c5462ed66403c3e1a2d82eeab6">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html</ref> | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q9648|Q9648]] | FLK | FLK | [[File:Flag of the Falkland Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Falkland Islands (relief).svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Falkland]] | [[File:Location map of the Falklands – Alternative version 4.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q12245|Stanley]]'' | 12200 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | archipelago in le Atlantico meridional, e un territorio britannic de ultramar, disputate per Argentina |- | [[:d:Q142|Q142]] | FRA | FRA | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_24586f4cbffe0665081df82c9c5e73f79348356487223b2dc34f514cfc958a02">https://www.europe1.fr/politique/info-e1-le-drapeau-francais-a-change-de-couleur-4076943</ref> | [[File:Arms of the French Republic.svg|center|48px]] | [[Francia]] | [[File:EU-France (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Paris]] | 643801 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_a92d077c5f3818620affb2a5d7c48fa8255ac5b86d0bca5eb9961dbcf2aaf058">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/france</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q4628|Q4628]] | FRO | FRO | [[File:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Faroe Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Feroe]] | [[File:Europe-Faroe Islands.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tórshavn]] | 1399 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q66724388|autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]'' | pais constitutive del Regno de Danmark |- | [[:d:Q702|Q702]] | FSM | FSM | [[File:Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Statos Federate de Micronesia|Micronesia]] | [[File:Micronesia on the globe (Micronesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q42751|Palikir]]'' | 702 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q212429|Q212429]] | FXX | | | | ''[[:d:Q212429|metropolitan France]]'' | | | [[Paris]] | 543940 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q192498|administrative territorial entity of France]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1000|Q1000]] | GAB | GAB | [[File:Flag of Gabon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Gabon.svg|center|48px]] | [[Gabon]] | [[File:Gabon (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Libreville]] | 267667 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q145|Q145]] | GBR | GBR | [[File:Flag of the United Kingdom (3-5).svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_2e1423dcb8b790e2e90a3897a27b6871f1f66485f3fef42b8884658e2a229779">https://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/resources/union-flag-approved-designs</ref> | [[File:Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (2022, variant 2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Regno Unite]] | [[File:Europe-UK.svg|center|48px]] | GB-UKM | [[London]] | 242495 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_0d356e1a2755f6d5be930f6bc59055a2c20ee6f0f75bdfd374f011057ad93137">https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012/Table03.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_07aba9f4379b9bcc0a6454827692516fc6c733e43765fde9ef8e09c53c9b2bab">https://www.legislation.gov.uk/aip/Geo3/40/38</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q20181813|colonial power]]''<br/>[[stato insular]] | |- | [[:d:Q1050859|Q1050859]] | GEL | | [[File:Flag of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1937–1976).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1937-1979).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q1050859|Gilbert and Ellice Islands]]'' | [[File:LocationGilbertandEllice.png|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q131233|South Tarawa]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q133156|colonia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q230|Q230]] | GEO | GEO | [[File:Flag of Georgia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Greater coat of arms of Georgia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Georgia (pais)|Georgia]] | [[File:Europe-Georgia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tbilisi]] | 69700 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q236036|republic of the Soviet Union]]''<ref name="ref_5c230e70bc98bbb5feb57eebe6a26f1f466f19895c08275dad9169e8102d4f75">https://iverieli.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/274221/1/Komunisti_1921_N1.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q25230|Q25230]] | GGY | | [[File:Flag of Guernsey.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guernsey.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25230|Guernsey]]'' | [[File:Europe-Guernsey.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q174262|Saint Peter Port]]''<ref name="ref_d7f3fbf911ccc5e0cabba1efbe3a7d2fe53e36a359a9eb710109378e62030924">''[[:d:Q4041526|Internetowa encyklopedia PWN]]''</ref> | 78 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4996207|bailiwick]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q117|Q117]] | GHA | GHA | [[File:Flag of Ghana.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ghana.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ghana]] | [[File:Ghana (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Accra]] | 238535 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1410|Q1410]] | GIB | | [[File:Flag of Gibraltar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Gibraltar1.svg|center|48px]] | [[Gibraltar]] | [[File:Gibraltar location in Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Gibraltar]] | 6.843 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<ref name="ref_3d29c82e3baa841b09d9b9b3d90dfa52de4372e39fcb0938708203ec1cab03f2">https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/press/gibraltar-fact-sheets</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q2264924|port city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q900119|United Nations list of non-self-governing territories]]''<ref name="ref_48b69b1d187d696733b5fe4c026ed451633a131e2317cfa1a73d9d01cc933ea8">http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgovterritories.shtml</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q902814|border city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<ref name="ref_3d29c82e3baa841b09d9b9b3d90dfa52de4372e39fcb0938708203ec1cab03f2">https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/press/gibraltar-fact-sheets</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1200957|tourist destination]]''<br/>[[citate]]<ref name="ref_90fc85d406f4fa37137ab499b9cce2bfdb857196e9342ab74d8f58415463d6c8">https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62710553</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1006|Q1006]] | GIN | GUI | [[File:Flag of Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guinea]] | [[File:Guinea (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Conakry]] | 245857 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q17012|Q17012]] | GLP | | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guadeloupe.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guadalupe|Guadeloupe]] | [[File:Guadeloupe in France 2016.svg|center|48px]] | FR-971 | ''[[:d:Q167024|Basse-Terre]]'' | 1628 kilometro quadrate | [[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1005|Q1005]] | GMB | GAM | [[File:Flag of The Gambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of The Gambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Gambia]] | [[File:Gambia (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Banjul]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 11300 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1007|Q1007]] | GNB | GBS | [[File:Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Guinea-Bissau.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guinea-Bissau]] | [[File:Guinea-Bissau on the globe (Africa centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bissau]] | 36125 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q983|Q983]] | GNQ | GEQ | [[File:Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Equatorial Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guinea Equatorial]] | [[File:GNQ orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q1140136|Ciudad de la Paz]]''<ref name="ref_4670f62228431d43ad88bf0ad1dfba386f3c50cacf86ad612695c2d620a35424">https://realequatorialguinea.com/destacado/politica/plazo-de-un-ano-para-el-traslado-de-entes-publicos-a-la-nueva-capital-politica-de-guinea-ecuatorial/</ref><ref name="ref_b2231c6e6b12db62e5fd5a94e0bca5fb0d0dafc6ac483b371b6791c858bab698">https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2026/01/04/en-guinee-equatoriale-ciudad-de-la-paz-devient-officiellement-la-nouvelle-capitale_6660479_3212.html</ref> | 28051 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q41|Q41]] | GRC | GRE | [[File:Flag of Greece.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Greece.svg|center|48px]] | [[Grecia]] | [[File:Greece on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Athenas]]<ref name="ref_7f80c57339dd698c07901fec3c81610dd872f97c45364d2194c244d9e12c1466">http://europa.eu/about-eu/countries/member-countries/greece/index_en.htm</ref><ref name="ref_bbccf96b5d48698decad5413c8b90dacd924a8ba54e80d8c7e2a8f52fe06c774">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gr.html</ref> | 131957 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_c2d67b9e3a07d872ee28f66d2f0e22aa78db5c8eb2e9b18c4acd26b41f3eea1f">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/greece</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q769|Q769]] | GRD | GRN | [[File:Flag of Grenada.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Grenada.svg|center|48px]] | [[Grenada]] | [[File:Grenada in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q41547|St. George's]]'' | 348.5 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q223|Q223]] | GRL | | [[File:Flag of Greenland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Greenland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Groenlandia]] | [[File:Greenland (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | DK-GL | [[Nuuk]] | 2166086 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q66724388|autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q192611|districto electoral]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q788176|autonomous administrative territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]'' | Pais autonome intra le Regno de Danmark |- | [[:d:Q774|Q774]] | GTM | GUA | [[File:Flag of Guatemala.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guatemala.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guatemala]] | [[File:Guatemala on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Citate de Guatemala]] | 108889 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q171751|banana republic]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q3769|Q3769]] | GUF | | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of French Guiana, according to the original displayed at the Museum Franconie, at Cayenne.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q3769|French Guiana]]'' | [[File:French Guiana (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | FR-973 | ''[[:d:Q44401|Cayenne]]''<ref name="ref_4058423f56ad42a5dad3cf811c43b58f4b2eac00baa2606d64175bb0c28dc229">https://www.ctguyane.fr/lassemblee/</ref> | 83534 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>[[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16635|Q16635]] | GUM | GUM | [[File:Flag of Guam.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of Guam.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guam]] | [[File:Guam on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | US-GU | ''[[:d:Q30988|Hagåtña]]'' | 544 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_e2f611e48ca35a2ee76d828427ab1313b3e8e3f9874fc92a31963fc7fd56005b">https://www.doi.gov/oia/budget/authorities-public-law</ref><br/>[[insula]]<br/>''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_d0f09ed15666b50e8d9a68ba9dbc619bb6d784d90a7618c64f8a2f648668f919">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/gq.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3337001|nationality for sports]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q734|Q734]] | GUY | GUY | [[File:Flag of Guyana.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Guyana.svg|center|48px]] | [[Guyana]] | [[File:GUY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Georgetown (Guyana)|Georgetown]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 214970 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q8646|Q8646]] | HKG | HKG | [[File:Flag of Hong Kong.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Regional Emblem of Hong Kong.svg|center|48px]] | [[Hong Kong]] | [[File:Hong Kong in China (zoomed) (+all claims hatched).svg|center|48px]] | CN-HK | | 1105.69 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_23f31d605c239779ad76199ec0d06a084629017fe5bc72344b1c5ae5ba458222">http://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/en/publications/hk_geographic_data_sheet.pdf</ref><br/>1649.34 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_23f31d605c239779ad76199ec0d06a084629017fe5bc72344b1c5ae5ba458222">http://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/en/publications/hk_geographic_data_sheet.pdf</ref><br/>2755.03 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_23f31d605c239779ad76199ec0d06a084629017fe5bc72344b1c5ae5ba458222">http://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/en/publications/hk_geographic_data_sheet.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q779415|region administrative special]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[citate]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1549591|citate grande]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q200250|metropole]]''<br/>[[Citate global]]<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q125470455|customs territory of China]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3337001|nationality for sports]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q131198|Q131198]] | HMD | | [[File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Insula de Heard e Insulas de McDonald]] | [[File:Heard Island and McDonald Islands on the globe (Antarctica centered).svg|center|48px]] | | No/unknown value | 368 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]''<br/>[[archipelago]]<br/>''[[:d:Q38048753|natural cultural heritage site]]''<ref name="ref_61c66ae5b30ad6078e22b9f22c9b9b78d9794dff664cca19b7133532d8da93fd">http://data.gov.au/dataset/2016-soe-her-aus-national-heritage</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q783|Q783]] | HND | HON | [[File:Flag of Honduras (1949–2022, 2026–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Honduras.svg|center|48px]] | [[Honduras]] | [[File:Honduras (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tegucigalpa]] | 112492 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q224|Q224]] | HRV | CRO | [[File:Flag of Croatia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Croatia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Croatia]] | [[File:EU-Croatia (orthographic projection).png|center|48px]] | | [[Zagreb]] | 56594 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_bd55e0d1c81d14774f58559de438e4defda1e12d62864cdaa1d947db0f41b791">http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv_Eng/ljetopis/2011/SLJH2011.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q790|Q790]] | HTI | HAI | [[File:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Haiti.svg|center|48px]] | [[Haiti]] | [[File:Haiti (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q34261|Port-au-Prince]]'' | 27750 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_a91f5a5fe89915b02835d39667e7f996de05f72841798895019b9b8e3c417445">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/haiti/summaries/#geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q28|Q28]] | HUN | HUN | [[File:Flag of Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | [[Hungaria]] | [[File:EU-Hungary.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Budapest]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 93011.4 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_0e8a04ccdbb38c486094c3321971af7815300f2cf7c847a315389a4c541782fc">http://www.ksh.hu/apps/shop.kiadvany?p_kiadvany_id=81322</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_4483f66877946ec33f67c3904523e9d019870bd6fd337507938223bc808df79f">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/hu.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q797422|Q797422]] | HVO | VOL | [[File:Flag of Upper Volta.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Upper Volta.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q797422|Republic of Upper Volta]]'' | [[File:LocationBurkinaFaso.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Ouagadougou]] | | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q252|Q252]] | IDN | INA | [[File:Flag of Indonesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg|center|48px]] | [[Indonesia]] | [[File:Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Jakarta]] | 1904570 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1520223|republica constitutional]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q9676|Q9676]] | IMN | | [[File:Flag of the Isle of Man.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Isle of Man.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insula de Man]] | [[File:Europe-Isle of Man.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q18569|Douglas]]''<ref name="ref_ac35a63fc8a562a4bbb9c89da46194321cf422408939313f1721fe7a3d50f4f7">https://www.gov.im/about-the-government/departments/cabinet-office/media-centre/isle-of-man-an-overview/</ref> | 572 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q668|Q668]] | IND | IND | [[File:Flag of India.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of India.svg|center|48px]] | [[India]] | [[File:India (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Nove Delhi]] | 3287263 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q43448|Q43448]] | IOT | | [[File:Flag of the Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q43448|British Indian Ocean Territory]]'' | [[File:British Indian Ocean Territory on the globe (Afro-Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | No/unknown value<br/>''[[:d:Q184851|Diego Garcia]]'' | 60 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q27|Q27]] | IRL | IRL | [[File:Flag of Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Republica de Irlanda]] | [[File:EU-Ireland.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Dublin]] | 69797 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1aca3d43d4cf0ba69f864fd92459be3c7e5347af31cbe9d7c89d86c03c615ca5">https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/key-facts-and-figures/life-eu_en</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q794|Q794]] | IRN | IRI | [[File:Flag of Iran.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Iran.svg|center|48px]] | [[Iran]] | [[File:Iran (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Teheran|Tehran]] | 1648195 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_706c979762a1bfe0bb4d75a7fa59245b9273be5b15e78cd69c3f108939e0d350">''[[:d:Q3462918|Mo'in Encyclopedic Dictionary]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q796|Q796]] | IRQ | IRQ | [[File:Flag of Iraq.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Iraq.svg|center|48px]] | [[Irak]] | [[File:Iraq (orthographic-projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bagdad]] | 437072 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_027eec560c36675d7dfcf0ec6ab1730925cc74a759fe419ef4a03c5e837afe70">https://www.iraqiembassy.us/page/geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q189|Q189]] | ISL | ISL | [[File:Flag of Iceland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Iceland.svg|center|48px]] | [[Islanda]] | [[File:Iceland (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Reykjavík|Reykjavik]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 103004 kilometro quadrate | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]''<ref name="ref_98d1b23b41cd51e23b3bfe865c80c37dbf722f949048af4d2eb8b52b7047cc9a">https://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/504/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q801|Q801]] | ISR | ISR | [[File:Flag of Israel.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Israel.svg|center|48px]] | [[Israel]] | [[File:Israel (orthographic projection) with disputed territories.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Jerusalem]]<ref name="ref_fe66d79305fe05e6daf671f160ea52ec9cc53ddcccc361d96fbbed21b69e9cfd">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/is.html</ref><ref name="ref_bed08e9baec502181b115c0518a39e715e7ea32434d2b2f8c7240f1f4d9329d1">''[[:d:Q1634035|Jerusalem Law]]''</ref> | 20770 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[region]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10711424|stato non recognoscite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q38|Q38]] | ITA | ITA | [[File:Flag of Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Italia]] | [[File:Italy on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Roma]]<ref name="ref_bc3d19d9b31811e635d1687f26f2bde9f4c377e9839a06c8c97a2e653aa9a4f3">http://www.governo.it/costituzione-italiana/parte-seconda-ordinamento-della-repubblica/titolo-v-le-regionile-province-e-i</ref> | 302068 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_8f75b8c83fc8103d6bd5bf19dd786289cda0d0b87d5a016400665bd155f6e6a5">https://www.tuttitalia.it/italia/</ref> | [[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref> | Italia es un pais del sud de Europa, membro del Union Europee |- | [[:d:Q766|Q766]] | JAM | JAM | [[File:Flag of Jamaica.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Jamaica.svg|center|48px]] | [[Jamaica]] | [[File:Jamaica (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kingston]] | 10991.90954 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q918240|territorial evolution of the British Empire]]''<ref name="ref_7fd3330f2d80033c175da2dfd52ded267e02db5ca01cb0080f78f14d38bee1ac">''[[:d:Q87326082|МСЭ2/Ямайка]]''</ref><br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q785|Q785]] | JEY<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ca652d7e17bcaf3c9763053fbd648993f635d0474f5bfa63eea979be1687f653">''[[:d:Q1520117|Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names]]''</ref> | | [[File:Flag of Jersey.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Jersey.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q785|Jersey]]'' | [[File:Europe-Jersey.svg|center|48px]] | GB-JSY | ''[[:d:Q147738|Saint Helier]]'' | 118.2 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q185086|Crown Dependencies]]''<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q810|Q810]] | JOR | JOR | [[File:Flag of Jordan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Jordan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Jordania]] | [[File:Jordan on the globe (Afro-Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Amman]] | 89341 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[Monarchia constitutional]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q17|Q17]] | JPN | JPN | [[File:Flag of Japan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Kamon of the Imperial House of Japan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Japon]] | [[File:Japan on the globe (de-facto) (Japan centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tokyo]] | 377972.28 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_abc3a7b6a82b0e7dce0ee5331c624e8c53edf38da63fef7cf24d52e956bcedd7">''[[:d:Q66481470|МСЭ2 / Япония]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_abc3a7b6a82b0e7dce0ee5331c624e8c53edf38da63fef7cf24d52e956bcedd7">''[[:d:Q66481470|МСЭ2 / Япония]]''</ref> | pais de Asia |- | [[:d:Q131008|Q131008]] | JTN | | [[File:Flag of the United States.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great Seal of the United States (obverse).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q131008|Johnston Atoll]]'' | [[File:LocationJohnstonAtoll.png|center|48px]] | UM-67 | | 2.67 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q473972|protected area]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>[[Atollo]]<br/>''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q139595919|reef island]]''<ref name="ref_ecbd17383f1f46dc7954797b33cfc4f55f90a08051dd0f28e2baa19799e70c36">''[[:d:Q57859044|Classifying Pacific islands]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q232|Q232]] | KAZ | KAZ | [[File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Kazakhstan latin.svg|center|48px]] | [[Qazaqstan|Kazakhstan]] | [[File:Kazakhstan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Astana]] | 2724900 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]''<br/>[[pais]] | stato euroasiatic |- | [[:d:Q114|Q114]] | KEN | KEN | [[File:Flag of Kenya.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Kenya (Official).svg|center|48px]] | [[Kenya]] | [[File:Kenya (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Nairobi]] | 581309 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q813|Q813]] | KGZ | KGZ | [[File:Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Kyrgyzstan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kirghizistan]] | [[File:Kyrgyzstan on the globe (Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bishkek]] | 199951 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]] | stato soveran in Asia central |- | [[:d:Q424|Q424]] | KHM | CAM | [[File:Flag of Cambodia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal arms of Cambodia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Cambodja|Cambodgia]] | [[File:Cambodia on the globe (Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Phnom Penh]] | 181035 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1250464|realm]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q710|Q710]] | KIR | KIR | [[File:Flag of Kiribati.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Kiribati.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kiribati]] | [[File:Kiribati on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q131233|South Tarawa]]'' | 811 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q763|Q763]] | KNA | SKN | [[File:Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sancte Kitts e Nevis]] | [[File:KNA orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q41295|Basseterre]]'' | 269.358763 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais insular caribe |- | [[:d:Q884|Q884]] | KOR | KOR | [[File:Flag of South Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of South Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Corea del Sud]] | [[File:South Korea (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Seoul]] | 100295 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1520223|republica constitutional]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_b56d7a5874cc979de67507be4b9d0ec0309a3055065d3b2c94872cb63e655bc8">https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Korea</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q817|Q817]] | KWT | KUW | [[File:Flag of Kuwait.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the State of Kuwait.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kuwait]] | [[File:KWT orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q35178|Kuwait City]]'' | 17818 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q819|Q819]] | LAO | LAO | [[File:Flag of Laos.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Laos (1991-2025).svg|center|48px]] | [[Laos]] | [[File:Laos on the globe (Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q9326|Vientiane]]'' | 236800 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849866|communist state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q465613|republica popular]]''<br/>[[pais]] | stato soveran in Asia del sud-est |- | [[:d:Q822|Q822]] | LBN | LBN | [[File:Flag of Lebanon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Lebanon.svg|center|48px]] | [[Libano]] | [[File:Lebanon (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Beirut]] | 10452 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1014|Q1014]] | LBR | LBR | [[File:Flag of Liberia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Liberia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Liberia]] | [[File:Liberia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Monrovia]] | 111369 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1016|Q1016]] | LBY | LBA | [[File:Flag of Libya.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Government of National Unity (Libya).svg|center|48px]] | [[Libya]] | [[File:Libya (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tripoli]] | 1759541 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q760|Q760]] | LCA | LCA | [[File:Flag of Saint Lucia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Saint Lucia.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q760|Saint Lucia]]'' | [[File:Saint Lucia on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q41699|Castries]]'' | 617.012867 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q347|Q347]] | LIE | LIE | [[File:Flag of Liechtenstein.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Staatswappen-Liechtensteins.svg|center|48px]] | [[Liechtenstein]] | [[File:Liechtenstein on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Vaduz]] | 160 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_dc0531c9baebf3ff52b09c3ffe8a977fc1fb9512131cb80fc2011b77431c4b64">https://www.liechtenstein.li/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q854|Q854]] | LKA | SRI | [[File:Flag of Sri Lanka.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sri Lanka]] | [[File:Sri Lanka (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q41963|Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte]]''<br/>[[Colombo]] | 65610 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1013|Q1013]] | LSO | LES | [[File:Flag of Lesotho.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Lesotho.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lesotho]] | [[File:Lesotho (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Maseru]] | 30355 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q171441|enclave]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q37|Q37]] | LTU | LTU | [[File:Flag of Lithuania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Lithuania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lituania]] | [[File:Lithuania on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Vilnius]]<ref name="ref_8733203edf880b0fdce16649f429617b8e0121a1c001d8d42e043cd1c7c14f6e">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/lh.html</ref> | 65300 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_c92956357b061d1115c1d301b7b0e504d7c6d4547d6a61d3e759d4d2924cd32c">https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17536867</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q32|Q32]] | LUX | LUX | [[File:Flag of Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Greater coat of arms of the grand-duchy of Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | [[Luxemburg]] | [[File:EU-Luxembourg.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Luxemburg (citate)|Luxemburg]]<ref name="ref_31ff9a393dcba335ef95ebe7ec7b7cfaf816029e0c224a93b1ff9dea7ef2ae2b">https://luxembourg.public.lu/dam-assets/publications/tout-savoir-sur-le-grand-duche-de-luxembourg/tout-savoir-sur-le-grand-duche-de-luxembourg-en.pdf</ref> | 2593.05 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_6052f11f70412f14b73f6ac107232bd631ec4d2207b1adbb4384ff5759b73e2e">https://data.public.lu/fr/datasets/r/3931f0cf-ebf9-4050-b71c-e1b61b1bfa2c</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q165116|grand duchy]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q211|Q211]] | LVA | LAT | [[File:Flag of Latvia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Latvia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lettonia]] | [[File:Latvia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Riga]] | 64593.77 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f15e7acdd449cf8bf828be04e7822998114a796fa4237c50bafc336afeb1a48b">https://data.stat.gov.lv/pxweb/lv/OSP_PUB/START__ENV__DR__DRT/DRT011/</ref><br/>61760.39 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f15e7acdd449cf8bf828be04e7822998114a796fa4237c50bafc336afeb1a48b">https://data.stat.gov.lv/pxweb/lv/OSP_PUB/START__ENV__DR__DRT/DRT011/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | republica in le nord de Europa |- | [[:d:Q14773|Q14773]] | MAC | MAC | [[File:Flag of Macau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Regional Emblem of Macau.svg|center|48px]] | [[Macao]] | [[File:Macau locator map.svg|center|48px]] | CN-MO | | 115.3 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q779415|region administrative special]]''<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1549591|citate grande]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q486972|localitate populate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1200957|tourist destination]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q125470455|customs territory of China]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q126125|Q126125]] | MAF | | [[File:Flag of France.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:St Martin Coat.png|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q126125|Saint-Martin]]'' | [[File:Saint Martin in its region (zoom).svg|center|48px]] | FR-MF | ''[[:d:Q200605|Marigot]]'' | 53.2 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1028|Q1028]] | MAR | MAR | [[File:Flag of Morocco.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Morocco.svg|center|48px]] | [[Marocco]] | [[File:Morocco WS-excluded (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Rabat]] | 446550 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_037244fce3bd4d7c276a4ba8396763fa4c76da984a2768bdcf981b8032ed4a83">https://databank.worldbank.org/views/reports/reportwidget.aspx?Report_Name=CountryProfile&Id=b450fd57&tbar=y&dd=y&inf=n&zm=n&country=MAR</ref> | [[Monarchia constitutional]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q235|Q235]] | MCO | MON | [[File:Flag of Monaco.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Monaco.svg|center|48px]] | [[Monaco (principato)|Monaco]] | [[File:Monaco on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Monaco (principato)|Monaco]] | 2.08 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[Principato]]<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q902814|border city]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q217|Q217]] | MDA | MDA | [[File:Flag of Moldova.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Moldova.svg|center|48px]] | [[Moldavia]] | [[File:Location Moldova Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Chișinău]] | 33843.5 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_320523ebb83cf98848ef4bc8a90a8d71e83172da42f7fd7a46d9be6dab1189f1">https://moldova.md/en/content/geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de Europa |- | [[:d:Q1019|Q1019]] | MDG | MAD | [[File:Flag of Madagascar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of Madagascar.svg|center|48px]] | [[Madagascar]] | [[File:MDG orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Antananarivo]] | 587295 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_6f98b31dc213340ed7ea368ae286648c54dc0e5d0a6293f8f0fc74f87d768c99">https://www.instat.mg/accueil/madagascar-en-chiffre/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q826|Q826]] | MDV | MDV | [[File:Flag of Maldives.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Maldives.svg|center|48px]] | [[Maldivas]] | [[File:Maldives (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Malé]] | 298 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | pais archipelagic de Asia |- | [[:d:Q96|Q96]] | MEX<ref name="ref_48d0ce6be950795de8ca7fff8e44dbc620d6e5a7b241a75d037258726867406a">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:MX</ref> | MEX | [[File:Flag of Mexico.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Mexico.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | [[Mexico]] | [[File:MEX orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Citate de Mexico]]<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 1972550 kilometro quadrate<br/>1964375 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q709|Q709]] | MHL | MHL | [[File:Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Marshall Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q709|Marshall Islands]]'' | [[File:Marshall Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q12919|Majuro]]'' | 181.43 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q47863|Q47863]] | MID | | | | ''[[:d:Q47863|Midway Atoll]]'' | [[File:Midway Atoll in United States.svg|center|48px]] | UM-71 | | 2.4 square mile | ''[[:d:Q1550680|unorganized territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q221|Q221]] | MKD | MKD | [[File:Flag of North Macedonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of North Macedonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Macedonia del Nord|Republica del Macedonia del Nord]] | [[File:North Macedonia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Skopje]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 25713 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q912|Q912]] | MLI | MLI | [[File:Flag of Mali.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Mali.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mali]] | [[File:Mali (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bamako]] | 1240192 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q233|Q233]] | MLT | MLT | [[File:Flag of Malta.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Malta.svg|center|48px]] | [[Malta]] | [[File:EU-Malta.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Valletta]] | 316 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_b7d4225b765f9a3f3a6ee09618f7d4756f4eeed6e4278db7bd84c056a17e386e">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/malta</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q836|Q836]] | MMR | MYA | [[File:Flag of Myanmar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State Seal of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar.svg|center|48px]] | [[Birmania]] | [[File:Myanmar on the globe (Myanmar centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q37400|Naypyidaw]]'' | 676577.2 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[republica]] | |- | [[:d:Q236|Q236]] | MNE | MNE | [[File:Flag of Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | [[Montenegro]] | [[File:LocationMontenegro.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Podgorica]]<ref name="ref_658e89be6b3befa7046c7406ff2da56adc938521f3ffca5509407b379c856cbc">https://codices.coe.int/codices/documents/constitution/5375375a-83ed-4e8a-8e0a-1bba2aa41f27</ref> | 13883 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q711|Q711]] | MNG | MGL | [[File:Flag of Mongolia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State emblem of Mongolia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mongolia]] | [[File:Mongolia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Ulan Bator]]<ref name="ref_7d1c754bbb9c79f4e261ec07b06c3412be495db3ef2a3f0b65778cafa7f09ce7">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mongolia/</ref> | 1564116 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_7d1c754bbb9c79f4e261ec07b06c3412be495db3ef2a3f0b65778cafa7f09ce7">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mongolia/</ref><ref name="ref_de0990d91ded6a2587b53be8f3625ce4ff409b396e08794112a494368df2f7f7">https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-documents/52240/52240-001-iee-en.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q16644|Q16644]] | MNP<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ab6934192ea8c6c60b949cb7f56be9c127a7421c2660ed39599b39c49ad0119c">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui#iso:code:3166:MP</ref> | | [[File:Flag of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q16644|Northern Mariana Islands]]'' | [[File:Northern Mariana Islands in Oceania (small islands magnified).svg|center|48px]] | US-MP<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q49755159|Saipan]]'' | 464 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_e2f611e48ca35a2ee76d828427ab1313b3e8e3f9874fc92a31963fc7fd56005b">https://www.doi.gov/oia/budget/authorities-public-law</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_e2f611e48ca35a2ee76d828427ab1313b3e8e3f9874fc92a31963fc7fd56005b">https://www.doi.gov/oia/budget/authorities-public-law</ref><ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref><ref name="ref_ff32cb157f332cb4cddd38b09ecd8e975656883a79871be675e2e30b504babe5">''[[:d:Q746368|Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q609591|commonwealth]]''<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref><ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1029|Q1029]] | MOZ | MOZ | [[File:Flag of Mozambique.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Mozambique.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mozambique]] | [[File:Mozambique (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Maputo]] | 801590 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1025|Q1025]] | MRT | MTN | [[File:Flag of Mauritania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National Seal of Mauritania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mauritania]] | [[File:LocationMauritania.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Nouakchott]] | 1030700 kilometro quadrate | [[Republica islamic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q13353|Q13353]] | MSR | | [[File:Flag of Montserrat.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Montserrat.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q13353|Montserrat]]'' | [[File:Montserrat in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q30990|Plymouth]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31006|Brades]]'' | 102 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>[[insula]] | |- | [[:d:Q17054|Q17054]] | MTQ | | [[File:Flag-of-Martinique.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Martinica]] | [[File:Martinique-CIA WFB Map.png|center|48px]] | FR-972 | ''[[:d:Q81621|Fort-de-France]]'' | 1128 kilometro quadrate | [[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1027|Q1027]] | MUS | MRI | [[File:Flag of Mauritius.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Mauritius.svg|center|48px]] | [[Mauritio]] | [[File:Mauritius (orthographic projection with inset).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Port Louis]] | 2040 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_cd7c9c5c115de492113d029f3708fa8b03faa30e67fd271d607256934089be12">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/mauritius</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q1020|Q1020]] | MWI | MAW | [[File:Flag of Malawi.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Malawi.svg|center|48px]] | [[Malawi]] | [[File:LocationMalawi.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Lilongwe]]<ref name="ref_e9d47c1ac01ff1fcbece0251f7a08c769ebd792ca695bd3a26bf7610666ff868">http://www.statoids.com/umw.html</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 118484 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_023fd9e86284bb6bb15e473196c9098e8a841169db7a8bd108cfe86db9ec643f">https://dbpedia.org/page/Malawi</ref><ref name="ref_454f72f09b7c6bfdd6ba70832587971dab0670bafd15afe1d093312784b52e47">''[[:d:Q2664168|Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]]''</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q833|Q833]] | MYS<ref name="ref_91ced5a92c53470c76e4c318a3e14e7348c772d5741a91228cccdd5a43e6e26a">''[[:d:Q292649|AGROVOC]]''</ref> | MAS | [[File:Flag of Malaysia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Malaysia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Malaysia]] | [[File:Malaysia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kuala Lumpur]] | 330803 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_0d356e1a2755f6d5be930f6bc59055a2c20ee6f0f75bdfd374f011057ad93137">https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012/Table03.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q140892892|country sometimes considered transcontinental]]''<ref name="ref_87e6c82e5f9b0556ae953ae2489ab52303f0d0299fb57a9cf6edfcb59ff06036">https://web.archive.org/web/20230703175319/https://books.google.com/books?id=hmIDAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22Norfolk+Island+,+New+Zealand+,+and+some+smaller%22&pg=PA458</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q17063|Q17063]] | MYT | | [[File:Flag of Mayotte (Local).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Mayotte.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q17063|Mayotte]]'' | [[File:Mayotte (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | FR-976 | ''[[:d:Q132676|Mamoudzou]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q846048|Dzaoudzi]]'' | 374 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>[[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]] | |- | [[:d:Q1030|Q1030]] | NAM | NAM | [[File:Flag of Namibia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Namibia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Namibia]] | [[File:LocationNamibia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Windhoek]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 825615 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q33788|Q33788]] | NCL | | [[File:Flag of FLNKS.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of New Caledonia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nove Caledonia]] | [[File:New Caledonia in France (zoomed).svg|center|48px]] | FR-NC | ''[[:d:Q9733|Nouméa]]'' | 18576 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1032|Q1032]] | NER | NIG | [[File:Flag of Niger.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Niger.svg|center|48px]] | [[Niger]] | [[File:LocationNiger.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Niamey]] | 1267000 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q31057|Q31057]] | NFK | | [[File:Flag of Norfolk Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Norfolk Island.svg|center|48px]] | [[Norfuk Ailen]] | [[File:Australia in its region (Norfolk Island special).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q30963|Kingston]]'' | 34.6 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q11687019|external territory of Australia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q14192199|territory of Australia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1033|Q1033]] | NGA | NGR | [[File:Flag of Nigeria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Nigeria.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nigeria]] | [[File:LocationNigeria.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Abuja]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 923768 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q512187|republica federal]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_b8c50fa2d8e3156c148a83db2383a7989df01611ed6cdf3e2f2974120c846783">https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/nigeria</ref><ref name="ref_7c16b139c1c51716df89b9fa1b129d4c530567a8ed5b275075fd91aaa2b1a2f9">https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/nigeria.htm</ref><ref name="ref_85f1e39a5788c1aa07c69ec708f789307f51c414537a388e555de05af05c6fc5">https://photos.state.gov/libraries/nigeria/487468/pdfs/Nigeria%20overview%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf</ref><ref name="ref_76c1c3d9335871d3018c93daa405050159f0c30ae60630766a04d7d5a9c48396">https://www.forbes.com/places/nigeria/?sh=171606ed4b80</ref><ref name="ref_20e6f4914c5b7943b46d51c4f77d5302928b5e184ea5d6fa9bb5b6d4bc73b833">https://www.lonelyplanet.com/nigeria</ref><ref name="ref_ac96336048c4cbe3228acfb72a8083a12fdf9afbfeb00ef881255ae3f37b5dd7">https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/nigeria/</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q752431|Q752431]] | NHB | | [[File:Flag of New Hebrides (1969).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of New Hebrides.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q752431|New Hebrides]]'' | [[File:LocationVanuatu.png|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q37806|Port Vila]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q734818|condominium]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q811|Q811]] | NIC | NCA | [[File:Flag of Nicaragua.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Nicaragua.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nicaragua]] | [[File:Nicaragua (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Managua]] | 120340 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q34020|Q34020]] | NIU | | [[File:Flag of Niue.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Niue.jpg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q34020|Niue]]'' | [[File:Niue on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q30966|Alofi]]'' | 260 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q1138279|associated state]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q29999|Q29999]] | NLD | | [[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Royal coat of arms of the Netherlands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Regno del Paises Basse]] | [[File:Kingdom of the Netherlands in its region (special marker).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Amsterdam]] | 42201 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20181813|colonial power]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1250464|realm]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q20|Q20]] | NOR | NOR | [[File:Flag of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | [[Norvegia|Norvega]] | [[File:Europe-Norway.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Oslo]]<ref name="ref_238811c00bbde06ebcef712fe55f6c4e005d6573d58ef9fc61e20136bd11c169">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/no.html</ref> | 385207 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f075e29ba400602608c9d0f2742b56de53a853804ebebcbdaa889a2bc9ca10eb">https://www.kartverket.no/kunnskap/Fakta-om-Norge/Arealstatistikk/Arealstatistikk-Norge/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_238811c00bbde06ebcef712fe55f6c4e005d6573d58ef9fc61e20136bd11c169">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/no.html</ref> | pais in Europa |- | [[:d:Q837|Q837]] | NPL | NEP | [[File:Flag of Nepal.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Nepal.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nepal]] | [[File:Nepal (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kathmandu]] | 147181.254346 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[region]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q842112|staato socialista]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q697|Q697]] | NRU | NRU | [[File:Flag of Nauru.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Nauru (2020).svg|center|48px]] | [[Nauru]] | [[File:Nauru on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q31026|Yaren District]]'' | 21 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q664|Q664]] | NZL | NZL | [[File:Flag of New Zealand.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of New Zealand.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nove Zelanda]] | [[File:NZL orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q23661|Wellington]]'' | 268021 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_c6871316bdeb1556c2cb74d8cc18cbb2d6fdef879d68bebda378e8b70461e1f2">https://www.parliament.nz/en/pb/research-papers/document/00PLLawRP07041/new-zealand-sovereignty-1857-1907-1947-or-1987</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[stato insular]] | |- | [[:d:Q842|Q842]] | OMN | OMA | [[File:Flag of Oman.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Oman.svg|center|48px]] | [[Oman]] | [[File:Oman (better) (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q3826|Muscat]]'' | 309500 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[Sultanato]] | |- | [[:d:Q843|Q843]] | PAK | PAK | [[File:Flag of Pakistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:State emblem of Pakistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Pakistan]] | [[File:Pakistan on the globe (de-facto and claimed hatched) (Afro-Eurasia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Islamabad]] | 881913 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q804|Q804]] | PAN | PAN | [[File:Flag of Panama.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Panama.svg|center|48px]] | [[Panama]] | [[File:PAN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q3306|Panama City]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 74177.3 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q129237|Q129237]] | PCI | | [[File:Flag of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands seal.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q129237|Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]]'' | [[File:TTPI-locatormap.png|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q51679|Saipan]]'' | 1779 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q985073|United Nations trust territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q35672|Q35672]] | PCN | | [[File:Flag of the Pitcairn Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Pitcairn Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Pitcairn]] | [[File:Pitcairn Islands on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q48273|Adamstown]]'' | 47 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>[[archipelago]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q419|Q419]] | PER | PER | [[File:Flag of Peru.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo nacional del Perú.svg|center|48px]] | [[Peru]] | [[File:Peru (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Lima]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 1285216 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q928|Q928]] | PHL | PHI | [[File:Flag of the Philippines.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Philippines.svg|center|48px]] | [[Philippinas]] | [[File:Philippines on the globe (Philippines centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Manila]]<ref name="ref_01aac3c759e861d6e11985d3182736b2bd46d01347aaabb615453532a383935e">https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1976/05/29/presidential-decree-no-940-s-1976/</ref> | 343448 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_da04ee1e5298ffc3f89a617aab5529b595ed35254e4b9b068dd84e3e3bd705d7">https://www.gov.ph/about-the-philippines</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_81ccc0a78ceeb0d2999af5af7bc2806ac346781fcd398871eaf267afc8de71d0">http://www.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[stato insular]] | |- | [[:d:Q695|Q695]] | PLW | PLW | [[File:Flag of Palau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of Palau.svg|center|48px]] | [[Palau]] | [[File:Palau on the globe (Southeast Asia centered) (small islands magnified).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q515229|Ngerulmud]]'' | 465.550362 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[republica]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q691|Q691]] | PNG | PNG | [[File:Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National emblem of Papua New Guinea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Papua Nove Guinea]] | [[File:Papua New Guinea (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Port Moresby]] | 462840 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>[[Monarchia constitutional]] | |- | [[:d:Q36|Q36]] | POL | POL | [[File:Flag of Poland.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Herb Polski.svg|center|48px]] | [[Polonia]] | [[File:Poland on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Varsovia]] | 312683 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_befea119af7b88a867f718383855db6d3f58746b050d5fd52e4d98760829a83e">''[[:d:Q9311474|Statistical Yearbook of Poland]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1183|Q1183]] | PRI | PUR | [[File:Flag of Puerto Rico.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.svg|center|48px]] | [[Porto Rico]] | [[File:LocationPuertoRico.svg|center|48px]] | US-PR | ''[[:d:Q41211|San Juan]]'' | 9104 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_dfc403209caf0578c8559357b9205638ab0e828262f336253dc24a8fdeb22bd0">https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6444&context=faculty_scholarship</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7252696|Provincial deputation in Spanish America]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3502482|region cultural]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q609591|commonwealth]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q423|Q423]] | PRK | PRK | [[File:Flag of North Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of North Korea.svg|center|48px]] | [[Corea del Nord]] | [[File:LocationNorthKorea.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Pyongyang]] | 120540 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q465613|republica popular]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1309121|hermit kingdom]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3303230|pariah state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q45|Q45]] | PRT | POR | [[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Portugal.svg|center|48px]] | [[Portugal]] | [[File:Portugal on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Lisbona]]<ref name="ref_2274eec7680da6de2af360ad52dc0dcb205135a73c09adf2640233a86ab74895">https://lisbonne.net/lisbonne-pas-capitale-du-portugal</ref> | 92225 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_75175874fc4cffd6c95463ffa3b26c832005e827e7b1a3e1d02a14147ea413cd">https://www.pordata.pt/Municipios/Superf%C3%ADcie-57</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_7dd3b4f770cc92367bf28c3810ee5f21e0cc00e546274fe622cc301b1595ad35">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/portugal</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q733|Q733]] | PRY | PAR | [[File:Flag of Paraguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Paraguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[Paraguay]] | [[File:PRY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Asunción]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 406756 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q219060|Q219060]] | PSE<ref name="ref_3f75e303bf4853c467c06725a05dba6eeb7112ce137fb140bdc7a80e567b6d9a">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#search</ref> | PLE | [[File:Flag of Palestine.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Palestine.svg|center|48px]] | [[Stato de Palestina]] | [[File:State of Palestine (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q212938|East Jerusalem]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q158119|Ramallah]]''<ref name="ref_e373230b332bc8177b0098f33774f1a4492a79d7d62597005d44a4128be938d0">https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna40431737</ref> | 6020 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_266d0550f01fca36f989386d46dce4355da2265e8abd09025eb4f991b43ef0f0">https://reliefweb.int/report/occupied-palestinian-territory/occupied-palestinian-territory-humanitarian-atlas-2019</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>[[region]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_61cb9542cfec0192ac28895ad39604419ece3afcc2d24629fa49d44e66ca8713">https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-statehood-idUSBRE8AR0EG20121129</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q10711424|stato non recognoscite]]''<ref name="ref_1aa0d02a4d329d277dd84e6b641dfc97d3cea6ca9ee7087854a9c8096d827e5d">https://www.visualcapitalist.com/recognition-of-israel-and-palestine-map/</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]'' | stato partialmente recognoscite in Asia |- | [[:d:Q407199|Q407199]] | PSE | | [[File:Flag of Palestine.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q407199|Occupied Palestinian territories]]'' | [[File:Palestinian territories (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | | 8220 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q2577883|occupied territory]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30971|Q30971]] | PYF | | [[File:Flag of French Polynesia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of French Polynesia.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q30971|French Polynesia]]'' | [[File:French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | FR-PF | ''[[:d:Q130800|Papeete]]'' | 4167 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q846|Q846]] | QAT | QAT | [[File:Flag of Qatar.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Qatar-2022.svg|center|48px]] | [[Qatar]] | [[File:QAT orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Doha]] | 11437 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q189898|emirato]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q17070|Q17070]] | REU | | [[File:Proposed flag of Réunion (VAR).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries Réunion.svg|center|48px]] | [[Reunion]] | [[File:Département 974 in France.svg|center|48px]] | FR-974 | ''[[:d:Q47045|Saint-Denis]]'' | 2512 kilometro quadrate | [[Regiones de Francia|region de Francia]]<br/>''[[:d:Q202216|departimento de ultramar de Francia]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q218|Q218]] | ROU | ROU | [[File:Flag of Romania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Romania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Romania]] | [[File:Romania on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bucarest]] | 238397 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_540e176c09c27df8a6aaad20084302c1382c7ec4e715c970e1db69993d860bbc">http://www.ziare.com/stiri/eveniment/romania-si-a-marit-suprafata-la-238-397-kilometri-patrati-1470103</ref><ref name="ref_7470a15f5c308b39110d7bcaa354d77ec90926aff1f81c8c3758c255095f32e4">http://www.gandul.info/stiri/acesta-este-noul-teritoriu-al-romaniei-16481528</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179671|nation state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q159|Q159]] | RUS | RUS | [[File:Flag of Russia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg|center|48px]] | [[Russia]] | [[File:LocationRussia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Moscova]] | 17075400 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_37732cd1eab02c3a98ee9629d52854ad13f32935f90a43c8dbbe19b35ecdca91">https://www.britannica.com/facts/Russia</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_51cfe82ebe6b6b1410c83f0e5d300685a554345e61cbb37d2ecf3e5be2d6b1ad">''[[:d:Q11836865|Declaration of the Council of Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR No. 142-N of 26 December 1991]]''</ref><ref name="ref_f61b0d5d011a8872156b5d698bf39e3bbdc7397313a70de6d7d097c7048b5b4c">''[[:d:Q652062|Constitution of Russia]]''</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<ref name="ref_f61b0d5d011a8872156b5d698bf39e3bbdc7397313a70de6d7d097c7048b5b4c">''[[:d:Q652062|Constitution of Russia]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[pais transcontinental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1037|Q1037]] | RWA | RWA | [[File:Flag of Rwanda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Rwanda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Ruanda]] | [[File:LocationRwanda.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kigali]] | 26338 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_4490b87ae43e626fbfebfb40d49f2ef4e5297fad132ef9987ac30b16e91eeaaf">https://www.gov.rw/about</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[republica]] | |- | [[:d:Q851|Q851]] | SAU | KSA | [[File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Saudi Arabia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Arabia Saudita]] | [[File:Saudi Arabia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q3692|Riyadh]]'' | 2250000 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1df0e6a4bf2bcc4f5e58f2cb0a2d79b91b81a809eaf31edb3dab9fad198c6fa0">http://embassies.mofa.gov.sa/sites/China/AR/Guango/AboutKingdom/Pages/default.aspx</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q37024|Q37024]] | SCG<ref name="ref_a998332fc626f8b32ec1bc2e0ca26894f577cc645a6f823d717ad80c0c92bc11">https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/iso_3166-3_newsletter_i-4.pdf</ref> | SCG | [[File:Flag of Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q37024|Serbia and Montenegro]]'' | [[File:Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Belgrad]]<ref name="ref_c6a3b452b72da2c9479e14253e301b88f2b18801653f0d5b28202a5163640194">''[[:d:Q200386|sr.wikipedia.org]]''</ref> | 102350 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1049|Q1049]] | SDN | SUD | [[File:Flag of Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sudan]] | [[File:Sudan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Khartum]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 1886068 kilometro quadrate<br/>1840687 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1088391|rump state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1041|Q1041]] | SEN | SEN | [[File:Flag of Senegal.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Senegal.svg|center|48px]] | [[Senegal]] | [[File:LocationSenegal.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Dakar]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 196722 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q334|Q334]] | SGP | SGP | [[File:Flag of Singapore.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Singapore.svg|center|48px]] | [[Singapur]] | [[File:Singapore on the globe (Southeast Asia centered) zoom.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Singapur]] | 719.1 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[Citate-stato]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_6736ab989f2d8e2cd451d0d2b4069c27c6ecdc3b67423cd2d1d5f73148e6cd3f">''[[:d:Q36578|Gemeinsame Normdatei]]''</ref><br/>[[citate]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2264924|port city]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1549591|citate grande]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q902814|border city]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>[[Citate global]]<br/>''[[:d:Q108178728|national capital]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q35086|Q35086]] | SGS | | [[File:Flag of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q35086|South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]'' | [[File:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in United Kingdom.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q393878|King Edward Point]]'' | 4066 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15239622|disputed territory]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q192184|Q192184]] | SHN | | [[File:Flag of the United Kingdom (1-2).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q192184|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]]'' | [[File:Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q30970|Jamestown]]'' | 394 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q842829|Q842829]] | SJM | | No/unknown value<br/>[[File:Flag of Norway.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q842829|Svalbard and Jan Mayen]]'' | [[File:Svalbard and Jan Mayen in the world (W3).svg|center|48px]] | | | 61399 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q15042037|statistical territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q685|Q685]] | SLB | SOL | [[File:Flag of the Solomon Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Solomon Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[Insulas Salomon]] | [[File:Solomon Islands on the globe (Oceania centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q40921|Honiara]]'' | 28400 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1044|Q1044]] | SLE | SLE | [[File:Flag of Sierra Leone.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Sierra Leone.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sierra Leone]] | [[File:Sierra Leone (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Freetown]] | 71740 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q792|Q792]] | SLV | ESA | [[File:Flag of El Salvador.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of El Salvador.svg|center|48px]] | [[El Salvador]] | [[File:Orthographic Map of El Salvador.svg|center|48px]] | | [[San Salvador]] | 21041 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q238|Q238]] | SMR | SMR | [[File:Flag of San Marino.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of San Marino.svg|center|48px]] | [[San Marino]] | [[File:Location San Marino Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q1848|San Marino]]'' | 61.2 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q171441|enclave]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q244381|microstate]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1045|Q1045]] | SOM | SOM | [[File:Flag of Somalia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Somalia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Somalia]] | [[File:Somalia (orthographic projection)2.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Mogadiscio|Mogadishu]]<ref name="ref_e00d7da220a8570d8c21f3e5ecb549474fb0d3ca5dfb3b5481417e5a9a7fc2d0">https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Somalia;4169147.html</ref> | 637657 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q512187|republica federal]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q34617|Q34617]] | SPM | | [[File:Flag of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries SaintPierreetMiquelon.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q34617|Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]'' | [[File:Saint Pierre and Miquelon in France.svg|center|48px]] | FR-PM | ''[[:d:Q185678|Saint-Pierre]]'' | 242 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q403|Q403]] | SRB | SRB | [[File:Flag of Serbia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Serbia]] | [[File:Europe-Serbia (2006–2008).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Belgrad]]<ref name="ref_c45902245eea33e4f11d3bf6ef345c5456cb8bec6ea3278dc70af18b81bc8d86">''[[:d:Q1287641|Constitution of Serbia]]''</ref> | 88499 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_5dc6c90aa11e33f2f250e2ba6c7c763c70b43d6fc03e0cab6516dfeefe6d4081">https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2021/Pdf/G20212054.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q958|Q958]] | SSD | SSD | [[File:Flag of South Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of South Sudan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sudan del Sud]] | [[File:LocationSouthSudan.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Juba]] | 644329 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_cc69373e9bad07d4f004a5f5aab7fe52f23ef8e4664c985f68ec563caa50d0ea">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-sudan/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1039|Q1039]] | STP | STP | [[File:Flag of São Tomé and Príncipe.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of São Tomé and Príncipe.svg|center|48px]] | [[São Tomé e Príncipe]] | [[File:Sao Tome and Principe on the globe (Africa centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[São Tomé]] | 1001 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4198907|parliamentary republic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q158454|biosphere reserve]]''<ref name="ref_f15cce0aaf4bcc7168adeb395beefca9131e69ae44ffbb3ed154c895c8968bd8">https://www.rfi.fr/fr/environnement/20250927-l-unesco-d%C3%A9signe-26-nouvelles-r%C3%A9serves-de-biosph%C3%A8re-dont-l-%C3%AEle-de-s%C3%A3o-tom%C3%A9-et-principe</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q15180|Q15180]] | SUN | URS | [[File:Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Soviet Union (1923–1936).svg|center|48px]] | [[Union Sovietic]] | [[File:Soviet Union on the globe (Soviet Union centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Moscova]] | 22402200 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q730|Q730]] | SUR | SUR | [[File:Flag of Suriname.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Suriname.svg|center|48px]] | [[Suriname]] | [[File:SURINAME orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Paramaribo]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 163270 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q116052725|national geopolitical entity]]''<ref name="ref_0e3eb26c7c9b8a4b2ecbae349ee1191d318db6dce17d409ca5c2c1a31aedc2b9">''[[:d:Q81661634|Gazetteer]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q214|Q214]] | SVK | SVK | [[File:Flag of Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Slovachia]] | [[File:EU-Slovakia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bratislava]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref> | 49033.720839 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_a7a4342b94af32933ebcce2cf712c39f8a59d3736f14ec754d7242dfd4f00729">''[[:d:Q125653046|Population density of Slovakia – SR-area-region-district, cities-rural [om7015rr] : Area (square meter)]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q215|Q215]] | SVN | SLO | [[File:Flag of Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Slovenia]] | [[File:EU-Slovenia.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Ljubljana]] | 20271 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_492e1685a33864a8ecd1ef9ca439efcffe18d8ae23067530c37b93bde4e62e2f">https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/File/DocSysFile/10033/Spremembe_povrsine_Slovenije.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q22909549|unitary parliamentary republic]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q34|Q34]] | SWE | SWE | [[File:Flag of Sweden.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Great coat of arms of Sweden.svg|center|48px]] | [[Svedia]] | [[File:Sweden on the globe (Europe centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Stockholm]] | 447425.16 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1124edc9963ca21ee5771ef0570e8118e27324d5bc4bc05d7f79c63b1f77925f">https://www.statistikdatabasen.scb.se/pxweb/sv/ssd/START__MI__MI0802/Areal2012N/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q63791824|country bordering the Baltic Sea]]''<br/>[[Monarchia constitutional]] | |- | [[:d:Q1050|Q1050]] | SWZ | SWZ | [[File:Flag of Eswatini.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Eswatini.svg|center|48px]] | [[Eswatini]] | [[File:Location Eswatini.png|center|48px]] | | [[Lobamba]]<br/>[[Mbabane]] | 17364 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q417175|regno]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais in Africa |- | [[:d:Q26273|Q26273]] | SXM | | [[File:Flag of Sint Maarten.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Wapen van Sint Maarten.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sint Maarten]] | [[File:Sint Maarten on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | NL-SX<br/>SX | ''[[:d:Q30958|Philipsburg]]'' | 34 kilometro quadrate | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q15304003|pais del Regno del Paises Basse]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1042|Q1042]] | SYC | SEY | [[File:Flag of Seychelles.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Seychelles.svg|center|48px]] | [[Seychelles]] | [[File:SYC orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Victoria (Seychelles)|Victoria]] | 459 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q858|Q858]] | SYR | SYR | [[File:Flag of Syria (2025-).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Syria (2025–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[Syria]] | [[File:Syria (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Damasco]] | 185180 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q18221|Q18221]] | TCA | | [[File:Flag of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q18221|Turks and Caicos Islands]]'' | [[File:Turks and Caicos Islands in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q34205|Cockburn Town]]'' | 417 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]''<br/>[[entitate territorial administrative]] | |- | [[:d:Q657|Q657]] | TCD | CHA | [[File:Flag of Chad.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Chad.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tchad]] | [[File:TCD orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[N'Djamena]] | 1284000 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q945|Q945]] | TGO | TOG | [[File:Flag of Togo (3-2).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Armoiries du Togo.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_fffc7b435c279fc8e3b1f7f88e349523ca571e2226ff624cc2995bee274222ae">https://novissi.gouv.tg/en/home-new-en/</ref> | [[Togo]] | [[File:Togo on the globe (Africa centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Lomé]] | 56785 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q869|Q869]] | THA | THA | [[File:Flag of Thailand.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Thailand.svg|center|48px]] | [[Thailanda]] | [[File:Thailand (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Bangkok]] | 513119.5 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1b8baf50a56047936437bf57fa007e9f7a73385d6a7341a3edadc4bec269e1a6">http://web.nso.go.th/en/census/poph/data/090913_MajorFindings_10.pdf</ref> | [[Monarchia constitutional]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q863|Q863]] | TJK | TJK | [[File:Flag of Tajikistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Tajikistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tajikistan]] | [[File:Tajikistan (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Dushanbe]] | 143100 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q36823|Q36823]] | TKL | | [[File:Flag of Tokelau.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Badge of Tokelau.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q36823|Tokelau]]'' | [[File:LocationTokelau.png|center|48px]] | | No/unknown value | 10 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q161243|territorio dependente]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1048835|political territorial entity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q874|Q874]] | TKM | TKM | [[File:Flag of Turkmenistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Turkmenistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Turkmenistan]] | [[File:Turkmenistan on the globe (Turkmenistan centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Ashgabat]] | 491210 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q574|Q574]] | TLS | TLS | [[File:Flag of East Timor.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of East Timor.svg|center|48px]] | [[Timor Oriental]] | [[File:Timor Leste (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q9310|Dili]]'' | 14918.72 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q678|Q678]] | TON | TGA | [[File:Flag of Tonga.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tonga.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tonga]] | [[File:Tonga on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q38834|Nukuʻalofa]]'' | 748.506563 kilometro quadrate | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q918240|territorial evolution of the British Empire]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q754|Q754]] | TTO | TTO | [[File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago (2025).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q754|Trinidad e Tobago]]'' | [[File:Trinidad and Tobago (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q39178|Port of Spain]]'' | 5128 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q948|Q948]] | TUN | TUN | [[File:Flag of Tunisia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tunisia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tunisia]] | [[File:Tunisia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tunis]]<ref name="ref_88ce9717ec72824287896e8dec4b5443f0fc722f6fbb7ede486346a09909b211">https://www.britannica.com/place/Tunisia</ref> | 163610 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_f2a564e8bc55a0e6132abb0644692ca17f2c61a6cfb59027e3d0a8b03e3a1c9b">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html</ref> | [[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q43|Q43]] | TUR | TUR | [[File:Flag of Turkey.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Turchia]] | [[File:Turkey (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Ankara]]<ref name="ref_7ed18971eda0d85c91db4f5fac9a99c611d97fb8d71bd5aefd996b13a5d40bf2">''[[:d:Q237227|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]]''</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 783562 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_908cb0b705445b32704dd008e1db18a95b528c763ffcf9456df5877bed87be08">''[[:d:Q11191|The World Factbook]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais transcontinental]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q51576574|pais mediterranee]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_9e59fb0cade2e24af05b8139af1c56c8541241a8b9a620ca0b1c15c7c4c3fc35">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q619610|social state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q339834|regional power]]''<br/>[[stato secular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q672|Q672]] | TUV | TUV | [[File:Flag of Tuvalu.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tuvalu.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tuvalu]] | [[File:Tuvalu in its region.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Funafuti]] | 25.14 kilometro quadrate | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q865|Q865]] | TWN | TPE<ref name="ref_57a0ad33f5b6f27f02f92a9efa64f01b99937ab26de151c23288f5b72c3c0fb2">https://olympics.com/en/news/paris-2024-olympics-full-list-ioc-national-olympic-committee-codes</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:National Emblem of the Republic of China.svg|center|48px]] | [[Taiwan|Republica de China]] | [[File:Locator map of the ROC Taiwan.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Taipei]] | 36193 kilometro quadrate | [[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5255892|republica democratic]]''<ref name="ref_a9f70626dc74e5b985084e8b1f64ad3ff7e0f85a25e82df819ca2f9557c85049">''[[:d:Q213099|Constitution of the Republic of China]]''</ref><ref name="ref_c1a15e1a1d9b909b4bb07e4dc4f5be3a202d16916c872c87fb7d5f3047286520">''[[:d:Q10926890|Fundamentals of National Reconstruction]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q924|Q924]] | TZA | TAN | [[File:Flag of Tanzania.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg|center|48px]] | [[Tanzania]] | [[File:Tanzania (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Dodoma]] | 947303 kilometro quadrate | [[republica]]<ref name="ref_66afe8a0af55b4c72538a606d569b267b8291b8e859cb3431b45dfa5e7e740d0">https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/united-republic-tanzania</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1036|Q1036]] | UGA | UGA | [[File:Flag of Uganda.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Uganda.svg|center|48px]] | [[Uganda]] | [[File:Uganda (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kampala]] | 241038 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_96c78443365f47d6b9190ab9c0a9f169f7cc2ed3f7942acfef00afdbabc34b44">https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/special-reports/what-uganda-has-gone-through-since-1962--4787868#story</ref><br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q212|Q212]] | UKR | UKR | [[File:Flag of Ukraine.svg|center|48px]]<ref name="ref_5ed3251867e0b91b05961b69a825c79af31d20592aa1b6c6c02c084f36419866">''[[:d:Q127974|flag of Ukraine]]''</ref> | [[File:Coat of Arms of Ukraine (Pantone).svg|center|48px]] | [[Ukraina]] | [[File:Ukraine (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Kiovia|Kiev]]<ref name="ref_d7f3fbf911ccc5e0cabba1efbe3a7d2fe53e36a359a9eb710109378e62030924">''[[:d:Q4041526|Internetowa encyklopedia PWN]]''</ref> | 603550 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_639b4cacb792146ec143caffa6445dcd00277784997c2ed13ebef532a6ddd8c4">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ukraine/#geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_6ffc63bfb6be52fa62e52df154cb155bb3608a135ef80e4f6f72beb583682da2">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/up.html</ref><ref name="ref_7f356e30362b34841f34d2d2aa38ba88bf15d98584825e43e49f099d271bd872">http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30096/Ukraine</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>[[republica]]<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q619610|social state]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4209223|stato de derecto]]''<ref name="ref_d04d8d7f5731ee4d65658b5b251738e4774f75263e16fe3f0e76820ea3f141d2">''[[:d:Q1549039|Constitution of Ukraine]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q4835091|territory]]''<ref name="ref_26acfc01b6c3b5a18a274ccd29ed3d723b814fc3cbec9643244ef3238ffb54cf">''[[:d:Q1048515|political world map]]''</ref> | pais de Europa oriental |- | [[:d:Q16645|Q16645]] | UMI | | [[File:Flag of the United States.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Insulas minor peripheric del Statos Unite]] | [[File:United States Minor Outlying Island in Oceania (small islands magnified).svg|center|48px]] | US-UM | | 34.2 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q1402592|island group]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q15042037|statistical territorial entity]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<ref name="ref_4d80a9e7ddc84c2bda41cb23318f27faf6fe7628d4c9954662c5c77f43af71a8">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:US</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q77|Q77]] | URY | URU | [[File:Flag of Uruguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Uruguay.svg|center|48px]] | [[Uruguay]] | [[File:URY orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Montevideo]]<ref name="ref_3fc46b9f24a8ea483e8de2a69e4e9850b7ca55f5a20994df6ed612892cc8a304">https://www.workwithdata.com/place/uruguay</ref><ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 176215 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[stato secular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1520223|republica constitutional]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q30|Q30]] | USA<ref name="ref_4d80a9e7ddc84c2bda41cb23318f27faf6fe7628d4c9954662c5c77f43af71a8">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:US</ref> | USA | [[File:Flag of the United States (DDD-F-416E specifications).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg|center|48px]] | [[Statos Unite de America]] | [[File:United States - Location Map (2013) - USA - UNOCHA.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] | 9826675 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_158b76717a8d3648e58dc700a173d3d72f9618fe9f4fc4c9da55926b3b0d968a">https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-constitutes-united-states-what-are-official-definitions?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_6aab621fef4b62124bd99d03b3d27640d6e75323aa147063e7d7135c8724a7f3">https://www.state.gov/independent-states-in-the-world/</ref><br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_fb44dbd8e36ba0b1337ed6b2078b4ca9e01a621aeb978bf3115574eb73965cec">https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States</ref><ref name="ref_c1dc48b76c664759133329f1e6125b7e8b014aa98e54ea77b635f7141d81ac32">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/</ref><ref name="ref_ec56b845d70b983ce9320cbf0ed603da1d146d7a3f4277abc7d8a633a8c69bed">''[[:d:Q113012671|NCI Thesaurus OBO Edition]]''</ref><ref name="ref_b6dead0d44acfe6a7b1c36ae1c0f2eb8a2a5fab45c851d9436c852977010ee7e">''[[:d:Q199897|Medical Subject Headings]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q265|Q265]] | UZB | UZB | [[File:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg|center|48px]] | [[Uzbekistan]] | [[File:UZB orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Tashkent]] | 448978 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q136361597|doubly landlocked country]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q237|Q237]] | VAT | | [[File:Flag of Vatican City (2023–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Vatican City (2023–present).svg|center|48px]] | [[Citate Vatican]] | [[File:Location of the Vatican City in Europe.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Citate Vatican]] | 0.49 kilometro quadrate | [[Citate-stato]]<br/>''[[:d:Q171441|enclave]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q98116669|religious complex]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19691007|institutional complex]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q702492|area urban]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1200957|tourist destination]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10551526|confessional state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7396640|sacerdotal state]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q127693126|successor state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q757|Q757]] | VCT | VIN | [[File:Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sancte Vincente e le Grenadinas]] | [[File:VCT orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q41474|Kingstown]]'' | 389 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q202686|regno del Communitate de Nationes]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q717|Q717]] | VEN | VEN | [[File:Flag of Venezuela.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Venezuela.svg|center|48px]] | [[Venezuela]] | [[File:VEN orthographic.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Caracas]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 912050 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_90f6a005933e51fbb611f3aa52ceea99d3816700979d4b354ae5b28dd7e68559">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/venezuela/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | pais de America del Sud |- | [[:d:Q25305|Q25305]] | VGB | IVB | [[File:Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of the British Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q25305|British Virgin Islands]]'' | [[File:British Virgin Islands on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | VG | ''[[:d:Q179431|Road Town]]'' | 151 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_e77c3143946f97a1b9395ae27045f559aea6cabe773e7a9b5bc9a76e45f785d3">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/british-virgin-islands/summaries/#geography</ref> | ''[[:d:Q46395|British Overseas Territories]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q11703|Q11703]] | VIR | ISV | [[File:Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Seal of the United States Virgin Islands.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q11703|United States Virgin Islands]]'' | [[File:United States Virgin Islands on the globe (Americas centered).svg|center|48px]] | VI | ''[[:d:Q51681|Charlotte Amalie]]'' | 346.36 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q783733|unincorporated territory of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q462778|insular area of the United States]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1352230|territory of the United States]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q881|Q881]] | VNM | VIE | [[File:Flag of Vietnam.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Vietnam.svg|center|48px]] | [[Vietnam]] | [[File:Vietnam on the globe (Asia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Hanoi]]<ref name="ref_3aed807b6075b8ef155bd1119cddbbd8e302626d754fc0a3982652f6327246b2">''[[:d:Q16481310|2013 Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]''</ref> | 331690 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849866|communist state]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q686|Q686]] | VUT | VAN | [[File:Flag of Vanuatu.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Vanuatu.svg|center|48px]] | [[Vanuatu]] | [[File:Vanuatu on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q37806|Port Vila]]'' | 12190 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11815167|archipelagic state]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q35555|Q35555]] | WLF | | [[File:Flag of Wallis and Futuna.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:BlasonWallisetFutuna.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q35555|Wallis and Futuna]]'' | [[File:Wallis and Futuna in France (zoomed).svg|center|48px]] | FR-WF | ''[[:d:Q31002|Mata-Utu]]'' | 274 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q719487|collectivitate de ultramar]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q683|Q683]] | WSM | SAM | [[File:Flag of Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Public Seal of Samoa.svg|center|48px]] | [[Samoa]] | [[File:Samoa on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q36260|Apia]]'' | 2842 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[stato insular]]<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q1246|Q1246]] | XKS | KOS | [[File:Flag of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of the Republic of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Kosovo]] | [[File:Europe-Republic of Kosovo.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Pristina]] | 10909 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q179164|stato unitari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q10711424|stato non recognoscite]]''<br/>[[pais]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<ref name="ref_aa458e28623f0fe17ade40df0205fb0b44f4aea39e935882d7bc0ce285236eb7">https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kosovo/2013-04-24/kosovo-and-serbia-make-deal</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q805|Q805]] | YEM | YEM | [[File:Flag of Yemen.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Yemen (2).svg|center|48px]] | [[Yemen]] | [[File:Yemen (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q2471|Sanaa]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q131694|Aden]]'' | 455503 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q83286|Q83286]] | YUG | | [[File:Flag of Yugoslavia (1946-1992).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Emblem of Yugoslavia (1963–1992).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q83286|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | [[File:Yugoslavia 1956-1990.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Belgrad]] | 255804 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q838261|Q838261]] | YUG | | [[File:Flag of Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q838261|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' | [[File:Serbia and Montenegro.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Belgrad]] | 102350 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3024240|stato preterite]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q258|Q258]] | ZAF | RSA | [[File:Flag of South Africa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of South Africa (heraldic).svg|center|48px]] | [[Africa del Sud]] | [[File:LocationSouthAfrica.svg|center|48px]] | | [[Pretoria]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[Bloemfontein]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref><br/>[[Citate del Capo]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | 1221037 kilometro quadrate | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[pais]]<ref name="ref_bb991413d2b16365ef1e33cbdd744e118fec80f994ba6c186f0e51ff57c84df3">''[[:d:Q5375741|Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q953|Q953]] | ZMB | ZAM | [[File:Flag of Zambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Zambia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Zambia]] | [[File:Zambia (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Lusaka]] | 752618 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_c11b0824a3f2a6707a8190c5588e3333b8214717ff23a600d9ae0410d02ff42f">http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>[[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |- | [[:d:Q954|Q954]] | ZWE | ZIM | [[File:Flag of Zimbabwe.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of arms of Zimbabwe.svg|center|48px]] | [[Zimbabwe]] | [[File:Zimbabwe (orthographic projection).svg|center|48px]] | | [[Harare]] | 390757 kilometro quadrate<ref name="ref_1dce4a8b917510d678fa50fb5300544652cf231b551806ae27c17c359782f237">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html</ref> | [[republica]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3624078|stato soveran]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q123480|pais sin accesso al mar]]''<br/>[[pais]] | |} {{Wikidata list end}} nek5uqmpplul9xbmaoqhox7arivues3 0 42701 699466 699450 2026-09-02T12:26:11Z Max 49273 not a broken redirect ([[:m:User:Max/MaxEdit.js|MaxEdit]]) 699466 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cesium-125]] rlvjeuksr7bjssxx3oaoo1rb9gf09cc 0 43687 699498 673017 2026-09-03T04:07:51Z CommonsDelinker 346 Le file "Flashmob_For_Truth_(34287564513).jpg" esseva removite, proque illo esseva eliminate ex Commons per [[c:User:Krd|Krd]]. Motivo donate: ''[[:c:Commons:Deletion requests/File:Flashmob For Truth (34287564513).jpg|]]''. 699498 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Michael Richard Pence''' o '''Mike Pence''' (nate le 7 de junio 1959) esseva le vice-presidente statounitese in le administration del presidente [[Donald Trump]]. {{DEFAULTSORT:Pence, Mike}} [[Categoria:Gente statounitese]] [[Categoria:Politicos]] swds5159eynry4y5lrdtgvs0r4yj139 0 56051 699512 699166 2026-09-03T05:21:07Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Boson de Higgs */ 699512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{eminente}} [[File:Newtons cradle animation book 2.gif|thumb|Un pendulo de Newton, nominate post le physicista [[Isaac Newton]].]] '''[[Physica]]''' es un branca del [[scientia]] cuje objectos principal de studio es [[materia]] e [[energia]]. Discoperimentos de physica trova applicationes per le [[Scientia natural|scientias natural]] e in [[technologia]]. Historicamente, physica emergeva del revolution scientific del 17e seculo, cresceva rapidemente in le 19e seculo, postea esseva transformate per un serie de discoperimentos in le 20e seculo. Le physica hodie pote esser dividite de un maniera laxe inter physica classic e physica moderne. == Historia antique == Le elementos de lo que deveniva physic esset extrahite primarimente del campos de [[astronomia]], [[optica]], e [[mechanica]], que esseva methodicamente unite per le studio de geometria. Iste disciplinas mathematic comenciava in antiquitate con le Babylonios e con scriptores hellenistic como [[Archimedes]] e [[Ptolemeo]]. Philosophia antiqua includeva, al interim, lo que esseva nominate "[[Physica]]". === Concepto grec === Le movimento verso un comprehension rational del natura comenciava al minus desde le periodo Archaic in Grecia (650–480 a.Chr.) con le [[philosophia presocratic|philosophos presocratic]]. Le philosopho [[Thales|Thales de Mileto]] (7e e 6e seculos a.Chr.), cognominate "le Patre del Scientia" pro refusar acceptar explicationes supernatural, religiose o mythologic pro [[Phenomeno|phenomenos]] natural, proclamava que cata evento habeva un causa natural.<ref>"Iste cambio ab rationamento ecclesiastic a rationamento scientific marcava le initio del methodologia scientific." Singer, C., ''A Short History of Science to the 19th Century'', Streeter Press, 2008, p. 35.</ref> Thales faceva etiam progressos in 580 a.Chr. per suggerer que aqua es le elemento basic, experimentante con le attraction inter [[Magnete|magnetes]] e ambra friccate e formulante le prime [[Cosmologia|cosmologias]] registrate. Anaximandro, famose pro su theoria proto-[[Evolution|evolutionari]], disputava le ideas de Thales e proponeva que, al contrario de aqua, un substantia nominate "apeiron" esseva le fundamento de tote materia. Circa 500 a.Chr., Heraclito proponeva que le unico lege basic que governa le [[Universo]] esseva le principio de mutation e que nihil remane in le mesme stato indefinitemente. Conjunctemente con su contemporaneo Parmenides, illes esseva inter le prime eruditos in physic antique qui contemplava le rolo del [[tempore]] in le universo, un concepto clave que ancora es un thema in le physic moderne. In le [[Epocha classic|periodo classic]] in Grecia (6e, 5e e 4e seculos a.Chr.) e durante le [[Hellenismo|epocha hellenistic]], le philosophia natural gradualmente se disveloppava como un campo de studio excitante e contencioso. [[Aristotele]] (Grec: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384-322 a.Chr.), un discípulo de [[Platon]], promoveva le concepto que le observation de phenomenos physic poteva ultimemente condur al discoperta del leges natural que los governa. Le scriptos de Aristotele tracta de [[physica]], [[metaphysica]], [[poesia]], [[theatro]], [[musica]], [[logica]], rhetorica, [[linguistica]], [[politica]], [[governamento]], [[ethica]], [[biologia]] e [[zoologia]]. Ille scribeva le prime obra que se refere a ille linea de studio como "Physica" – in le 4e seculo a.Chr., Aristotele fundava le systema cognoscite as physic aristotelic. Ille essayava a explicar ideas como motion (e gravitate) con le theoria de quatro elementos. Aristotele credeva que tote materia consisteva de aethere, o de una combination de quatro elementos: terra, aqua, aere, e foco. Secundo Aristotele, iste quatro elementos terrestre es capace de inter-transformation e se move verso lor loco natural, assi que un petra cade verso le centro del cosmos, ma le flammes ascende verso le circunferentia. Eventualmente, le physic aristotelic deveniva extrememente popular durante multe seculos in Europa, influentiante le progressos scientific e scholastic del [[Medievo]]. Illo remaneva le paradigma scientific dominante in Europa usque al tempore de [[Galileo Galilei]] e [[Isaac Newton]]. In le prime epocha de [[Grecia antique|Grecia Classic]], le cognoscentia que le Terra es spherical ("rotunde") esseva commun. Circa le anno 240 a.Chr., como resultado de un experimento seminal, Eratostene (276-194 a.Chr.) estimava exactamente su circumferentia. A contrasto con le opiniones geocentric de [[Aristotele]], Aristarcho de Samos (Grec: Ἀρίσταρχος; circa 310 – circa 230 a.Chr.) presentava un argumento explicite pro un modello heliocentric del Systema Solar, es dicere, pro poner le Sol, non le Terra, a su centro. Seleuco de Seleucia, un sequitor del theoria heliocentric de [[Aristarcho]], affirmava que le Terra girava circa su proprie axe, le qual, a su vice, orbitava circum le Sol. Ben que le argumentos usate per ille esseva perdit, Plutarcho affirmava que Seleuco esseva le prime a probar le systema heliocentric per rationamento. In le 3e seculo a.Chr., le mathematico grec [[Archimedes|Archimedes de Syracusa]] (Grec: Ἀρχιμήδης) (287-212 a.Chr.) – generalmente considerate como le maxime grande mathematico del antiquitate e un del plus grande de omne le tempore – posava le bases del hydrostática, statica e calculava le mathematica subiacente del levier. Arquímedes, un científico prominente del antiquitate classic, anque disveloppava systemas elaborate de puleas pro mover objetos grandes con un mínimo de effortio. Le cochlea de Archimedes subiacente le hydroenginieria moderne, e su machines de guerra adjuvava a repellentar le armeas de Roma in le Prime Guerra Punice. Arquímedes anque disrumpava le argumentos de Aristotele e su metaphysica, indicante que esseva impossibile separar mathematica e natura e illo demonstrava convertente theorias mathematic in inventiones practic. De plus, en su obra "De Corporibus Fluitantibus" (c. 250 a.Chr.), Arquímedes disveloppava le lege de flottabilitate, cognoscite etiam como principio de Arquímedes. In mathematica, Arquímedes usa le methodo de exhaustion pro calcular le area sub le arcu de un parábola con le summation de un serie infinite, e dava un approximation remarkablemente accurate de pi. Ille etiam definiva le spirale que portava su nomine, formulae pro le volumines de superficies de revolution e un ingeniose systema pro exprimer numeros multo grande. Ille anque disveloppava le principios de statos de equilibrio e centros de gravitate, ideas que influentiava eminentes eruditos ben cognoscite, como Galileo e Newton. Hipparcho (190-120 a.Chr.), centrando se in astronomia e mathematica, usava technicas geometric sophisticate pro cartographiar le motio de le stellas e planetas, mesmo predecendo le tempores in le quales eclipses solar occurrerea. Ille addeva calculationes del distantia inter le Sol e le Luna e le Terra, basate sur su melioramentos a instrumentos observationale usate a ille época. Un altere del physicos primevole plus famose esseva [[Ptolemeo]] (90-168 EC), un del mentes prominente durante le epocha del Imperio Romano. Ptolomeo esseva le auctore de plure tractatos scientific, de al menos tres del quales esseva de continue importance pro le scientia islamic e european posterior. Le prime es le tractato astronomic nunc cognoscite como le Almagesto (in grec, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "Le Grande Tractato", originalmente Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, "Tractato Mathematic"). Le secunde es le Geographia, que es un discussion exhaustive del cognoscentia geographic del mundo greco-roman. === India e China === [[File:Hindu-arabic1.jpg|thumb|Le systema de numeration hindu-arabe. Le inscriptiones sur le [[Edictos de Ashoka]] (3e seculo a.Chr.) monstrant que iste systema de numeros esseva usate per le Imperio [[Imperio Maurya|Maurya]].]] In le [[Antiquitate]], tradiciones physic e mathematic importante existeva etiam in le scientias chinese e indian. [[File:Su Song Star Map 1.JPG|left|thumb|260px|Le [[mapas stellar]] de le polymath chines del 11e seculo [[Su Song]] es le plus vetule mapas stellar [[impression sur ligno|imprimite sur ligno]] que ha survivite usque al die nostre. Iste exemplo, datate 1092, usa le projection [[equirectangular]] cylindrical.]] In le philosophia indian, Maharishi Kanada esseva le prime a disveloppar systematicamente una theoria de atomismo circa le anno 200 a.Chr.,<ref>Oliver Leaman, ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.'' Routledge, 1999, pagina 269.</ref> ben que certe autores lo attribue a una epocha precedente in le 6e seculo a.Chr.<ref>{{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1986|pp=169–70}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Choudhury|2006|p=202}}</ref> Isto esseva ulteriormente elaborate per le atomistas buddhiste Dharmakirti e Dignāga durante le primo millennio EC.<ref>(Stcherbatsky 1962 (1930). Vol. 1. P. 19)</ref> Pakudha Kaccayana, un philosopho indian del 6e seculo a.Chr. e contemporanee de [[Gautama Buddha]], anque proponeva ideas sobre le constitution atomic del mundo material. Iste philosophos credeva que altere elementos (excepto ether) esseva physicament palpabile e, ergo, consisteva de partículas minúsculas de materia. Le ultime particula minúscula de materia que non poteva esser subdividite ulteriormente esseva nominate Parmanu. Iste philosophos considerava le atomo como indestructibile e, ergo, eternal. Le buddhistas pensava que le atomos esseva objectos minuscule non visibile al oculo nude que nasceva e dispareva in un instantia. Le schola Vaisheshika de philosophos credeva que un atomo esseva simplemente un puncto in spatio. Illo esseva anque le prime a depictar le relationes inter motion e fortia applicate. Le theorias indian sur le [[atomo]] es profunde e intricate in philosophia, como illos se basava sur logica e non super experientia personal o experimento. In le astronomia indian, le ''Aryabhatiya'' de Aryabhata (499 EC) proponeva le rotation del Terra, durante que Nilakantha Somayaji (1444-1544) del schola de astronomia e mathematica de Kerala proponeva un modello semiheliocentric que resembla a le systema de Tycho. Le studio del magnetismo in le China antique remonta al 4e seculo a.Chr. (in le ''Libro del Maestro del Valle del Diavolo''),<ref>Li Shu-hua, "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole", ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175</ref> Un importante contributor a iste campo esseva Shen Kuo (1031–1095), un polymath e statista qui esseva le prime a describer le compasso magnetic-needle usate pro navigation, como etiam a establir le concepto de nord ver. In optica, Shen Kuo disveloppava independentemente un camera obscura.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 98">[[Joseph Needham]], Volume 4, Part 1, 98.</ref> === Mundo islamic === [[File:Alhazen (122459248).jpg|thumb|left|170px|[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (c. 965–1040).]] In le 7e a 15e seculos, progressos scientific occurreva in le mundo musulman. Multe obras classic in [[India|linguas de India]], [[Assyria|assyrian]], sassanian ([[Persia|persa]]), e [[Grecia|greco]], includente le obras de Aristotele, esseva traducite in [[Lingua arabe|arabe]].<ref name=RobinsonCambridge>{{cite book |editor=Robinson, Francis |editor-link=Francis Robinson |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |pages=228–229}}</ref> Contributiones importante esseva facite per Ibn al-Haytham (965-1040), un scientista arab, considerate como un fundator del [[optica]] moderne. Ptolomeo y Aristotele theorisava que le luce o illumina objectos ex le oculo o que "formas" emane de objectos mesme, durante que al-Haytham (con le nomine latino "Alhazen") suggereva que le luce viage al oculo in radios ex differente punctos sur un objecto. Le obras de Ibn al-Haytham e al-Biruni (973-1050), un scientista persa, eventualmente passava al Europa occidental ubi illos esseva studiate per eruditos como Roger Bacon e Vitello.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|pp=89–90}}</ref> Ibn al-Haytham usava experimentos controlate in su labor sur optica, ben que le mesura in le qual illo differiva de Ptolemeo es un subjecto de debatto.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark |title=From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics |url=https://archive.org/details/fromsighttolight0000smit |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2015 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromsighttolight0000smit/page/225 225] |quote=Le mesme vale pro le metodologia de Alhacen. Illo pote apparer moderne pro su forti tendentia empiric e su dependentia de experimentos controlate, ma le approccio de Ptolemeo non esseva minus empiric, e etiam illo esseva fundate in experimentos controlate. Insimul, le duo experimentos de Alhacen que pareva le plus moderne se basava super un precision physicamente inobtenibile in le disegno del apparecchio e in le observation, assi nos debe dubitar que ille los executava realmente como describe— excepto, naturalmente, in su mente. E iste experimentos non esseva nove in conception. Illes esseva clarmente basate sur experimentos equivalent in le Optica de Ptolemeo, aunque Alhacen los reformulava in modo significative e creative pro accommodar le testation de radios de lumine e non de radios visual.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Darrigol |first=Olivier |title=A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2012 |pages=20}}</ref> Mechanicos arabic como Bīrūnī e Al-Khazini disveloppava un sophisticate "scientia de peso", faciente mesurationes de pesos e volumenes specific.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lindberg |first1=David |title=The Cambridge History of Science,Volume 2, Medieval Science |last2=Shank |first2=Michael |year=2013 |pages=984–1108}}</ref> [[Avicenna|Ibn Sīnā]] (980-1037), cognoscite como "[[Avicenna]]", esseva un polímata de Bukhara (en le actual [[Uzbekistan]]) responsabile pro contributiones importante al physica, optica, philosophia e [[medicina]]. Ille publicava su theoria del motio in le ''Libro del Sanation'' (1020), ubi ille argumentava que un impetus es impartite a un projectile per le lanciator, e credeva que illo esseva un virtute temporanee que declinarea mesmo in un vacuo. Ille lo considerava como persistente, necessitante fortias externe como le resistance del aere pro dissipar illo.<ref name=Espinoza>{{cite journal | last1 = Espinoza | first1 = Fernando | date = 2005 | title = An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching | journal = Physics Education | volume = 40 | issue = 2| page = 141 | doi=10.1088/0031-9120/40/2/002|bibcode = 2005PhyEd..40..139E | s2cid = 250809354 }}</ref><ref name=Nasr>{{Cite book |title=The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia |author=[[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] & Mehdi Amin Razavi |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-7007-0314-2 |page=72}}</ref><ref name=Sayili>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x|author=Aydin Sayili|date=1987|title=Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=500|issue=1|pages=477–482|bibcode=1987NYASA.500..477S|s2cid=84784804|author-link=Aydin Sayili}}</ref> Ibn Sina faceva un distinction inter 'fortia' e 'inclination' (appellate "mayl"), e argumentava que un objeto adquirir mayl quando le objecto es in opposition a su motio natural. Ille concludeva que le continuación del motion es atribuite al inclination que es transferite al objeto, e que le objeto remanera in motio usque le mayl es consumite. Ille asseriva etiam que un proyectile in un vacuo non stopparia a minus que illo esset acte sur. Iste conception de motion es congruente con le [[Leges de Newton|prime lege del motion de Newton]], inertia, que affirma que un objecto in motio remanera in motio a minus que illo sia acte per un fortia externe.<ref name=Espinoza /> Iste idea, que disentiva del visu aristotélico, esseva postea describite como "impetus" per John Buridan, qui esseva influentiate per le Libro del Sanation de Ibn Sina.<ref name = "ibn sina and buridan">Sayili, Aydin. "Ibn Sina and Buridan on the Motion the Projectile". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol. 500(1). p.477-482.</ref> [[File:Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg|upright|thumb|Un pagina del "Algebra" de [[Mohamet ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|al-Khwārizmī]] intitulate ''Algebra''.]] Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (circa 1080 – circa 1165) adoptava e modificava le theoria de Ibn Sina sur le motion de projectiles. En su libro ''Kitab al-Mu'tabar'', Abu'l-Barakat afirma que le motor imparte un inclination violente (''mayl qasri'') sur le movite e que iste diminue como le objecto movente se distingue del motor.<ref name="Gutman">{{Cite book|title=Pseudo-Avicenna, Liber Celi Et Mundi: A Critical Edition|first=Oliver|last=Gutman|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=2003|isbn=90-04-13228-7|page=193}}</ref> Ille anque proponeva una explication del [[acceleration]] de corporas cadente per le accumulation de incrementos successive de potentia con incrementos successive de [[velocitate]].<ref>[[Alistair Cameron Crombie|Crombie, Alistair Cameron]], ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.</ref> Secundo Shlomo Pines, le theoria de motio de al-Baghdaadi esseva "le plus vetule negation del lege dynamic fundamental de Aristotele [a saper, que un fortia constante produce un motio uniforme], [e assi es un] anticipation de maniera vage del lege fundamental de [[mechanica classic]] [a saper, que un fortia applicate continuemente produce aceleración]".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Pines | first = Shlomo | title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, Hibat Allah | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 26–28 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year = 1970 | isbn = 0-684-10114-9 }} <br>([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [528].)</ref> Jean Buridan e Alberto de Sajonia referiva postea a Abu'l-Barakat explicante que le acceleration de un corpore cadente es un resultato de su impetus crescente.<ref name="Gutman" /> Ibn Bajjah (circa 1085 – 1138), cognoscite como "Avempace" in Europa, proponeva que pro cata fortia il ha sempre un fortia de reaction. Ibn Bajjah esseva un critic de Ptolemeo e laborava in crear un nove theoria de velocitate pro substituer le theorisate per Aristotele. Duo futur philosophos supportava le theorias create per Avempace, cognoscite como dinamica avempacean. Illos esseva [[Thomas de Aquino]], un sacerdote catholic, e John Duns Escoto.<ref name=":1" /> Galileo adoptava postea le formula de Avempace "que le velocitate de un objeto date es le differentia inter le potentia motrice de ille objecto e le resistance del medio de motio".<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Gracia|first=Jorge J. E.|chapter=Philosophy in the Middle Ages: An Introduction|date=2007-11-26|pages=1–11|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd|isbn=9780470996669|doi=10.1002/9780470996669.ch1|title=A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages}}</ref> Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274), un astronomo e mathematico persa qui moriva in [[Bagdad]], introduciva le coppia de Tusi. copernico posteriormente se inspirava fortemente in le labor de al-Din al-Tusi e su discipulos, ma sin alcun recognition.<ref name="cosmosmagazine.com">{{cite web |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/society/top-10-ancient-arabic-scientists |title=Top 10 ancient Arabic scientists |publisher=Cosmos magazine |date=2011-01-06 |access-date=2013-04-20}}</ref> === Europa medieval === Le cognoscentia del obras antiguas reentrava in le Occidente a traverso de [[Traductiones latin del seculo XII|traductiones de arabe a latino]]. Lor reintroduction, combinate con commentarios theologic judeo-islamic, habeva un grande influentia sur philosophos medieval como Thomas de Aquino. Scholaros [[Scholastica|scholastic]] europee, qui cercava reconciliar le philosophia del philosophos antique classic con le [[theologia christian]], proclamava Aristotele como le pensator maxime grande del mundo antique. In casos ubi illos non contradiceva directemente le [[Biblia]], le physica aristotelic deveniva le fundamento pro le explanationes physical del Ecclesias european. Le quantification deveniva un elemento central del physica medieval.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crombie |first=A. C. |date=1961 |title=Quantification in Medieval Physics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/228677 |journal=Isis |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=143–160 |issn=0021-1753}}</ref> Basate super le physica aristotelic, le physica scholastic describiva cosas como movente secunde lor natura essential. Objetos celestiales esseva describite como movente seculo circulos, proque le motion circular perfecte esseva considerate como un propertate innate de objectos que existeva in le reino incorrupte del spheras celestial. Le theoria del impetus, le antecessor del conceptos de inertia e momentum, esseva disveloppate alsi con lineas simile per philosophos medieval como John Philoponus e Jean Buridan. Motiones sub le sphera lunar esseva considerate como imperfecte, e assi non poteva esser expectate que illos monstrarea un motion consistente. Motiones plus ideal in le reino "sublunary" poteva esser attingite solmente per artificio, e ante le 17e seculo, multes non considerava experimentos artificial como un medio valide pro apprender sur le mundo natural. Explanationes physic in le reino sublunary se centrava circum tendentias. Strepes contineva le elemento terra, e objectos terrene tendeva a mover se in linea recte verso le centro de le terra (e le universo in le visu geocentric aristotelic) a minus que illes esseva altrimente prevenite de facer lo.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindberg|first=David C.|title=The Beginnings of Western Science|url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind|date=1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press|doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226482064.001.0001|isbn=978-0-226-48231-6}}</ref> == Revolution scientific == Durante le 16e e 17e seculos, occurreva un gran avantiamento del progresso scientific cognoscite como le Revolution Scientific in Europa. Le disatisfaction con approaches philosophic plus vetule habeva comenciate previemente e habeva producite altere cambios in le societate, como le [[Reforma protestante|Reforma protestante,]] ma le revolution in le scientia comenciava quando philosophos natural comenciava a montar un attacco sustenite sur le programma philosophic scholastic e supponeva que schemas descriptive mathematicate adoptate de campos como mechanica e astronomia poteva in realitate producer characterizationes universalmente valide de motio e altere conceptos. === Nicolaus Copernico === [[File:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|Le astronomo polonese [[Nicolaus Copernico]] (1473–1543) es rememorate pro su disveloppamento de un modello [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] del [[Solar System|Systema Solar]].]] Un avanto in [[astronomia]] esseva facite per le astronomo polonese [[Nicolaus Copernico]] (1473-1543) quando, in 1543, ille presentava argumentos solide pro le modello heliocentric del Systema Solar, apparentemente como un medio pro render le tabellas que traciant le motio planetari plus precise e simplificar lor production. In modellos heliocentric del Systema Solar, le Terra orbita le Sol conjunctemente con altere corporas in le [[galaxia]] [[Via Lactee|del Terra]], un contradiction secundo le astronomo greco-egyptian Ptolemeo (2e seculo; vide supra), cuje systema collocava le Terra al centro del Universo e esseva acceptate pro plus que 1,400 annos. Le astronomo greco [[Aristarcho|Aristarcho de Samos]] (c. 310 – c. 230 a. C.) ha suggellite que le Terra revolveva circa le Sol, ma le rationamento de Copernico conducea a un acceptance general durabile de iste idea "revolutionari". Le libro de Copernico que presentava le theoria (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, "De le Revolutiones del Spheras Celestial") esseva publicate justo ante su morte in 1543 e, como on le considera generalmente como le initio del astronomia moderne, on le considera anque como le initio del Revolution Scientific. Le nove perspectiva de Copernico, insimul con le observationes precise facite per [[Tycho Brahe]], permitteva al astronomo german [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571–1630) formular su leges sur le motion planetari que remane in uso ancora hodie. === Galileo Galilei === [[File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Galileo Galilei, defensor prime del modern vista scientific e del methodo <br/>(1564–1642)]] Le mathematico, astronomo, e physicista italiano [[Galileo Galilei]] (1564–1642) esseva famose pro su appoio al copernicanismo, su discopertas astronomical, experimentos empirical e su melioramento del telescopio. Como mathematiciano, le rolo de Galileo in le cultura universitari de su epocha esseva subordinate a tres themas major de studio: lege, medicina, e theologia (que esseva intimemente connetite al philosophia). Galileo, tamen, sentiva que le contento descriptive de disciplinas technic meriteva interesse philosophic, particularmente proque le analysi mathematic de observationes astronomical – notabilemente, le analysi de Copernico sur le motiones relative del Sol, Terra, Luna, e planetas – indicava que le affirmations de philosophos sur le natura del universo poteva esser monstrate como erroneous. Galileo anque faceva experimentos mechanical, insistente que le motion mesme – regardless de si illo esseva producite "naturalmente" o "artificialmente" (i.e. deliberatemente) – habeva characteristicas consistentemente universale que poteva esser describe mathematicamente. Le prime studios de Galileo al Universitate de Pisa esseva in medicina, ma ille presto se sentiva atraite verso mathematica e physic. A 19 años, ille discoperiva (e, subsequenteemente, verificava) le natura isochrone del pendulo quando, usando su pulsation, ille chronometrava le oscillationes de un lampada oscillante in le cathedral de Pisa e trovava que illo remaneva le mesme pro cata oscillation, independentemente del amplitude del oscillation. Ille presto deveniva cognoscite per su invention de un balanza hydrostatic e pro su tractato sur le centro de gravitate de corporas solide. Durante su ensegnamento al Universitate de Pisa (1589-1592), ille initiava su experimentos sur le leges de corporas in motion que produceva resultatos tan contradictorie con le doctrinas acceptate de Aristotele que un forte antagonismo esseva provocate. Ille discoperiva que corporas non cade con velocitates proportional a lor pesos. Le famose historia in le qual on dice que Galileo lansava ponderes del [[Turre oblique de Pisa]] es apocryphal, ma ille trovava que le trajectoria de un projectil es un parabola e es credite con conclusiones que anticipateva le [[leges de Newton|leges de motion de Newton]] (e.g. le notion de inertia). Inter iste conclusiones se trova lo que nunc es cognoscite como relativitate galilean, le prime statemento precise sur le proprietates de spatio e tempore foras de geometria tridimensional. [[File:Jupiter and the Galilean Satellites.jpg|thumb|Un montage composite que compara Jupiter (sinistre) e su quatro lunas galilean (de alto a basso: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto).]] Galileo ha essite nominate le "patre del astronomia observation moderne",<ref>{{citation |title=A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century |first=Charles |last=Singer |year=1941 |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ }}, page 217.</ref> le "patre del physic moderne", le "patre del scientia",<ref name="Einstein">{{citation |last=Weidhorn |first=Manfred |title=The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History |year=2005 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=0-595-36877-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/personofmillenni0000weid/page/155 155] |url=https://archive.org/details/personofmillenni0000weid/page/155 }}</ref> e "le patre del scientia moderne".<ref name="finocchiaro2007">[[#Reference-Finocchiaro-2007|Finocchiaro (2007)]].</ref> Secundo Stephen Hawking, "Galileo, forsan plus que alicun altere persona, esseva responsabile pro le nascentia del scientia moderne".<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science|journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology|American Heritage's Invention & Technology]]|volume=24|date=2009|page=36|url=https://www.inventionandtech.com/content/galileo-and-birth-modern-science|access-date=2020-09-15}}</ref> Proque le orthodoxia religiose prescribiva un comprension geocentric o tychonic del Systema Solar, le appoio de Galileo al heliocentrismo provocava controversia e ille esseva processate per le [[Inquisition]]. Trovate "vehementemente suspecte de heresia", ille esseva fortiate a recantar e passava le resto de su vita sub custodia domiciliari. Le contributiones que Galileo faceva al obrservation astronomic include le confirmation telescopic del phases de Venus; le discoperta, en 1609, de le quatro satellites plus grande de Jupiter (subsequentemente conferite le nomine collective de le "satellites galilean"); e le observation e analyse de maculas solar. Galileo anque se dedicava a scientia applicate e technologia, inventante, inter altere instrumentos, un [[bussola]] militar. Su discoperta del satellites jovian esseva publicate in 1610 e le permitteva obtener le position de matemático e philosopho al curia de Medici. Como tal, on expectava que ille participarea in debattos con philosophos in le tradition aristotelian e ille habeva un grande audientia pro su proprie publicationes como le Discursus e Demonstrationes Mathematic del Doi Nov Sciencie (publicate foras post su arresto pro le publication del Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems) e Le Assayer.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Drake|1978}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Biagioli|1993}}</ref> Le interesse de Galileo in experimentar e formular descriptiones mathematic de motio establiva le experimento como un parte integral del philosophia natural. Iste tradition, que se combineva con le eménfase non-mathematic sur le collection de "historias experimental" per reformistas philosophic como William Gilbert e [[Francis Bacon]], attraheva un sequito significative in le annos que precedeva e succedeva le morte de Galileo, includente Evangelista Torricelli e le participantos in le Accademia del Cimento in Italia; Marin Mersenne e [[Blaise Pascal]] en Francia; Christiaan Huygens en le Pais Basse; e Robert Hooke e Robert Boyle en Anglaterra. === René Descartes === [[File:Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg|thumb|upright|[[René Descartes]]<br/>(1596–1650)]] Le philosopho francese [[René Descartes]] (1596-1650) habeva connexiones solide e influence intra le rete de philosophia experimental de ille epocha. Descartes tamen habeva un agenda plus ambicio, que esseva orientate verso le substitution del tradition philosophic scholastic integralmente. Questionante le realitate interpretate per le senso, Descartes cercava restablir systemas explicative philosophic per reducer omne phenomena percipite a esser attribuibile al motion de un mar invisible de "corpusculos". (Notabilemente, ille reserval le pensamento human e [[Deo]] de su schema, considerante illos separate del universo physic). In proponer iste iste schema philosophic, Descartes supponeva que differente typos de motion, como le motion del planetas versus le motion de objectos terrene, non esseva fundamentalmente differente, ma solmente differente manifestationes de un catena interminabile de motiones corpuscular que obediiva a principios universal. Specialmente influential esseva su explanationes pro motiones astronomic circular in terminos del motion vortexal de corpusculos in le spatio (Descartes argumentava, concordante con le credentias, si non le methodos, del Scholasticos, que un [[vacuo]] non poteva existir), e su explanation del [[gravitate]] in terminos de corpusculos que pellava objectos verso le basso.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Shea|1991}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Garber|1992}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Gaukroger|2002}}</ref> Descartes, como Galileo, esseva convicite del importantia del explanation mathematic, e ille e su sequitatores esseva figuras clave in le evolution del mathematica e geometria in le 17e seculo. Descriptiones mathematic cartesiane del motion affirmava que omne formulation mathematic deberea esser justificabile in terminos de action physic directe, una position mantenite per Huygens e le philosopho german [[Gottfried Leibniz]], qui, ben que sequente le tradition cartesian, disveloppava su proprie alternative philosophic al Scholasticismo, que ille presentava in su obra de 1714, le Monadologia. Descartes ha essite nominate le "Patrono del Philosophia Moderne", e multe subsequente philosophia occidental es un responsa a su scripturas, que es studiate de propinque usque hodie. En particular, su Meditationes de Prima Philosophia continúa a esser un texto standard in le majoritate de departmentos de philosophia universitari. Le influentia de Descartes in mathematica es equalmente apparente; Le systema de coordination cartesiano — que permette que equationes algebraic sia expressate como formas geometric in un systema de coordination bidimensional — esseva nominate post ille. Ille es attribuite como le patre del geometria analytic, le ponte inter [[algebra]] e [[geometria]], importante pro le discoperta del [[Calculo (mathematica)|calculo]] e [[Analyse (mathematica)|analyse]]. === Christiaan Huygens === [[File: Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg|thumb|upright|left|Christiaan Huygens<br/>(1629–1695)]] Le physicista, mathematico, astronomo, e inventorator nederlandese Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) esseva le scientista principal in Europa inter Galileo e Newton. Huygens proveniva de un familia de nobilitate que habeva un position importante in le societate nederlandese del 17e seculo; un período in le qual le Republica Nederlandese floreva economicamente e culturalmente. Iste periodo — approximativemente inter 1588 e 1702 — del historia del Nederlandes es cognoscite como le Seculo de Oro nederlandese, un era durante le Revolution Scientific quando le scientia nederlandese esseva inter le plus acclaimate in Europa. A iste tempore, intelectualos e scientistas como René Descartes, [[Baruch Spinoza]], Pierre Bayle, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, [[John Locke]], e Hugo Grotius resideva in le Nederlandes. Il esseva in iste ambiente intellectual que Christiaan Huygens cresceva. Le patre de Christiaan, Constantijn Huygens, esseva, excepte que un poeta importante, le secretario e diplomate pro le Principes de Orange. Ille cognosceva multe scientistas de su epocha a causa de sus contactos e interesses intellectual, includente René Descartes e Marin Mersenne, e esseva a causa de iste contactos que Christiaan Huygens deveniva consciente de lor obras. Especialmente, Descartes, cuje philosophia mecanistic habeva un influentia enorme sur le proprie obra de Huygens. Postea, Descartes esseva impressionate per le abilitates geometric de Christiaan Huygens, como etiam Mersenne, qui lo baptisava "le nove Archimede" (lo que conducerea Constantijn a referir se a su filio como "mi parve Archimede"). Un infante prodigio, Huygens inició su correspondentia con Marin Mersenne quando ille habeva 17 años. Huygens deveniva interessate in ludos de fortuna quando ille incontrava le obras de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, e Girard Desargues. Il esseva Blaise Pascal qui le incitava a scriber Van Rekeningh in Spelen van Gluck, que Frans van Schooten traduceva e publicava como ''De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae'' en 1657. Le libro es le tractato scientific le plus vetule sur iste thema, e a ille tempore le presentation le plus coerente de un approcha mathematic al ludos de fortuna. Duo annos postea, Huygens deriva geometricamente le formulas nunc standard in mechanica classic pro le fortia centripetal e centrifugal in su obra ''De vi Centrifuga'' (1659). Circum le mesme tempore, le recerca de Huygens in [[Chronometria|horologia]] resultava in le invention del pendulo, un avance in chronometria e le chronometro le plus precise pro quasi 300 annos. Le recerca theoritic sur le modo de operation del pendulo eventualmente conducea al publication de uno de sus successos le plus importante: le ''Horologium Oscillatorium''. Iste obra esseva publicate in 1673 e deveniva un del tres tractatos le plus importante del 17e seculo sur mechanica (le altere duo essente le ''Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze'' de Galileo (1638) e le ''Principia Mathematica de Philosophiæ Naturalis'' de Newton (1687).<ref name="bell">{{cite journal | url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277775/Christiaan-Huygens?anchor=ref136385 | title=The Horologium Oscillatorium of Christian Huygens | date = 30 Aug 1941 | access-date=14 November 2013 | author=Bell, A. E. | journal=Nature | volume=148 | issue=3748 | pages=245–248 | doi= 10.1038/148245a0| bibcode=1941Natur.148..245B | s2cid=4112797 }}</ref> Le Horologium Oscillatorium es le prime tractato moderne in le qual un problema physic (le motion accelerite de un corpore cadente) es idealisate per un serie de parametros e postea analysate mathematicamente, e illo constitue un del obras seminal de mathematica applicate.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Yoder|first=Joella G.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/unrolling-time/1427509C7A14C464B08209322E42ABB6|title=Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature|date=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-34140-0|location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref name=":5">Bruce, I. (2007). ''[http://www.17centurymaths.com/contents/huygenscontents.html Christian Huygens: Horologium Oscillatorium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728132258/http://www.17centurymaths.com/contents/huygenscontents.html |date=2020-07-28 }}''. Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.</ref> Pro iste ration, Huygens ha essite nominate le prime physicista theoritic e un del fundatores del physica mathematic moderne.<ref name=":6">Dijksterhuis, F.J. (2008) Stevin, Huygens and the Dutch republic. ''Nieuw archief voor wiskunde'', ''5'', pp. 100–107.[https://research.utwente.nl/files/6673130/Dijksterhuis_naw5-2008-09-2-100.pdf]</ref><ref>Andriesse, C.D. (2005) ''Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle''. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: 6</ref> Le "Horologium Oscillatorium" de Huygens ha exercite un influentia tremende sur le historia del physica, especialmente sur le opera de Isaac Newton, que admirava multo le obra. Per exemplo, le leges que Huygens describiva in le ''Horologium Oscillatorium'' es structuralmente le mesme como le prime duo leges del motion de Newton.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rob Iliffe & George E. Smith |title= The Cambridge Companion to Newton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=se27CwAAQBAJ&dq=Although+Huygens+does+not+state+his+second+law+in+the+full+generality+found+in+the+Principia%2C+the+model+is+structurally+the+same%3A+first%2C+an+inertial+motion&pg=PA75 |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9781107015463 |page=75}}</ref> Cinque annos post le publication de su ''Horologium Oscillatorium'', Huygens describiva su theoria de undas de lumine. Ben que proponite en 1678, illo non esseva publicate usque en 1690 en su Traité de la Lumière. Su theoria mathematic de lumine esseva initialmente rejectite in faveur del theoria corpuscular de lumine de Newton, usque que Augustin-Jean Fresnel adoptava le principio de Huygens pro dar una explication complete del propagation rectilinee e effectos de diffraction del lumine in 1821. Hodie iste principio es cognoscite como le principio Huygens–Fresnel. Como astrónomo, Huygens comenciava a polir lentillos con su fratre Constantijn jr. pro construer telescopios pro recerca astronomic. Ille esseva le prime a identificar le anellos de Saturno como "un anello subtil e plano, nusquam tangente, e inclinate al ecliptica," e discoperiva le prime lunas de Saturno, Titan, usante un telescopio refractante. Excepte le multe importantes discopertas que Huygens faceva in physic e astronomia, e su inventiones de ingeniose dispositivos, ille esseva anque le prime qui introducteva rigor mathematic al description de phenomenas physic. Pro isto, e le facto que ille disveloppava structuras institutional pro recerca scientific sur le continente, on lo ha nominato "le actor principal in 'le creation del scientia in Europa'"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Aldersey-Williams|first=H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7n7VDwAAQBAJ&q=In+the+case+of+two+bodies+which+meet%2C+the+quantity+obtained+by+taking+the+sum+of+their+masses+multiplied+by+the+squares+of+their+velocities+will+be+found+to+beequal+before+and+after+the+collision.%E2%80%99&pg=PP86|title=Dutch Light: Christiaan Huygens and the Making of Science in Europe|date=2020|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-1-5098-9332-4|language=en|access-date=28 August 2021|page=24}}</ref>. === Isaac Newton === [[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Sir Isaac Newton<br/>(1642–1727)]] Le fin del 17e seculo e le initio del 18e seculo vid le realisationes del physico e mathematico del [[Universitate de Cambridge]], Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727). Newton, un membre del Royal Society de Anglaterra, combina su proprie discopertas in mechanica e astronomia con anteriores pro crear un systema unic pro describer le functionamento del universo. Newton formulate tres leyes de motion que estipulava le relation inter motion e objectos, e anque le lege del gravitation universal, le ultime del quales poteva esser usate pro explicar le comportamento non solmente de corporas cadente super le Terra ma anque planetas e altere corporas celestial. Pro arrivar a su resultatos, Newton inventava una forma de un ramos totalmente nove de mathématatica: calculus (inventate anque independentemente per Gottfried Leibniz), que deveniva un utensilio essential in multe del posterior disveloppamento in le major parte de ramos de physic. Le revelationes de Newton esseva exponite in su Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Principios Mathematic de Philosophia Natural"), cuje publication en 1687 marcava le initio del periodo moderne de mechanica e astronomia. Newton poteva refutar le tradition mechanic cartesian que omne motiones deberia esser explicate in relation al immediate [[fortia]] exercite per corpusculos. Per su tres leyes de motion e le lege del gravitation universal, Newton eliminava le idea que objectos seguerea trayctorias determinate per formas natural e al contrario demonstrava que non solmente le trajectorias regularmente observate, ma tote le motiones future de qualcunque corpore poteva esser deducite mathematicemente basate sur le cognoscentia de lor motion existente, lor [[Massa (quantitate physic)|massa]], e le fortias que ageva sur illos. Sin embargo, le motiones celestial observate non conformava preciseemente a un tractamento newtonian, e Newton, qui era anque profunde interessate in [[theologia]], imaginava que Deo interveniva pro assecurar le continuant stabililate del systema solar. [[File:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Bernhard Christoph Francke.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]]<br/>(1646–1716)]] Le principios de Newton (ma non su tractamentos matematic) causava controversia con philosophos continental, qui trovava su manco de explication [[Metaphysica|metaphysic]] pro le movimento e le gravitation philosophicamente inacceptabile. A partir circa le 1700, una division amar se aperiva inter le traditiones philosophic continental e britannic, le quales esseva alimentate per dispute calorose, continue e personalissime inter le partidarios de Newton e Leibniz sur le question de prioritate del technicas analytical de calculo, que cata uno habeva disveloppate independentemente. Inicialmente, le traditiones cartesian e leibnizian prevaleva sur le continente (conduce al predominio del notation leibnizian de calculo ubique excepte in Britannia). Newton mesme remaneva privatamente disturbate per le manco de un comprension philosophic del gravitation, ben que ille insistera in su scriptos que tal comprension non era necesse pro inferer su realitate. Con le progression del 18e seculo, philosophos natural continental acceptava sempre plus tosto le disposition del Newtonianos a abdicar explicationes metaphysic ontologic pro motiones describite mathematicamente.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Hall|1980}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Bertolini Meli|1993}}</ref><ref name="Guicciardini1999">{{Harvtxt|Guicciardini|1999}}</ref> Newton interprete le prime telescopio reflectente functionante<ref name="Wilson2013">{{cite book |author=Raymond N. Wilson |title=Reflecting Telescope Optics I: Basic Design Theory and its Historical Development |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmbyCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-03227-5 |pages=1–10 |chapter=1.1 Period 1608-1672}}</ref> e disveloppava un theoria del color, publicate in ''Opticks'', basate sur le observation que un prisma decompone le luce albe in multe colores que forma le spectra visibile. Ben que Newton explicava le luce como essente composte de particulas minime, una theoria rival del comportamento del luce in terminos de ondas esseva presentado en 1690 por Christiaan Huygens. Tamen, le credentia in le philosophia mecanistic juncte con le reputation de Newton faceva que le theoria de ondas viderea relativemente pauco appoio usque al 19e seculo. Newton anque formulava un lege empirical de refrigeration, studiava le [[velocitate del sono]], investigava series de potencias, demonstrava le theoria binomial generalisate e disveloppava un methodo pro approximar le radices de un function. Su travalio sur series infinite esseva inspirate per le decimales de Simon Stevin.<ref>{{citation |last1=Błaszczyk |first1=Piotr |last2=Katz |first2=Mikhail |author2-link=Mikhail Katz |last3=Sherry |first3=David |arxiv=1202.4153 |doi=10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8 |journal=[[Foundations of Science]] |pages= 43–74|title=Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking |volume= 18|year=2012|bibcode=2012arXiv1202.4153B |s2cid=119134151 }}</ref> Le plus importante, Newton monstrava que le motiones de objectos sur Terra e de corporas celestial es governate per le mesme serie de leyes natural, que non esseva capriciose ne malevolente. Per demonstrar le concordantia inter le leyes de motion planetary de Kepler e su proprie theoria de gravitation, Newton removeva anque le ultime dubitas sur heliocentrismo. Per reunir omne le ideas proponité durante le Revolution Scientific, Newton establiva efficacemente le fundamento pro le societate moderne in mathematica e scientia. === Altere complimentos === Durante le periodo del Revolution Scientific, altere brancas de physicas anque attrahiva attention. William Gilbert, medico de corte del Regina [[Elisabeth I de Anglaterra|Elisabeth I]], publicava un importante opera sur magnetismo en 1600, describente como le terra mesme se comporta como un magnete enorme. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) studiava le comportamento de gases inclosite in un camera e formulava le lege del gas nominata pro ille; ille contribueva etiam al physiologia e al fundation del chimia moderne. Un altere facto importante in le revolution scientific esseva le ascension de societates erudité e academias in varie paises. Le prime de illos se trovava in Italia e Germania e esseva brevemente vital. Plus influente esseva le Societate Royal de Angleterre (1660) e le [[Academia de Scientias francese]] (1666). Le prime esseva una institution private in London e incluye científicos como John Wallis, William Brouncker, Thomas Sydenham, John Mayow, e Christopher Wren (qui contribueva non solmente al architectura ma etiam al astronomia e anatomia); le secunde, en París, esseva un institution governamental e includiteva como membro estranie le hollandese Huygens. In le 18e seculo, academias regal importante esseva establite en Berlín (1700) e en San Petersburgo (1724). Le societates e academias provideva le principal opportunitates pro le publication e disputation de resultatos scientific durante e post le revolution scientific. En 1690, James Bernoulli monstrava que le cycloide es le solution al problema del tautochrone; e le sequente anno, en 1691, Johann Bernoulli monstrava que un catena suspendite liberemente a duo punctos formara un catenaria, le curva con le gravitate central le plus basse possibile disponibile a qualcunque catena pendulate inter duo punctos fixe. Ille monstrava alora, en 1696, que le cycloide es le solution al problema del brachistochrone. ==== Prime thermodynamica ==== Un precursor del motor esseva designate per le scientista germane Otto von Guericke qui, en 1650, designava e construeva le prime bomba de vacuo del mundo pro crear un vacuo, como monstrate per le experimento con le hemispheros de Magdeburg. Ille voleva crear un vacuo pro disprovar le supposition de Aristotele, que "Natura abhorrit vacuum". Poco postea, le physicista e chimico irlandese Boyle apprendeva del designos de Guericke e, en 1656, coordinate con le scientista anglese Robert Hooke, construeva un bomba de aere. Usante iste bomba, Boyle e Hooke notava le correlation inter [[pression]] e [[volumine]] pro un gas: PV = k, ubi P es pression, V es volumine, e k es un constante; iste relation es cognoscite como Lege de Boyle. A illo tempore, on assumeva que le aere esseva un systema de particulas immobile, non como un systema de molecules in movimiento. Le concepto de motion thermal veniva duo seculos postea. Ergo, le publication de Boyle in 1660 tracta de un concepto mechanical: le ressorto de aere.<ref>New Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660). [http://www.imss.fi.it/vuoto/eboyle.html]</ref> Plus tarde, post le invention del thermometer, le temperatura poteva esser quantificate. Iste instrumento dava a Gay-Lussac le oportunitate de derivar su lege, que conducea poco postea al lege del gas ideal. Ma, ja ante le establishment del lege del gas ideal, un associate de Boyle nominate Denis Papin construeva in 1679 un digester de osso, que es un recipiente claude con un tecto stricte que confina vapor usque que un pression alte es generate. Designos plus tarde implementava un valvula de liberation de vapor pro evitar que le machina exploderea. Observante le valvula mover rítmicamente su su su e verso, Papin concipeva le idea de un motor con piston e cylindro. Nonobstante, ille non persequeva su designo. Tamen, en 1697, basate super le designos de Papin, le ingeniero Thomas Savery construeva le prime motor. Ben que iste prime motores esseva rudimentari e inefficiente, illos attraheva le attention del scientistas eminentie del tempore. Ergo, ante le 1698 e le invention del [[Machina de vapor|Machina de Savery]], cavallones esseva usate pro fornir potentias a polias, attachate a secchios, que elevava aqua ex minas de sal inundate in Angleterra. In le annos a sequer, plus variationes de motores a vapor esseva construité, como le Machina de Newcomen, e plus tarde le Machina de Watt. Con le tempore, iste prime motores eventualmente esserea usate in vice de cavallones. Assi, cata motor comenciava a esser associate con un certe quantitate de "potentia de cavall" dependente de quantos cavallones ille habeva substituite. Le principal problema con iste prime motores esseva que illos esseva lente e goff, convertente minus que 2% del [[combustibile]] introducte in labor in labor utile. In altere parolas, grandes quantitates de carbon (o ligno) debiteva esser arse pro producer solmente un fraction parve de labor resultante. Ergo nasceva le necessitate de un nove scientia de [[dynamica]] de motor. == Disveloppamentos del 18e seculo == [[File:Alessandro Volta.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Alessandro Volta]]<br/>(1745–1827)]] Durante le 18e seculo, le mechanica fundate per Newton esseva disveloppate per plure scientistas, como plus mathematicos apprendeva calculus e elaborava super su formulation initial. Le application de analysi mathematic a problematas de motion esseva cognoscite como mechanica rational, o mathematica mixte (e postea nominate mechanica classic). === Mechanica === [[File:ETH-BIB-Bernoulli, Daniel (1700-1782)-Portrait-Portr 10971.tif (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Daniel Bernoulli]]<br/>(1700–1782)]] En 1714, Brook Taylor derivó le frecuencia fundamental de una cuerda vibrante extendite in terminos de su tension e massa per unitate de longitud per resolver un equation differential. Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) faceva importantes studios mathematica sur le comportamento de gases, anticipante le theoria cinematic de gases disveloppate plus que un seculo postea, e ha essite referite como le prime physicista mathematic.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Darrigol|2005}}</ref> En 1733, Daniel Bernoulli deriva le frequentia fundamental e harmonicos de un catena pendente per resolver un equation differential. En 1734, Bernoulli resolvió la ecuación diferencial pro le vibrationes de una barra elastique fixate a un extremo. Le tractamento de Bernoulli del dynamica de fluidos e su examination del fluxo de fluido esseva presentate in su obra de 1738 ''Hydrodynamica''. Mechanica rational tractava principalmente le disveloppamento de tractamentos mathematic elaborate de motiones observate, usante principios newtonian como base, e accentuava le melioration del tractabilitate de calculationes complexe e le disveloppamento de medietates legitime de approximation analytic. Un manual representative contemporanee esseva publicate per Johann Baptiste Horvath. Al fin del seculo, tractamentos analytic esseva sufficientemente rigorose pro verificar le stabilitate del Systema Solar solmente super le base de le leges de Newton sin recurrer a intervention divine — mesmo durante que tractamentos deterministic de systemas tan simple como le problema de tres corporas in gravitation remaneva intrattabile.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bos|1980}}</ref> In 1705, Edmond Halley prediceva le periodicitate del [[Cometa Halley]], [[William Herschel]] discoperiva Urano in 1781, e Henry Cavendish mensurava le constantia gravitational e determinava le massa del Terra in 1798. In 1783, [[John Michell]] suggereva que alicun objectos poteva esser tan massive que ne mesmo le lumine poteva evader de illos. In 1739, [[Leonhard Euler]] resolviva le equation differentiale ordinar pro un oscillator harmonic sub le influentia de un fortia exterior e notava le phenomeno de resonantia. In 1742, Colin Maclaurin discoperiva su spheroides self-gravitante que rota uniformemente. In 1742, Benjamin Robins publicava su nove principios in ballistica, stabilindo le scientia de aerodynamica. Le labor britannic, continuate per mathematicos tal como Taylor e Maclaurin, restava retro le progressos continental como le seculo se disveloppava. Interim, le labor floreva in academias scientific in le Continente, guidate per mathematicos como Bernoulli e Euler, assi como Joseph-Louis Lagrange, [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], e Adrien-Marie Legendre. In 1743, Jean le Rond d'Alembert publicava su Tractato de dynamica, in le qual ille introduceva le concepto de fortias general pro systemas accelerante e systemas con restrictiones, e applicava le nove idea de labor virtual pro resolver problemas dynamic, nunc cognoscite como le principio de d'Alembert, como un rival a le secunde lege de motion de Newton. In 1747, Pierre Louis Maupertuis applicava principios minimal a mechanic. In 1759, Euler resolviva le equation differentiale partial pro le vibration de un tambure rectangul. In 1764, Euler examinava le equation differentiale partial pro le vibration de un tambure circular e trovava un del solutiones de functiones de Bessel. In 1776, John Smeaton publicava un articulo sur experimentos relationate a potentia, labor, momentum, e energia cinetic, e supportante le [[conservation de energia]]. In 1788, Lagrange presentava su equationes de motion in Mechanica analytic, in le qual tote le mechanica esseva organisate circa le principio de labor virtual. In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier affirmava le lege de conservation de massa. Le mechanica rational disveloppate in le 18e seculo reciveva expositiones in tanto Mechanica analytic de Lagrange como le Traictato de mechanica celestial de Laplace (1799–1825). === Thermodynamica === Durante le 18e seculo, le termodinamica se disveloppava per le theorias de "fluidos imponderabile" sin peso, tal como calor ("caloric"), [[electricitate]], e phlogiston (que esseva rapideamente renversate como concepto post le identification de gas [[oxygeno]] per Lavoisier al fin del seculo). Supponinte que iste conceptos esseva fluidos real, lor fluition poteva esser sequite per un apparato mechanic o reactiones chimic. Iste tradition de experimento conducerea al disveloppamento de nove tipos de apparatos experimental, tal como le vaso de Leyden; e nove tipos de instrumentos de mesura, tal como le calorimeter, e versiones meliorate de illos vetules, tal como le thermometro. Experimentos anque produciva nove conceptos, tal como le notion de calor latent del experimentator Joseph Black del Universitate de Glasgow e le characterization del fluido electric como fluinte inter locos de excesso e deficit (un concepto ulteriormente reinterpretate in terminos de [[Carga electric|cargas]] positive e negative) del intellectual [[Benjamin Franklin]] de Philadelphia. Franklin anque monstrava que le fulmine es electricitate in 1752. Le theoria de calor acceptate in le 18e seculo lo considerava como un specie de fluido, nominate caloric; ben que iste theoria postea esseva monstrate como erronee, un numero de scientistas adherente a illo tamen faceva importantes decouveras utile pro le disveloppamento del theoria moderne, inter illes Joseph Black (1728–99) e Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). Opponite a iste theoria de caloric, que habeva essite disveloppate principalmente per los chimicos, esseva le theoria minus acceptate que datava del tempore de Newton que le calor es causate per le motiones del particulas de un substantia. Iste theoria mechanic obtineva appoio in 1798 del experimentos con canones de Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), qui trovava un relation directe inter calor e energia mechanic. In le prime parte del 18e seculo, on recognosceva que trovar theorias absolute de fortia electrostatic e magnetic simile al principios de motion de Newton esserea un achievement importante, ma nulle de iste sorta se presentava. Iste impossibilitate solmente disappareva lentemente quando le practica experimental deveniva plus extensive e plus raffinate durante le annos initiale del 19e seculo in locos como le novemente establite Royal Institution in London. Interim, le methodos analytic del mechanica rational comenciava a esser applicate a phenomenos experimental, le influentia maxime occurreva con le tractamento analytic del mathematico francese Joseph Fourier del fluxo de calor, publicate in 1822.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Heilbron|1979}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Buchwald|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Golinski|1999}}</ref> Joseph Priestley proponeva un lege de inverse quadrato pro electricitate in 1767, e Charles-Augustin de Coulomb introduceva le lege de inverse quadrato pro electrostatica in 1798. Al fin del seculo, le membros del Academia de Scientias francese habeva attingite un dominio clar in le campo.<ref name="Guicciardini1999" /><ref>{{Harvtxt|Greenberg|1986}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Guicciardini|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Garber|1999}}</ref> Al mesme tempore, le tradition experimental establite per Galileo e su sequitores persisteva. Le Societate Royal e le Academia Francese de Scientias esseva centros major pro le execution e reporto de labor experimental. Experimentos in mechanica, optica, magnetismo, electricitate static, chimica, e [[physiologia]] non esseva clarmente distinguite un del altere durante le 18e seculo, ma significant differences in schema explicative e, ergo, designo de experimentos emergeva. Experimentatores chimic, per exemplo, resisteva tentativas de impor un schema de fortias abstracte newtonian in le affiliationes chimic, e invece se concentrava sur le isolation e classification de substantias e reactiones chimic.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Ben-Chaim|2004}}</ref> == 19e seculo == === Mechanica === In 1821, William Hamilton initiava su analysis del function characteristic de Hamilton. In 1835, ille enunciava le equationes canonico de motion de Hamilton. In 1813, Peter Ewart supportava le idea del [[conservation de energia]] in su articulo "Sur le mensura del fortia in movimento". In 1829, Gaspard Coriolis introduceva le terminos de labor (fortia tempore distantia) e energia cinetic con le significationes que illos ha hodie. In 1841, Julius Robert von Mayer, un scientista amatorial, scribeva un articulo sur le conservation de energia, ben que su manca de formation academic resultava in su rejection. In 1847, Hermann von Helmholtz enunciava formalmente le lege del conservation de energia. === Electromagnetismo === [[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Michael Faraday]]<br/>(1791–1867)]] In 1800, Alessandro Volta inventava le batteria electric (conocite como le pilo voltaic) e, assi, meliorava le maniera in que currentes electric poteva esser studiate. Un anno postea, Thomas Young demonstrava le natura undulante de lux—que recipieva fortissimo appoio experimental del labor de Augustin-Jean Fresnel—e le principio de interference. In 1820, [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] discoperiva que un conductor portante currente genera un fortia magnetic circum illo, e intra un septimana post le discoperta de Ørsted que arrivava a Francia, [[André-Marie Ampère]] revelava que duo currentes electric parallel exercera fortias reciproc sur se. In 1821, [[Michael Faraday]] construeva un motor alimentate per electricitate, durante que Georg Ohm enunciava su lege de resistance electric in 1826, expriminte le relation inter voltage, currente, e resistance in un circuito electric. In 1831, Faraday (e independentemente [[Joseph Henry]]) discoperiva le effecto reverse, le production de un potential electric o currente per medio del magnetismo – cognoscite como induction electromagnetic; iste duo discopertas es le base del motor electric e del generatore electric, respectivemente. === Leges de thermodynamica === [[File:Baron Kelvin 1906.jpg|thumb|200px|right|{{nowrap|[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)]]<br/>(1824–1907)}}]] In le 19e seculo, le connection inter calor e energia mechanic esseva stabilite quantitativemente per Julius Robert von Mayer e [[James Prescott Joule]], qui mesurava le equivalentia mechanic de calor in le annos 1840. In 1849, Joule publicava resultatos de su serie de experimentos (incluse le experimento con rota de paletta) que monstrava que calor es un forma de energia, un facto que esseva acceptate in le annos 1850. Le relation inter calor e energia esseva importante pro le disveloppamento de machinas a vapor, e in 1824 le labor experimental e theoretic de Sadi Carnot esseva publicate. Carnot apprehendeva alcun del ideas de thermodynamica in su discussion sur le efficientia de un machina ideal. Le labor de Sadi Carnot provideva un base pro le formulation del prime lege de thermodynamica—un reformulation del lege de conservation de energia—que esseva statuate circa 1850 per William Thomson, postea cognoscite como Lord Kelvin, e Rudolf Clausius. Lord Kelvin, qui habeva extendite le concepto de zero absolute de gases a omne substantias in 1848, utilisava le theoria de ingenieria de Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, e Émile Clapeyron—assim como le experimentos de James Prescott Joule sur le interchangeabilitate de formas mechanical, chimic, thermal, e electric de labor—pro formular le prime lege. Kelvin e Clausius anque enunciava le secunde lege de thermodynamica, que originalmente esseva formulate in terminos del facto que calor non flue spontaneemente de un corpore plus frigide a un plus calide. Altre formulationes sequeva rapide (pro exemplo, le secunde lege esseva exponite in le influente obra de Thomson e Peter Guthrie Tait "Treatise on Natural Philosophy") e Kelvin, in particular, comprendeva alcun del implicationes general del lege. Le secunde lege esseva le idea que gases consiste de molecules in motion que habeva essite discutite detallatemente per Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, ma que habeva cedite in popularitate e esseva revivite per Clausius in 1857. In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau e Léon Foucault mesurava le [[velocitate de lumine]] in aqua e trovava que illo es plus lente que in aere, supportante le modello undulante de lux. In 1852, Joule e Thomson demonstrava que un gas que se expande rapidemente refrigerava, ulteriormemente nominate le effecto Joule–Thomson o effecto Joule–Kelvin. Hermann von Helmholtz presentava le idea del morte calor del universo in 1854, le mesme anno que Clausius stabiliva le importantia de dQ/T (le theorema de Clausius) (quamvis ille non nominava ancora le quantitate). === Mecanica statistic (un approche fundamentalmente nove al scientia) === [[File:James Clerk Maxwell big.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[James Clerk Maxwell]]<br/>(1831–1879)]] In 1859, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] discoperiva le lege de distribution del velocitates molecular. Maxwell monstrava que campos electric e magnetic se propagava foras de lor fonte a un velocitate equal al velocitate del lumine e que le lumine es un del plure formas de radiation electromagnetic, differinte solmente in frequencia e longitut de unda. In 1859, Maxwell elaborava le mathematica del distribution del velocitates del moleculas de un gas. Le theoria undulante de lumine esseva ampiemente acceptate al tempore del labor de Maxwell sur le campo electromagnetic, e postea le studio de lumine e ille de electricitate e magnetismo esseva intime interligate. In 1864, James Maxwell publicava su papeles sur un theoria dynamica del campo electromagnetic, e affirmava que lumine es un phenomenon electromagnetic in le publication de 1873 de "Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism". Iste labor se basava super travalio theoretic per theoreticos german como [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] e Wilhelm Weber. Le inclusion del calor in motion particulate, e le addition de fortias electromagnetic al dynamica newtonian establiva un base theoretic extrememente robuste pro observationes physic. Le prediction que le lumine representa un transmission de energia sub forma de undas a traverso un "aether luminifere", e le apparente confirmation de iste prediction con le detection per le discipulo de Helmholtz, [[Heinrich Hertz]], de [[radiation electromagnetic]] in 1888, esseva un triumpho major pro le theoria physic e suscitava le possibilitate que anque plus fundamental theorias basate sur le campo poteva esser presto disveloppate.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Buchwald|1985}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|JungnickelMcCormmach|1986}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Hunt|1991}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Buchwald|1994}}</ref> Confirmations experimental del theoria de Maxwell esseva aportate per Hertz, qui generava e detegeva ondas electric in 1886 e verificava lor proprietates, al mesme tempore anticipante lor application in radio, television, e altere dispositivos. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discoperiva le effecto photoelectric. Investigations sur le ondas electromagnetic comenciava poco postea, con multe scientistas e inventores conducente experimentos sur lor proprietates. In le medium al fin del annos 1890, Guglielmo Marconi disveloppava un systema de telegraphia sin filo basate super ondas radio<ref>{{Cite book|last=Windelspecht, Michael|title=Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the 19th century|url=https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000wind_y2t6|date=2003|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=0-313-31969-3|oclc=50003997|page=[https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000wind_y2t6/page/195 195]}}</ref>. Le theoria atomic de materia esseva proposte de nove in le prime parte del 18e seculo per le chimico John Dalton e deveniva un del hypothesias del theoria kinetic-molecular de gases disveloppate per Clausius e James Clerk Maxwell pro explicar le lege de thermodynamica. [[File:Boltzmann2.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Ludwig Boltzmann]]<br/>(1844-1906)]] Le theoria kinetic, a su vice, conduceva a un approche revolutionari al scientia, le mecanica statistic de Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) e Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), que studia le statistica del microstatos de un systema e usa le statistica pro determinar le stato de un systema physic. Interrelacionante le probabilitate statistic de certe statos de organisation de iste particulas con le energia de ille statos, Clausius reinterpretava le dissipation de energia como le tendentia statistic de configurationes molecular a moventar se verso statos de plus grande probabilitate, que es statos de plus grande disorganisation (cuneante le termino "[[entropia]]" pro describer le disorganisation de un stato). Le interpretationes statistic versus absolute del secunde lege de thermodynamica generava un controversia que durarea pro plure decadas (producente argumentos como "le demonio de Maxwell"), e que non esserea considerate como definite resolvite usque que le comportamento de atomos esseva stabilite firmemente in le prime parte del 20e seculo.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Smith|Wise|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Smith|1998}}</ref> In 1902, James Jeans trovava le scala de longitud necessari pro que le perturbationes gravitational cresce in un medio quasi homogeneous static. === Altere disveloppamentos === In 1822, le botanico Robert Brown discoperiva le motion brownian: granos de polen in aqua sub le effecto de movimento resultante de lor bombardamento per le particulas o molecules rapide in le liquido. In 1834, [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Carl Jacobi]] discoperiva su ellipsoides uniformemente rotante autogravitante (le ellipsoide de Jacobi). In 1834, John Russell observava un unda aquose solitarie nondecayente (soliton) in le Canal Union presso [[Edimburg]] e usava un tanque de aqua pro studiar le dependentia del velocitates del undas aquatic solitarie sur le amplitude del unda e le profunditate del aqua. In 1835, Gaspard Coriolis examinava theoreticamente le efficacia mechanic de roetas aquatic, e deduceva le effecto Coriolis. In 1842, Christian Doppler proponeva le effecto Doppler. In 1851, Léon Foucault monstrava le rotation del Terra con un pendulo immense (pendulo de Foucault). Il habeva avantios importante in le mechanica continuum in le prime parte del seculo, notabilemente le formulation del lege de elasticitate pro solidos e le discoperta del equationes de Navier-Stokes pro fluidos. == 20e seculo: nascentia del physica moderne == [[File:Mariecurie.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Marie Curie|Marie Skłodowska-Curie]]<br/>(1867–1934) Illa ha ganiate duo premios Nobel, le prime in Physica (1903) e le secunde in Chimia (1911).]] Al fin del 19e seculo, le physica habeva evolvite usque al puncto in le qual mechanica classic poteva tractar problemas multo complexe involvente situationes macroscopic; le thermodinamica e le theoria kinetic esseva ben establite; le optica geometric e physic poteva esser comprehendite in terminos de undas electromagnetic; e le leges de conservation pro energia e momentum (e massa) esseva largemente acceptate. Tan profunde esseva iste e altere disveloppamentos que il esseva generalmente acceptate que omnes le leges importante de physica habeva essite discoperite e que, de ora in avant, le recerca concernerea solmente resolver problemas minor e specialmente facer meliorationes in methodo e mensuration. Tamen, circa 1900, seriouse dubitas emergeva circa le completezza de le theorias classic—le triumpho del theorias de Maxwell, pro exemplo, esseva subminite per inadequates que ja habeva comenciate a appare—e lor incapacitate a explicar certe phenomenas physic, tal como le distribution de energia in le radiation de corpores negre e le effecto photoelectric, durante que alcun del formulationes theoretic conducea a paradoxos quando pressite al limite. Physicos prominente como Hendrik Lorentz, Emil Cohn, Ernst Wiechert, e Wilhelm Wien credeva que certe modification de le [[equationes de Maxwell]] poteva provider le base pro tote le leges physic. Iste deficentias del physica classic nunquam esseva resolvite e nove ideas esseva necessari. Al comenciamento del 20e seculo, un revolution major commoviva le mundo del physica, conducente a un nove era, generalmente nominate physica moderne.<ref name="Harvtxt|Agar|2012">{{Harvtxt|Agar|2012}}</ref> === Experimentos de radiation === [[File:J.J Thomson.jpg|thumb|200px|[[J. J. Thomson]] (1856–1940) discoperiva le [[electron]] e [[Isotope|isotopia]] e inventava le [[mass spectrometer]]. Ille recipieva le [[Premio Nobel in Physica]] in 1906.]] In le 19e seculo, experimentatores comenciava a deteger formas de radiation inexpectate: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] causava sensation con su discoperta de radiographias in 1895; in 1896, Henri Becquerel discoperiva que certe tipos de materia emite radiation de lor proprie accorde. In 1897, J. J. Thomson discoperiva le [[electron]], e nove elementos radioactive trovate per [[Marie Curie|Marie]] e [[Pierre Curie]] generava questions sur le supertoto indestructibile del atomo e le natura del materia. Marie e Pierre introduceva le termino "[[radioactivitate]]" pro describer iste proprietate del materia e isolava le elementos radioactive [[radium]] e [[polonium]]. [[Ernest Rutherford]] e Frederick Soddy identificava duo de le formas de radiation de Becquerel como electrons e le elemento [[helium]]. Rutherford identificava e nominate duo tipos de radioactivitate e in 1911 interpretava evidentia experimental como monstrante que le atomo consiste de un nucleus dense, con carga positive, circumcincte per electrons con carga negative. Tamen, le theoria classic prediceva que iste structura esseva instabile. Le theoria classic anque non reussiva a explicar con successo duo altere resultatos experimental que appariva a fin del 19e seculo. Un de illos esseva le demonstration per Albert A. Michelson e Edward W. Morley—conocite como le experimento de Michelson–Morley—que monstrava que non pare haber un systema de referentia preferite, in reposo respecte al hypothetical aether luminifere, pro describer phenomena electromagnetic. Le studio de radiation e decadentia radioactive continuava a esser un focus preeminente pro recerca physic e chimic usque le annos 1930, quando le discoperta del fissione nuclear per [[Lise Meitner]] e [[Otto Frisch]] aperi le via al exploitation practic de lo que deveniva cognoscite como [[Energia nuclear|energia "atomica"]]. === Theoria de relativitate de Albert Einstein === [[File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|thumb|[[Albert Einstein]] (1879–1955), fotografate hic in c. 1905]] In 1905, un physicista german de 26 annos nominate [[Albert Einstein]] (tunc un impendulo de patentes in [[Berna]], [[Switza]]) monstrava como mesurationes de tempore e spatio es afficite per le motion inter un observator e lo que es observate. Le theoria radical de relativitate de Einstein revolutionava le scientia. Ben que Einstein faceva multe altere contributiones importante al scientia, le theoria de relativitate solipar representa un del plus grande successos intellectual de tote le tempore. Ben que le concepto de relativitate non esseva introduce per Einstein, ille recognosceva que le velocitate de lumine in vacuo es constante, i.e., le mesme pro omne observatores, e un limite superior absolute pro velocitate. Isto non affecta le vita quotidian de un persona, dato que le majoritate de objectos se move a velocitates multo minus rapide que le velocitate del lumine. Pro objectos que se move approximativemente a le velocitate del lumine, tamen, le theoria de relativitate monstra que chronometros associate con ille objectos will functionar plus lentemente e que le objectos se abbreviara in longitute secundo mesurationes de un observator sur le Terra. Einstein etiam deriveva le celebre equation, E = mc², que expressa le equivalentia inter massa e energia. ==== Relativitate special ==== [[File:GPB circling earth.jpg|thumb|left|Einstein suggereva que la [[gravitation]] es un resultato de [[massa]]s (o lor equivalentias de energia) [[Curvature of spacetime|curvante ("flectente")]] le [[spatio-tempore]] in le qual illos existe, alterante le trajectorias que illos sequi in illo.]] Einstein argumentava que le velocitate del lumine esseva un constantia in omne systemas de referentia inerti e que le lege electromagnetic deberia remaner valide independentemente del systema de referentia—assertiones que rendeva le aether "superflue" al theoria physic, e que affirmava que observationes de tempore e longitud variava relative al modo in le qual le observator se moveva con respecto al objecto que esseva mesurate (lo que deveniva cognoscite como le "theoria special de relativitate"). Anque illo sequiva que massa e energia esseva quantitates interchangeabile secundo le equation E=mc². In un altere articulo publicate le mesme anno, Einstein affirmava que le radiation electromagnetic esseva transmitte in quantitates discrete ("quanta"), secundo un constantia que le physicista theoretic [[Max Planck]] habeva proponite in 1900 pro arrivar a un theoria precise del distribution del radiation del corpores negre—un assumption que explicava le proprietates strange del effecto photoelectric. Le theoria special de relativitate es un formulation del relation inter observationes physic e le conceptos de spatio e tempore. Le theoria surgeva ex contradictiones inter electromagnetismo e le mechanica newtonian e habeva un grande impacto sur ambes iste domainios. Le problema historic original esseva si il esseva significante discuter le "aether" portator de undas electromagnetic e le motion relative a illo e etiam si on poteva deteger tal motion, como esseva infructuosemente essayate in le experimento de Michelson–Morley. Einstein demoliva iste questiones e le concepto de aether in su theoria special de relativitate. Tamen, su formulation basic non involve un theoria electromagnetic detaliate. Ille surge ex le question: "Lo que es tempore?" Newton, in le Principia (1686), habeva dat un responsa inequivoce: "Tempus absolute, ver, e mathematic, de se e ex su proprie natura, flue equabilmente sin relation a ullo externe, e per un altere nomine es appellate duration." Iste definition es fundamental a tote le physica classic. Einstein habeva le ingenio de questionar lo, e trovava que illo esseva incomplete. In loco, cata "observator" necessemente usa su proprie scala de tempore, e pro duo observatores in motion relative, lor scalas de tempore differera. Isto induce un effecto correspondent sur le mesurationes de position. Spatio e tempore deveni conceptos intrelassate, fundamentalmente dependente del observator. Cata observator preside super su proprie structura spatio-temporal o systema de coordination. Nulle essente un puncto de referentia absolute, omnes observatores de eventos date face mesurationes differente sed equalmente valide (e reconciliabile). Lo que remane absolute es affirmate in le postulato de relativitate de Einstein: "Le leges basic de physic es identic pro duo observatores qui ha un velocitate relative constante unespectante le altere." Le theoria special de relativitate habeva un effecto profounde sur le physica: initiatement comenciante como un reevaluation del theoria del electromagnetismo, illo discoperiva un nove lege de symmetria del natura, ora cognoscite como le symmetria de Poincaré, que replaceva le vetule symmetria galilean. Le theoria special de relativitate exercitava un altere effecto de longe durata sur le [[dynamica]]. Ben que initialmente illo esseva credite con le "unification de massa e energia", il deveniva evidente que le dynamica relativistic establiva un distinction ferme inter massa in reposo, que es un proprietate invariant (independentemente del observator) de un particula o systema de particulas, e le energia e momentum de un systema. Le ultime duo es separatemente conservate in omne situationes ma non son invariantes respecte a differente observatores. Le termino "massa" in [[physica de particulas]] subiva un cambio semantic, e desde le fin del 20e seculo, illo denota quasi exclusivemente le massa in reposo (o invariant). ==== Relativitate general ==== In 1916, Einstein poteva generalisar isto plus avant, pro tratar omne statos de motion includente acceleration non uniforme, que deveniva le [[theoria general de relativitate]]. In iste theoria, Einstein specificava anque un nove concepto, le curvature de spatio-tempore, que describeva le effecto gravitational a cata puncto in spatio. In facto, le curvature de spatio-tempore replaceva completamento le lege universal de gravitation de Newton. Secundo Einstein, le forza gravitational in le senso normal es un sorte de illusion causate per le geometria de spatio. Le presentia de un massa causa un curvature de spatio-tempore in le vicinitate del massa, e iste curvature dicte le cammino de spatio-tempore que omne objectos in motion libere debe sequer. Anque esseva predictite per iste theoria que le lumine debe esser subjecte al gravitate - tote le qual esseva verifyate experimentalmente. Iste aspecto de relativitate explicava le phenomena de inflection de lumine circum le sol, predictiva de foros negre, assi como le proprietates del radiation cosm microunde — un revelation que rendeva anomalias fundamental in le hypothese classic de stato steadie. Pro su labor in le relativitate, le effecto photoelectric e le radiation del corpores negre, Einstein recipieva le Premio Nobel in 1921. Le acceptation gradual de le theories de relativitate de Einstein e le natura quantificate del transmission de lumine, e del modello atomic de Niels Bohr creava tan multe problemas como ille solva, conducente a un effortio a plen scala pro restituer le physica super nove principios fundamental. Expansive le relativitate a casos de frames de referentia con acceleration (le "theoria general de relativitate") in le annos 1910, Einstein proposite un equivalence inter le fortia inertial de acceleration e le forza de gravitate, conducente al conclusion que le spatio es curvate e finite in dimension, e le prediction de phenomena como le lensamento gravitational e le distortion de tempore in campos gravitational. === Mechanica quantic === [[File:Max Planck 1878.GIF|thumb|180px|right|[[Max Planck]]<br/>(1858–1947)]] Ben que le relativitate resolveva le conflicto de phenomena electromagnetic demonstrate per Michelson e Morley, un secunde problema theoretical esseva le explanation del distribution de radiation electromagnetic emittite per un corpore nigre; experimento monstrava que a longor longitudes de unda plus brevi, verso le extremo ultraviolet del spectra, le energia se approximava a zero, ma le theoria classic predicte que illo deberia devenir infinite. Isto discrepancia flagrante, cognoscite como le catastropha ultraviolet, esseva resolvite per le nove theoria del [[mechanica quantic]]. Le mecanica quantic es le theoria de atomos e systemas subatomic. Approximatemente le prime 30 annos del 20e seculo representa le periodo del conception e evolution del theoria. Le ideas basic de le theoria del quantos esseva introducite in 1900 per Max Planck (1858–1947), qui receveva le [[Premio Nobel pro Physica]] in 1918 pro su discoverta del natura quantificate de energia. Le theoria quantic (que previemente se confidava in le "correspondentia" a grandis scalas inter le mundo quantificate del [[atomo]] e le continuitates del mundo "classic") esseva acceptate quando le effecto Compton establiva que le lumine porta momentum e pote diffunder se ab particulas, e quando Louis de Broglie affirmava que materia pote esser vidite como comportante se como un unda de maniera simile al modo in le qual undas electromagnetic se comporta como particulas (dualitate unda-particula). [[File:Heisenberg 10.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Werner Heisenberg]]<br/>(1901–1976)]] In 1905, Einstein usava le theoria quantic pro explicar le effecto photoelectric, e in 1913 le physicista danese [[Niels Bohr]] usava le mesme constantia pro explicar le stabilitate del atomo de Rutherford como etiam le frequencias del lumine emittite per gas de hydrogeno. Le theoria quantificate del atomo dava loco a un mecanica quantic a plen scala in le annos 1920. Nove principios de un mechanic "quantic" al contrario de un mechanic "classic", formulite in forma de matrice per Werner Heisenberg, [[Max Born]], e Pascual Jordan in 1925, se basava sur le relation probabilistic inter "statos" discrete e negava le possibilitate de causalitate. Le mecanica quantic esseva extensivemente disveloppate per Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, [[Paul Dirac]], e [[Erwin Schrödinger]], qui establiva un theoria equivalente basate sur undas in 1926; ma le "principio de incertitude" de Heisenberg in 1927 (indicante le impossibilitate de mensuration precise e simultanee de position e momentum) e le "interpretation de Copenhagen" de le mecanica quantic (nominate in honor del citate natal de Bohr) continuava a negar le possibilitate de causalitate fundamental, ben que oppositores como Einstein metaphoricamente affirmarea que "Deo non luda a dados con le universo".<ref name="Harvtxt|Kragh|1999">{{Harvtxt|Kragh|1999}}</ref> Le nove mecanica quantic deveniva un utensilio indispensable in le investigation e explication de phenomena al nivello atomic. Anque in le annos 1920, le travalio sur photones e mecanica quantic del scientista indian Satyendra Nath Bose fourniva le base pro le statistica de Bose–Einstein, le theoria del condensato de Bose–Einstein. Le theorema spin-statistica stabile que omne particula in le mecanica quantic pote esser o un [[boson]] (statisticamente Bose–Einstein) o un [[fermion]] (statisticamente Fermi–Dirac). Postea on trovava que omne bosones fundamental transmite fortias, tal como le photon que transmite electromagnetismo. Fermiones es particulas "como electrones e nucleones" e es le constituentes usual del [[materia]]. Le statisticas Fermi–Dirac trovava posteriormente multe altere applicationes, ab astrophysica a designo de [[semiconductor|semiconductores]]. == Physica contemporanee == === Theoria de campos quantic === [[File:Feynman Diagram Gluon Radiation.svg|thumb|287px|right|Un [[diagramma de Feynman]] que representa (de sinistra a dextera) le production de un photon (sinusoide azul) ex le [[annihilation]] de un electron e su complementari [[antiparticula]], le [[positron]]. Le photon deveni un par de [[quark]]–[[antiquark]] e un [[gluon]] (spirale verde) es liberate.]] [[File:Feynman-richard_p.jpg|thumb|Le badge de identification de Los Alamos de [[Richard Feynman]].]] Como le philosophicamente inclinate continuava a debatter le natura fundamental del universe, theorias quantic continuava a esser producite, comenciant con le formulation de un theoria quantic relativistic per [[Paul Dirac]] in 1928. Tamen, tentativas de quantificar integralmente le theoria electromagnetic esseva frustrate durante tote le decadas de 1930 per formulationes theoretical que produceva energias infinite. Iste situation non esseva considerate adequademente resolve usque post le fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, quando Julian Schwinger, [[Richard Feynman]] e Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, de maniera independente, proponite le technica de renormalisation, que permetteva le establimento de un robuste electrodynamica quantic (QED).<ref>{{Harvtxt|Schweber|1994}}</ref> Interim, nove theorias de particulas fundamental proliferava con le ascension del idea del quantisation de campos per "fortias de exchange" regulate per un exchange de particulas "virtual" de vita breve, que esseva permittite a existit secundo le leyes que governa le incertitudines intrinsece al mundo quantic. Notabilemente, Hideki Yukawa proponeva que le cargas positive del [[Nucleo atomic|nucleo]] se teneva insimul per un forza potente ma de breve distantia mediatisate per un particula con un massa inter illo del electron e [[proton]]. Iste particula, le "pion", esseva identificate in 1947 como parte de lo que deveniva un serie de particulas discoperite post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Inicialmente, tal particulas esseva trovate como [[Ionisation|radiation ionisante]] causate per radiation cosmic, ma de plus in plus deveniva producer in acceleratores de particulas nove e plus potente.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Galison|1997}}</ref> Extra le physica de particulas, progressos significative de iste epocha includeva: * le invention del [[laser]] (Premio Nobel de Physica in 1964); * le recerca theoritic e experimental del superconductivitate, specialmente le invention de un theoria quantic de superconductivitate per [[Vitaly Ginzburg]] e Lev Landau (Premio Nobel de Physica in 1962) e, postea, su explication via pares Cooper (Premio Nobel de Physica in 1972). Le par Cooper esseva un prime exemplo de quasiparticulas. === Theorias integrate de campos === Einstein considerava que tote interactiones fundamental in le natura pote esser explicite per un theoria sol. Theorias integrate de campos esseva numeros tentativas de "fusionar" plure interactiones. Un de multe formulationes de tal theorias (assim como de theorias de campos in general) es un theoria de calibre, un generalisation del idea de symmetria. Finalmente, le Modello Standard (vide infra) succedeva in le unification del interactiones forti, debil, e electromagnetic. Omne tentativas de unificar le [[gravitation]] con altere cosas ha fallite. === Fisica de particulas e le Modello Standard === [[File:Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg|left|thumb|250px|Le [[Modello Standard]].]] [[File:Chien-Shiung Wu (1912-1997) in 1958.jpg|right|thumb|Chien-Shiung Wu laborava sur violation de paritate in 1956 e annunciava su resultatos in januario 1957.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chien-Shiung Wu|date=25 May 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chien-Shiung-Wu}}</ref>]] Quando le paritate esseva violate in interactiones debile per Chien-Shiung Wu in su experimento, subsequente a isto, on faceva una serie de nove decovrimentos.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antimatter|url=https://home.cern/science/physics/antimatter|date=2021-03-01}}</ref> Le interaction de iste particulas per dispersion e decadentia forniva un clave a nove theorias quantistic fundamental. [[Murray Gell-Mann]] e Yuval Ne'eman aportava un certe ordine a iste nove particulas per le classificar secundo certe characteristicas, comencianto con lo que Gell-Mann referiva como le "Octuplic Cammino". Ben que su evolution ulterior, le modello de quark, in le prime loco, poteva sembler inadequate pro describer le [[Interaction forte|forte fortias nuclear]], permittente le ascension temporanee de theorias rival como le S-Matrix, le stabilisation del chromodynamica quantic in le annos 1970 fixava un serie de particulas fundamental e de scambio, que permetteva le stabilisation de un "modello standard" basate sur le mathematica de invariantia de calibratura, que describeva con successo omne le fortias excepte le gravitation e que resta generalmente acceptate intra su dominio de application.<ref name="Harvtxt|Kragh|1999"/> Le Modello Standard, basate super le theoria de Yang-Mills,<ref>{{Cite web|title=theory of everything|url=https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/theory+of+everything}}</ref> gruppa le theoria de interaction electrodebile e le chromodynamica quantic in un structura denote per le gruppo de calibratura SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1). Le formulation del unification del interactiones electromagnetic e [[Interaction debile|debile]] in le Modello Standard es le resultato de labor de Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg e, subsequenteemente, Sheldon Glashow. Le theoria electrogweak esseva posteriormente confirmate experimentalmente (per le observation de currentes debile neutral),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hasert|first1=F. J.|last2=Faissner|first2=H.|last3=Krenz|first3=W.|last4=Von Krogh|first4=J.|last5=Lanske|first5=D.|last6=Morfin|first6=J.|last7=Schultze|first7=K.|last8=Weerts|first8=H.|last9=Bertrand-Coremans|first9=G. H.|last10=Lemonne|first10=J.|last11=Sacton|first11=J.|date=1973-09-03|title=Search for elastic muon-neutrino electron scattering|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physics-letters-b_physics-letters_1973-09-03_46_1/page/121|journal=Physics Letters B|language=en|volume=46|issue=1|pages=121–124|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(73)90494-2|bibcode=1973PhLB...46..121H|issn=0370-2693}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hasert|first1=F. J.|last2=Kabe|first2=S.|last3=Krenz|first3=W.|last4=Von Krogh|first4=J.|last5=Lanske|first5=D.|last6=Morfin|first6=J.|last7=Schultze|first7=K.|last8=Weerts|first8=H.|last9=Bertrand-Coremans|first9=G. H.|last10=Sacton|first10=J.|last11=Van Doninck|first11=W.|date=1973-09-03|title=Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the gargamelle neutrino experiment|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physics-letters-b_physics-letters_1973-09-03_46_1/page/138|journal=Physics Letters B|language=en|volume=46|issue=1|pages=138–140|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(73)90499-1|bibcode=1973PhLB...46..138H|issn=0370-2693}}</ref><ref>F. J. Hasert ''et al.'' ''Nucl. Phys.'' B73, 1(1974); Paper presented at the London Conference 1974 no 1013.</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/29168 |title=The discovery of the weak neutral currents |date=2004-10-04 |publisher=CERN courier |access-date=2008-05-08}}</ref> e esseva distinguite per le Premio Nobel de Physica in 1979.<ref>{{citation |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979 |url=http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1979 |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |access-date=2008-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040803075503/http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1979/ |archive-date=2004-08-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Desde le annos 1970, le physica fundamental de particulas ha aportate perspectivas in le [[cosmologia]] del prime universe, particularmente le theoria del [[Big Bang]] proposte como consequentia del [[theoria general de relativitate]] de Einstein. Tamen, a partir del annos 1990, observationes astronomic ha anque aportate nove defias, como le necessitate de nove explicationes pro le stabilisation galactic ("materia obscur") e le apparente acceleration in le expansion del universe ("energia obscur"). In tanto que acceleratores ha confirmate le majoritate del aspectos del Modello Standard mediante le detection de interactiones de particulas anticipate a differente energias de collision, ancora non ha essite trovate un theoria que reconcilia generalmente relativitate con le Modello Standard, ben que multe theoricos credeva que le supersimmetria e le [[Theoria de chordas|theoria de chordas]] esseva un via promittente. Tamen, le [[Large Hadron Collider]], que comenciava a functionar in 2008, non ha trovate alcun evidentia que supporta le supersimmetria e le theoria de cordas.<ref>{{cite web |last=Woit |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Woit |date=20 October 2013 |title=Last Links For a While |url=http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=6362 |access-date=2 November 2013 |work=Not Even Wrong}}</ref> === Cosmologia === Le cosmologia pote esser considerate un question seriose de recerca con le publication del Theoria General de Relativitate de Einstein in 1915, ben que illo non entrava in le corrente principal del scientia usque al periodo cognoscite como le "Auree epocha de relativitate general". Circa un decada plus tarde, in le medio de lo que esseva nominate le "Grandi Debattito", Hubble e Slipher discoperiva le expansion del universe in le annos 1920 mesurante le displaceamento verso le roge del spectra Doppler de nebulosas galactic. Usante le theoria general de relativitate de Einstein, Lemaître e Gamow formulateva lo que deveniva cognite como le theoria del big bang. Un rival, nominate le theoria del stato constante, esseva concepite per Hoyle, Gold, Narlikar e Bondi. Le radiation cosmic de fundo esseva verificate in le annos 1960 per Penzias e Wilson, e iste discoperta favoriva le theoria del big bang al detrimento del scenario del stato constante. Plus tarde, il habeva travalio per Smoot e alios (1989), inter altere contributoros, usante datos del satellites Cosmic Background Explorer (CoBE) e Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) que affinava iste observationes. Le annos 1980 (le mesme decada del mensurationes del COBE) viderea anque le proposition del [[theoria del inflation]] per Alan Guth. Recentemente, le problemas del materia obscura e energia obscura ha emergite al summite del agenda cosmologic. === Boson de Higgs === [[File:CMS Higgs-event.jpg|thumb|250px|Un possibile signo de un boson de Higgs ex un collision simulate inter protones-protones. Illo se decompone quasi immediatemente in duo jets de hadrones e duo electrones, visibile como lineas.]] Le 4 de julio 2012, physicos laborante al Large Hadron Collider de CERN annunciava que illes habeva discoperite un nove particula subatomic que resemblava multo le boson de Higgs, un clave potential pro comprender proque particulas elementari ha massa e in le facto del existentia de diversitate e vita in le universe.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/science/cern-physicists-may-have-discovered-higgs-boson-particle.html?pagewanted=3&_r=1&ref=science |work=The New York Times |first=Dennis |last=Overbye |title=Physicists Find Particle That Could Be the Higgs Boson |date=4 July 2012}}</ref> Pro nunc, alcun physicos la nomina particula "simile a Higgs".<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Joe Incandela, del Universitate de California, Santa Barbara, diceva, "Illo es alique que poterea esser, in le final, un del plus grande observationes de nove phenomenas in nostre campo in le ultime 30 o 40 annos, usque al discoperta de [[Quark|quarks]], pro exemplo."<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Michael Turner, un cosmologo al Universitate de Chicago e le presidente del consilio del centro de physic, diceva: {{Citation|"Isto es un grande momento pro le physica de particulas e un puncto de bifurcation — si isto essera le puncto culminante o si essera le prime de multe discopertas que nos indica resolver le questiones vermente importantes que nos ha presentate?"|Michael Turner, Universitate de Chicago<ref name="nytimes.com"/>}} Peter Higgs esseva un de sex physicistas, laborante in tres gruppos independente, qui, in 1964, inventava le notion del campo Higgs ("melassa cosmic"). Le alteres esseva Tom Kibble del Imperial College, London; Carl Hagen del Universitate de Rochester; Gerald Guralnik del Universitate Brown; e François Englert e Robert Brout, ambes del Université libre de Bruxelles.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Ben que illos nunquam ha essite vidite, campos similar al de Higgs joca un rolo importante in theorias del universo e in theoria de cordas. Sub conditiones certe, secundo le strange rationamento del physic einsteinian, illos pote esser pervadite con energia que exerce un fortia antigravitation. Tales campos ha essite proponite como le fonte de un enorme expansion rapide, cognoscite como inflation, al initio del universo e, possibilemente, como le secreto del energia obscur que ora pare accelerar le expansion del universo.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> === Scientias physic === Con le crescente accessibilitate a technicas analytical avanciate in le 19e seculo, le physica esseva definite tanto, si non plus, per ille technicas que per le recerca de principios universal de motion e energia, e le natura fundamental de materia. Campos como acoustica, geophysica, [[astrophysica]], aerodynamica, [[Plasma (physica)|physica de plasma]], physica de basso temperatura, e physica de stato solide se univa con optica, dynamica de fluidos, [[electromagnetismo]], e [[mechanica]] como areas de recerca physic. In le 20e seculo, le physica anque deveniva intimate connexe con campos como [[electrotechnica]], ingenieria aerospatial, e de material, e physicos comenciava a laborar in laboratorios gubernamental e industrial tanto como in contextos academic. Post le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]], le population de physicos augmentava dramaticamente, e deveniva centrate in le Statos Unite, durante que, in decadas recente, le physica deveniva un effortio plus international que ullo antea in su historia precedente. == Referentias == {{Reflist|2}} == Fontes == * {{cite book |last=Agar| first=Jon |year=2012 |publication-date=2012 |title=Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceintwentie0000agar|location=Cambridge |publisher=Polity Press| isbn=978-0-7456-3469-2}}. * {{cite book|last1=Hardie|first1=R. P.|title=PHYSICS|date=2014-09-01|work=Complete Works of Aristotle, Volume 1|pages=315–446|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3584-3|last2=Gaye|first2=R. K.|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjv4w.12}} * {{cite book|last=Ben-Chaim |first=Michael |year=2004 |publication-date=2004 |title=Experimental Philosophy and the Birth of Empirical Science: Boyle, Locke and Newton |url=https://archive.org/details/experimentalphil0000benc |location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=0-7546-4091-4 |oclc=53887772}}. * {{cite book|last=Bertolini Meli |first=Domenico |year=1993 |publication-date=1993 |title=Equivalence and Priority: Newton versus Leibniz |url=https://archive.org/details/equivalenceprior0000bert |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Biagioli |first=Mario |year=1993 |publication-date=1993 |title=Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-04559-5 |oclc=185632037 |url=https://archive.org/details/galileocourtier00mari }}. * {{cite book |last=Bos |first=Henk |year=1980 |publication-date=1980 |contribution=Mathematics and Rational Mechanics |title=The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Eighteenth Century Science |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=323–324 |editor1-last=Rousseau |editor1-first=G. S. |editor2-last=Porter |editor2-first=Roy |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press|pmc=1139043 }}. * {{cite book|last=Buchwald |first=Jed |year=1985 |publication-date=1985 |title=From Maxwell to Microphysics: Aspects of Electromagnetic Theory in the Last Quarter of the Nineteenth Century |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-07882-5 |oclc=11916470 |url=https://archive.org/details/frommaxwelltomic00jedz }}. * {{cite book|last=Buchwald |first=Jed |year=1989 |publication-date=1989 |title=The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-07886-8 |oclc=18069573 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofwavetheory0000buch }}. * {{cite book|last=Buchwald |first=Jed |year=1994 |publication-date=1994 |title=The Creation of Scientific Effects: Heinrich Hertz and Electric Waves |url=https://archive.org/details/creationofscient0000buch |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-07888-4 |oclc=29256963}}. * {{Cite book|last=Chattopadhyaya |first=Debiprasad.|title=History of science and technology in ancient India : the beginnings |year=1986|publisher=Firma KLM Pvt. Ltd|isbn=81-7102-053-4|oclc=45345319}} * {{cite book|last=Darrigol |first=Olivier |year=2005 |publication-date=2005 |title=Worlds of Flow: A History of Hydrodynamics from the Bernoullis to Prandtl |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-856843-6 |oclc=237027708 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsofflowhist0000darr }}. * {{cite book|last=Drake |first=Stillman |year=1978 |publication-date=1978 |title=Galileo at Work: His Scientific Biography |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-16226-5 |oclc=185633608 |url=https://archive.org/details/galileoatwork00stil }}. * {{cite book|last=Galison |first=Peter |year=1997 |publication-date=1997 |title=Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics |url=https://archive.org/details/imagelogicmateri0000gali |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-27917-0 |oclc=174870621}}. * {{cite book|last=Garber |first=Daniel |year=1992 |publication-date=1992 |title=Descartes' Metaphysical Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/descartesmetaphy0000garb |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Garber |first=Elizabeth|author-link=Elizabeth Garber |year=1999 |publication-date=1999 |title=The Language of Physics: The Calculus and the Development of Theoretical Physics in Europe, 1750–1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/languageofphysic0000garb |location=Boston |publisher=Birkhäuser Verlag}}. * {{cite book|last=Gaukroger |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Gaukroger |year=2002 |publication-date=2002 |title=Descartes' System of Natural Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/descartessystemo0000gauk |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}. * {{cite book|last1=Glick |first1=Thomas F. |last2=Livesey |first2=Steven John |last3=Wallis |first3=Faith |year=2005 |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalsciencet0000unse |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-96930-1 |oclc=218847614}} * {{cite book|last=Greenberg |first=John |year=1986 |publication-date=1986 |title=Mathematical Physics in Eighteenth-Century France |journal=Isis |volume=77 |pages=59–78 |doi=10.1086/354039|s2cid=144216491 }}. * {{cite book|last=Golinski |first=Jan |year=1999 |publication-date=1999 |title=Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760–1820 |journal=Medical History |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=468–469 |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press|pmc=1036800|doi=10.1017/S002572730005897X}}. * {{cite book|last=Guicciardini |first=Niccolò |year=1989 |publication-date=1989 |title=The Development of Newtonian Calculus in Britain, 1700–1800 |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentofnew0000guic |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Guicciardini |first=Niccolò |year=1999 |publication-date=1999 |title=Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736 |url=https://archive.org/details/readingprincipia0000guic |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Hall |first=A. Rupert |year=1980 |publication-date=1980 |title=Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophersatwa0000hall |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |year=1979 |publication-date=1979 |title=Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries |url=https://archive.org/details/electricityin17t0000heil |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Hunt |first=Bruce |year=1991 |publication-date=1991 |title=The Maxwellians |url=https://archive.org/details/maxwellians0000hunt |location=Ithaca |publisher=Cornell University Press}}. * {{cite book |last1=Jungnickel |first1=Christa|author1-link=Christa Jungnickel |last2=McCormmach |first2=Russell |author2-link=Russell McCormmach |year=1986 |publication-date=1986 |title=[[Intellectual Mastery of Nature: Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein]] |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press }}. * {{cite book|last=Kragh |first=Helge |year=1999 |publication-date=1999 |title=Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/quantumgeneratio0000krag |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press}}. * {{Cite book|last=Choudhury|first=Sarojakanta.|title=Educational philosophy of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|date=2006|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=81-7629-766-6|oclc=224913142}} * {{cite book|last1=Rashed |first1=R. |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |volume=2 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-12410-7 |oclc=34731151|title-link=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science }}. * {{cite book|last=Schweber |first=Silvan |year=1994 |publication-date=1994 |title=QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga |url=https://archive.org/details/qedmenwhomadeitd0000schw_i5v2 |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press}}. * {{cite book|last=Shea |first=William|year=1991 |publication-date=1991 |title=The Magic of Numbers and Motion: The Scientific Career of René Descartes |url=https://archive.org/details/magicofnumbersmo0000shea |location=Canton, Massachusetts |publisher=Science History Publications}}. * {{cite book|last=Smith |first=Crosbie|year=1998 |publication-date=1998 |title=The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}. * {{cite book|last1=Smith |first1=Crosbie |last2=Wise |first2=M. Norton |year=1989 |publication-date=1989 |title=Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin |url=https://archive.org/details/energyempirebiog0000smit |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}. == Altere lecturas == * Buchwald, Jed Z. and Robert Fox, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics'' (2014) 976pp; [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-History-Physics-Handbooks/dp/019969625X/ excerpt] * {{cite book |author1=Byers, Nina |author2=Williams, Gary |title=Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-82197-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/outofshadowscont0000unse }} * {{cite book |author=Cropper, William H. |title=Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking |url=https://archive.org/details/greatphysicistsl0000will |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-517324-4}} * {{cite book |last=Dear| first=Peter |year=2001 |publication-date=2001 |title=Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700 |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionizings0000dear_w0y9|location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-08859-4 |oclc=46622656 }}. * {{cite book |author=Gamow, George |title=The Great Physicists from Galileo to Einstein |url=https://archive.org/details/greatphysicistsf0000gamo |url-access=registration |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988 |isbn=0-486-25767-3|author-link=George Gamow }} * {{cite book |author=Heilbron, John L. |title=The Oxford Guide to the History of Physics and Astronomy |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordguidetohis0000unse |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-19-517198-5}} * {{cite book |last=Nye |first=Mary Jo |year=1996 |publication-date=1996 |title=Before Big Science: The Pursuit of Modern Chemistry and Physics, 1800–1940 |url=https://archive.org/details/beforebigscience0000nyem |location=New York |publisher=Twayne |isbn=0-8057-9512-X |oclc=185866968}}. * {{cite book |last=Segrè |first=Emilio |year=1984 |publication-date=1984 |title=From Falling Bodies to Radio Waves: Classical Physicists and Their Discoveries |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=0-7167-1482-5 |oclc=9943504 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fromfallingbodie00segr }}. * {{cite book |last=Segrè |first=Emilio |year=1980 |publication-date=1980 |title=From X-Rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and Their Discoveries |location=San Francisco |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=0-7167-1147-8 |oclc=237246197 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fromxraystoquark0000segr }}. * {{cite book |author=Weaver, Jefferson H. (editor) |title=The World of Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofphysicssm00weav |url-access=registration |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1987 |isbn=0-671-49931-9}} A selection of 56 articles, written by physicists. Commentaries and notes by [[Lloyd Motz]] and Dale McAdoo. * de Haas, Paul, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090826083339/http://home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/ "Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)"] {{Historia del scientia}} [[Category:Physica]] d4xncecp85lhus46n1au7l9wv6hldk9 0 61196 699505 699354 2026-09-03T04:51:33Z Interlingvisto 60932 699505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Edith Irene Södergran''', nascite le [[4 de april]] [[1892]] in [[Sanct Petersburg]], morite le [[24 de junio]] [[1923]] in [[Raivola]],<ref>Ström, pagina 188</ref> esseva un [[Finlandeses de lingua svedese|poeta de lingua svedese de Finlandia]]. Edith Södergran debutava al etate de 24 annos con le [[Collection poetic|collection poetic]] ''[[Dikter (collection poetic de Edith Södergran)|Dikter]]'' (1916). In total, illa publicava quatro collectiones poetic e un collection de [[Aphorismo|aphorismos]]. [[Postume|Postumemente]] esseva publicate le collection poetic ''[[Landet som icke är]]'' (1925). Illa esseva un del prime representantes del [[Modernismo|modernismo]] in le litteratura de lingua svedese,<ref>Ström, paginas 83–89</ref> influentiate per le [[Symbolismo|symbolismo]] francese, le [[Expressionismo|expressionismo]] german e le [[Futurismo|futurismo]] russe. Insimul con [[Hagar Olsson]], Södergran voleva introducer le mundo al «nove specie». «Sed le contento que illa poneva in su discurso sur» iste nove specie cambiava rapidemente: «In 1918 illo esseva fundate sur [[Zarathustra]], create per [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], le anno sequente le stella guida esseva [[Rudolf Steiner]], postea illo se spostava verso [[Christo]] e intra un silentio lyric, que esseva rumpite solmente le anno ante su morte.»<ref name="Lönnroth et. al., s. 155">Lönnroth et al., pagina 155.</ref> Le biographia de Södergran ha essite partialmente controversate, proque le [[Material de fontes|material de fontes]] es escasse e le prime [[Biographia|biographos]], como le influente [[Gunnar Tideström]], traheva de illo conclusiones de grande extension, que postea habeva un grande diffusion.<ref>Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', paginas 8–9</ref> Le investigation sur Södergran es ergo dividite in duo correntes principal: le corrente biographic-psychologic basa su interpretation del poemas de Södergran super detalios de su vita (su [[Tuberculose|tuberculose]] de longe duration, per exemplo), durante que le corrente plus [[Contextualismo|contextual]] compara le poesia de Södergran con celle de su contemporaneos, usa un lectura [[Historia del ideas|historiographic del ideas]] de su poemas e examina varie constructiones theoric (como su connexion con [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]).<ref name="Rahikainen13">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', paginas 10–13</ref> Le investigation ha in grande mesura abandonate le modello de interpretation biographic-psychologic in favor de studia contextual, historiographic del ideas e analytico del textos.<ref>{{Webbref|titel=På fria villkor|url=https://www.sls.fi/sv/utgivning/pa-fria-villkor|verk=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland|datum=2018-11-01|hämtdatum=2021-03-05|språk=sv}}</ref> Su influentia sur le [[Imagineria|imagineria]], le rhythmo e le stilo associative e libere del lyrica svedese moderne e del lyrica de rock es evidente e pote esser observate, inter alteres, in le obras de [[Gunnar Ekelöf]], [[Elmer Diktonius]], [[Eva Ström]], [[Eva-Stina Byggmästar]], [[Catharina Gripenberg|Catarina Gripenberg]], [[Mare Kandre]], [[Gunnar Harding]], [[Eva Runefelt]] e [[Eva Dahlgren]]. == Biographia == === Infantia e juventute === [[File:Edith Södergran, 5 years old.jpg|thumb|upright|Edith Södergran al etate de 5 annos.]] Södergran esseva nascite in un familia del classe medie superior in [[Sanct Petersburg]]. Su genitores esseva Matts<!-- Hans forename esseva realmente "Matts". Non modificar. --> Södergran<ref name="Rahikainen22">Rahikainen: ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', paginas 22–23</ref> e Helena, nascite Holmroos. Le patre esseva un mechanico originari de [[Österbotten (regione historic)|Österbotten]], durante que le matre esseva un habitante de secunde generation de Sanct Petersburg, con radices in [[Nagu]].<ref name="Rahikainen22" /> Södergran esseva le sol infante commun del genitores. Le patre esseva viduo post que su prime sposa moriva de [[Tuberculose|tuberculose]]<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Rahikainen|first=Agneta|title=Edith Södergran Stjärnfangerskan|date=2023|access-date=2026|year=2023|page=14}}</ref> e lor duo infantes moriva juvene; le matre habeva etiam, plure annos ante, parturite un filio extra-marital, qui moriva solmente post alcun dies.<ref name="Ström16"/><ref name=":2" /> Le matre proveniva de un familia plus benestante,<ref name=":2" /> ubi le position del feminas intra le familia pare haber essite forte.<ref name="Ström16"/> Es etiam clar que existeva un forte ligamine de confidentia inter Södergran e su matre.<ref>Ström, pagina 17</ref> Le matre esseva le prime lectora e critica del poeta. {{cita|Le relation exclusive inter matre e filia esseva de maxime importantia pro Södergran, particularmente per su bon confidentia in se mesme, fortificate per su matre, un imagine de se que personas externe poterea perciper como impertinente e pretentiose.|[[Agneta Rahikainen]], ''Poeten och hennes apostlar''<ref name="Rahikainen22" />}} In principio, quasi nihil es cognoscite super le relation con le patre.<ref>Ström, paginas 17–18</ref> Possibilemente le matre multo presente e le patre absente esseva le causa proque Södergran habeva le possibilitate de occupar le scena e esser al centro del attention de su matre.<ref name="Rahikainen22" /> Como infante, Södergran legeva multo, super toto contos, e illa amava multo le animales.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=Kampen om Edith: Biografi och myt om Edith Södergran|year=2014|access-date=2021-05-05|isbn=978-951-52-3342-4|oclc=881225201|first=Agneta|last=Rahikainen|pages=184–185}}</ref> Quando Södergran habeva solmente alcun menses, le familia se moveva al village de [[Raivola]] in le [[Istmo carelian]], ubi su avô maternal Gabriel Holmroos comprava un villa pro illes.<ref name="Ström16">Ström, pagina 16</ref> Illes fugiva le capital russe pro evitar un epidemia de cholera. Le villa habeva 12 cameras e esseva un del plus de 600 villas de ligno ornate simile, pro le qual le istmo esseva famose. Ante le [[Prime Guerra Mundial]], plus de 100 000 visitatores estival veniva de Sanct Petersburg al Istmo carelian.<ref>Burman, Carina: [http://www.svd.se/doden-gjorde-helgon-av-edith-sodergran ''Döden gjorde helgon av Edith Södergran'']. ''Svenska Dagbladet'', 20 maio 2014. Consultate le 8 septembre 2015.</ref> Raivola habeva bon communicationes con Sanct Petersburg (le viage per train durava duo horas) e [[Viborg, Russia|Viborg]].<ref name="Rahikainen122">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pagina 122</ref> Poco postea, le patre obteneva un posto como director de un [[Serreria|serreria]]. Post tres annos, le empresa cadeva in [[Bancarrotta|bancarrotta]] e le familia non poteva pagar lor debitas. Tamen, Gabriel Holmroos moriva alcun menses plus tarde e le hereditate esseva dividite inter Helena Södergran e su matre.<ref name="Ström16" /> Con le moneta del hereditate, Helena Södergran pagava le debitas del familia, lo que les permitteva de recuperar lor stabilitate economic.<ref name="Ström16" /> [[File:Edith Södergran's mother Helena - 14150407260.jpg|thumb|upright|Helena Södergran, matre de Edith Södergran.]] Il existe non multe imagines del patre de Edith Södergran, sed multo plus del matre. Helena Södergran habeva studiate in un del prestigiose scholas german pro pueras de Sanct Petersburg, le S:t Annenschule.<ref>Rahikainen, ''Kampen om Edith'', pagina 40</ref> Edith Södergran habeva un relation multo special con su matre. Helena adorava su filia e le relation con illa esseva importante. Quando Edith Södergran entrava al schola in 1902, illa e su matre veniva a passar le periodos escolar in Sanct Petersburg, ubi illas habitava in un casa de ligno presso le station ferroviari finlandese. Le patre remaneva in Raivola, ben que ille esseva disoccupate durante periodos prolongate.<ref name="ström22">Rahikainen, ''Kampen om Edith'', pagina 42</ref> Le villa in Raivola habeva dece-duo cameras. In addition, existeva un casa plus parve, que esseva affittate a un viro estonian. Il habeva etiam un sauna e edificios auxiliar. Al latere del casa del Södergran se trovava le ecclesia orthodoxe russe del village.<ref>Ström, pagina 134</ref> Ekelöf considerava plus tarde que il esseva impossibile comprender le poesia de Södergran sin haber visitate Raivola.<ref>Rahikainen, ''Kampen om Edith'', paginas 287–288</ref> (Isto es ver solmente con modificationes: le [[Henry Parland|fratres Parland]] cresceva presso Viborg e [[Tito Colliander|Colliander]] in Sanct Petersburg).<ref name="ström22" /> <gallery mode="packed"> File:The "big house" at Raivola.jpg|Le casa grande. File:Edith Södergran´s house in Raivola.jpg|Le casa viste ab un altere angulo. File:The "small house" in Ravola. Ortodox church in the background.jpg|Le casa parve. File:Washbasins. Raivola.jpg|Edificio auxiliar con bassinos pro lavar. File:Södergran's sauna.jpg|Le sauna. </gallery> Le familia Södergran habeva un puera adoptive de Raivola, Singa Maria Lötjönen<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1">{{Webbref|titel=1961 Dikter : 1907-1909. 1, Inledning och kommentar ..., s. 48|url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2256760?page=48|verk=digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi|hämtdatum=2025-09-07|språk=sv|sid=45-48}}</ref>, qui habitava durante un breve periodo con le familia in Sanct Petersburg, sed illa non se sentiva ben e fugiva a casa per le vias ferroviari, ubi illa esseva occidite per un train.<ref name=":0" /> Non se sape como Södergran reagiva al morte de su soror adoptive, sed Singa esseva plus tarde le destinataria de un poema.<ref>Ström, pagina 23</ref> Le solitudine es qualcosa que Eva Ström, basate super «recente investigation psychologic», considera como possibile fonte de su forte confidentia in se mesme e de su fide in su proprie capacitate.<ref name="ström22" /> Durante su annos de schola, Södergran frequentava plure compagnes, inter illas Thusnelda Thomson e Paula Orlowskij; iste ultime etiam passava alcun estates con le familia Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainen23">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pagina 23</ref> === Scholaritate === Edith Södergran, secundo lo que se sape, non frequentava un schola pro infantes parve, sed esseva educate a casa e plus tarde in germano per un institutrice private. Isto esseva pro permitter la a entrar in un del plus prestigiose scholas german de puellas. Södergran entrava in le prime classe in 1902–1903 al Höhere Mädchenschule,<ref name="Rahikainen22">{{cite book|last=Rahikainen|first=Agneta|title=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|year=2014|publisher=Helsingfors universitet|location=Helsingfors|isbn=978-952-10-9791-1|pages=22–23}}</ref><ref name="Enckell1961">{{cite book|last=Enckell|first=Olof|title=Vaxdukshäftet: En studie i Edith Södergrans ungdomsdiktning|year=1961|publisher=Söderström|location=Helsingfors}}</ref> in le traditional Petrischule (rus. Петришуле, germ. Die deutsche Hauptschule zu S Petri) in Sankt Petersburg, ubi illa studiava usque a 1909. Le schola esseva un del plus prestigiose del citate, con un grande biblioteca escolar e professores competente.<!-- Referentia necessari pro iste assertion --> Le curso esseva de septe annos e terminava con le examination final del schola. Le schola accordava multe importantia al arte e cultura; le maestro de ballet del ballet imperial inseniava le dansa, e durante le instruction artistic le studentes poteva visitar le [[Hermitage]] e le Museo Russe. De su tempore in le schola remane un parve taccuino in le qual Södergran colleccionava citationes ex libros que illa legeva, lo que monstra que illa cognosceva le classics de su epocha del litteratura mundial.<ref name="WittBrattstrom20-46">{{cite book|last=Witt-Brattström|first=Ebba|title=Ediths jag: Edith Södergran och modernismens födelse|year=1997|publisher=Norstedts|location=Stockholm|isbn=91-1-971402-5|pages=20–46}}</ref><ref name="Strom28">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=28}}</ref><ref name="Enckell1961" /> In le schola il habeva studentes de multe nationalitates, inter altere infantes german, russe, finnic, baltogerman e scandinav.<!-- Referentia necessari pro iste assertion --> Le direction principal del instruction esseva le [[linguas moderne]]. Södergran apprendeva germano, francese, anglese e russe, ma illa non recipeva instruction in su proprie lingua maternal, le svedese, e su cognoscentia del [[grammatica svedese|grammatica]] e orthographia svedese remaneva un poco vacillante. Le [[germano]] esseva, del resto, le lingua le plus frequentemente parlate tanto in le schola como inter Södergran e su amicos.<ref name="Ström32">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=32}}</ref>[[File Södergran - 14150405960.jpg|thumb|upright|Södergran, a 12 annos.<ref name="Ström31">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=31}}</ref>]]Södergran esseva un studente intelligente con un rapide capacitate de comprehension. Illa non debeva non plus dedicar multo tempore al [[deber escolar|deberes]]. Un de su condiscipulos la describiva como le plus dotate studente del classe. Su major interesse esseva le lectiones de francese. Isto esseva in parte debite al professor Henri Cottier. A ille Södergran dedicava alcun de su poemas juvenil. Illos es conservate in un quaderno nigre que in le investigationes super Södergran ha essite appellate le Vaxdukshäftet. Illos esseva publicate pro le prime vice per Olof Enckell sub le titulo ''Vaxdukshäftet'' (1961).<ref name="Ström32" /><ref name="Enckell1961" /> Iste annos de schola coincideva con agitationes politic e forte tensiones social que pote ben haber influentiate le conception del mundo de Södergran.<ref name="Ström30">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=30}}</ref> Le schola esseva situate in le centro del citate, proxime al [[Palatio de Hiverne]]. Le agitationes que conduceva al Revolution russe comenciava con demonstrationes e tumultos ja in 1905, lo que habeva etiam un consequentia pro Södergran. Le schola esseva per exemplo claudite durante duo dies in le occasione del [[Domingo sanguinose (1905)|Domingo sanguinose]] in januario 1905, quando plus de mille citatanos pacific, includente feminas e infantes, esseva falciate per le [[tsar]] [[Nicola II de Russia|garda de Nicola II]].<ref name="Ström29">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=29}}</ref> Le insurrectiones lassava etiam lor marcas in le poesia de Södergran, como in le poema «Wenn sich die Sonne neigt», ubi illa scribe super cadaveres tumefacte que flotta in le verdes undas del fluvio Neva.<ref name="WittBrattstrom20-53">{{Bokref|efternomo=Witt-Brattström|prenomo=Ebba|titulo=Ediths jag: Edith Södergran och modernismens födelse|anno=1997|editor=Norstedts|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-1-971402-5|pagine=20–53}}</ref><ref name="Rahikainen69">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|anno=2014|editor=Helsingfors universitet|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-952-10-9791-1|pagina=69}}</ref> In 1911 Södergran planificava prender como candidate private le examination final del schola al [[Laurellska skolan]] in Helsinki, ma illa non compliva su plano. Probabilemente isto esseva ligate al facto que illa al mesme tempore viagiava a [[Suisse]] pro reciper curas in un sanatorio.<ref name="Rahikainen22" /> === Morte del patre === Södergran continuava su studios, ma in 1904 su patre se malava de [[tuberculose pulmonar]] (TBC).<ref name="Strom24">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagine=24–25}}</ref> In su diario medical se mentiona que ille etiam suffreva de alcoholismo. In maio 1906 ille esseva admittite al [[Nummela sanatorium]] in [[Nyland]].<ref name="Strom24" /> In octobre 1907 Matts Södergran moriva. Il es incerto qual esseva le relation inter Edith Södergran e su patre, proque illa non lo mentiona multo in le cartas o notas conservate.<ref>{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=26}}</ref> === Le photographa Södergran === Södergran possedeva un camera [[Kodak Brownie]] e esseva un photographa amateur active. Le major parte de su photographias esseva facite inter 1910 e 1917. Post 1917 le situation economic del familia Södergran esseva tanto mal que illa non habeva le medios de comprar film e facer lo revelar.<ref name="Strom141">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=141}}</ref><ref name="RahikainenKamera">{{Cita libro|autor=Agneta Rahikainen|capitulo=Edith Södergran och kameran|titulo=Som en eld över askan: Edith Södergrans fotografier|anno=1993|editor=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland|loco=Helsingfors|pagine=10–15}}</ref> Le motivos esseva prendite de su ambiente proxime, lo que significava tanto photographias turistic de Davos como imagines del proprietate de Södergran in le [[Istmo de Karelia]]. In total, 280 positive original e 135 [[pellicula negative|negativos]] es conservate in le archivo de Edith Södergran. Plure de su photographias ha essite publicate in le libro ''Som en eld över askan'' (1993).<ref name="Strom141" /> ''En annan Edith'' de [[Nina Ulmaja]] (2023) contine 180 photographias alternate con informationes biographic e es construite como un intercambio de cartas inter le autrice e Edith Södergran.<ref name="Ulmaja2023">{{Cita libro|autor=Nina Ulmaja|titulo=En annan Edith|anno=2023|editor=Norstedts|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=978-91-1-311687-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web|titulo=Nina Ulmaja förminskar Edith Södergran till en modig rebelltjej|url=https://www.dn.se/kultur/nina-ulmaja-forminskar-edith-sodergran-till-en-modig-rebelltjej/|obra=Dagens Nyheter|fecha=2023-04-26|fechaacceso=2023-05-23|idioma=sv}}</ref> <gallery mode="packed"> File:The lake Onkamo.jpg|Le lac Onkamo. File:Two cats on the stairs. Raivola.jpg|Duo cattos. File:Winter in Raivola.jpg|Inverno in Raivola. File:Wood logs on Onkamo.jpg|Flottation sur le lac Onkamo. </gallery> ==='Vaxdukshäftet' e le prime scriptura=== Le poemas del que ha devenite cognoscite como ''Vaxdukshäftet''{{efn|Le nomine esseva coniate per Olof Enckell con le publication del quaderno.<ref name="Rahikainen23">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|anno=2014|editor=Helsingfors universitet|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-952-10-9791-1|pagine=23}}</ref>}} esseva componite inter januario 1907 e le estate de 1909.<ref name="Strom40">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=40}}</ref> Le quaderno integre contine 238 poemas, lo que representa circa le medietate de su production conservate.<ref name="Rahikainen23" /> Le major parte del poemas es in le germano del schola, alcun poemas es in francese e un in russe. Assatis bruscamente illa passa a scriber exclusivemente in svedese; isto occurre in 1908.<ref name="Rahikainen58-72">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Kampen om Edith: Biografi och myt om Edith Södergran|anno=2014|editor=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-951-52-3342-4|pagine=58–72}}</ref> Inter le poemas de ''Vaxdukshäftet'' que representa le annos de schola de Södergran, il ha, ultra le poemas amorose dedicate a Cottier e, in minor mesura, a le puella coetanee «K.» o «Käfrin»,<ref>{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=39}}</ref> etiam poemas con [[politica|motivos politic]] super Sankt Petersburg e le regime del tsar, ma etiam super le contraste inter le citate e le campania.<ref name="Strom31">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=31}}</ref> Le poemas de ''Vaxdukshäftet'' es predominantemente in [[forma fixe]], specialmente inspirate per [[Heinrich Heine]], qui esseva assidumente legite in le schola.<ref name="Strom34">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=34}}</ref> Alcun del poemas ha motivos de conto de fadas simile a illos que appare in su poesia posterior, ma illa scribe etiam poemas super esser poeta, un thema al qual illa retornava plus tarde in su production.<ref>{{Bokref|efternomo=Witt-Brattström|prenomo=Ebba|titulo=Ediths jag: Edith Södergran och modernismens födelse|anno=1997|editor=Norstedts|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-1-971402-5|pagine=20–53}}</ref> Como juvene, Södergran esseva critic del religion christian e exprimeva ja in su juventute un angustia existential. In le quaderno il ha, inter altere cosas, un poema ironic super su proprie autopsia.<ref name="Rahikainen58-72" /><ref name="WittBrattstrom20-53">{{Bokref|efternomo=Witt-Brattström|prenomo=Ebba|titulo=Ediths jag: Edith Södergran och modernismens födelse|anno=1997|editor=Norstedts|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-1-971402-5|pagine=20–53}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web|titulo=«Jag är lag i mig själv»|url=https://nordicwomensliterature.net/se/2011/01/04/jag-ar-lag-i-mig-sjalv/|obra=Nordisk kvinnolitteraturhistoria|autor=Ebba Witt-Brattström|fechaacceso=2021-05-18|idioma=sv}}</ref> Le quaderno esseva plus tarde date a Elmer Diktonius, qui in 1957 lo transmitteva al [[Societate litterari svedese in Finlandia]].<ref name="Strom33">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=33}}</ref> On sape que il existeva plure quadernos de poemas, inter illos un que dispariva quando le [[Blancos|parte blanc]] del [[Guerra civil finnic|guerra civil finnic]] usava le villa de Södergran in Raivola como sala de comedor.<ref name="Strom33" /> In 1908 Södergran decideva passar completemente al svedese; le poemas in germano cessava subitemente le 3 octobre 1908. Le prime poemas in svedese del ''Vaxdukshäftet'' es a vices linguisticamente maladresse, ma il es evidente que illa cercava nove formas de expression que assomiglia a le poemas de su collection de debut, ''[[Dikter (collection de poemas de Edith Södergran)|Dikter]]''. Le investigadores non sape proque Edith Södergran cambiava subitemente de lingua, ma il es evidente que le cambio de lingua esseva ligate al cambio de stilo e tematica. Le svedese, le lingua del casa, esseva probabilemente plus proxime a su io interior, que illa voleva ora exprimer in forma poetic. In 1909 illa publicava un poema, «Hoppet», in un folio pro membros del organisation juvenile del [[Partito Popular Svedese de Finlandia]], ''Vårbrytning''.<ref name="Rahikainen61-71">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Kampen om Edith: Biografi och myt om Edith Södergran|anno=2014|editor=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-951-52-3342-4|pagine=61–62, 70–71}}</ref> === Maladia e convalescentia === [[File:Edith Södergran - 14150403530.jpg|thumb|upright|Södergran, self-retrato.]] In le fin de 1908, Edith Södergran se maladeva de [[tuberculose pulmonar]]. A ille tempore le perspectivas de un recuperation complete de tuberculose pulmonar non esseva particularmente bon. Solmente con le diffusion de [[streptomicina]] post le Secunde Guerra Mundial deveniva possibile curar le morbo. 70–80 % del personas acutemente malade moriva intra un periodo de dece annos.<ref name="Strom47">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=47}}</ref> Inter le methodos de cura esseva inter altere aere fresc, exercitio e alimento nutritive.<ref name="Rahikainen25">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|anno=2014|editor=Helsingfors universitet|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-952-10-9791-1|pagine=25–26}}</ref> A pena un mense post le diagnose, le 25 de januario 1909, illa esseva admittite al [[Nummela sanatorium]]. Södergran restava a Nummela, con breve interrupciones, durante in total un anno e quatro menses (480 dies), usque al 4 de maio 1911, multo plus longe que le normal cinque menses que le personas de medios modeste poteva permitter se.<ref name="Rahikainen26">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|anno=2014|editor=Helsingfors universitet|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-952-10-9791-1|pagina=26}}</ref> [[File:Edith Södergran in her sickbed, Arosa.jpg|thumb|Södergran in su lecto de malade in [[Arosa]].]] Secundo investigationes plus recente, le integre estancia hospitalari de Södergran esseva relativamente positive. Poco post su arrivata a Nummela, Södergran faceva le cognoscentia del altere pacientes. Le facto que le sanatorio esseva tan parve favoriva contactos frequente con le altere pacientes, in particular con Siiri Böök, con qui illa comenciava un correspondentia. Le litteras es allegre e positive.<ref name="Rahikainen25" /> Södergran monstra in le litteras interesse pro su condiscipulos qui passava le examination final in 1909. Le situation economic de Södergran permitteva le melior cura que Nummela poteva offerer, e secundo le jornal medical illa se sentiva le plus del tempore ben.<ref name="Rahikainen25" /> Isto permitteva a illa retornar occasionalmente a Raivola, ubi, inter altere, illa studiava un curso de finnic pro poter passar le examination final del schola. Durante le longe dies, Södergran se refugiava in su imagination in altere paises e scribeva poemas super locos exotique.<ref name="Strom51">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=51}}</ref> Durante le annos sequente, su stato alternava inter periodos melior e pejor, lo que es typic pro le tuberculose.<ref name="Rahikainen44">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Kampen om Edith: Biografi och myt om Edith Södergran|anno=2014|editor=Förlaget|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-951-52-3342-4|pagina=44}}</ref> [[File:Doctor Ludwig von Muralt (14336272064).jpg|thumb|upright|Doctor Ludwig von Muralt.]] [[File:The sanitarium Davos-Dorf (14357228353).jpg|thumb|Le sanatorio Davos-Dorf, photographate per Södergran.]] Proque le situation economic de Södergran esseva bon a ille tempore, illa decideva cercar ancora melior curas in un sanatorio in [[Suisse]], que esseva le centro del tratamento del tuberculose in Europa. Initialmente illa soggiornava in un sanatorio in Arosa, ma esseva discontenta con le cura ibi.<ref name="Rahikainen83">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Kampen om Edith: Biografi och myt om Edith Södergran|anno=2014|editor=Förlaget|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-951-52-3342-4|pagine=83–85}}</ref> In januario 1912 illa se transferiva al sanatorio Davos-Dorf, ubi illa esseva curate per le alora famose Dr [[Ludwig von Muralt]]. Illa le admirava multo e le photographava.<ref name="Rahikainen28">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|anno=2014|editor=Helsingfors universitet|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-952-10-9791-1|pagina=28}}</ref> Dr von Muralt proponeva un assi appellate [[pneumothorax]] sinistre. Isto significava que durante un operation on perforava le pulmone e le impleva repetitemente de [[azoto]]. Le pulmone perforate deveniva inservibile, ma illo poteva «reposar». Iste esseva un intervention commun a ille tempore.<ref name="Rahikainen28b">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=53}}; {{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|anno=2014|editor=Helsingfors universitet|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-952-10-9791-1|pagina=28}}; {{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Kampen om Edith: Biografi och myt om Edith Södergran|anno=2014|editor=Förlaget|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-951-52-3342-4|pagina=92}}</ref> [[File:Arnold Boecklin-fiedelnder Tod.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Arnold Böcklin]], autoritratto con [[Morte]] qui joca le violino.]] Le tractamento e le convalescentia requireva que illa sequeva un regime stricte con dieta ric in grassia, reposo e promenadas fortificante. In Davos illa habeva etiam le occasion de explorar le vita cultural del citate. Ibi il habeva theatros, expositiones de arte, un orchestra symphonic, restaurants e multe possibilitates de education pro le juvene Södergran, simil al offerta cultural de Sankt Petersburg.<ref name="Rahikainen28" /> Södergran comenciava apprender le [[italiano]], ma recipeva etiam instruction private in anglese pro poter leger [[Charles Dickens]] e [[Algernon Swinburne]] in le linguas original. In addition, Södergran se interessava multo al arte visual e explorava le museos de arte in le citates vicin. Su artista favorite esseva [[Arnold Böcklin]].<ref name="Strom57">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagina=57}}</ref> Le contacto con le litteratura e le altere formation cultural deveniva importante pro le sequente vita litterari de Södergran e un elemento al qual illa retornava in su obra.<ref name="Rahikainen28" /> Probabilemente le estancia in Suisse esseva etiam su prime contacto con le [[futurismo]], in le forma del revista expressionista ''[[Der Sturm]]''.<ref name="Rahikainen27">{{Bokref|efternomo=Rahikainen|prenomo=Agneta|titulo=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden|anno=2014|editor=Helsingfors universitet|loco=Helsingfors|ISBN=978-952-10-9791-1|pagina=27}}</ref> Illa continuava su correspondentia con su amicos, inter illes su amica Jenny Barcker in Helsinki e le governante Kirsti Kaikkonen. Del periodo del sanatorio se conserva un taccuino, ''English Compositions'', in le qual illa scribeva breve textos biographic e summarios de articulos que illa legeva in anglese. In le quaderno il se trova un [[essay]] super, inter altere, le [[suffragio feminin]] e le movimento del [[suffragettes]]. Illa se interessava al situation politic in Finlandia e al suffragio feminin, introducite in Finlandia in 1906.<ref name="Rahikainen28" /> Tamen, illa non votava pro le prime vice usque al electiones parlamentar del primavera 1919. Post maio 1912, on non poteva plus deteger bacterios tubercular in ulle del pulmones de Södergran. Matre e filia Södergran approfittava del occasion pro viagiar in Europa e visitava, inter altere, [[Lucerna]] e grande citates como [[Berlin]], [[Munich]] e [[Zurich]]. Illas viagiava etiam a Italia in le primavera de 1913. In maio 1913 illas retornava a Raivola. In le autumno illas retornava a Davos. Dr von Muralt la mandava a casa in martio 1914 proque illa non habeva plus problemas respiratori. Postea illa debeva solmente visitar Nummela regularmente pro replenisar le azoto in le pulmone sinistre. Ma le tentativas esseva sin successo e etiam multo dolorose, e finalmente Södergran refusava ulle altere tractamento.<ref name="Rahikainen28" /> Le eruption del Prime Guerra Mundial significava que Södergran non poteva plus retornar a Davos.<ref name="Strom59">{{Bokref|efternomo=Ström|prenomo=Eva|titulo=Edith Södergran|anno=1994|editor=Natur och Kultur|loco=Stockholm|ISBN=91-27-03527-1|pagine=59–60}}</ref> === Debuto litterari === Södergran voleva testar si su poesia esseva apta al publication.<ref name="Rahikainen29">Rahikainen: ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pagina 29</ref> Durante un visita a Helsinki in 1915, illa monstrava su poemas, probabilemente le quaderno de poemas que dispariva,<ref name="Rahikainen29" /> al autor e critic [[Arvid Mörne]], qui esseva multo incoragiante. Le critic litterari Gunnar Castrén esseva plus dubitante, forsan etiam proque ille considerava Södergran troppo pretentiose.<ref name="Rahikainen29" /> Le facto que illa visitava personas litterari de lingua svedese es significative pro le decision de Södergran de scriber in svedese. In maio 1916, Södergran contactava le autor [[Runar Schildt]] pro explorar le possibilitates de publicar su obras per [[Schildts|Schildts förlag]]. Su cosino, le editor [[Holger Schildt]], acceptava su poesia pro publication e publicava le libro de poemas in le Natal de 1916, tamen sin poter offerer a illa ulle [[honorar]].<ref name="Rahikainen29" /><ref name="Strom59">Ström, paginas 59–64</ref> Le collection de poemas introduceva le nove femina in le poesia svedese e se basava super le scriptos de [[Ellen Key]] e le essay ''Vom neuen Weibe und seiner Liebe'' de [[Elisabeth Dauthendey]].<ref name="Rahikainen30">Rahikainen: ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pagina 30. Vide etiam Witt-Brattström 1997, paginas 205–246 e Birgitta Holm, ”Edith Södergran och den nya kvinnan”, ''Tidskrift för litteraturvetenskap'' 1990, paginas 57–64.</ref> Un del ideas central de Dauthendey esseva que le femina debe concentrar se super su amicas. Le poemas del debut de Södergran include etiam poemas amorose e poemas que tracta de varie manieras le desiro erotic e le [[sexualitate]] del femina.<ref name="Strom67">Ström, pagina 67</ref> In ''[[Dikter (diktsamling av Edith Södergran)|Dikter]]'' se trova plure del poemas le plus cognoscite de Södergran, per exemplo le narrative "Dagen svalnar…", super le concentration del homine super le corporeal in loco del qualitates spiritual del femina. Le ultime stropha del poema dice: {{citation2| Du sökte en blomma<br> och fann en frukt.<br> Du sökte en källa<br> och fann ett hav.<br> Du sökte en kvinna<br> och fann en själ –<br> du är besviken. |col2= Tu cercava un flor<br> e trovava un fructo.<br> Tu cercava un fonte<br> e trovava un mar.<br> Tu cercava un femina<br> e trovava un anima –<br> tu es disappunctate. |Edith Södergran|llengua1={{sv}}|llengua2={{ia}}}} Un altere poema ben cognoscite es ''Vierge Moderne'' ("Le virgine moderne"), que poterea esser inspirate per le figura [[androgyn]]a de [[Tintomara]] de [[Carl Jonas Love Almqvist]]. Le poema contine forte symbolos erotic e ha sovente essite interpretate per medio de un linguage de symbolos psychoanalytic.<ref name="Rahikainen121">Rahikainen: ''Kampen om Edith'', pagina 121.</ref> Le poema es inter le plus frequentemente citate e comencia con le stropha: ”Io non es un femina. Io es un neutro./ Io es un infante, un page e un decision audace.” A su epocha, iste poema esseva un del plus radicales.<ref name="Strom72">Ström, paginas 72–73</ref> In le forma, ''[[Dikter (diktsamling av Edith Södergran)|Dikter]]'' se distingue considerabilemente de ''Vaxdukshäftet''. Le poemas del debut es plus libere in lor forma e manca rimas, lo que rompeva con le poesia svedese traditional representate, per exemplo, per [[Johan Ludvig Runeberg]] e [[Zacharias Topelius]]. In contrasto, le descriptiones del natura e le pessimisme de [[Fin de siècle|fin-de-siècle]] esseva elementos que ja habeva apparite anteriormente in le poesia nordic. Le collection de poemas se radica in un tradition romantic, ma introduce simultaneemente un forma e un thematic completemente nove in le poesia.<ref name="Strom86">Ström, pagina 86</ref> Ebba Witt-Brattström ha sublineate forte influentias del poetas feminine del etate argentee russe e etiam del poeta german [[Else Lasker-Schüler|Elsa Lasker-Schüler]].<ref name="WittBrattstrom93">Witt-Brattström, paginas 93–133.</ref> Illa monstra etiam como reminiscientias del periodo del sanatorio in Davos reapparer in le collection del debut.<ref name="WittBrattstrom139">Witt-Brattström, paginas 139–164.</ref> Le libro del debut recipeva grande attention in le sectiones cultural del quotidianos.<ref name="Strom88">Ström, paginas 88–89</ref> Le collection esseva recensite, inter alteres, in [[Dagens press]], [[Hufvudstadsbladet]], [[Finsk tidskrift]] e [[Nya Argus]].<ref name="Strom88" /> In total, illa recipeva nove recensiones, quatro plus que Hagar Olsson recipeva pro su debut in le mesme anno. Ben que le presse provincial exprimeva un certe surprisa super le nove stilo, le libro recipeva generalmente recensiones favorabile in le principal quotidianos e revistas. Hodie le debut de Södergran es considerate le initio del modernismo lyric in le Nord.<ref name="Strom88" /> Södergran mesme esseva tamen disappunctate per le numerose errores de correction del libro e esseva etiam insatisfacite con le selection del poemas. Le editor habeva supprimite poemas que illa voleva includer.<ref name="Rahikainen30" /> === Krigsåren === In 1917 esseva un anno turbulente pro Edith Södergran. In februario, un revolution eruptava in Russia como consequentia del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]], que apportava un crise economic, fame e chaos. Le imperator [[Nikolaj II de Russia|Nikolaj II]] esseva destituite e un governamento interimari prendeva le poter. In septembre 1917, Södergran viagiava a Helsinki<ref name="Ström90">Ström, pp. 90</ref>, ubi illa incontrava plure criticos e personas del mundo litterari: Runar Schildt, [[Ruth Hedvall]], [[Olaf Homén]], [[Jarl Hemmer]], [[Hjalmar Procopé (poeta)|Hjalmar Procopé]], [[Gunnar Finne]], le cantante de opera [[Alexis af Enehjelm]], [[Ture Janson]], [[Eino Leino]], [[Juhani Aho]], [[L. Onerva]] e [[Hans Ruin]]. Le reuniones esseva un maniera tanto de promover se mesme como de obtener legitimita como autor.<ref name="Rahikainen31">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', p. 31</ref> Illa voleva devenir parte del establimento litterari. Le incontro con Ruin es un del poc que ha essite documentate per notas immediate in su diario, durante que le majoritate del altere rencontres esseva notate annos plus tarde. Tamen, le notas de Ruin esseva revise ante de esser transmittite a Gunnar Tideström, e es super iste version modificate que un grande parte del recerca se ha basate. Secundo Rahikainen, le visita a Helsinki terminava con le deception de Södergran, proque le autores que illa incontrava pareva esser tanto conventional e burgese. Solmente le bohemic Eino Leino correspondeva a su expectationes.<ref name="Rahikainen32">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pp. 32–33</ref> [[File:First Red Guards in Petrograd, fall 1917 cropped.jpg|thumb|Le [[Revolution de Octobre]] in Petrograd in 1917.]] Le [[Revolution de Octobre]] significava que le regime imperial esseva definitivemente terminate, quando le [[bolchevicos]], conducite per [[Lenin]], prendeva le poter. Postea le fortunas private esseva confiscate e le bursa collabeva.<ref name="Rahikainen33">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', p. 33</ref> Le ressources economic de Södergran e de su matre deveniva assi subitemente sin valor,<ref>Lönnroth et al., p. 152.</ref> proque illos esseva investite in [[valores mobil]] russe e ukrainian.<ref name="Ström94">Ström, p. 94</ref> Postea Södergran viveva del vendita de partes de lor proprietate, de ingresos temporari e del adjuta economic del editor e de altere autores.<ref name="Rahikainen33" /> Finlandia [[Independente de Finlandia|se declarava independente]] le 6 de decembre 1917. Isto conduceva tosto al [[Guerra civil finlandese]]. A partir de januario 1918, le [[Istmo de Karelia]] deveniva un zona de guerra, quando le [[Guardia Rubie (Finlandia)|Guardias Rubie]] occupava le region.<ref name="Rahikainen33" /> Plus tarde, post que le parte blanc habeva prendite le controlo, Södergran e su matre affittava le grande villa al stato major del parte blanc. Le sympathias burgese del familia e su antipathia verso le parte rubie, cuje actiones habeva causate le perdita de lor pecunia, ha inducite plure biographos de Södergran (per exemplo Tideström e Ström<ref>Ström, p. 95</ref>) a concluder que Edith Södergran e su matre se habeva alignate con le parte blanc. Secundo Rahikainen, tamen, nihil in le litteras de Södergran indica que illa haberea prendite un position. Le facto que le familia accommodava le parte blanc in lor villa esseva plus le resultato de un necessitate que un expression de lor position politic. In addition, illes habeva un servitrice, Aino, qui esseva un membro del Guardia Rubie.<ref>{{Bokref|titulo=''Kampen om Edith : biografi och myt om Edith Södergran''|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/881225201|data=2014|data de accesso=2021-05-17|isbn=978-951-52-3342-4|oclc=881225201|prenom=Agneta|nom=Rahikainen|pp. 130–131}}</ref> Gradualmente le parte blanc prendeva le controlo de territorios sempre plus grande in Finlandia, e a medie de maio 1918 le guerra terminava. Le guerra causava un crise economic e fame in Finlandia, aggravate per le mala recolta de 1917.<ref name="Ström94" /> Le frontiera con Russia al latere oriental del Istmo de Karelia esseva claudite, lo que affectava le population de Raivola. Illes viveva in grande parte del visitatores russe estive, e dependeva del connexion ferroviari con Petersburg. Södergran perdeva le contacto con su amicos in le citate, e multe de illes esseva germanos baltic qui fugiva o esseva internate.<ref name="Rahikainen34">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', p. 34</ref> ===''Septemberlyran''=== Le tempore durante le guerra, Edith Södergran dedicava se in parte al scriptura de poemas. In junio 1918, poc post le fin del guerra, illa recipeva un demanda de Runar Schildt pro ulteriore material que poterea esser publicate le mesme Natal. Pro le prime vice, illa recipeva etiam un honorario (500 [[Marco finlandese|marcos]]) pro su poemas.<ref name="Rahikainen35">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pp. 34–35</ref> ''[[Septemberlyran]]'' contineva in le original (le edition de 1918) 31 poemas,<ref name="Ström, pp. 103–104">Ström, pp. 103–104</ref> de que 9 es datate de septembre 1918.<ref name="Rahikainen34" /> Un version posterior (de 1949) contine in addition 14 poemas: 7 que [[Gunnar Tideström]] habeva prendite de ''Landet som icke är'', que non habeva essite publicate, e 7 que le editor habeva anteriormente eliminate. Le version de Tideström es illo sur que se basa le majoritate del editiones posterior, ma illo non es dunque basate sur le collection original. In addition, le ordine del poemas differe inter le duo versiones. In 1990, le version original esseva publicate per le [[Societate de litteratura svedese in Finlandia]], que ha publicate le scriptos complete de Edith Södergran con commentarios.<ref name="Ström, pp. 103–104"/> In comparation con ''[[Dikter (collection de poemas de Edith Södergran)|Dikter]]'', que pote esser considerate plus oniric e symbolic, ''Septemberlyran'' es expressionistic e [[Friedrich Nietzsche|nietzschean]]. Su poesia habeva entrate in un nove phase, e, inspirate per le ideal artistic de Nietzsche, illa aperi le libro con un introduction forti in le qual illa explica su nove orientation. Introductiones esseva alora relativamente inusual. In le introduction del libro, illa describe su nove poetica, in le qual illa approba le fortia dionysiac del creation, spontanee e instinctive. Illa conclude con le celebre sententia: «Il non me conveni facer me minor que io es.»<ref>{{Bokref|titulo=''Kampen om Edith : biografi och myt om Edith Södergran''|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/881225201|data=2014|data de accesso=2021-05-17|isbn=978-951-52-3342-4|oclc=881225201|prenom=Agneta|nom=Rahikainen|p. 137}}</ref> ===Inspiration per Nietzsche=== [[File:Nietzsche187c.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], qui inspirava Södergran.]] Un generation plus vetule de artistas e intellectuales ante Södergran habeva discoperite le scriptos de [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], e su ideas comenciava a diffunder se sempre plus durante le annos 1870 e finalmente habeva un influentia crescente super le artistas etiam in le nord de Europa.<ref>Ström, p. 98</ref> Södergran legeva Nietzsche, non solmente ''[[Sålunda talade Zarathustra|Ainsi parlava Zarathustra]]'', ma etiam ''[[Bortier del ben e del mal|Ultra le ben e le mal]]'' e probabilemente etiam ''[[Ecce Homo (libro de Friedrich Nietzsche)|Ecce Homo]]''.<ref>Ström, pp. 98–99</ref> In ille illa trovava le fortia de resister a un vita quotidian disagradabile e humilianti.<ref>Ström, p. 97</ref> [[Clas Zilliacus]] considera que tanto nietzscheanos como christianos, mysticos e [[Antroposophia|anthroposophos]] ha potite trovar conviction in su poesia.<ref name="s151">Lönnroth et al., p. 151.</ref> Le elementos nietzschean appare principalmente in su tres collectiones de 1918–1920. Le questiones de como «conservar corage e dignitate ante le suffrentia, miseria e maladia mortal» deveniva central.<ref>Lönnroth et al., p. 153.</ref> [[Carl-Göran Ekerwald]], qui scribeva un biographia de Nietzsche, considera que Nietzsche non cercava un paradiso ultra le morte, ma videva le recuperation e le equilibrio como un paradiso.<ref>Le position de Ekerwald es describite in Ström, p. 99</ref> In addition, Nietzsche criticava le [[ration]], qualcosa que Södergran, con su maniera [[intuition|intuitive]] de scriber, appreciava.<ref>Ström, p. 100</ref> Le ideas de Nietzsche super le dimension [[heroismo|heroic]] de affirmar le dolor inspirava le scriptura de Södergran. Ebba Witt-Brattström sublinea como Södergran ancorava su ideologia e su linguage in le rhetoric e ideologia de Nietzsche. Plure altere autoras faceva le mesme. Illas trovava supporto pro lor conception del nove femina in su maniera de describer le artista. Investigatores posterior ha sostenite que le articulo del lector, in combination con le nota introductori, es un del prime manifestos litterari publicate per un femina. Le annos 1910 esseva le epocha auree del manifestos artistic, e Södergran esseva probabilemente inspirate per le manifesto futurista.<ref>Ström, p. 101</ref> ===Le debatte litterari circa ''Septemberlyran''=== Ja ante que le libro habeva essite recensite, Södergran scribeva mesme un contribution al rubrica del lectores in le jornal de Helsingfors ''[[Dagens Press]]'' le vespere de Anno Nove 1918, pro explicar un parte de su intentiones con le poemas. Iste texto es un del prime tractatos de [[poetica]] scribite per un femina in le nord de Europa (post [[Fredrika Runeberg]] e su ''Min pennas saga'', scribite al fin del annos 1860 e al initio del annos 1870, ma publicate solmente in 1946).<ref>Ulla Evers, «Det är makten, som darrar i min sko, det är makten, som rör sig i min klännings veck. Edith Södergran utmanar den manliga litterära hegemonin» (1998), p. 125. Citato in Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pp. 36–37</ref> {{Citation|Iste libro non es intendite pro le publico, quasi mesmo pro le circulos intellectual superior, ma solmente pro le poc individuos qui sta le plus proxime al limite del futuro.<br/> […] Le nove appare clarmente in «Es io un mentitor», «Le train del futuro» e le ultime fragmento. Ex iste poemas flue un foco plus alte, un passion plus potente que non solmente ex le obras artistic de mi passato. Io non pote adjutar ille qui non senti que es le selvage sanguine del futuro que pulsa in iste poemas.<br /> Le foco interior es le cosa le plus importante que le esser human possede. Le Terra pertine a illes qui porta intra se le musica le plus alte. Io me adressa al individuos rar e les exhorta a elevar lor musica interior, lo que significa construer super le futuro.<br /> Io mesme sacrifica cata atomo de mi fortia a mi alte objectivo, io vive le vita de un sancto, io me immerge in le plus alte cosas producite per le spirito human, io evita omne influentias de natura inferior. Io considera le vetule societate como le cellula-matre, que debe esser supportate usque le individuos erige le nove mundo. Io exhorta le individuos a laborar solmente pro le immortalitate (un expression false), a facer de se mesme le plus alte possibile – a poner se al servicio del futuro.<br /> Mi libro non habera fallite su objectivo si un sol individuo percepe le enormitate de iste arte. Io es felice de haber facite iste poemas; il existe nulle mesura con le qual on pote mesurar le amplitud del servicio que le editor ha facite pro me, publicante los. Nove tempores se apropinqua. Lo que [[Jarl Hemmer|Hemmer]] evoca in su poema «Le Columna» se prepara in le realitate. Io spero que io non remane sol con le grande cosa que io ha a portar.|Edith Södergran, «Individuell konst», 1918<ref>Citato in Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pp. 36–37</ref>}} In vice de clarificar le libro, le contribution (insimul con le introduction) provocava le prime debatte circa le poesia incomprehensibile del modernismo in le lingua svedese<ref>Ström, p. 121</ref> – un debatte que esseva simile al debattes circa, inter altere, [[Birger Sjöberg]], [[Peter Weiss]] e [[Erik Lindegren]]. Le debatte circa ''Septemberlyran'' habeva loco principalmente in le alora conservator jornal national ''[[Hufvudstadsbladet]]''. Plure del commentarios concerneva le facto que un poeta femina relativemente incognite se describiva sin hesitation como talentose e con pretensiones proprie.<ref>Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', pp. 36–37</ref> [[Hagar Olsson]] (1893–1978), qui scribeva pro ''[[Dagens Press]]'' e esseva un critic influente, appellava le poesia de Södergran «banal», ma monstrava tamen appreciar su elementos nietzschean e modernista. Le recension de Olsson faceva que Södergran scribeva un littera alora passionat e irate a illa. Isto deveniva le initio de un amicitia e alliance que durava tote le vita. Le proprie obra de Olsson como autor, tamen, ha durante longe tempore essite eclipsate per su amicitia con Södergran.<ref>Ström, pp. 131–132</ref> ===Le amicitia con Hagar Olsson=== [[File:Hagar Olsson.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Hagar Olsson]], con qui Södergran correspondeva durante multe annos post le publication de ''[[Septemberlyran]]'', e qui insimul con [[Elmer Diktonius]] publicava postumemente le obra de Södergran ''Landet som icke är''.]] Södergran e Hagar Olsson comenciava a corresponder in januario 1919. {{Citation|Que etate ha vos? Sanitate? Nervos? Io desira que vos essere san e habe le fortia. Date un breve biographia! Seniora o seniorina? Qual grado de instruction? Io: residentia: Raivola, Petrischülerin, tuberculose a 16 annos, Nummela, Davos, pneumothorax artificial, attende le invention del medicamento contra le tuberculose|Ex le secunde littera de Edith Södergran a Hagar Olsson<ref name="Rahikainen40">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', p. 40</ref>}} Il habeva multe similitudes inter Södergran e Olsson: illas esseva quasi coetanee, ambes habeva crescite in le [[Istmo de Karelia]], habeva un fundo social e un nivello de instruction similar. Hagar Olsson, filia de un pastor, habeva studiate in un del melior scholas pro puellas de Finlandia, in Viborg. Ambes esseva curiosas citatanas del mundo e parlava plure linguas. Illas questionava le structuras traditional de poter patriarcal e se interessava al ideas circa le nove femina; insuper, illas esseva fascinante per [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] e le nove litteratura, que plus tarde venirea a esser appellate modernismo. Tamen, in contraste con Olsson, Södergran habeva viagiate plus per Europa e cognosceva melio le poesia russe contemporanee. Olsson, per contra, habeva un sfera de interesses plus ample e laborava pro un salario.<ref name="Rahikainen41">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', p. 41</ref> Al initio, lor relation girava circum le nietzscheanismo e le futurismo, per exemplo circa le maniera de diffunder le cognoscentia de iste estheticas in Finlandia. Le futurista alora le plus famose, [[Igor Severjanin]] (Igor Vasiljevich Lotarev), un autor que Södergran admirava, esseva un del personas que illa voleva invitar pro fundar un colonia artistic.<ref name="Rahikainen42">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', p. 42</ref> Ja in februario del mesme anno, le amicas se incontrava pro le prime vice, quando Olsson visitava Raivola durante alcun dies. In total, illas se incontrarea cinque vices.<ref>Ström, pp. 138–140</ref> Durante le quatro annos sequente, usque al morte de Södergran, illa inviava plus de 90 litteras a Olsson (inter le 250 que ha essite conservate).<ref name="Rahikainen42" /> Iste litteras es le principal fonte de information super le vita de Södergran durante plus de tres annos. Isto es problematic, proque Södergran describe rarmente su vita private e, quando illa lo face, illa procura presentar se como un artista creative.<ref name="Rahikainen42" /> Al initio del correspondentia, le tono del litteras de Södergran es exuberantemente positive, ma quando Olsson deveni le poeta, illa deveni sempre plus irritate e mesmo [[gelosia|gelose]].<ref name="Rahikainen42" /> Olsson representava un cambiamento pro Södergran, qui, como [[unic filia|filia unic]], habeva essite adorate per su matre e habeva frequentemente obtenite lo que illa voleva.<ref name="Ström137">Ström, p. 137</ref> In le litteras a Hagar Olsson, Södergran appare a vices como un amica satis difficile e exigente.<ref>Ström, pp. 138–139</ref> In 1955, Olsson publicava partes del correspondentia inter illa e Södergran, con commentarios de Olsson.<ref name="Ström137" /> Tamen, le litteras de Olsson a Södergran non ha essite conservate, lo que significa que su parte in le relation esseva reconstruite posteriormente, 30 annos plus tarde.<ref name="Rahikainen43">Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', p. 43</ref> Esseva etiam Olsson qui redigeva le collection de poemas ''[[Rosenaltaret]]'' e poneva Södergran in contacto con Elmer Diktonius in martio 1922, lo que, in alcun mesura, deveniva un alleviamento pro Hagar Olsson como interlocutrice intellectual de Södergran. Ebba Witt-Brattström ha sublineate como le duo se inspirava reciprocamente in un forma de «modernismo sororal».<ref name="Ström140">Ström, p. 140</ref> Verso le fin del vita de Södergran, le amicas se allontanava e lor contacto concerneva principalmente le labores de traduction de Södergran, ma un del ultime litteras de Södergran esseva adressate a Olsson.<ref name="Ström140" /> === Poesia posterior e aforismos === Le annos 1918–1919 constitue le periodos plus productive de Södergran. Solmente cinque menses post ''Septemberlyran'' appare su proxime collection de poemas, ''Rosenaltaret'' (1919).<ref>Ström, pag. 141–142</ref> Como le vice precedente, illa recipe 500 marcas como honorario del editoria Schildts. Le collection es, como su predecessor, orientate verso le [[bellett|bellezza]] e le sentimento de esser seligite.<ref>Ström, pag. 148</ref> Un serie de poemas dedicate anonymemente a Olsson, «le soror», se trova in ''[[Rosenaltaret]]''.<ref>Tideström, ''Edith Södergran'', 1991 pag. 166–188; Olsson, ''Ediths brev'' 1973 (1955) pag. 11–43</ref> Le serie esseva plus ludic que le altere poemas e esseva insimul un del favoritas personal de Södergran.<ref>Ström, pag. 151</ref> Un altere poema es dedicate al doctor Ludwig von Muralt.<ref>Ström, pag. 152</ref> Le collection es plen de motifs de contos de fe, como reginas, feos e elfos, e equalmente de motifs del litteratura de horrore, como phantomas, demones e vampiros. In plus, il ha forte allusiones nietzschean, con un sacerdotessa de templo como un del voces narrante e [[Zarathustra]] mentionate. Le deos [[Diana]], [[Afrodite]] e [[Vishnu]] appare tamben. Ebba Witt-Brattström sublinea le motivo recurrente de Blancaneve, particularmente forte in ''Rosenaltaret'', ma ja presente in ''Vaxdukshäftet''.<ref name="Rahikainen46">Rahikainen, pag. 46</ref> Le reception de ''Rosenaltaret'' esseva plus frigide, ma le critic e autor [[Arvid Mörne]], in ''Dagens Press'', considerava que ''Rosenaltaret'' revelava «un imagination poetic extraordinari».<ref>''Dagens Press'', citate in Ström, pag. 153</ref> In 1919 Södergran submitteva tamben duo altere libros al editoria Schildts, que esseva intendite esser publicate insimul sub le titulo ''Planeterna stiga''.<ref name="Rahikainen46" /> Un de illos esseva un collection de aforismos, que esseva publicate como obra separate e recipeva le titulo ''Brokiga iakttagelser''. Le tenue volumine contineva 74 aforismos e esseva publicate in le autumno de ille anno. ''Brokiga iakttagelser'' non ha recipite tanto attention como le altere textos de Södergran. Inter le aforismos se trova plure que gira circa [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] e [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], lo que pote esser ligate al necessitate de Södergran de un leader forte capace de cambiar le situation sur le Istmo Carelian.<ref>Ström, pag. 155</ref> [[Tua Forsström]] critica in su [[essay]] ''Den heta villan'' le elitismo de Södergran e indica specialmente ''Brokiga iakttagelser'', que, secundo Forsström, face del collection de aforismos le puncto le plus basse del obra de Södergran.<ref name="Ström155">Citate in Ström, pag. 155–156</ref> Le recerca posterior ha tamen attribuite plus meritos al collection, e in 2010 [[Ellerströms förlag|Ellerströms]] publicava un volumine collective con tote le aforismos, tanto ''Brokiga iakttagelser'' como le serie de aforismos ''Tankar om naturen'' de 1922, e, como supplemento, alcun notas del tempore passate in le sanatorios. Le secunde libro, le collection de poemas ''Framtidens skugga'', esseva differite per le editoria pro non perturbar le venditas del collection de aforismos.<ref>Ström, pag. 154</ref> Le separation del libros dava al collection de aforismos un peso que Södergran nunquam habeva intendite dar a illo.<ref>Ström, pag. 157</ref> Le tempore permitteva tamben a Södergran de entrar in un nove fase, e illa mesmo considerava le poema «Animalisk hymn», submittite tarde, como obsolete e insipide.<ref name="Rahikainen46" /> Con le collection de poemas ''[[Framtidens skugga]]'' – le prime proposition pro le titulo esseva «Köttets mysterier» – culmina le visiones exhortative de Södergran, e le ardor quasi [[cosmic]] del poemas parla de un mundo renovate post le guerras e catastropha que ora devastava le terra<ref>Ström, pag. 160–161</ref> – Raivola, como jam mentionate, esseva un zona de guerra in 1918, e etiam plus tarde Södergran poteva audir le detonations del cannones desde le fenestra del cocina. Illa poteva sequer le [[Kronstadtupproret|insurrection in le base naval russe de Kronstadt]], situate a alcun decenas de kilometros verso le sud in le [[Golfo de Finlandia]]. Alcun poemas gira circa un figura feminine que jongla con planetas e stellas, dum alteres se distanzia del superhomine nietzschean que proclama e avança, pro retornar verso un natura plus tranquille, como in le prime collection de poemas de Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainen46" /> In le poema «Makt», illa scribe: «Io seque nulle lege. Io es le lege in me mesme./ Io es le homine qui prende.» Le poeta assume le rol de [[sibilla]], duce militar o simplemente del intermediaria eligite per [[Eros]]: {{citation2|[…] Jag känner dig, Eros: <br /> du är icke man och kvinna, <br /> du är den kraft <br /> som sitter nerhukad i templet <br /> för att resa sig, vildare än ett skrän, <br /> häftigare än en slungad sten <br /> slunga ut förkunnelsens träffande ord över världen, <br /> ur det allsmäktiga templets dörr |col2= […] Io te cognosce, Eros: <br /> tu non es viro ni femina, <br /> tu es le fortia <br /> que sede curvate in le templo <br /> pro levar se, plus selvage que un crito, <br /> plus vehemente que un petra lanceate <br /> e lancear super le mundo le parolas incisive del proclamation, <br /> ex le porta del omnipotente templo. |''[[Framtidens skugga]]''|llengua1={{sv}}|llengua2={{ia}}}} Malgrado le tono visionari, Edith Södergran esseva [[ateismo|ateista]] durante iste periodo de exaltation. Le transformation que illa describe, secundo su conception, deberea esser create per un nove humanitate ducite per «le spirito le plus forte» (le superhomines de Nietzsche, vide per exemplo le poemas ''Botgörarna'' e ''Först vill jag bestiga Chimborazzo''). Quando illa gradualmente dava loco in su poemas a un confidentia plus positive in le natura e le divinitate, isto significava un certe alleviation del expectationes ecstatic que le manteneva elevate super le vita quotidian – un attender e accumulation de energia que non poteva esser mantenite indefinitemente – ma etiam un comenciamento de congedo del visiones nietzschean del futuro. Le secunde parte de ''Framtidens skugga'' contine plure poemas super le morte.<ref>Ström, pag. 163</ref> Durante le autumno de 1919, [[Irene Leopold]] comparava in un recension in ''Hufvudstadsbladet'' le lyrica in prosa de Södergran e Olsson, describente illas, insimul con [[Ragnar Ekelund]], como le sol «expressionistas pur-sang» de Finlandia.<ref>Rahikainen, pag. 47</ref> === Antroposofi e christianismo === Durante 1920, Södergran contraheva le [[grippe espaniol]] e remaneva in lecto con febre.<ref>Rahikainen, p. 46–48</ref> Illa usava le tempore inter alia pro leger. Post haber legite e multo appreciate le libro de Hagar Olsson ''Kvinnan och nåden'', Södergran comenciava a approximar se al conceptiones christian, quo deveniva plus e plus visibile in su textos posterior. Isto produceva, inter alia, un tentativa, que Olsson considerava impossibile, de conciliar [[Deo]] e Nietzsche.<ref>Ström, p. 156–157</ref> Post esser initialmente sceptic — ab su juventute illa habeva timite le supernatural — illa legeva plus textos [[antroposophia|antroposophic]] de [[Rudolf Steiner]], con crescente enthusiasm. Södergran voleva recrutar plus anthroposophos e communica su nove interesse a Olsson e al autores [[Vilhelm Ekelund]], [[Frans Eemil Sillanpää]] e Elmer Diktonius. Illa supponeva que illes condivideva su enthusiasm, ma esseva disappointate quando Olsson non divideva su fascination.<ref>Rahikainen, p. 47–48</ref> Post haber recipite duo summas de moneta inesperate — un del editoria [[Schildts]] e un collectate per le [[Finlands svenska författareförening]] — Södergran poteva adherer al Societate Anthroposophic, proque certe partes del textos de Steiner esseva accessibile solmente al membros.<ref>Rahikainen, p. 48</ref> Un fonte importante de inspiration esseva le obra de Steiner ''Kärnpunkterna i den sociala frågan'', que Södergran associava con le doctrinas de Nietzsche.<ref>Ström, p. 170–171</ref> Inter le biographos existe speculationes super le orientation politic de Södergran. Tanto Tideström como Ström considera que Södergran esseva un "innocente politic", un opinion que illes fundava inter alia super le notas commemorative de Helena Södergran e super un questionario pro le encyclopedia ''[[Vem och vad]]'', al qual le poeta respondeva. Ebba Witt-Brattström, in contrasto, sustine que Södergran esseva multo consciente politic e habeva interesses politic radical, que illa exprimeva per su poesia, specialmente in su poemas de juventute.<ref>Ström, p. 172–174</ref> Post un periodo de grande difficultates — su amate catto Totti esseva occidite per un colpo de arma, le pandemia de [[grippe espaniol]] habeva affectate su vita, e matre e filia Södergran se trovava in difficultates economic — le problemas de conciliar le doctrinas de Nietzsche e Steiner faceva que Södergran considerava abandonar le poesia. Illa sentiva que le antroposophia impediva la crear. Su extase del ''Septemberlyran'' habeva disparite e con illo etiam le desiro de scriber.<ref>Ström, p. 174–176</ref> Illa continuava tamen a explorar le doctrinas de Steiner, se implicava marginalmente in le operationes de adjuta del [[Croce Rubie]] e considerava laborar como traductrice.<ref>Ström, p. 177</ref> Specialmente illa se interessava al refugiatos qui transversava le glacie veniente de [[Kronstadt]], durante le revolta del marinarios russe contra le direction bolchevique. Le marinarios esseva internate in campos de concentration sur le [[Istmo Kareli|Istmo de Karelia]].<ref name=":0" /> In le autumno de 1920, Södergran incontrava Svea Öberg, un soror del congregation que etiam viveva in [[Raivola]]. Öberg inspirava Södergran a leger le [[Nove Testamento]] e le [[Psalterio]], quo intensificava su desiderio de un religion plus orientate verso le sentimento que le philosophia natural de Steiner.<ref name=":0" /> Le vespere de anno nove de 1921, Södergran revelava que illa esseva occupate a traducer al germano le romanzo aliquanto pompose de Olsson, ''Kvinnan och nåden''.<ref>Rahikainen, p. 51</ref> === Relation con Elmer Diktonius === In martio 1922 Södergran incontra pro le prime vice [[Elmer Diktonius]] (1896–1961), qui, al invitation de Hagar Olsson, habeva viagiate a Raivola. Le juvene Diktonius habeva un fundo musical, ma habeva recentemente debuttate como autor e critico litterari, e Olsson videva in ille un possibile nove amico pro Södergran. Södergran e Diktonius se accordava ben. Postea Diktonius reportava a Olsson: {{Citation|Si, tu sape: illa irradia vermente. Södergran. E io ha vidite nulle persona rider como illa. Tanto superhomine e tanto pauc homine. Nulle corpore, ma un testa magnific. Illa diceva: Hagar me odia certo. Io la assecurava que no, on non pote odiar un tal persona.|[[Elmer Diktonius]]<ref>Elmer Diktonius, ''Brev'' (1995), p. 52, citate in Rahikainen, p. 51</ref>}} Illa se describe assi a Diktonius: «Mi destino exterior ha tres lineas marcate: solitate, maladia, nulle realisation de desiros terrestre.»<ref>Södergran, Edith, ''Brev. Edith Södergrans samlade skrifter 2'', Helsingfors: SSLS 1996, citate in Rahikainen, p. 51</ref> Durante iste periodo, Södergran habeva plure conflictos con Olsson e, durante certe periodos, cessava scriber a illa e se adressava in vice a Diktonius, inter altere cosas pro demandar poemas a traducer al germano.<ref name="Rahikainen, sid 52">Rahikainen, p. 52</ref> Durante 1922 Södergran laborava a traducer autores de poesia finland-svedese — inter illes Diktonius, Hagar Olsson, [[Ragnar Rudolf Eklund]], [[Erik Grotenfelt]], [[Jarl Hemmer]] e se mesme — al germano, pro lor diffusion ulterior in le mundo.<ref name="Ström140">Ström, p. 140</ref><ref name="Ström178">Ström, p. 178–180</ref> Le projecto esseva ambiciose, e Hagar Olsson avertiva Södergran que traductiones de poetas bastante incognite essereb probabilemente refusate in Germania, qualcosa que, secundo illa, poterea gravemente affliger Södergran.<ref name="Ström178" /> In le autumno de 1922, Södergran terminava su labor de traduction e lo inviava, per medio de alcun amicos, al editoria german [[Rowohlt]]. Le crise del economia german post le Prime Guerra Mundial faceva que le libro de Södergran esseva refusate. Illa decideva alora de pagar le impression con su proprie pecunia, ma post plure discussiones con le editoria german, illa cambiava de idea e ardeva le manuscripto, con le exception de su traduction del romanzo de Olsson ''Kvinnan och nåden'' (1919).<ref name=":0" /> ===''Ultra'' e un crescente celebritate=== Durante 1922, Olsson e alcun altere personas fundava le revista litterari modernista ''[[Ultra (tidskrift)|Ultra]]''. Olsson tentava persuader Södergran a contribuer, ma illa esseva inicialmente hesitante, proque illa timeva que le revista esseva troppo politic.<ref>[http://tidningenkulturen.se/index.php/litteratur/litteratur-portraett/15225-edith-soedergran-ett-svaerd-i-kampen-foer-framtiden- Edith Södergran, un spada in le lucta pro le futuro] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223045615/http://tidningenkulturen.se/index.php/litteratur/litteratur-portraett/15225-edith-soedergran-ett-svaerd-i-kampen-foer-framtiden- |date=2015-12-23 }} {{Wayback|url=http://tidningenkulturen.se/index.php/litteratur/litteratur-portraett/15225-edith-soedergran-ett-svaerd-i-kampen-foer-framtiden-|date=20151223045615}}, [[Elisabeth Brännström]], [[Tidningen Kulturen]], consultate le 22 decembre 2015</ref> Post haber vidite le prime numero ante su publication, tamen, illa inviava plure contributiones, tanto poemas como essays,<ref name="Rahikainen53">Rahikainen, p. 52–54</ref> e un articulo super su idol, le ego-futurista [[Igor Severjanin]].<ref>Ström, p. 181–182</ref> Olsson riusciva finalmente a persuader le redaction que ''Ultra'' deberea publicar un numero thematic dedicate a Edith Södergran. In ille numero esseva publicate plure poemas de Södergran, insimul con un articulo de Diktonius con le titulo «Edith Södergran. Kritisk hyllning».<ref>[http://bluemountain.princeton.edu/bluemtn/cgi-bin/bluemtn?a=d&d=bmtnabn19221031-01.2.8&e=-------en-20--1--txt-IN----- Kritisk hyllning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223044556/http://bluemountain.princeton.edu/bluemtn/cgi-bin/bluemtn?a=d&d=bmtnabn19221031-01.2.8&e=-------en-20--1--txt-IN----- |date=2015-12-23 }} {{Wayback|url=http://bluemountain.princeton.edu/bluemtn/cgi-bin/bluemtn?a=d&d=bmtnabn19221031-01.2.8&e=-------en-20--1--txt-IN----- |date=20151223044556 }}, Elmer Diktonius, Tidskriften Ultra, Project Blue Mountain, [[Princeton University]], consultate le 22 decembre 2015</ref> Tamen, Södergran habeva jam passate a un nove fase de su poesia e non voleva recognoscer se in le description admirative que Diktonius faceva de illa e de su poemas.<ref name="Rahikainen53" /> Ben que ''Ultra'' nunquam deveniva un projecto de longe duration, illo contribueva a facer que sempre plus lectores discoperiva Södergran, e Diktonius faceva su parte pro diffunder su poemas. Inter altere cosas, ille dedicava un articulo integre a Södergran in un grande serie de articulos in ''[[Arbetarbladet (Finland)|Arbetarbladet]]'', ubi ille tractava le mal maniera in que illa habeva essite tractate per le criticos e le facto que su poemas non esseva plus disponibile pro compra.<ref name="Rahikainen53" /> Plus tarde ille scribeva super illa etiam in le jornal ''[[Frihet (tidning)|Frihet]]'' e in plure jornales e revistas finlandese.<ref name="Rahikainen53" /> Le crescente celebritate de Södergran se manifesta etiam in su participation in un anthologia de poemas in januario 1923, quando le investigador litterari [[Erik Kihlman]] publicava ''Ur Finlands svenska lyrik''. Le obra contine ni minus que 14 poemas de Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainen53" /> In le mesme periodo, illa abandonava finalmente le periodo nietzschean, inter alia como consequentia del correspondentia con Elmer Diktonius.<ref>Ström, p. 182–183</ref> Illa comprendeva que su poesia poterea haber incitate a un politica destructive e nocive. Isto esseva qualcosa pro le qual illa non voleva assumer responsabilitate.<ref>Ström, p. 185</ref> Durante le secunde medietate de 1922, illa comenciava ergo a scriber de novo. Illa scribeva tanto poemas como aphorismos, in le quales se trova un melancholia natural e un resignation ante le morte.<ref>Ström, p. 185–187</ref> === Le ultime tempore === In le autumno e inverno de 1922, e durante le primavera de 1923, Södergran habeva sempre plus de difficultate a respirar e su stato general se deteriorava.<ref>Ström, p. 187</ref> Simultaneemente, su relation con Olsson meliorava, e Olsson voleva que Helena Södergran inviava su filia a un sanatorio. Ma le filia habeva ja decidite in 1914 de refusar ulteriores curationes hospitalari.<ref name="Rahikainen55">Rahikainen, p. 55–56</ref> Durante le primavera de 1923, illa recipeva un donation anonym (de Jarl Hemmer, transmittite per Hagar Olsson).<ref name="Ström188">Ström, p. 188</ref> In su ultime litteras a Olsson, Diktonius e alteres, Södergran describeva como illa suffereva de sever [[dispnea]]. Tamen, illa remaneva de bon humor.<ref name="Rahikainen55" /> {{Citation|Non oblida me ora, forte tempesta. Io recipeva un carta de Hagar, le campos de narcissus de Les Avants. Isto es un tempore multo dur pro me ora. Debile. Io non supporta le stimulation del lumine, ni le sonos.|Ex un del ultime litteras de Edith Södergran, a Elmer Diktonius<ref name="Rahikainen55" />}} Durante le ultime tempore de su vita, illa destrueva tote le litteras que illa habeva recipite, insimul con plure poemas.<ref>Ström, p. 193</ref> Illa non voleva conservar nihil pro «le vermes de cadavere qui scribe biographias».<ref>Rahikainen, ''Kampen om Edith'', p. 207</ref> Edith Södergran moriva quietemente e pacificamente le die de [[San Johanne]] 1923, in su domo in [[Raivola]].<ref name="Ström188" /> Post su morte, su matre trovava lo que probabilemente esseva su ultime poemas, ''Ankomst till Hades'' e le devote ''Landet som icke är'', que plus tarde deveniva un del poemas plus amate de Södergran.<ref name="Ström188" /> Ambes ha essite interpretate como religiose, ma illes non presenta signos inequivocamente christian-religiose.<ref name="Rahikainen55" /> Le morte de Södergran esseva un choc pro le major parte de su proximes. Hagar Olsson se sentiva culpabile pro non haber visitate Raivola recentemente, un circumstantia que possibilemente esseva le ration pro le qual illa non scribeva un necrologio ante un medie anno post le morte de su amica.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> Elmer Diktonius, in vice, scribeva un [[necrologio]] in ''Arbetarbladet'': {{Citation|Le juvene generation de poetas del Nord ha perdite su grande parve matre. Le mundo ha perdite un del plus grande feminas creative de tote le tempore. Finlandia ha perdite qualcosa que illo rarmente possedeva: un genio, un mente genial.|Elmer Diktonius, ''Arbetarbladet'', 6 junio 1923, citate in Rahikainen, cap. 4<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" />}} Diktonius accentuava tamben quanto malade Södergran habeva essite. Le contraste inter le maladia e su genio es le imagine que ille voleva crear, e como un del personas qui scribeva le plus super Södergran, ille contribuiva a propagar iste imagine.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> Ma Diktonius reagiva tamben al facto que [[Arthur Eklund]] habeva describite le loco natal de Södergran, Raivola, como provincial. Iste imagine de Raivola se diffundeva plus tarde e entrava tamben in le studios super Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> [[Ture Janson]] scribeva un texto de tono humorous in ''[[Allas Journal]]'' super plure personas recentemente decedite, e deveniva assi un del prime personas a qualificar Södergran como modernista.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> Le anteriormente aliquanto critic Jarl Hemmer comparava illa con [[Santa Birgitta]], [[Emanuel Swedenborg|Swedenborg]] e [[Carl Jonas Love Almqvist|Almqvist]], proque tote illes divideva elementos [[Profetia|profetic]].<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Multes del textos commemorative redigite poc post le morte de Södergran abandonava le question de si su poemas esseva bon o mal e comenciava in vice a discuter su loco in le [[canone cultural|canone cultural]] del litteratura de Finlandia in lingua svedese, proque deveniva clar que su poesia habeva venite pro remaner.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> === Le sepulcro de Södergran e le ultime poemas === [[File:Могила Эдит Седергран.jpg|thumb|Le lapide commemorative de Edith Södergran.]] Södergran esseva interrate in le cemeterio del village, con un simple cruce de ligno como monumento sepulcral.<ref name="Ström190">Ström, p. 190–191</ref> Un poco plus de trenta personas del village esseva presente.<ref name="Rahikainen55" /> Su ultime poemas esseva colligite e redigite per Elmer Diktonius e recipeva un prefacio de Hagar Olsson. Le editoria Schildts pagava 2000 marchas pro le collection de poemas, le plus grande honorario unquam pagate pro un del libros de Södergran.<ref name="Ström190" /> Le collection esseva publicate in 1925 sub le titulo ''[[Landet som icke är]]''. Post le morte de su filia, Helena Södergran videva admiratores e jornalistas visitar Raivola. Dece annos post le morte de Södergran, le simple cruce de ligno esseva reimplaciate per un lapide commemorative create per le sculptor Wäinö Aaltonen. Le lapide esseva destruite durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial, quando le ecclesia e le cemeterio de Raivola esseva devastate. In 1960, le [[Finlands svenska författareförening]] erigeva un nove lapide commemorative con un poema de Södergran como inscription:<ref name="Ström190" /> {{citation2|Se här är evighetens strand,<br /> här brusar strömmen förbi,<br /> och döden spelar i buskarna<br /> sin samma entoniga melodi.|col2=Vide hic le litore del eternitate,<br /> hic le corrente murmura passante,<br /> e le morte joca inter le arbustos<br /> su sempre monotone melodia.|''Ankomst till Hades''|llengua1={{sv}}|llengua2={{ia}}}} Le matre remaneva in le village usque 1939.<ref name="Ström190" /> Quando le village esseva evacuate durante le [[Guerra de inverno]], Helena Södergran se transfereva a Jorois e moriva poc postea. Pauco post, Raivola esseva destruite, e tanto le ecclesia como le domo de Södergran esseva comburite. Desde alora, le monumento sepulcral de Edith Södergran ha disparite.<ref name="Ström190" /> Per le [[Pace de Moscova|Pace de Moscova]] de 1940, le village deveniva territorio sovietic e hodie ancora pertine a Russia. In russo, Raivola se appella Rosjtjino ({{lang-ru|Рощино}}). Usque al dissolution del [[Union Sovietic]], le possibilitate de visitar le village esseva multo limitate.<ref name="Ström190" /> Nihil resta hodie del domo de Edith Södergran. In 1995, le ecclesia orthodoxe esseva reconstruite in le mesme loco que le ecclesia precedente. In 1992, cento annos post le nascentia de Södergran, un statua de su catto favorite Totti esseva erigite in le jardin de Södergran.<ref name="Ström190" /> <gallery> File:Edith Södergran's grave with a wooden cross and a bench.jpg|Le sepulcro de Södergran, con un simple cruce de ligno. File:Edith Södergran's grave, the memorial stone replaced the wooden cross, 1937.jpg|Le lapide commemorative erigite per le [[Finlands svenska författareförening]] in 1933 e disparite durante le [[Guerra de inverno]]. File:Parland Tallqvist.jpg|[[Oscar Parland]] (a sinistra) e [[J.O. Tallqvist]] parlava quando le [[monumento commemorative]] a Edith Södergran esseva inaugurate in 1960 in [[Raivola]]. </gallery> == Obra litterari == [[File:Landet som icke är.jpeg|right|thumb|Le copertura de ''Landet som icke är'', publicate postumemente in 1925.]] Le production de Södergran non es particularmente extensive — cinque collectiones de poemas, un libro de aphorismos, duo collectiones de poemas non publicate e un correspondentia de litteras (240 litteras es conservate). Secundo le investigator de Södergran [[Agneta Rahikainen]], tote su obra pote esser continite «in un sol volumine de 375 paginas».<ref name="Rahikainen6">[[Agneta Rahikainen]], [https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/44023/rahikainen_avhandling.pdf ''Poeten och hennes apostlar – En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden''] (pdf), dissertation academic, Facultate de Humanitates, [[Universitate de Helsinki]], 2014, p. 6–7</ref> Su periodo active como poeta se extende super circa 15 annos.<ref name="Rahikainen6" /> Illa scribeva su poemas in germano, francese, russo e svedese, e su obra ha essite traducite in circa trenta linguas, inter illos russo, anglese, espaniol<ref>Le traduction espaniol es mentionate inter altere in [[Ana Paula Tavares]]: ''Salomes huvud'' (2014), Panta Rei</ref>, khmer e chinese. In contrasto, existe un quantitate considerabile de investigationes, libros, [[monographia]]s e altere textos super Södergran e su obra.<ref name="Åttio">Backman, Carita e Siv Storå: ''Åttio år – Edith Södergran – verk och reception'' (1996), Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland</ref> Solmente inter 1980 e 2014 esseva producite al minus dece dissertationes doctoral super Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainen6" /> Le poemas de Södergran esseva frequentemente classificate como [[expressionismo]], ma plus tarde le expression lyric se expandiva e illa deveniva considerate un modernista.<ref name="Bokskogen" /> {{Citation|Illa creava un nove linguage, un metalinguage. Le parolas rememora le svedese, ma le similitude es deceptive. Plus secur es considerar los como [[eolic]] e consultar un dictionario, e iste dictionario es le poesia de Södergran.|Citate de Lönnroth et al., ''Den svenska litteraturen'' vol. 3, p. 151.<ref name="Lönnroth et al., s. 155"/>}} Le litteratura finland-svedese del initio del 20e seculo consisteva in grande parte de representationes del [[paisaneria]], con foco super le archipelago e le campania.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Le poesia de Södergran, con su orientation plus europee e su forma libere, esseva pionieristic. Illa deveniva un modello stilistic importante del lyric modernista in svedese e habeva plure sequitores in Finlandia; inter illes se distingue [[Elmer Diktonius]] (1896–1961), [[Gunnar Björling]] (1887–1960) e [[Rabbe Enckell]] (1903–74). In Svedia, illa deveniva un guida importante pro numerose poetas, ab [[Gunnar Ekelöf]] e [[Karin Boye]] in avante, e Ekelöf scribeva in un littera a [[W. H. Auden]] le sequente super Södergran: {{Citation|Illa es un poeta lyric multo grande, a mi judicio del mesme classe que [[Anna Achmatova|Akhmatova]] o ancora plus grande, un juvene svedese in le dispersion, un del nostre byzantinas, coragiose e amorose como vostre [[Emily Brontë]]. Es triste que un tal ave rar debe esser sepultate pro le mundo in un tumba super le qual le guerra ha passate plure vices. Illa pertine al mundo, mesmo si su lingua pote parer un ancian dialecto [[eolic]].|Citate de Lönnroth et al., ''Den svenska litteraturen'' vol. 3, p. 151.<ref name="s151"/>}} Le investigator [[Holger Lillqvist]] tamen considera que le modernistas Hagar Olsson, Rabbe Enckell, Gunnar Ekelöf e Elmer Diktonius influentiava le imagine de Södergran con le intention de construer le modernismo como movimento e le mito del genio solitari e incomprehendite.<ref name="RahikainenLillqvist" /> Pro isto, su destino ha essite comparate, inter altere, con le de altere autores solitari con biographias devenite mythic, como [[Emily Brontë]], [[Arthur Rimbaud]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Emily Dickinson]] e [[Sylvia Plath]].<ref name="RahikainenLillqvist" /> Le facto que Södergran habitava in le remote zona frontalier de Karelia, sin grande influentia intellectual proveniente del culturas del grande citates, deveniva un imagine commun, etiam sustenite per le amicos de Södergran, Olsson e Diktonius. Possibilemente Södergran non habeva narrate multo a illes super su vita in Svizzera o super su annos al schola in Petersburg, o forsan le ultime annos, quando illa viveva in conditiones paupere, influentiava tote le imagine de su fundo personal.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> === Divisiones e interpretationes === Le opera litterari de Södergran es variabile, ma illo ha quandoque essite dividite in alcun phases: le poemas de juventute, que es romantic; le prime collection de poemas, plus symbolic e decadent; le tres collectiones sequente, que es expressionistic; e le poemas plus tarde, religiose e de tono plus moderate, con motivos natural.<ref name="Rahikainen6">Rahikainen: Poeten och hennes apostlar, pagina 6</ref> Un del prime personas qui divideva le scriptura de Södergran in periodos esseva [[Agnes Langenskjöld]], in su libro ''Litterära studier'' (1923). Illa considerava que le debut habeva "un desiderio de vita dirigite verso le exterior", que illo esseva sequite per "un meditation mystic dirigite verso le interior", deinde per "un inebriation intellectual sin mesura", e que illo terminava con un "melancholia incurabile, de coloration [[Panteismo|panteistic]]".<ref name="Rahikainenkap4">Rahikainen: Poeten och hennes apostlar, capitulo 4</ref> Olof Enckell qualifica le poemas del annos de schola e juventute de "bagatellar" e de typic "poesia de convento", dum Tideström appella le poemas juvene "poesia de puella scholastic".<ref name="Rahikainen25">Rahikainen: Poeten och hennes apostlar, pagina 25</ref> [[Ernst Brunner]] ha dividite su production in le partes "alienation", "elevation" e "sublimation".<ref>Brunner, Ernst: "Till fots genom solsystemen. En studie i Edith Södergrans expressionism", 1985</ref> Le grande variationes inter sentimentos e expressiones que differ inter se, per exemplo le gaudio de viver e le desiderio de morte, ha create numerose possibilitates de interpretation. Sub le direction de Gunnar Tideström e Olof Enckell, su obra ha essite legite in un maniera biographic e psychologic: con le appoio de Hagar Olsson, illes ha fortemente promovite le imagine de Södergran como un infante natural autodidacte, solitari e isolate, semper gravemente malade.<ref name="Rahikainen13" /> Plus recentemente, le recerca sur Södergran ha devenite sempre plus centrate sur le analyse del textos, e su biographia ha equalmente essite revisate. Investigatores como [[Holger Lillqvist]] considera que forsan il non es plus possibile leger Södergran sin esser influentiate per le imagine generalmente diffundite de illa como un persona mortalmente malade.<ref name="RahikainenLillqvist">Lillqvist, Holger: Avgrund och paradis, 2001, mentionate in Rahikainen, Poeten och hennes apostlar, pagina 16</ref> Lillqvist considera etiam que Södergran pertine plus tosto al tradition litterari romantic-symbolistic, o al tradition postromantic, que al [[Modernistisk litteratur|modernismo]].<ref>Lillqvist, Holger: Avgrund och paradis, 2001, discutite in Rahikainen, Poeten och hennes apostlar, capitulo 4</ref> Quando Södergran cambiava su lingua principal in 1908, ab germano a svedese, illa passava ab un poesia de forma fixe a un poesia plus libere; le [[rim]]es esseva substituite per pensamentos plus associative, e le forma per le vita emotional.<ref>Rahikainen: Poeten och hennes apostlar, pagina 24</ref> === Le recognition de Södergran === Le reputation de Södergran como poeta durante su vita es discutite. Le prime investigadores e lor sequaces considerava que Södergran non habeva essite multo discutite per le criticos. In parte, isto esseva debite al facto que illes non comprendeva su obras, e il deberea passar longe tempore post su morte ante que le appreciation de su grande talento se stabilisarea. Quattuordecim annos post le morte de Södergran, per exemplo, le autor [[Jarl Hemmer]] considerava que su poesia esseva sin dubita importante, ma ille non credeva que illa poterea esser appreciate per le grande publico: «Nulle parco public del multitudine essera illa jammais; a isto se opone le abundantia de umbras terribile e de lumine ardente, de plantas rampante que captiva e de flores con un odor morbide e estranie.» Ille adde tamen immediatemente: «Ma le dece prime visitatores ha jam devenite cento – nihil impedi que un die illes deveni mille.»<ref name="Bokskogen">''Bokskogen'', paginas 165–170, [[Trygve Söderling]], Söderstöms, 2006, {{ISBN|951-52-2281-8}}</ref> Le recerca plus recente, como celle de Rahikainen (2014), sustene que Södergran debutava in un epocha durante le qual le poesia finlandese de lingua svedese habeva comenciate a florir. Inter altere cosas, le forma plus libere de su poesia e su position como poeta femina qui *non* dava a su collectiones titulos como «Tentativas de poesia» faceva que ja su prime collection de poemas recipeva recensiones in un grande numero de periodicos in Finlandia. In general, le feuilletons e recensiones publicate sub [[pseudonym]]os esseva plus criticos verso le poesia de Södergran, durante que le recensiones per autores o criticos litterari esseva positive.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3">Rahikainen, Poeten och hennes apostlar, capitulo 3. Le reception contemporanee – Le arte de esser mal comprendite</ref> Ja le secunde collection de poemas de Södergran (''Septemberlyran'', 1918) e le declaration de principios que illa habeva publicate provocava un vehemente intercambio de opiniones in le medios, con le participation de plure personas del plus alte circulos litterari, inter illes [[Runar Schildt]], qui diceva con orgolio que Schildts förlag «assumeva» le «responsabilitate» pro «toto lo que Edith Södergran face o omitte de facer».<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Quasi tote le poemas de Södergran que esseva publicate appareva presso Schildts förlag, ben que le editor non faceva alcun profito con lor venditas; le casa editorial la susteneva etiam economicamente, ultra le honorario habitual.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Le simple facto que illa esseva mentionate in paginas humoristic pote esser considerate un signo que illa esseva sufficientemente cognoscite per un publico plus large.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> In ultra, illa recipeva in duo occasiones un auxilio economic del association de autores.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Tanto Elmer Diktonius como Hagar Olsson ha describite quanto Södergran esseva deridite durante su vita, proque illo «pertineva [...] al rol del persona qui rompe con le tradition esser mal comprendite e deridite, specialmente per criticos representante le burguesia».<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Diktonius scribeva, inter altere cosas, in [[Arbetarbladet]] («Södergran som uppfostrare», 1926), sur le influentia del ideal nietzschean del [[Übermensch|superhomine]] sur Södergran e sur le maniera in le qual illa esseva attaccate, inter altere rationes proque le publico non comprendeva su poesia e proque illa esseva femina. Le assertiones de Diktonius e plus tarde de Tideström sur le reception critic de Södergran esseva in parte transmittite sin sufficientemente esser questionate per le historiographos posterior.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Le persona qui scribeva le plus super Södergran e su poesia durante su vita esseva le critic burgese [[Karl Bruhn]], qui publicava sex articulos e recensiones continente judicios tanto positive como negative. Diktonius reinterpretava tamen iste textos como si illes esseva exclusivemente negative.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> Comparate con le majoritate del altere poetas e autores del mesme epocha, le collectiones de poemas de Södergran recipeva multo attention, con un debut que obteneva dece mentionamentos e contributiones.<ref name="Rahikainenkap3" /> In su necrologio de Södergran, Olsson comparava Södergran con un poeta homine, probabilemente Jarl Hemmer, con le intention de monstrar que Södergran esseva un ''underdog'', ma que illa durarea longe. Illa scribeva inter altere: «Edith Södergran viveva in su poema; illa esseva nascite, respirava, amava e moriva in illo», un phrase que plus tarde esseva interpretate como un indication que le poesia de Södergran deberea esser interpretate biographicamente. Iste imagine de su autorato remaneva dominante usque al ultime vinti annos, quando multe nove recercas esseva publicate.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> Olsson describite etiam Södergran como mal interpretate e admitteva que su proprie description del poemas de Södergran como «tingeltangelfasoner» esseva incorrecte.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> [[Roger Holmström]] considera que Olsson habeva sentite tanto culpabile pro haber viagiate via poco ante le morte de Södergran que illa cercava de reparar su culpa mantenente viva le poesia de Södergran,<ref>Holmström, Roger: Hagar Olsson och den öppna horisonten, pagina 77, citate in Rahikainen, capitulo 4.</ref> ma Rahikainen considera que poterea haber existite etiam un rivalitate inter le duo autoras, interrompite per le morte de Södergran, post le qual Olsson poteva communicar a alteres su proprie version modificate de Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> Post un pausa inter 1919 e 1925, durante le qual illa non scribeva plus que alcun parolas dispersate sur Södergran, Olsson comenciava a scriber un serie de essays sur illa. Iste essays influentiava fortemente le imagine postume de Södergran, proque Olsson esseva interpretate como un testimonio veridic qui insimul habeva cognoscite personalmente Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> Ponente Södergran in le prime linea de un nove movimento litterari, Diktonius e Olsson reussi etiam a collocar se mesme in positiones central inter le interpretes de Södergran. Per exemplo, illes comenciava a comparar le obras poetic posterior con celle de Södergran.<ref name="Rahikainenkap4" /> Diktonius e Olsson non esseva tamen sol in lor effortio de diffunder le cognoscentia de Södergran: {{Citation|Ben que le circulo circum [[Ultra (revista)|Ultra]] usava Södergran pro lor proprie scopos, esseva per medio de illes que le cognoscentia de Södergran e de su importantia pro le historia litterari comenciava a diffunder se.|[[Biografiskt lexikon för Finland]]<ref>*{{BLF|4814|namn=Södergran, Edith}}</ref>}} Plus tarde, le poemas de Södergran ha essite publicate in un grande numero de anthologias. Il existe etiam plure piezas de teatro basate super le vita de Edith Södergran. Su poemas ha equalmente essite presentate sur le scena.<ref>[http://www.gwo.se/konserter-biljetter/konsertarkiv/landet-som-icke-%C3%A4r_-19821757 Landet som icke är – poemas de Edith Södergran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409215815/http://www.gwo.se/konserter-biljetter/konsertarkiv/landet-som-icke-%C3%A4r_-19821757 |date=2016-04-09 }} {{Wayback|url=http://www.gwo.se/konserter-biljetter/konsertarkiv/landet-som-icke-%C3%A4r_-19821757|date=20160409215815}}, [[Gothenburg Wind Orchestra]], consultate le 29 martio 2016</ref> === Le poemas de Södergran === Le poemas forsan le plus citate de Södergran es «Dagen svalnar…» e «Landet som icke är».<ref>[[http://minnesvart.com/edith-sodergran/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322103813/http://minnesvart.com/edith-sodergran/ |date=2016-03-22 }} Edith Södergran] {{Wayback|url=http://minnesvart.com/edith-sodergran/ |date=20160322103813 }}, Minnesvärt.se, consultate le 29 martio 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.allehanda.se/kultur/bocker/sjalfull-poesi-av-edith-sodergran Själfull poesi av Edith Södergran], Allehanda, Lars Landström, consultate le 29 martio 2016</ref> In ambe poemas es transmittite atmospheras como le desiro ardente, le expectation, le oscillation inter proximitate e distantia – e un forte [[autoestima]]. Le «io» que appare in su poemas es in general caracterisate per orgolio e monstra frequentemente etiam tractos distinctivemente feminin, ben que le poeta assume insimul le rolos del propheta, del chassator, del principe e del guerrero. Su lingua, imagines e stilo porta un forte impronta feminin, e isto la ha facite un importante modello pro multe poetas lyric posterior feminin. Su autoestima in relation con le homines es forte – «Le homine es un speculo false que le filia del sol, irate, jecta contra le pariete del rupe» (del poema «Violetta skymningar»). Tanto como poeta que como persona, illa monstrava frequentemente un attitude ludic verso le maniera in que le homines se comporta.<ref name=Bokskogen/> In altere momentos illa poteva monstrar un serietate intransigente o un desiro de poter. Iste amplitudine ha essite confirmate per personas qui la cognosceva, per exemplo Hagar Olsson; illo es etiam clarmente visibile in su litteras a Olsson e Diktonius.<ref>Olsson 1955, ''Ediths brev'', passim, vide specialmente paginas 37 e sequente e 87 e sequente in le edition de 1973</ref> In le production de Södergran, le poeta es un principe, un attitude que poteva apparer provocatori quando illo es traducite directemente in le forma in que le «io» assume le roles de rege e propheta, ma que esseva le expression de un conception del artista como un figura creative, inspirate e «orphic»; un conception que esseva relativemente diffundite circa le cambio de seculo ([[Stefan George]], [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Konstantin Balmont]]). Le autoestima intensificate, insimul con le influentias de Nietzsche, es le plus evidente in le collectiones ''Septemberlyran'', ''Rosenaltaret'' e ''Framtidens skugga''.<ref>Brunner, ''Till fots genom solsystemen'', 1985, pagina 176</ref> Le «io» poetic de Södergran non es identic con le persona private Södergran. Il se tracta de un rol que illa visita e explora, al qual illa recurre a vices como refugio, ma que es tamen clarmente distincte de illa mesme. Södergran poetava super un nove mundo que deberea emerger del chaos e del guerras de su epocha, ben que il non es clar quanto proximemente su expectationes esseva ligate a lealties politic directe, per exemplo al idea de un disfacimento del regime [[bolsjevic]] in Russia. Tideström sustene que Södergran esseva in le fundo sympathisante con le [[De vita|Finlandia «blanc»]] e con le interventiones in Russia de 1918–20, e que isto se exprime in su poemas.<ref>Tideström 1991, pagina 141</ref> Hagar Olsson e Elmer Diktonius, qui mesme habeva forti sympathias [[socialista]], contestava iste interpretation. === Le recerca sur Södergran === Nonobstante le grande fluxo de recercas, biographias e textos de vulgarisation scientific que ha essite publicate super Södergran, le fontes original es multo pauc. Il existe principalmente tres rationes pro isto: * Södergran evitava discuter su vita private in scriptura * un parte del material esseva destruite, o per Södergran mesme o per su matre * multe del personas qui habeva cognoscite Södergran esseva disperse per le revolution russe Isto ha conducite al facto que le pauc documentos existente ha essite interpretate e reinterpretate.<ref>Rahikainen, ''Poeten och hennes apostlar'', paginas 7–8</ref> Le labor es rendite ancora plus difficile per le facto que Södergran esseva un persona complexe qui, plure vices durante su vita, cambiava su punctos de vista e su stilo. == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} === Fontes imprimite === * {{cite book |last=Brunner |first=Ernst |title=Till fots genom solsystemen: en studie i Edith Södergrans expressionism |year=1985 |publisher=Bonnier |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-0-046428-7 |id=LIBRIS 7146984 }} * {{cite book |last=Evers |first=Ulla |title=Hettan av en gud: en studie i skapandetemat hos Edith Södergran = The heat of a god: a study of the theme of creation in the works of Edith Södergran |series=Skrifter utgivna av Litteraturvetenskapliga institutionen vid Göteborgs universitet, 0348-4653 ; 24 |year=1992 |publisher=Litteraturvetenskapliga institutionen, Univ. |location=Göteborg |isbn=91-86270-29-X |id=LIBRIS 7756427 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Lönnroth |editor-first=Lars |editor2-last=Delblanc |editor2-first=Sven |editor3-last=Göransson |editor3-first=Sverker |editor4-last=Zilliacus |editor4-first=Clas |title=Den svenska litteraturen. 3, Från modernism till massmedial marknad: 1920-1995 |year=1999 |publisher=Bonnier |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=91-0-056775-2 |id=LIBRIS 8233784 |chapter=Avantgardet i öster – finlandssvensk modernism |pages=151–156 }} * {{cite book |title=På fria villkor: Edith Södergran-studier |series=Skrifter utgivna av svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland, 0039-6842 ; 751 |year=2011 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |isbn=978-951-583-222-1 |id=LIBRIS 12055082 }} * {{cite book |last=Rahikainen |first=Agneta |title=Kampen om Edith: Biografi och myt om Edith Södergran |publisher=Schilds & Söderströms |year=2014 |isbn=978-951-52-3342-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Rahikainen |first=Agneta |title=Poeten och hennes apostlar: En biomytografisk analys av Edith Södergranbilden |edition=Diss. |location=Helsingfors |publisher=Helsingfors universitet |year=2014 |isbn=978-952-10-9790-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Ström |first=Eva |title=Edith Södergran |series=Litterära profiler, 99-1548962-5 |year=1994 |publisher=Natur och kultur |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-27-03527-1 |id=LIBRIS 7229092 }} * {{cite book |last=Södergran |first=Edith |author2=Olsson, Hagar |title=Ediths brev: brev från Edith Södergran till Hagar Olsson |year=1973 |publisher=Schildts |location=Jakobstad |isbn=951-50-0040-8 |id=LIBRIS 7844407 }} * {{cite book |last=Tideström |first=Gunnar |title=Edith Södergran |year=1949 |publisher=Schildt |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 2746214 }} * {{cite book |last=Witt-Brattström |first=Ebba |title=Ediths jag: Edith Södergran och modernismens födelse |url=https://archive.org/details/edithsjagedithsd0000witt |year=1997 |publisher=Norstedt |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-1-971402-5 |id=LIBRIS 7157327 }} == Lectura ulterior == * {{cite book |last=Ahlander |first=Dag Sebastian |title=Fönster mot kosmos: En bok om Edith Södergran |year=2006 |publisher=Natur och kultur |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-27-10591-1 |id=LIBRIS 10162814 }} * {{cite book |last=Brunner |first=Ernst |title=Edith: Roman |url=https://archive.org/details/edithroman0000brun |year=1992 |publisher=Bonnier |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-0-055486-3 |id=LIBRIS 7148914 }} * {{cite book |last=Ekelöf |first=Gunnar |title=Edith Södergran: Studier |year=1968 |publisher=[Svenska akademien] |location=[Stockholm] |id=LIBRIS 646480 }} * {{cite book |last=Enckell |first=Olof |title=Historiska och litteraturhistoriska studier 33 |year=1958 |pages=82–99 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2110117?page=84 |id=LIBRIS 3441890 |chapter=Edith Södergran och den estetiska idealismen |series=SSLS 365 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors }} * {{cite book |last=Enckell |first=Olof |title=Esteticism och nietzscheanism i Edith Södergrans lyrik |url=https://litteraturbanken.se/forfattare/EnckellO/titlar/Esteticism/sida/3/faksimil?om-boken |series=Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland, 321. Studier i finlandssvensk modernism, 1. ISSN 0039-6842 |year=1949 |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 450672 }} * {{cite book |last=Enckell |first=Olof |title=Vaxdukshäftet: en studie i Edith Södergrans ungdomsdiktning |year=1961 |publisher=Wahlström & Widstrand |location=Stockholm |id=LIBRIS 365145 }} * {{cite book |last=Evers |first=Ulla |title=Studier i Edith Södergrans lyrik |year=1982 |publisher=Univ., Litteraturvet. inst. |location=Göteborg |id=LIBRIS 9218713 }} * {{cite book |last=Hackman |first=Boel |title=Jag kan sjunga hur jag vill: tankevärld och konstsyn i Edith Södergrans diktning |year=2000 |publisher=Söderström |location=Helsingfors |isbn=951-52-1857-8 |id=LIBRIS 8384936 }} * {{cite book |last=Holmström |first=Roger |title=Festskrift till Johan Wrede 18.10.1995 |year=1995 |pages=139–144 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653353?page=1 |series=SSLS 594 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 7903071 |isbn=9515830184 |chapter=Från Södergran till Carpelan – några exempel på ‘experimentets tradition’ i finlandssvensk modernism }} * {{cite book |title=Historiska och litteraturhistoriska studier 67 |year=1992 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653422?page=1 |id=LIBRIS 3441961 |series=SSLS 575 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |isbn=951-9018-88-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Jänicke |first=Gisbert |title=Edith Södergran diktare på två språk |year=1984 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2253815?page=1 |series=SSLS 518 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors }} * {{cite book |last=Lilja |first=Eva |title=Metrik och modernism. Rapport från Tredje nordiska metrikkonferensen på Hanaholmens kulturcentrum den 10–12 oktober 1991 |year=1993 |pages=11–21 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653473?page=1 |series=SSLS 584 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |isbn=9515830044 |id=LIBRIS 7903062 |chapter=Södergrans ikoner |editor1-last=Huldén |editor1-first=Lars |editor2-last=Solstrand-Pipping |editor2-first=Helena }} * {{cite book |last=Lillqvist |first=Holger |title=Festskrift till Johan Wrede 18.10.1995 |year=1995 |pages=163–172 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653353?page=1 |series=SSLS 594 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 7903071 |isbn=9515830184 |chapter=Att välja sin verklighet. Harry Martinson och Edith Södergran }} * {{cite book |last=Lillqvist |first=Holger |title=Finlands svenska litteraturhistoria. Andra delen: 1900-talet. Uppslagsdel |editor-last=Zilliacus |editor-first=Clas |year=2000 |pages=100–101 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland – Atlantis |location=Helsingfors–Stockholm |isbn=91-748-6893-4 |id=LIBRIS 2772714 |chapter=Södergranreceptionen }} * {{cite book |last=Lillqvist |first=Holger |title=Avgrund och paradis: Studier i den estetiska idealismens litterära tradition med särskild hänsyn till Edith Södergran |url=https://litteraturbanken.se/forfattare/LillqvistH/titlar/AvgrundOchParadis/sida/I/faksimil?om-boken |series=Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland, 627. ISSN 0039-6842 |year=2001 |location=Helsingfors |isbn=951-583-061-3 |id=LIBRIS 8385896 }} * {{cite journal |last=Lillqvist |first=Holger |year=2002 |title=Bilden av Södergran |journal=Källan |issue=2002:1 |url=https://www.sls.fi/sv/utgivning/kallan-20021 }} * {{cite journal |last=Lillqvist |first=Holger |year=2005 |title=Edith Södergran och 30-talet |journal=Källan |issue=2005:2 |url=https://www.sls.fi/sv/utgivning/kallan-20052 }} * {{cite book |last=Lindström |first=Maj-Britt |title=Festskrift till Olof Enckell 12.3.1970 |year=1970 |editor1-last=Barck |editor1-first=P. O. |editor2-last=Wrede |editor2-first=Johan |editor3-last=Svedberg |editor3-first=Ingmar |pages=203–213 |chapter=“Sången om oceanen” – revolution och sublimation |id=LIBRIS 356133 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |series=SSLS 437 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653408?page=1 }} * {{cite book |last=Pettersson |first=Torsten |title=Fem par finlandssvenska författare konfronteras |year=1995 |pages=35–46 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653464?page=1 |series=SSLS 592 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |isbn=951-58-3016-8 |id=LIBRIS 7903069 |chapter=Den dubbla blicken hos Edith Södergran |editor-last=Holmström |editor-first=Roger }} * {{cite book |last=Pettersson |first=Torsten |title=Gåtans namn: Tankens och känslans mönster hos nio finlandssvenska modernister |pages=27–60 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |chapter=Lekarnas lek (Edith Södergran) |isbn=9174865439 |id=LIBRIS 8374735 |series=SSLS 629 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653374?page=1 |year=2001 }} * {{cite book |author=Poesifestivalen i Nässjö |author2=Silkeberg, Marie |title=Om kärleken i nittiotalsdikten: Edith Södergran möter Karin Boye. Italiensk poesi |year=1999 |publisher=Konst- och kulturavd., Landstinget i Jönköpings län |location=Jönköping |isbn=91-972522-7-1 |id=LIBRIS 7797427 }} * {{cite book |last=Rahikainen |first=Agneta |title=Historiska och litteraturhistoriska studier 68 |year=1993 |pages=219–232 |series=SSLS 581 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 3441962 |isbn=9519018999 |chapter=“Skada att Ni är en karl, med Hagar är det så fritt.” Edith Södergrans brev till Elmer Diktonius }} * {{cite journal |last=Rahikainen |first=Agneta |year=2002 |title=Trädgården i centrum. Fredrika Runebergs och Edith Södergrans litterära hem |journal=Källan |issue=2002:1 |url=https://www.sls.fi/sv/utgivning/kallan-20021 }} * {{cite journal |last=Rahikainen |first=Agneta |year=2014 |title=Edith Södergran bakom bilden |journal=Källan |issue=2014:1 |url=https://www.sls.fi/sv/utgivning/kallan-20141 }} * {{cite book |last=Rahikainen |first=Agneta |title=Historiska och litteraturhistoriska studier 91 |year=2016 |pages=217–245 |series=SSLS 807 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 19943183 |isbn=978-951-58-3346-4 |chapter=Ett mått på berömmelse: Edith Södergran i översättning }} * {{cite book |last=Rahikainen |first=Agneta |title=Edith Södergran: Stjärnfångerskan |location=Helsingfors |publisher=Schildts & Söderströms |year=2023 |isbn=978-951-52-6044-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Saarenheimo |first=Kerttu |title=Historiska och litteraturhistoriska studier 65 |year=1990 |pages=143–164 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653533?page=1 |series=SSLS 560 |location=Helsingfors |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |chapter=Edith Södergran och fackelbärarna |isbn=951-9018-58-1 |id=LIBRIS 3441959 }} * {{cite book |last=Schoolfield |first=George C. |title=Festskrift till Johan Wrede 18.10.1995 |year=1995 |pages=145–150 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653353?page=1 |series=SSLS 594 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 7903071 |isbn=9515830184 |chapter=Blasting and Bombardiering: Tentative Suggestions on Edith Södergran’s ‘Visan från molnet’ }} * {{cite book |last=Sigrell |first=Bo |title=Att dikta sig fri från verkligheten: Tove Ditlevsen, Edith Södergran, Gunvor Hofmo |year=2009 |publisher=Gidlund |location=Möklinta |isbn=978-91-7844-777-0 |id=LIBRIS 11331504 }} * {{cite book |last=Södergran |first=Edith |title=Som en eld över askan: Edith Södergrans fotografier |series=Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland, 582. ISSN 0039-6842 |year=1993 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällsk. i Finland |location=Helsingfors |isbn=951-583-000-1 |id=LIBRIS 7903060 }} * {{cite journal |title=Tema Edith Södergran |journal=Horisont |volume=39 |year=1992 |issue=1 |issn=0439-5530 |publisher=Horisont |location=Vasa |id=LIBRIS 1313696 }} * {{cite book |last=Therman |first=Erik |title=Edith Södergran |year=1936 |location=[Stockholm] |id=LIBRIS 3121901 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Toftegaard Pedersen |editor-first=Arne |title=På fria villkor: Edith Södergran-studier |series=Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland 751 |year=2011 |location=Helsingfors |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |publisher2=Bokförlaget Atlantis |location2=Stockholm |isbn=978-951-583-222-1 |url=https://litteraturbanken.se/forfattare/PedersenToftegaardA/titlar/PaFriaVillkor/sida/3/faksimil?om-boken }} * {{cite book |title=Two women writers from Finland: Edith Södergran (1892–1923) and Hagar Olsson (1893–1978): Papers from the Symposium at Yale University, October 21–23, 1993 |year=1995 |publisher=Lockharton Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=1-874665-05-2 |id=LIBRIS 6879060 }} * {{cite book |last=Villalobos |first=Héctor Areyuna |title=Edith Södergrans sista alster: Ett bidrag till studiet av några av de sista dikter som skaldinnan skrev mellan 1920 och 1923 |year=1981 |publisher=Stockholms universitet. Litteraturvetenskapliga inst. |id=LIBRIS 12655793 }} * {{cite book |title=En väg leder vidare och stjärnorna är intensiva också här: 20 år med Edith Södergran-sällskapet |year=2005 |publisher=Edith Södergran-sällskapet |location=Helsingfors |isbn=952-9185-53-7 |id=LIBRIS 10138674 }} * {{cite book |last=Willner |first=Sven |title=Vandring i labyrint och andra essäer |year=1994 |publisher=Söderström |location=Helsingfors |isbn=951-52-1498-X |id=LIBRIS 7846036 }} * {{cite book |last=Witt-Brattström |first=Ebba |title=Festskrift till Johan Wrede 18.10.1995 |year=1995 |pages=131–138 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653353?page=1 |series=SSLS 594 |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |location=Helsingfors |id=LIBRIS 7903071 |isbn=951-58-3018-4 |chapter=“Har icke denna skönhet legat död bland oss i tusen år?” Den poetiska kroppen hos Edith Södergran }} * {{cite book |last=Wrede |first=Johan |title=Historiska och litteraturhistoriska studier 70 |year=1995 |pages=149–169 |url=https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/teos/binding/2653382?page=1 |series=SSLS 590 |location=Helsingfors |publisher=Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland |chapter=Över dessa dyrbara blad ... Arvid Mörne om Edith Södergran |isbn=951-58-3013-3 |id=LIBRIS 3441934 }} == Ligamines externe == * [https://www.finna.fi/Content/edith-sodergran?mc_cid=13b62cb6c3&mc_eid=71b2855e1f ''Finna.fi: Edith Södergran'']. Le collection ha essite compilate per le Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland. * [https://www.flickr.com/photos/slsarkiva/sets/72157644581542379/# Photographies de Edith Södergran, liberemente disponibile sur Flickr (del archivo del Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland)] * Material de archivo presso le Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland: **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+566 SLSA 566 Archivo de Edith Södergran (1875–1993)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+578+b SLS 578 b Concernente le origine e le familia paterne del autora Edith Södergran – Le familia Södergrann (1945)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+774 SLSA 774 Material super Södergran del patrimonio de Hagar Olsson (1872–1949)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+777 SLSA 777 Documentos concernente le revista ''Quosego'' (1907–1929)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+785 SLSA 785 Litteras de Gunnar Tideström (1946–1949)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+873 SLSA 873 Questionario super Södergran compilate per Thomas Warburton (1983)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+946 SLSA 946 Poemas de Edith Södergran e Elmer Diktonius] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+977 SLSA 977 Recerca super le imagine de Södergran] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+978 SLSA 978 Archivo del Societate Edith Södergran (1983–2014)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+995 SLSA 995 Litteras a Jenny e Uno Barcker (1908–1921)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+1109 SLSA 1109 Concordantia de Edith Södergran] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+1170 SLSA 1170 Material concernente le publication del litteras de Edith Södergran (1989–1996)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+1223 SLSA 1223 Cartas postal de Edith e Helena Södergran a Kirsti Moilanen (1912–1926)] **[https://sls.finna.fi/Collection/sls.SLSA+1377 SLSA 1377 Litteras de Edith Södergran (1903–1923)] [[Categoria:Poetas]] [[Categoria:Scriptores]] [[Categoria:Expressionistas]] [[Categoria:Feminas]] gyz3z7he1kfo2vn7p6jxwab9hpco7iq 0 61211 699511 699341 2026-09-03T05:18:38Z Interlingvisto 60932 /* Essayet e le reflection personal */ 699511 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|Erasmus de Rotterdam, le plus importante humanista del Renascentia in le seculo XVI, depingite per [[Hans Holbein le juvene|Hans Holbein le juvene]] (1525). Characteristicamente, ille ha un libro ante se.]] '''Le litteratura del Renascentia''' se refere al epocha del litteratura europee que comenciava in Italia durante le seculo XV e se diffundeva per tote Europa durante le seculo XVI usque al initio del seculo XVII. Le seculo XVI esseva etiam le epocha del [[humanismo]] in Europa, e iste influentiava le [[philosophia]] del Renascentia. Le redescoperimento del [[antiquitate]] conduceva a un secularisation del homine e del dignitate human. Le Renascentia esseva un transformation profunde del vita intellectual de Europa que marcava le fin del [[Medievo]] e le initio del [[epocha moderne primeve]]. Le epocha esseva characterisate per numerose movimentos differente que occurreva simultaneemente in grande parte de Europa e que habeva varie areas de influentia e significationes. Europa esseva etiam marcate per profunde divisiones politic e religiose, super toto inter le nord e le sud, separate per le [[Reformation]]. Le epocha videva grande descoperimentos geographic e scientific. Con le invention del [[imprimeria|arte de imprimer]], le litteratura e le scriptos se diffundeva como jammais antea e conduceva a nove [[genero|generes]] litterari. Alcun del plus grande [[arte|artistas]] del humanitate viveva in iste epocha. == Un nove epocha es in gestation == [[File:Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_The_Ambassadors_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|300px|Le [[portrait|duple portrait]] combinate con le [[nature morte|natura morte]] «[[Le Ambassatores (Holbein)|Le Ambassatores]]» de 1533 illustra le epocha del Renascentia: un del ambassatores es vestite in maniera secular e aristocratic, durante que le altere es vestite in le ascetic costume del erudito e del ecclesiastic. Le numerose objectos characterisa etiam le epocha: le globo = le descoperimentos; le carta stellar sur le planca superior, insimul con un compasso, un quadrante e un polyedro, assi como duo libros e le instrumento musical luto.]] Le redescoperimento del [[antiquitate]] rendeva le litteratura classic accessibile al Europa post haber essite perdite o inaccessibile durante seculos, lo que ha date su nomine al epocha, «Renascentia» = ''renascentia''. In 1488 le [[Homero|homeric]] [[epopea|epopeas]] esseva legite de novo in Italia, e postea traducite in plure linguas europee durante le seculo XVI; in francese e germano in 1530, in italiano in 1544 e in anglese in 1581.<ref>Haarberg, J., Selboe, T., e Aarset, H. E.: ''Verdenslitteraturhistorie. Den vestlige tradisjonen''. Universitetsforlaget, Oslo 2007. Pagina 17. ISBN 978-82-15-00696-3.</ref> Le epocha esseva marcate per grande inquietude social e guerras, assi como per profunde oppositiones politic e religiose. Le [[Imperio Byzantin]] cadeva sub le conquista del [[musulmano|musulmanes]], e le [[Islam]] menaciava Europa oriental. Le epocha esseva etiam marcate per le [[Reformation]] del christianitate e le [[Contrareformation]]. Illa marca etiam le separation inter le antiquitate, le Medievo e le [[epocha moderne primeve]]. Le epocha conobbe progressos technologic con nove e devastante armas, como le pulvere a canon, le fusiles e le cannones. Le [[stato-nation]] e le [[burguesia]] cresceva como nove factores de poter. [[File:Metal movable type.jpg|thumb|left|Le typos mobile esseva le invention de Gutenberg que revolutionava le diffusion del litteratura in Europa {{byline|Willi Heidelbach}}]] Le descoperimento del Nove Mundo, America, per [[Christophoro Columbo]] in 1492 conduceva a un transformation total del antique conception del mundo. Le [[Johann Gutenberg|arte de imprimer]] libros de [[Gutenberg]], con le invention de un methodo pro funder typos mobile e compon­er textos con illos, conduceva a un explosion del publicationes litterari e del diffusion del litteratura. Isto favorava etiam le litteratura in le linguas maternal e significava que le latino e le grec, como linguas litterari, comenciava a declinar (''vide [[litteratura latin]]''). Le Renascentia esseva le epocha del [[humanismo]], e le duo conceptos se distingue per le facto que on pote considerar le «Renascentia» como le epocha historic que faceva le ponte inter le Medievo e le nove epocha, e le «humanismo» como le movimento educational e cultural que emergeva durante iste epocha. Le termino «Renascentia» ipse appariva tarde: solmente in 1855 esseva illo introducite per le historiographo francese [[Jules Michelet]], qui in le mesme anno publicava le septime volumine de su historia de Francia sub le titulo ''Renascentia''. Le termino deveniva popular e ganava grande diffusion per le obra del historiographo suisse del arte [[Jacob Burckhardt]], ''Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien'', in 1861.<ref>[http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/februar/Hva%20er%20rennessansen Forskning.no: Hva es le Renascentia?] {{Wayback|url=http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/februar/Hva%20er%20rennessansen |date=20080119012434 }}</ref> Specialmente le vision alquanto unilateral de Burckhardt ha influentiate le posteritate e simplificate le epocha. Le Renascentia esseva multo plus complexe e diverse. Illa non esseva un sol movimento, sed numerose movimentos que occurreva in locos differente e a momentos differente.<ref>[http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/februar/1075811781.43 Forskning.no: Imagine erronee del Renascentia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/februar/1075811781.43 |date=20061002172411 |df=iso }}</ref> Le paises europee que esseva predominantemente [[Catholicismo|catholic]] o [[Protestantismo|protestante]] experientiava le Renascentia de maniera differente del paises o regiones ubi le [[Ecclesia orthodoxe]] esseva dominante, e similmente del regiones sub domination islamic. Francia esseva un centro cultural de prime rango in philosophia e scientia, con forte influentia italian. Anglaterra e Flandria habeva assumite le predominio del citates-state italian in le commercio. In Anglaterra, le evolution del administration del stato habeva le major grado de progresso. Le principatos germanic esseva ancora marcate per le [[feudalismo]] e le luctas pro poter. Espania e Portugal habeva recipite un impulsion per le descoperimento del Nove Mundo extra Europa. Le paises nordic esseva marcate per lor position al margine de Europa, e ibi le Renascentia arrivava plus tarde e in minor extension. == Le veso del Renascentia == === Le arte de imprimer e le diffusion del cognoscentia === [[File:Gutenberg bible Old Testament Epistle of St Jerome.jpg|thumb|Del initio del Vetere Testamento in le [[Biblia de Gutenberg]].]] Alcun tempore durante le decennio 1450, le germano Johann Gutenberg creava le [[arte de imprimer]], primo con typos separate e postea con typos fundite que poteva esser combinate pro formar nove parolas, e cuje superficies poteva esser inketate pro transferer le parolas sur papiro. Postea ille inventava etiam le pressa de imprimer, que in pauc annos revolutionava le production de libros in Europa. Per iste invention, le reproduction de libros conobbe un expansion e un diffusion sin precedente. Il es difficile imaginar que le innovative litteratura del Renascentia haberea recipite le mesme impulsion si le arte de imprimer non la haberea rendite possibile. Ante Gutenberg, libros e manuscritos esseva reproducite per copiation: libro post libro esseva laboriosemente copiate a mano, sovente per monachos. Le prime libro producite in massa e imprimite in le officina de Gutenberg esseva le [[Biblia]] in latino (circa 1455), cognoscite sub nomes como ''Biblia Latina'', le «[[Biblia de Gutenberg]]». Le tirage esseva de 200 exemplares, un numero modeste hodie, sed enorme in comparation con le libros manuscripte, que per iste ration esseva tanto preciose que interdum illos esseva fixate con catenas in le salas de lectura. Imprimerias surgeva in grande numero, specialmente presso le [[universitate|universitates]] e le scholas cathedral, ma etiam como imprimerias secular in le grande citates. Le florimento del universitates e del institutiones de education occurreva simultaneemente, specialmente in Italia e Francia, lo que rumpeva le position dominante del [[theologia]] in le studios academic. Le philosophia e le litteratura antique esseva studiate e traducite. Con le diffusion plus grande de libros e litteratura, illos deveniva etiam plus accessibile ultra le ancian litteratos, le personas que scribeva e legeva latino. Le crescente accessibilitate incoragiava le litteratura in le linguas maternal. [[Marsilio Ficino]] recipeva in le medietate del seculo XV le incarico de traducer le dialogos de [[Platon]] del grec al latino<ref>Beyer, Edvard et al.: ''Verdenslitteraturhistorie'', volumine 3. Oslo 1972. Pagina 14.</ref>, lo que deveniva le initio de un grande redescoperimento del litteratura antique. Le interesse pro le lingua grec e pro le linguas in general, indirectemente etiam pro le linguas maternal, marcava le prime humanistas. Iste interesse pote esser sequite usque al reformatores posterior, como [[Jean Calvin]], [[Erasmo de Rotterdam|Erasmo de Rotterdam]] e [[Martin Luther]], e finalmente aperiva le via al cognoscentia del doctrina biblic per le laicos. === Le Reformation e le Biblia in le lingua maternal === [[File:Martin_Luther_2.jpg|thumb|Martin Luther, sacerdote catholic german qui initiava le processo que nos hodie cognosce como le [[Reformation]]]] In 1517 le germano Martin Luther affixava su novanta-cinque theses al porta del ecclesia in Wittenberg, e postea illos esseva imprimite e diffundite per tote Germania. Luther attaccava le commercio de [[indulgentia|indulgentias]], ma le rebellion deveniva tosto de grande extension. Le proprie angustias religiose de Luther le conduceva a un studio profunde del Biblia. Le reaction del Ecclesia le menava a vader plus longe e, sur bases theologic, ille rejectava cinque del septe [[sacramentos]]. Altere personas habeva angustias religiose simile, inter illes Erasmo de Rotterdam e le collaborator de Luther, [[Philipp Melanchthon]]. Un longe e amare conflicto inter catholicos e protestantes se developpava durante le seculo XVI, que inter altere cosas resultava in le [[Guerra de trenta annos]]. Le Reformation habeva un signification que esseva plus que religiose, proque un elemento decisive esseva le traduction del Biblia in le linguas maternal e su accessibilitate a tote le personas. Isto habeva consequentias pro le linguas del traductiones. Isto concerneva le proprie traduction german de Luther, e cosas similar occurreva in Anglaterra, Nederland, Danmark e Svedia. Solmente in Norvegia le traduction habeva un effecto negative, proque le danese entrava in le loco del lingua maternal norvegese, retardante le evolution del lingua norvegese usque al fin del seculo XIX, e mesmo hodie le norvegese es fortemente influentiate per le danese. Le Reformation que divideva Europa esseva un choc paralysante pro le Ecclesia catholic, e solmente in 1545 illa se reuniva in un concilio ecclesiastic, le [[Concilio de Trento]], presso Roma. Le concilio durava, con interruptiones, durante 18 annos, ma conduceva a cambios in le Ecclesia. Inter altere cosas, le concilio stabiliva que le arte religiose debeva ''commover'' e ''fascinar'' le populo. Isto conduceva al emergentia del [[barocco]], le stilo artistic que in le artes visual succedeva al Renascentia, e que veniva a influentiar le architectura, le musica e le litteratura. Un ration pro le qual le Reformation non se imponeva in le paises mediterranee pote esser explicate, inter altere cosas, per le inclination al [[mysticismo]] religiose<ref>Beyer, Edvard et al.: ''Verdenslitteraturhistorie'', volumine 3. Oslo 1972. Pagina 102.</ref>, qualcosa que pote esser visualisate in le potente ''[[Le Judicio final (Michelangelo)|Judicio final]]'' del artista [[Michelangelo]] in le [[Capella Sixtin]] in le [[Citate del Vaticano]]. Su contemporaneos appellava le artista «le divin», ma etiam «le terribile» — ''il terribile''.<ref>Beyer, Edvard et al.: ''Verdenslitteraturhistorie'', volumine 3. Oslo 1972. Pagina 103.</ref> In le catholic [[Espania]], le mysticismo christian esseva ancora plus pronunciate. Con le poesia ecclesiastic raffinate de [[Johannes del Cruce|Juan de la Cruz]] e con le vaste production del autor baroc [[Lope de Vega]], le expression esseva tanto intense como intricate. In contraste, autores protestante como Martin Luther cercava un forma de expression multo differente, characterisate per simplicitate e sin circumlocutiones subtile o imagines difficile. === Humanismo e le homine del Renascentia === [[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour (cropped).jpg|thumb|''[[Homine vitruvian]]'', le studio de Leonardo sur le proportiones del corpore human.]] [[Baldassare Castiglione]], un cortesan, diplomate e eminente autor del Renascentia italian, comenciava in 1508 le obra pro le qual ille es principalmente rememorate, ''[[Il libro del cortegiano|Le libro del cortesan]]'' (''Il libro del cortegiano''). Post plure annos de labor, illo esseva publicate in 1528, pauc tempore ante su morte. Castiglione describerea le ideales de cultura e education que on expectava de un persona de nobilitate; ille debeva parlar plure linguas, suonar un instrumento musical, scriber poesia e plus. [[Michel de Montaigne]] (1533–1592) esseva un autor francese del Renascentia qui incarnava le ideal del Renascentia e del humanismo per su vita multiforme como proprietario terrier, burgomastro, consiliario politic, functionario de confidentia, erudito humanista, homine de litteratura instruite e catholic credente. In le spirito humanista, ille cercava le radices del antiquitate e habeva confidentia in le valor del homine, in su qualitates innat e in le pensamento rational. Al initio del seculo XX, le termino «homine del Renascentia» entrava in uso<ref>Harper, Daniel (2001): [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Renaissance+man&searchmode=phrase Online Etymology Dictionary]</ref> como designation de un [[polymath|polymata]] (del grec «qui sape multe»), un erudito con cognoscentias extraordinariamente vaste in le campos le plus diverse del scientias. Un concepto correspondente es ''Homo universalis'', le homine universal, per le qual un scientifico o un erudito del seculo XVI esseva capabile de esser innovative e apprender quasi tote le que pertineva a un subjecto, qualcosa que esseva possibile proque le cognoscentia esseva plus limitate a ille epocha que plus tarde.<ref>{{Kilde www |url=http://lookwayup.com/lwu.exe/lwu/d?s=f&w=Renaissance%20man |tittel=Lookwayup: Renaissance man |besøksdato=2008-01-30 |arkiv-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111022553/http://lookwayup.com/lwu.exe/lwu/d?s=f&w=Renaissance%20man |arkivdato=2007-11-11 |url-status=død }}</ref> Le termino es usate specialmente pro un erudito qui faceva contributiones historic o durabile a al minus un del materias in le quales ille esseva directemente implicate. Le Renascentia produceva multe grande nomines que, per lor genialitate e diversitate, pote esser characterisate como «homines del Renascentia», ma quasi nulle persona pare compler iste designation melio que le italiano [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519). Ille esseva scientifico, mathematiciano, ingeniero, inventor, anatomista, pictor, sculptor, architecto, musicista e autor. Le eruditos [[humanismo|humanista]] formava le panorama intellectual del Renascentia. Illes esseva convincite que le artes liberal, como [[grammatica]], [[retorica]], [[dialectica]], [[musica]], [[arithmetica]], [[geometria]] e [[astronomia]], insimul con le studio del textos classic, debeva esser practicat in tote lor ricchessa. Illes credeva etiam in le ego, le dignitate human e le dignitate individual. Iste valor se trova in le fide humanista que tote cosa in le vita possede un natura determinate, ma que le homine ha le derecto de eliger su proprie natura. Super toto, le humanistas exaltava «le genio del homine… le unic e extraordinari habilitate del intellecto human».<ref>[[Gianozzo Manetti]] in ''De dignitate et excellentia hominis libri IV'' (''De le dignitate e excellentia del homine''), citate e traducite de Clare, John D. (1995): ''Italian Renaissance''.</ref> Pensatores politic como [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] e [[Thomas More]] revitalisava ideas antique e los utilisava pro criticar le societate contemporanee, durante que theologos como Erasmus e Martin Luther contestava le status quo [[Aristoteles|aristotelic]] e introduceva nove ideas radical super le justitia e le fide. Isto contineva un conflicto latente con le conception del homine propugnate per le Ecclesia; nonobstante, le majoritate del humanistas esseva credentes sincere que non desirava romper con le Ecclesia. Le humanismo del Renascentia reevalutava o substitueva le philosophia medieval de [[Thomas Aquinas]], ma simultaneemente se faceva tentativas de crear un [[syncretismo]], attribuente valores christian al antiquitate, como in le obras de [[Marsilio Ficino]] e [[Pico della Mirandola]]. Le [[ethica]] esseva studiate independentemente del [[theologia]], e in loco del autoritate ecclesiastic se utilisava le logica rational, lo que poneva le humanistas in un pericul constante de esser accusate de [[heresia]]. == Generes litterari in le Renascentia == === Le epopeia national-heroic === [[File:Orlando Furioso 18.jpg|thumb|350px|left|Le furiose Orlando (Rolando) accompliva grande actos heroïc, ben que illos non esseva sempre realïstic…]] Le [[epopeia]] antique, un poema narrative de grande extension, que generalmente tractava un subjecto de alte valor concernente actos heroïc e evenimentos importante pro le nation, como le ''[[Odyssea]]'' e le ''[[Iliada]]'' de [[Homero]], assi como le ''[[Aeneide]]'' de [[Vergilio]], continuava a esser cultivato durante le Renascentia. Le entusiasmo pro le Antiquitate, associate al nascent [[nationalismo]], assi como le interesse del epocha pro viages spectacular e [[aventura]], rendeva quasi inevitabile que le Renascentia non solmente continuarea le epopeia antique como genere litterari, sed anque cercarea de superarlo. In plure paises europee existeva un intense desiro de crear lor proprie epopeia national, como le Grecos e Romanos habeva ja facite, a fin de inscriber se in le grande tradition. Un altere fonte de inspiration esseva le duo traditional typos de narration [[heroic]] del Medioevo, ''[[Canzone de Rolando]]'' e le ''[[chanson de geste]]'' (narrationes de actos heroïc). Le prime habeva como subjecto le menacia de invasion per le [[Mauros]], que habeva essite transformate in victoria in Espania. Le secunde variante continuava le narrationes arthurian, con cavalleros coragiose qui combatteva cortesemente pro le virtute de castas damas. Le epopeia cavalleresc del Renascentia habeva assi un forte character [[anachronismo|anachronic]], in le qual tempore historic, personas e evenimentos esseva miscite sin difficultate. Le obra le plus vetere de iste tradition litterari esseva le incomplite ''[[Orlando innamorato]]'' (''Orlando enamorate'') de [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]] (1441–1494), publicate primo in 1495. Le action se passa in Paris, al corte de [[Carlo Magno]], ubi duo cavalleros, Orlando e Rinaldo, deveni follemente enamorate de un princessa de China (!) al mesme tempore que le [[Sarracenos]] menacia le regno. Anque le mago Merlino, pociones magic e le infidele flechas de [[Eros|Cupido]] joca lor proprie partes. [[File:Torquato Tasso 2.jpg|thumb|Torquato Tasso e su ''Gerusalemme liberata''.]] Plure autores tentava completar le poema, ma solmente con [[Ludovico Ariosto]] (1474–1533), un altere poeta italian, le tentativa finalmente successe, con su magnific epopeia ''[[Orlando furioso]]'' (''Le furiose Orlando''). Le version le plus vetere appareva in 1516, ma le obra non esseva publicate in su forma complete ante 1532. Su influentia super le litteratura e le arte durante le sequente 300 annos, usque al seculo XIX, es difficile a superestimar.<ref name="Haarberg, J., et al. Side 211">Haarberg, J., et al. Side 211</ref> Le poema de Ariosto es oral e directe in su forma: ille lo «canta» como si illo esseva recitate per un [[trovator]]. Es iste forma textual que esseva ulteriormente developpate per plus de cento librettistas de opera.<ref>[http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/kultur/1.3952541 NRK: Le cavallero furiose]</ref> Ubi le poema de Boiardo termina, le poema de Ariosto continua con le mesme protagonistas, Orlando e Rinaldo, e con lor desiro pro le princessa, ma nove personas e nove themas se interlace. Anque hic le action exterior es le lucta inter le Sarracenos e Carlo Magno, ma Ariosto presta pauc attention al accuratezza historic e geographic. Le poema passa sin difficultate de Japon a [[Hebrides]], e mesmo face un viage al luna. Essers fantastic e elementos magic face parte del popular narration, assi como le numerose narrationes secundari que fragmenta le narration principal. Le grande poeta del [[Contra-Reformation]], [[Torquato Tasso]] (1544–1595), e su epopeia ''[[La Gerusalemme liberata]]'' (''Le Jerusalem liberate'') de 1581 es equalmente importante in le historia del litteratura. Le narration es plus clar, cohérente e structurata que le duo epopeias de Orlando mentionate supra, plen de [[ironia]] e del tenebrose tonos incipiente del barocco. Ben que illo presenta un certe character historic, le action continua a esser condimentate per incidentes supernatural e fantastic. Anque hic le amor joca su joco traidor, con le heroe lacerate inter le honor e le sentimentos in un drama amorose triangular inter le heroe christian, un princessa maur e un guerriera maur, que finalmente termina in tragedia. Le epopeias national deveniva importante durante le seculo XVI in plure paises europee. Le poeta francese [[Pierre de Ronsard]] (1524–1585) cercava a honorar le rege [[Carlo IX de Francia]] con ''[[La Franciade]]'' (''Le Franciada'', 1572), durante que ille continuava le stricte modelos greco-romane. Similemente, in Portugal [[Luís de Camões]] (1524–1580) scribeva su grande epopeia national, ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'', que significa «Lusitanos», id es «le Portugueses». Illo combinava le viages aventurose del epopeias antique con le scopertas del seculo XVI, transformante le viage de [[Vasco da Gama]] a India in material [[legenda|legendarie]], complete con le influentia del deos pagane. Similemente, un epopeia espaniol del annos inter 1569 e 1589, ''[[La Araucana]]'' (''Le canto del Araucanos''), esseva scribite per [[Alonso de Ercilla]] (1533–1594). Hic le imperio es construite e celebrate per le conquestas in le nove mundo, America. Anque Anglaterra demandava su epopeia national, e [[Edmund Spenser]] (1552–1599) scribeva ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' (''Le Regina del Fadas''), publicate primo in tres libros in 1590 e plus tarde in sex libros in 1596, ben que su inspiration non esseva ligate al Antiquitate, ma al [[Rege Arthur|legenda arthurian]]. Le laude esseva dirigite al regina, [[Elisabeth I de Anglaterra]] (representate allegoricamente in le poema como le regina del fadas mesme, «Gloriana»), qui ha date su nomine al epocha del Renascentia anglese, le [[epocha elisabethan]]. Le poema es un allegoria fantastic super Anglaterra, le regina e le [[Casa Tudor]], assi como un celebration del moral christian e del nationalismo protestante, in le qual incredulos e papistas es le malvagios, Rege Arthur es le heroe e le puritate del matrimonio es le virtute supreme. Le poema fusionava le [[allegoria medieval]] con le epopeia romantic italian. Ben que Edmund Spenser es recognoscite como un del plus importante inter le prime poetas anglese, esseva le duo poetas precedente [[Thomas Wyatt]] (1503–1542) e [[Henry Howard, comte de Surrey|Henry Howard]] (1517–1547) qui aperiva le porta al poesia anglese moderne post le grande poeta medieval [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (1343–1400): Wyatt introduceva e adaptava al anglese le [[sonetto]], linguisticamente e metricamente exigente, e Howard lo perfectionava e introduceva le [[blank verse]], le [[jambo]] pentametrico sin rima, que devenirea le instrumento principal del drama anglese. === Cortesan-tragic narrationes in prosa === [[File:Marguerite d'Angoulême by Jean Clouet.jpg|thumb|Un del feminas le plus eminente del Renascentia esseva Marguerite de Navarra, qui protegeva le humanistas e esseva anque un importante authrice in su proprie jure.]] Durante le Renascentia, le narration in versos esseva le forma le plus prominente, e intra le epopeia se scribeva anque in [[prosa]]. Le major parte de iste obras esseva epopeias super cavalleros e heroes e habeva contento simile a illo del obras in versos. Un exemplo esseva ''[[Amadis de Gaula]]'' o ''Amadis de Gales'', que esseva redactate per plure autores durante plure annos. Le obra e su variantes esseva multo popular al initio del seculo XVI e formava le base pro numerose poetas posterior del Renascentia e del barocco. Su celebritate hodierne debe se non tanto al qualitates litterari como al facto que le obra esseva frequentemente referite e [[parodia|parodiate]] per le grande autor espaniol [[Miguel de Cervantes]] (1547–1616) al initio del seculo XVII. Su heroe [[Don Quixote]] idealisava Amadis e comparava frequentemente le aventuras de su heroe con le proprie. Le prime edition imprimite cognoscite de ''Amadis de Gaula'' esseva publicate in [[Zaragoza]] in 1508, ma narrationes existeva probabilemente ja durante le seculo XIV e proveniva de Portugal, con origine in le tarde genero del legenda arthurian. Durante le seculo XVI, le narration curte serie esseva developpate ulteriormente, e esseva Italia qui dava al forma su proprie termino generic, ''novella'', id es «novitate» o «cosa nove», le origine de nostre termino [[novella]].<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=novella&searchmode=none Etymonline.com: Novella]</ref> Le genero esseva ja experimentate, in le mesura que le narrationes secundari esseva innovative, in le ''[[Decameron]]'' de [[Boccaccio]] (comenciate in 1350 e finite in 1353), que in su narration-cornice exterior face le diverse protagonistas narrar cata un su proprie historia; cento novelle narrate per dece personas. Multes de iste e altere narrationes plus breve esseva liberemente utilisate como puncto de partita pro nove e plus ample obras. Le autor de narrationes curte qui exerceva le plus grande influentia esseva [[Matteo Bandello]] (1485–1561), qui deveniva un modello pro successores francese, espaniol e anglese. Ille scribeva circa 214 novelle, colligite in quatro volúmines, tres in 1554 e un in 1573.<ref>Haarberg, J., et al. P. 217</ref> Ille esseva traducite e cognoscite in tote Europa, e [[William Shakespeare]] fundava plure de su obras super su narrationes, inter illos ''[[Romeo e Julieta]]'' (1595–1596). [[Marguerite de Navarra]] (1492–1549), regina del rege [[Henrico II de Navarra]], esseva un grande protectrice del humanismo del Renascentia, ma esseva anque un authrice in su proprie jure. Illa scribeva numerose poemas e obras teatral e exerceva un grande influentia super le evolution del novella verso le genero que nos cognosce hodie. In continuation del tradition de Boccaccio, illa publicava le collection de novelle ''[[Heptaméron]]'', imprimite post su morte in 1559. Le titulo ''Heptaméron'' significa litteralmente «septe dies». Le intention esseva que le collection continerea 10 vices 10 novelle, id es cento in total, ma illa non habeva le tempore de scriber plus que 72 ante su morte. In le novelle del libro, illa accentuava e defenderea le derecto al amor, mesmo quando le amor violava le leges e le conventiones, e forsan nonobstante le facto que su proprie vita private probabilemente non le inspirava in le mesme direction. Anque Cervantes scribeva plus que [[drama]] e [[romance pastoral]], inter alteres ''Novelas ejemplares'' (''Novelle exemplar'', 1613).<ref>Le termino espaniol ''novela'' pote esser mislecurrente, proque in espaniol moderne illo corresponde al anglese ''novel'' = [[romance]], un narration plus longe, ma Cervantes lo usava in le senso italian, pro narrationes curte.</ref> Considerate insimul, illos ha un qualitate inegual, ma Cervantes probabilemente sperava que illos devenirea pro le espanioles lo que le obra de Boccaccio habeva essite pro le italianos: alcun es pur [[anecdota]], alcun mini-romances, alcun es seriose e alteres comic; tote illos es scribite in un stilo legier e oral, e certe es tanto longe que hodie illos esserea considerate como romances curte. === Narrationes comic-burlesc === [[File:Francois Rabelais - Portrait.jpg|thumb|François Rabelais]] Le epopeia es un genero de alte dignitate, in contrasto con le prosa comic-burlesc, que se characterisa per un stilo narrative popular, allegre e vivace e que le Renascentia heredava del fin del Medioevo. Le direction comic-burlesc tornava le qualitates preferite del epopeia in lor contrario e promoveva in vice le inesthetico e le vulgar, tanto in le action como in le figuras del narration. In le genero comic-burlesc se trova elementos de cantos de ebrietate, blasfemias e derision, id es [[parodia]], specialmente contra le litteratura de alte dignitate. Le plus frequentemente, le vita de un persona es narrate in un simple linea de action, quasi como episodios disparate ligate le unes al alteres. Un exemplo del aspecto parodic es le italiano [[Luigi Pulci]] (1432–1484), qui scribeva ''[[Morgante maggiore]]'' (''Le immense Morgante'', 1483), un epopeia de tono elevate, ma deliberatemente parodic, super un gigante qui deveniva christian e se univa al cavallero Orlando (Roland). [[File:Don Quijote and Sancho Panza.jpg|thumb|left|Don Quixote e su companion Sancho Panza.]] Le francese [[François Rabelais]] (1494–1553) esseva anque attrahite per le exaggeration e scribeva in le mesme maniera super un gigante: le grande ''[[Gargantua]]''. Rabelais esseva un [[Ordine franciscan|monacho franciscan]], medico e humanista e, super toto, un del grande autores del Renascentia; ille ha essite considerate un avantgardista del [[litteratura fantastic]], del [[satira]], del humor [[grotesc]] e del cantos licentiose. In un de su duo prefacios a ''Gargantua'', ille demandava a su lectores de non esser scandalizate e explicava que ille scribeva plus tosto super le riso que super le plorar, «proque le riso pertine al homine»<ref>Beyer, Edvard et al: ''Historia del litteratura mundial'', tomo 3. Oslo 1972. P. 259.</ref>, e faceva allusion al facto que sub le superficie (grotesc) se trova cosas belle. Nonobstante iste amical advertimento, le narration comic e vivace de Rabelais, in un fertile francese vernacular, super Gargantua e postea su filio ''[[Pantagruel]]'' e lor viages in un mundo marcate per avaritia, stultitia, violentia e argutia, sovente concentrate super le ingestion de nutrimento e le excessos erotic del personas, esseva mal acceptate per le Ecclesia catholic. Le libros de Rabelais esseva bannite e plus tarde includite in le lista de libros ''[[Index librorum prohibitorum]]'' (''Indice de libros prohibite'').<ref>[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/rabela.htm François Rabelais] {{Wayback|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/rabela.htm |date=20080215205108 }}</ref> Su libros es inegual, ma isto ha anque essite lor fortia: un superabundantia exuberante de argutias, jocos de parolas, vocabulario prohibite e brusque saltos in le narration. In tote caso, al centro de su narrationes se trovava le fide profunde del humanista Rabelais in le positivo del homine e in su possibilitates. Espania esseva marcate per un estranie mixtura de [[realismo (litteratura)|realismo]] e [[Romanticismo|romanticismo]]. Ja poco ante 1500, ''[[La Celestina]]'', un romance dramatic super le amor idealistic del protagonistas, obteneva un grande diffusion in Europa. Le mesme occurreva con ''Amadis de Gaula''. Ma a medie del seculo, le romantismo cavalleresc trovava un contrapuncto in le romance realista e facete, le dicite [[romance picaresc|romance picaresc]] (del espaniol ''picaresca'', de ''picaro'' = homine facete, canalia, vagabundo), promovite primo in le romance ''[[Lazarillo de Tormes]]'' (1554). Iste obra esseva scribite per un autor incognite e deveniva decisive pro le formation del genero. [[File:Miguel de Cervantes2.jpg|thumb|Miguel de Cervantes]] Esseva iste panorama litterari que influentiava [[Miguel de Cervantes]] (1547–1616), quando ille publicava in 1605 le prime parte de ''[[Don Quixote]]'', le cavallero del figura dolente. Ante isto, Cervantes habeva obtenite poco successo e, malgrado un vaste production litterari, habeva restate in le umbra del popular Lope de Vega. Con ''Don Quixote'', le obra principal del litteratura comic-burlesc, Cervantes deveniva celebre, ma le beneficio economic esseva modeste. Le secunde parte appareva in 1615, e desde alora le reputation de Cervantes ha continuate a crescer, deveniente pro Espania lo que Shakespeare es pro Anglaterra.<ref>Il es un facto amusante que Cervantes e Shakespeare moriva ambes le 23 de april 1616, ma secundo calendarios differente.</ref> Le narration es como un bibliotheca del tempore presente, con un parentela al plus alte nivello de generos como le epopeia cavalleresc, le romance e, ante toto, le parodias de illos, «con ric ingressos anque al partes del arte narrative europee que se trova extra le mundo del parodia».<ref>Haarberg, J., et al. P. 221–222.</ref> Don Quixote es un vetere homine estranie qui ha legite troppo del romances cavalleresc contemporanee e crede que ille mesme es un grande cavallero qui debe exir in le mundo e compler grande e nobile actos. Como armigero, ille ha con se le parve e grosse Sancho Panza, tanto realista como Don Quixote es visionario e idealista. Le cosa que rende le narration grande es que ambes es plus que caricaturas, proque le autor les da humanitate e personalitate, ben que anque debilitate. Assi, le narration deveni multo plus que un simple deformate imagine del romances cavalleresc: illo producía le prime romance moderne de Europa. === Le romances pastorale === Le [[romance]], le longe narration in prosa, occupava como genero litterari un loco satis basse in le [[hierarchia]] litterari del Renascentia, ma nonobstante habeva un grande diffusion como le appellate libros popular. Le poesia pastoral, o le romance pastoral, esseva un genero antique que recipeva un nove impulsion durante le Renascentia, ma in vice de poetas pastorale como [[Theocrito]] e Virgilio, esseva le romances antique de [[Longo]], [[Heliodoro]] e [[Achille Tatio]] que serviva principalmente de inspiration. Durante le seculo XVI, le vita e le atmosphera pastoral, le bon vita al campania, foras del strepito e del agitation urban, deveniva un thema artistic, ben que aristocratic. Como genero, le poesia pastoral requireva pastores e pastores femininas, e le paisage esseva generalmente le fertile e ric region agricole de [[Arcadia]] (promovite primo per Virgilio) in le [[Peloponneso]] in Grecia, ma anque locos similar in altere paises. Le poesia pastoral del Renascentia esseva un desiro de retornar al stato primordiale de pace e felicitate, in le narrationes sovente menaciate per guerreros periculose, idealmente con un fin felice. Le posteritate ha judicate le popular genero del Renascentia con condescendentia, como un [[Romanticismo|romantic]] fuga del realitate, lontan de tote [[Realismo (litteratura)|realismo]], e ben que illo dispariva alicubi in le seculo XVIII, su atmosphera ha trovate echo in le litteratura posterior. Le humanista e poeta italiano [[Jacopo Sannazaro]] (1458–1530) scribeva ''Arcadia'', publicate in 1483. Su elegante narration-cornice circum extractos lyric del [[ecloga|eclogas]] de Virgilio deveniva un fonte de inspiration pro numerose altere autores qui continuava le concepto, specialmente le autor de lingua espaniol e portugese [[Jorge de Montemayor]] (1520–1561), qui scribeva le romance pastoral ''Diana'' (1559) super le amor cortese inter le pastor Sireno e le pastoresse Diana, qui custodia cata un su proprie grege. In vice de esser un narration del vita pastoral antique, illo es un [[allegoria]] del intricate regulas amorose del nobilitate contemporanee. Le autor ipse esseva occidite poco post, post un supposite affaire amorose. In Anglaterra, [[Philip Sidney]] scribeva ''Arcadia'' (1590), cuje action es etiam realmente situate in Arcadia, a differentia de Sannazaro e Montemayor, ma illo es solmente apparentemente un description de Arcadia, proque su ver subjecto es le societate anglese contemporanee. In Francia, [[Honoré d'Urfé]] scribeva le romance ''[[L’Astrée]]'' (''Le historia de Astrea'', publicate inter 1607 e 1627), que deveniva un obra vaste, con dece-duo libros in cinque tomos. Hic le action es situate in un paisage foras de [[Lyon]], ubi le par amorose debe suffrer plure separationes, sub le influentia del caprices de Amor. Le romance ha essite considerate le culmine del romance pastoral del Renascentia. Anque [[Miguel de Cervantes]] practicava le poesia pastoral con ''[[La Galatea]]'' (''Le historia de Galatea'') de 1585, con un thema prendite precisemente de Theocrito, ma situate apud le [[Tajo]], le plus longe fluvio del Peninsula Iberic. In le celebre scena del rogo de libros in ''[[Don Quixote]]'', ubi ille largemente parodia le romances pastorale e cavalleresc, ille lassa, con un surriso, precisamente iste libro escapar al rapina del flammas. === Essayos e le reflection personal === [[File:Essays (Montaigne).jpg|thumb|Le copertura del libro de Montaigne, ''Les Essais''.]] In le mesura que le [[essay]] esseva un nove genero, apparentate al diario, al conversation per litteras e al reflection personal, illo esseva, ab le francese ''essai'', «essay» o «tentativa», un innovative e characteristic genero humanista del Renascentia, ben que historicamente illo pote esser considerate un continuation e evolution del [[Epistola|epistolas]] in prosa del antiquitate. Illo esseva introducite principalmente per le francese [[Michel de Montaigne]] (1533–1592) in su massive obra ''Les Essais'', publicate pro le prime vice in 1580 e posteriormente revise plure vices. Illo consiste de duo partes: le prime es un meditation super citationes classic, durante que le secunde tracta diverse themas, per exemplo le amicitia e le education de infantes, ma le textos tracta super toto de ipse Montaigne e de su introspection psychologic. Le essay, que Montaigne popularisava, es «un breve tractato in bon prosa nonfictional con medios linguisticamente elaborate de natura rhetoric o stylistic, de un thema troppo grande o troppo parve, que non es tractate ni troppo pauc ni systematicamente, ma de maniera non concludite e fragmentari, con saltos e digressiones, e tamen de maniera que un integre conception del vita o del societate deveni evidente…», pro usar un extracto del definition de [[Georg Johannesen]]. Definir un genero como le essay pare difficile, tanto illo es vague e individualistic, e tanto varie pote esser le subjecto. Characteristic del Renascentia es que Montaigne es in accordo con su epocha per poner le emphase super le vision individual del singule persona, e es post ille que le genero ha recipite su nomine. Le scriptos de Montaigne ha essite caracterisate como le ''essay informal'', in contrasto con le ''essay formal'', que le anglese [[Francis Bacon]] (1561–1626) representava, plus marcate per structura e per un perspective scientific que indicava le via verso le [[Illumination|epocha del Illumination]].<ref>Ridderstrøm, Helge: [http://home.hio.no/~helgerid/tekstpraksiser/informaltessay_vaaren2010_2.pdf Det informale essay – sjangertrekk hos Michel de Montaigne]{{død lenke|dato=august 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> === Del teatro popular al teatro elisabetan === [[File:SAND Maurice Masques et bouffons 08.jpg|thumb|left|Un figura del commedia dell'arte italian.]]'''Teatro religiose''' Probabilemente le teatro comic roman continuava in Italia e in partes de Europa, e ben que le documentation es debile, il ha indicationes que in le fin del medioeval era il habeva representationes scenic, ''comedia erudita'' (''comedia erudite''), in scholas cathedral e universitates. Aristocrates invitava [[troubadour]]es itinerante, [[jongleur]]es e actores que presentava spectacles. In le ecclesia existeva dramatizationes in le interior del ecclesia, o sur le placia ante le ecclesia, o in connexion con processiones ecclesiastic como festas e festivitates annual. Le prime representation teatral que nos cognosce in Norvegia occurreva sur le Placia del Cathedral in Bergen in 1562.<ref>{{Kilde www |url=http://www.norgeslexi.com/paxlex/alfabetet/t/t02.html |tittel=Paxlex: Teater |besøksdato=2008-02-03 |arkiv-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119142315/http://www.norgeslexi.com/paxlex/alfabetet/t/t02.html |arkivdato=2007-11-19 |url-status=død }}</ref> In [[Espania]], il habeva representationes teatral colorate durante le festas de [[Corpus Christi]] in le 16e seculo. Illos deveniva tosto popular, quando le [[guilda|guildas]] se occupava del production e continuava le contento religiose in un forma plus popular. [[Mystery play|Jocos de passion, mysterios e miraculos]] deveniva popular como representationes al aperto in le fin del medioeval era. Verso le fin del 16e seculo, le teatro religiose retornava al ecclesia in le oratorio e consisteva de recitation christian accompagnate per musica, que a su vice inspirava le [[opera]]. '''Le teatro se move intra''' In le 16e seculo le scena teatral secular se moveva al interior. Primo le pecias esseva representate in placias public, pois in cortiles de hospitios, e plus tarde con muros circular circa illos, similar al [[amphitheatro]] antique, ab le grec ''amphi'' e ''theatron'', que literalmente significa «teatro a ambe lateres». Ante 1576 non existeva teatreos formal pro le publico general in London; le prime teatro in London esseva construite per [[James Burbage]], postea veniva un serie de altere teatreos in rapid succession: le Curtain, Rose, Swan, Hope, Fortune, e le plus importante, le Globe, inaugurate in 1599, con ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' como un del prime representationes. Le domos teatral esseva construite como edificios circular o hexagonal independente, con tetos aperte. Il habeva pauc scenographia, ma le spatio scenic avantiate esseva ingeniosemente utilisate. Postea le spatio teatral recipeva un tecto, e plus tarde deveniva plus tosto oblong que circular. Quando on parla de teatro «public» in le Renascentia anglese, on refere se a teatro ''al aperto'', durante que «private» significava ''al interior''. In tote le pecias teatral elisabetan, includite los de Shakespeare, homines o pueros interpretava le rolos feminine, non a causa de un lege formal, ma proque le feminas esseva considerate «inconcebibile» super le scena. Le prime actrices appariva in 1629, con un troupe teatral francese, e le feminas esseva sibillate e buate ab le scena.<ref>[http://www.theatredatabase.com/17th_century/closure_of_the_theaters_001.html Theatre Database: The Closure of the Theaters by the Puritans]</ref> Un del prime edificios teatral completemente interior in Europa es le [[Teatro Olimpico]] in [[Venetia]]. '''Italia: Commedia dell'arte''' In Italia nasceva in le annos 1560 un drama comic, appellate ''[[commedia dell'arte]]'', que esseva multo apreciate per le aristocratia. Le radices del teatro es aliquanto incerta, ma illo se distingueva del teatro conventional perque illo non esseva ni professional ni aperte al publico general. Le jocos non consisteva de pecias scribite complete, ma de un quadro general que establiva situationes e complicationes, durante que le actores improvisava le major parte del dialogo. Le jocos esseva generalmente fundate super alcun figuras fixe, como amantes, dominos e servitores. Le norvegiano [[Ludvig Holberg]] traheva plus tarde inspiration del schemas narrative fixe e del figuras recurrente del Commedia dell'arte pro su comedias. '''Le seculo auree de Espania''' [[File:Lope de vega 02.jpg|thumb|Un pagina de un comedia de Lope de Vega.]] In Espania le teatro habeva su epocha auree inter 1550 e 1700, quando tres typos esseva popular: le [[enakter|pecias religiose de un acto]], ''autos sacramentales''; le comedia secular, ''comedias nuevas''; e un forma de musical, ''[[zarzuela]]s''. Al initio le feminas esseva permittite de jocar in le pecias religiose e plus tarde deveniva etiam participantes in le dramas secular. Le ecclesia catholic contemporanee se opponeva al dramas secular, specialmente al actrices, que le ecclesia considerava prostitutas.<ref>Shergold, N.D.: ''A History of the Spanish Stage: From Medieval Times Until the End of the Seventeenth Century''. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1967. Pagina 523</ref> Le autoritates espaniol promulgava plure leges concernente sexo e teatro. In 1587 un lege rendeva legal que feminas jocar in le teatro e simultaneemente rendeva illegal que pueros jocar feminas, ma in 1596 le actrices esseva novemente prohibite e in 1598 le teatreos esseva claudite. Jam in le anno sequente, 1599, le teatreos esseva reaperte e le feminas de novo permittite sur le scena.<ref>Heise K, Ursula: «Transvestism and the Stage Controversy in Spain and England, 1580-1680». Theatre Journal 44.3 (1992): 357-74. Paginas 358, 385.</ref> Le major dramaturgo espaniol esseva [[Lope de Vega]] (1562–1635). Il scribeva in le major parte del generos, epos, romances, [[sonetto]]s (circa 3 000), e il haber habite scribite circa 1800 comedias e circa 400 ''autos'' (drama serio), del quales respectivemente solmente 426 e 42 ha essite preservate, plus o minus completemente.<ref name="Haarberg, J., et al. Side 211"/> Probabilemente le grande majoritate de su pecias non esseva original, ma reescrituras rapide de qualitate variabile, un facto al qual il ipse alludeva in un scripto ironic de 1609, ''El arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo'' (''Le nove arte de facer comedias in iste epocha''). Vega non faceva un distinction rigide inter le generos, e in iste senso es quasi moderne, essente un prime representante del [[tragicomedia|tragicomedia]]: su comedias non esseva necessariemente ni amusante ni dotate de un fin felice. Similemente, il exaltava le monarchia in omne maniera, durante que il etiam esseva un portavoz del populo. In Italia [[Gian Giorgio Trissino]] (1478–1550) renovava le ideal europee del tragedia, e illo esseva continuate in Francia per [[Étienne Jodelle]] (1532–1573) con ''Cléopatre captive'' (''Le captive Cleopatra'', 1552). In Espania [[Cervantes]] essayava anque con ''El cerco de Numancia'' (''Le assedio de Numantia'') a medie del annos 1580. '''Germania''' Le statos germanic esseva ancora marcate per le traditiones del medioeval era. [[Hans Sachs]] (1494–1576) esseva le dramaturgo le plus eminente. Su [[Farsa (teater)|farsas]] de humor basse esseva popular, e ille esseva le prime qui, secundo le modello classic, introduceva le division in actos e usava le termino ''tragedia'', ma lo que ille scribeva esseva principalmente recontos del Biblia e [[chronica|chronicas]] in rima de valor litterari limitate. Le drama scolastic in latino habeva, in contraste, un signification pro le poesia in le linguas maternal, e le dramas moral, inspirate per le Nederlandes, como ''[[Everyman|Omne homine]]'', habeva un grande diffusion. Le altere dramaturgia remaneva subordina al servicio del Reformatiom. [[File:The Globe Theatre.jpg|thumb|left|Le Globe, con tecto aperte e le publico circa le scena.]] '''Anglaterra''' Le contribution le plus importante del [[Era elisabetan|Anglaterra elisabetan]] al litteratura esseva le drama, e ben que il ha similitudes inter le evolution del drama in Espania e Anglaterra, le drama anglese non esseva exclusivemente popular, ma manteneva le contacto con le classe educate e le formas del Renascentia in un felice alliantia inter le stilo alte e le stilo basse. Le prime representationes dramatic esseva tamen marcate per effectos de choc sanguinari, como le prime tragedia cognite in Anglaterra, scribite per [[Thomas Norton]] (1532–1584) e [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset|Thomas Sackville]] (1536–1608), ''[[Gorboduc (play)|Gorboduc]]'' de 1562, con un thema ex le historia antique de Anglaterra. Le anno sequente veniva ''[[The Spanish Tragedy|Le Tragedia espaniol]]'' (1585) de [[Thomas Kyd]] (1558–1594), e ben que le pecia esseva popular e habeva un grande importantia pro le evolution del [[Teatro renascentista anglese|teatro elisabetan]], su action melodramatic con numerose homicidios esseva plus tarde parodiate, inter alteres per dramaturgos posterior. Le duo autores anglese le plus importante del Renascentia esseva sin comparation [[Christopher Marlowe]] (1564–1593) e [[William Shakespeare]] (1564–1616). Marlowe moriva juvene in circumstantias incerta. Quanto a Shakespeare, su vita e biographia es in grande parte incognite, malgrado su immense production e su stato como le dramaturgo le plus cognoscite del mundo. Un tertie dramaturgo anglese esseva [[Ben Jonson]] (1572–1637), qui se declarava adherente al regulas de [[Aristotele]], ma qui tamen esseva un dramaturgo tipic del era elisabetan. [[File:Dr-faustus-B-1616.jpg|thumb|Le pagina de titulo de ''Doctor Faustus'' de Christopher Marlowe (version B, 1616).]] Marlowe esseva un rebell maturate precoce con un solide education classic. Il professava un attitude critic verso le religion, possibilemente etiam [[atheismo]], ultra catholicismo. In solmente alcun annos il scribeva un serie de grande tragedias e poesia lyric, e il traduceva anque le poetas del antiquitate. Il habeva minus de trenta annos quando moriva, in un confuse altercation in un hospitio. Jam in su prime pecia (imprimite in 1590), ''[[Tamburlaine the Great|Tamburlaine le grande]]'', il exprimeva con confidentia in le prologo su disprecio pro lo que su epocha offereva in le teatro: pueril buffoneria e imitationes de simias. Le lingua de Marlowe, in sonore [[blankvers]], non esseva solmente texto dramatic, ma anque musica rhythmic de parolas. Su drama le plus cognoscite es ''[[Doctor Faustus|Le tragica historia del doctor Faustus]]'', basate super un folkbook german recentemente publicate, e esseva le prime version dramatic del legenda de [[Faust]], concernente le pacto de un viro erudite con le diabolo. Le pecia esseva publicate in 1604, 11 annos post le morte de Marlowe e al minus 12 annos post le prime representation del pecia. Pauc nomines in le litteratura brilla tanto clarmente como William Shakespeare, lo que es debite al facto que ille dominava le major parte del generos dramatic, [[poesia lyric]], [[comedias]] e [[tragedias]], e forsan anque al facto que ille mesme comenciava como actor, de modo que su pecias es teatro organic e vive, etiam hodie. Le pecias que ille scribeva, circa 33 e alcun alteres cuje origine es ancora debattite, deveniva multo popular, rendeva le autor prospere e esseva nobilitate in 1598.{{Trenger referanse}} Shakespeare esseva habile a equilibrar le gusto de su epocha con inspiration del classicos e del medioeval era. Tamen, lo que es extraordinari non es su selection de motifs, ma su capacitate de representar le complex diversitate del esseres human; in le mal, le angustia, le presumption e le gaudio, le decadimento, le passion e le terror del morte. Simultaneemente, su characteres e pecias equilibra anque le [[pathos]], le humor e le senso commun. Shakespeare scribeva dramas potente super themas historic, como ''[[King Richard II|Le rege Richard II]]'' (1595), ''[[King John|Le rege Johan]]'' (1594–1596), e ''[[Richard III (play)|Le vita e le morte de Richard III]]'' (1592–1593); tragedias magnific, como ''[[Romeo and Juliet|Romeo e Julieta]]'' (1595–1596), ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' (1599), ''[[Hamlet]]'' (1601–1602), ''[[King Lear|Le rege Lear]]'' (1605), e ''[[Macbeth (play)|Macbeth]]'' (1606); comedias alegre, como ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream|Un sonio de un nocte de medie-estate]]'' (1595–1596), ''[[The Merchant of Venice|Le mercante de Venetia]]'' (1596–1597), ''[[Much Ado About Nothing|Grande tumulto pro nihil]]'' (1598–1599), e ''[[As You Like It|Como vos place]]'' (1599). Su obras lassava un impression durabile super tote le teatro e litteratura posterior, specialmente per le expansion del potential dramatic in relation con characterisation, progression del action, lingua e genero. == Le litteratura del Renascentia in le paises nordic == Le Nordicos esseva al margine de Europa, e le humanismo incipiente esseva supplantate per le [[Reformation]]. In Danmark e Svedia, le Reformation esseva promovite ab le populo e habeva un effecto inspirante super le litteratura, tanto in le [[lingua maternal]] como in le [[neolatino]]. In Norvegia, le situation esseva differente: le Reformation non habeva supporto popular e esseva imponite ab le alto e ab le exterior. Dum le Biblia in svedese e danese stimulava le linguas maternal in le duo nationes, le Reformation eliminava le ultime restos del independentia politic e linguistic de Norvegia. === Svedia === [[Olaus Petri]] (1493–1552) deveniva le leader svedese del Reformation, dum su fratre [[Laurentius Petri]] (1499–1573) deveniva le prime archiepiscopo protestante. Olaus Petri habeva un vaste production litterari: sermones, scriptos polemic, chronicas, hymnos e dramas, sed le plus importante esseva su traduction del Biblia in [[svedese]], que ille faceva insimul con su fratre. Ille esseva anque un pionero del [[drama]], quando ille scribeva ''Tobie Comedia'' (1550), le prime ver drama in Svedia. Characteristicamente pro le defensores del Reformation, le argumento esseva didactic e prendite del Biblia, sed le obra non es memorate posteriormente como grande litteratura. === Danmark === [[Christiern Pedersen]] (1480–1554) habeva un vaste activitate como editor, inter alteres de le obras de [[Saxo]]. Ille scribeva scriptos catolic edificante, del quales [[Ludvig Holberg]] plus tarde faceva burla, ante que Pedersen deveniva protestante e traduceva le Biblia in danese. Le prime hymnal danese esseva publicate in 1529 per [[Claus Mortensen Tøndebinder]] (1499–1575). Le grande poeta de hymnos esseva [[Hans Christensen Sthen]] (1544–1610), qui scribeva su hymnos super melodias de popular [[cantos folcloric]]. Le drama consisteva principalmente de traductiones ab Germania, specialmente dramas scolastic super themas biblic, sed con [[Hieronimus Justesen Ranch]] (1539–1607) Danmark obteneva un dramaturgo proprie. Su obra le plus popular esseva le comedia ''Karrig Niding''. Le melior poeta lyric in latino esseva forsan tamen le scientista [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601). === Norvegia === [[File:Peder_Claussen_Friis.jpg|thumb|Peder Claussøn Friis]] Le situation precari in Norvegia non invitava al creation litterari, e un condition fundamental pro le litteratura es un imprimeria, qualcosa que Norvegia obteneva solmente in 1644. Tamen, litteratura esseva producite. Le ''[[Hamarkrøniken]]'' ab le medie del annos 1550, scribite per un autor incognite, possede a vices qualitate excellente. Le centro le plus importante de Norvegia esseva le citate commercial de Bergen, ubi le sacerdote e humanista [[Absalon Pedersson Beyer]] (1528–1575) faceva representar dramas al schola latin. Ille scribeva ipse duo obras, ''Absalon Pederssøns dagbok 1552–1572'' in latino (anque appellate, un poco impropriemente, ''Bergens Kapitelsbok'') e ''Om Norgis Rige'', que esseva legite trans tote le pais in copias manuscripte (imprimite pro le prime vice in 1780). In le ultime, ille exprimeva un forte sentimento national, sed anque disillusion: Norvegia «gaar paa krykker og stylter og vil snart falde omkuld», ben que «udi folket er endnu noget af den gamle dyd, manddom og styrke». In Stavanger, le sacerdote e historiograph [[Peder Claussøn Friis]] (1545–1614) scribeva ''Norriges Beskrivelse'', in addition a su traduction aliquanto vigorose, ben que libere, del ''[[Heimskringla|sagas regal de Snorre]]'', que reconnecteva Norvegia con su independentia. On pote anque mentionar [[Hallvard Gunnarssøn]] (mort in 1608), qui traduceva tanto le Biblia como le sagas del reges norvegian e versos latin, e qui scribeva le prime [[poesia pastoral|poema pastoral]] norvegian, ''Akrostichis''. Le sacerdote-poeta de [[Alstahaug]], [[Petter Dass]] (1646–1707), ha traditionalmente essite considerate un poeta baroc, sed recentemente le recerca litterari ha argumentate que, stilisticamente, ille esseva un poeta del tarde Renascentia, proque ille esseva un erudite europee que stava in le centro del litteratura europee.<ref>[http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/februar/1077288970.68 Forskning.no: Petter Dass – ingen barokkdikter] {{Wayback|url=http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/februar/1077288970.68 |date=20061002172424 |df=iso }}</ref> == Eminente autores del Renascentia == * [[Dante Alighieri]]: autor de ''[[Divin Comedia]]'' * [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]]: autor de ''[[La dignitate del homine]]'' * [[Erasmo de Rotterdam]]: compilator de ''[[Textus Receptus]]'' e autor de ''[[Le laude del stultitia]]'' * [[Thomas More]]: autor de ''[[Utopia]]'' * [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]: autor de ''[[Decameron]]'' * [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]: autor de ''[[Le Principe]]'' * [[Baldassare Castiglione]]: autor de ''Il libro del cortegiano'', ''[[Le libro del cortegiano]]'' * [[Michel de Montaigne]]: autor de ''[[Essays]]'' * [[Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra|Miguel Cervantes]]: autor de ''[[Don Quixote]]'' * [[Luís de Camões]]: autor de ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'', ''Lusiadas'' * [[William Shakespeare]]: autor de plure dramas, inter alteres ''[[Hamlet]]'' e ''[[Un somno de un nocte de medie estate]]'' == Vide anque == * [[Renascentia]] * [[Theatro del Renascentia anglese]] == Referentias == <references/> == Litteratura == * Haarberg, J., Selboe, T., e Aarset, H. E.: ''Verdenslitteraturhistorie. Den vestlige tradisjonen''. Universitetsforlaget, Oslo 2007. * Beyer, Edvard et al: ''Verdenslitteraturhistorie'', tomo 3. Oslo 1972 * Breitholtz, Heggelund: ''Epoker og diktere'', tomo 1, Oslo 1979. ISBN 82-05-11663-6 * Bjelke, Johan Fredrik: ''Den europeiske filosofi. Fra Thomas Aquinas til Henri Bergson''. Oslo 1981 (3e edition) == Ligamines externe == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130802030521/http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=1163 Ressources general super le Renascentia e le seculo XVII] [[Categoria:Historia del litteratura]] j5odzcf1fej4zaqcluhkngg31npurbw 0 61215 699500 699424 2026-09-03T04:41:57Z Interlingvisto 60932 699500 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Juan José Flores y Aramburu''' ([[Puerto Cabello]], 19 de julio 1800–[[Isla Puná]], 1 de octobre 1864) esseva un [[militari]], [[politico]] e [[statista]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]], de origine venezuelan. Il es particularmente cognoscite como un del plus influente leaders politic de [[Ecuador]] a partir de 1830, essente su prime [[presidente]]. Il occupava le carga in tres occasiones: de 1830 a 1834; de 1839 a 1843; e de 1843 a 1845.<ref name="diccionariobiograficoecuador_1">{{Cita web |url=http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |título=Pérez Pimentel, Rodolfo: Diccionario biográfico Ecuador, tomo 10 – Juan José Flores y Aramburú |fechaacceso=31 de mayo de 2013 |fechaarchivo=4 de marzo de 2016 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |deadurl=yes |title=Archive copy |accessdate=2026-08-30 |archivedate=2016-03-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm }}</ref> Il se distingueva como strategista del armeada de [[Grande Colombia]], habente attingite le grado de coronel ante su 30e anno de etate. Un vice le independentia esseva consolidate, [[Simón Bolívar]] le designava como governator del [[Distrito del Sur]] del [[Grande Colombia]]. Quando iste district se separava de ille in 1830, illo deveniva le actual [[Republica del Ecuador]], de que Flores esseva investite como prime presidente. == Biographia == Nascite le 19 de julio 1800 in [[Puerto Cabello]], [[Capitania General de Venezuela]], [[Imperio espaniol]]. Filio de Juan José Aramburu, mercator peninsular, e su matre esseva Rita Flores, originari de Puerto Cabello. Il entrava multo juven al armea espaniol, ubi comenciava como militar, ma decideva inscriber se al fortias independentista de [[Simon Bolivar]]. A 23 annos, ille jam exerceva como colonello e governator del provincia de Pasto. In 1823 ille arrivava in Ecuador como comandante general del armea e in 1828 e 1829 participava in le defensa del [[District del Sud]] del [[Grande Colombia]], ubi ille contribueva al victoria del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] super le tropas peruvian in le [[Battalia de Portete de Tarqui]]. In 1830, ille esseva nominate le prime [[Presidente de Ecuador]] per le Congresso Constituent de Riobamba del mesme anno. Con iste facto, le 11 de septembre 1830, le presidente Flores, insimul con le 21 deputatos constituente, deveniva un del prime personas a obtener le nationalitate ecuatorian, secundo le promulgate [[Constitution de Ecuador de 1830]]. Curiosemente, ille obteneva su nationalitate venezuelan plus tarde, proque le [[Constitution de Venezuela de 1830]] esseva promulgate 13 dies post le constitution ecuatorian. Il exerceva iste carga in tres occasiones, usque a 1845, quando ille esseva obligate a abandonar le pais post le derrota que ille suffreva in le [[Revolution marcista|Revolution del 6 de martio]]. Il retornava in 1859 e serviva in le campanias contra Peru e in le guerra civil sub le commandamento del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. === Prime governamento (1830–1834) === Un vice in le poter, Flores consolidava un alliantia politic inter le latifundismo traditional del Sierra, al qual ille se habeva ligate per matrimonio con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV" /> e le proprietarios de terras de Guayaquil e le altos commandantes del armea. Le [[Dominatio florean|floreanismo]], como esseva appellate le gruppo de su partisanos, nasceva del tradition conservator del [[bolivarianismo]]. In le anno 1831, durante su governamento, esseva create le Societate Colonisatrice del Archipelago de Colon, nomine con le qual, in ille epocha, esseva cognoscite le [[Insulas Galapagos]], sub le commandamento del general [[José de Villamil]]. Le anno sequente, le 20 de januario 1832, le [[goleta]] Mercedes partiva de Guayaquil e, sub le direction del colonello Ignacio Hernández, le insulas Galapagos esseva incorporate officialmente al Ecuador. Su governamento esseva characterisate per instabilitate interne, accusationes de corruption e difficultates pro mantener le ordine public, assi como per tensiones con le fortias armate. Il habeva duo guerras con Nove Granada, in le quales Ecuador esseva vincite.<ref name=":0">{{Cita libro|apellidos=Ayala|nombre=Enrique|título=Estudios Sociales 6|fechaacceso=https://educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/09/librostexto/Estudios_Sociales_6.pdf|año=2016|editorial=Corporación Editora Nacional|editor=Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador|ubicación=Quito-Ecuador|páginas=35-37}}</ref> In 1831 ille affrontava con successo un rebellion de [[Luis Urdaneta]] e in 1832 faceva guerra con Colombia. In 1833 ille puniva severemente plure battaliones revoltate e le ideologos appellate utilitaristas. In addition, ille debeva affrontar qui esseva su vice-presidente, Vicente Rocafuerte, con qui ille attingeva un accordo pro conducer iste ultime al presientia. Flores vinceva le fortias que se opponeva al governamento de Rocafuerte in [[Battalia de Miñarica|Miñarica]] in 1835.<ref name=":0" /> === Secunde governamento (1839–1843) === Durante su mandato transitori, Flores negotiava con Rocafuerte. Il debeva etiam reducer un insurrection in Pasto, al nord. E un epidemia de febre jalne in Guayaquil, apportate per marinarios veniente de Panama, que decimava le citate. === Tertie governamento (1843–1845) === In 1843, quando su mandato terminava, ille faceva un colpo de Stato, essente eligite presidente pro le tertie vice per un Assemblea Constituent mediante un constitution que esseva appellate “Carta de Servitude”.<ref name=":0" /> In 1845 se organisava un movimento contra ille e ille esseva expellite del poter. Esseva signate un documento denominate ''Pronunciamento Popular de Guayaquil'', e Flores partiva in exilio. Il habeva quatro gruppos disputante le governamento, e le presidente del momento, García Moreno, demandava su adjuta. Flores dirigeva un armea e vinceva le general Guillermo Franco, qui, con le supporto de Francia, se trovava in le zona portuari. Iste action esseva denominate le battalia de Guayaquil. Tres annos plus tarde, a 63 annos, ille debeva abandonar su retiro pro commandar de novo le armea e combatter contra le milicias colombian, e esseva vincite in le campos de Cuaspud. === Matrimonio === [[Archivo:Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco y Chiriboga.jpg|miniaturadeimagen|[[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]], circa 1840.]] Flores, designate prefecto del [[Departamento de Ecuador|Departamento del Sud]], se maritava con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Villalba |nombre1=Jorge |título=El general Juan José Flores: fundador de la república de Ecuador |fecha=1994 |editorial=Centro de Estudios Históricos del Ejército |ubicación=Quito |páginas=50-55}}</ref> descendente per linea paterne del [[Comtes de Casa Jijón]], titulo que illa arrivava a disputar sin successo con su cosino Francisco Jijón.<ref name="CML">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Larrea |nombre1=Carlos Manuel |título=Antonio Flores Jijón, su vida y sus obras |fecha=1974 |editorial=Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones |ubicación=Quito |página=16}}</ref> Le reception habeva loco in le salons del [[Palatio de Carondelet]], con tote le pompa; pro isto, ille habeva facite pintar 22 retratos del generales ligate al [[Independente del Ecuador]], que ille collocava originalmente in le galeria del edificio e postea transfereva a su proprietate del Quinta El Placer.<ref>{{Cita libro |título=Museo Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño y el patrimonio artístico |fecha=1978 |editorial=Centro de Publicaciones de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador |ubicación=Quito |página=56}}</ref> On dice que [[Mercedes Jijón|Mercedes]] esseva un juvena belle, de portamento distinguite, con un profunde senso de solidaritate e del familia.<ref name="RPP">{{Cita web|apellidos1=Pérez Pimentel |nombre1=Rodolfo |título=Jijón Vivanco Mercedes |url=http://www.archivobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo1/Jij%C3%B3n-Vivanco-Mercedes.htm |obra=Archivo biográfico del Ecuador (tomo 1)|fechaacceso=15 de abril de 2015}}</ref> Le mesme [[Simon Bolivar]] parlava de Mercedes in iste terminos, post haber la cognoscite le 12 de april 1829: «''io non sape si illa es plus discrete que belle, o plus belle que discrete''».<ref name="LQ">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Jurado Noboa |nombre1=Fernando |enlaceautor1=Fernando Jurado Noboa |título=Las quiteñas |fecha=1995 |editorial=Dinediciones |ubicación=Quito}}</ref><ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Pardo de Guevara y Valdés |nombre1=Eduardo |título=Actas de la XI Reunión Americana de Genealogía |fecha=2005 |editorial=Editorial CSIC-Press |ubicación=Santiago de Compostela |página=426 |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=lyH-3P31Qs0C&pg=PA426&lpg=PA426&dq=%22Mercedes+Jij%C3%B3n%22&source=bl&ots=RXiwDRi84L&sig=uLoRKSbRqwFz40hvXsFvAG6MiKw&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=jZ8uVcWGCa7jsATPj4DgDQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=%22Mercedes%20Jij%C3%B3n%22&f=false |fechaacceso=15 de abril de 2015}}</ref> Le 11 de julio 1829, Flores e su sposa esseva le padrinos del baptismo de Teresa de Sucre y Carcelén de Guevara, le unic filia del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e [[Mariana Carcelén|Mariana Carcelén de Guevara]], iste ultime, secunde cosina de Mercedes.<ref>{{enlace roto|1={{Cita libro |apellidos1=Flores Caamaño |nombre1=Alfredo |título=El verdadero testamento del Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho |fecha=1926 |editorial=Universidad Central del Ecuador |ubicación=Quito |página=65 |url=http://repositorio.casadelacultura.gob.ec:8280/bitstream/34000/943/1/FR1-L-000265-Flores-Verdadero.pdf |fechaacceso=14 de febrero de 2016 }} |2=http://repositorio.casadelacultura.gob.ec:8280/bitstream/34000/943/1/FR1-L-000265-Flores-Verdadero.pdf |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |publicación=Boletín Nº53 |fecha=1970 |página=302|editorial=Academia Nacional de Historia de Ecuador |ubicación=Quito}}</ref> === Descendentia === Le matrimonio habeva tresdece filios, octo feminas e cinque viros, qui les daría circa 35 nepotes:<ref name=MAD>{{cita web|apellidos1=Alvarado Dávila|nombre1=Mauricio|título=Mercedes Jijón|obra=Los Orígenes de los Ecuatorianos|idioma=español|fechaacceso=4 de septiembre de 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cita publicación|título=Heráldica, historia y genealogía|publicación=Revista Semana Ecuador|fecha=2 de octubre de 2016|página=30|url=https://www.pressreader.com/ecuador/semana-ecuador/20161002/page/30|fechaacceso=15 de julio de 2019}}</ref> *Elvira Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1826. Maritate in 1844 con Eusebio Isaza y Muñoz, con qui illa habeva cinque filios: **Elvira Isaza Flores (1845) **Mercedes Isaza Flores (1847) **José Antonio Isaza Flores (1849–1892) **Miguel Isaza Flores (1850) **María Isaza Flores (1852) *Mercedes Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 16 de septembre 1828. Maritate le 14 de decembre 1850 con Antonio Fernández Salvador y Gangotena. Sin descendentes. *Juan José Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1831 e morte in [[Montreaux]] le 10 de septembre 1891. Maritate con Ángela Icaza y Aguirre-Abad. Sin descendentes. *José Federico Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 22 de april 1832 e morte in [[Paris]] le 27 de octobre 1879. Maritate con Mercedes Arteta y Arteta. *[[Antonio Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] le 23 de octobre 1833 e morte in [[Geneva]] le 30 de augusto 1915. Maritate con [[Leonor Ruiz de Apodaca]], con qui ille habeva duo filias: **Leonor Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1874) **Elvira Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1876), marchesa consorte de Villebrune *Virginia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1835. Maritate circa 1865 con Pedro Pablo García Moreno, con qui illa habeva duo filios: **Rodolfo García-Moreno y Flores **Ana Luisa García-Moreno y Flores *Victoria Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Guayaquil]] in septembre 1838. Maritate le 23 de junio 1865 con Narciso Isaza Muñoz, fratre de su cognato, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Juan José Isaza Flores (1866–1925) **Carlota Isaza Flores **Mercedes Isaza Flores *Timoléon Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1839 e morte in 1899. Maritate le 26 de octobre 1862 con María Mercedes Chiriboga y Fernández-Salvador, con qui ille habeva septe filios: **Lucía Flores Chiriboga (1884) **Raimundo Flores Chiriboga (1886–1967) **Antonio Flores Chiriboga (1888) **Fanny Flores Chiriboga (1890) **Mercedes Flores Chiriboga (1892) **Timoleón Flores Chiriboga (1896–1936) **Amalia Flores Chiriboga (1898) *[[Reinaldo Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] in 1840 e morte in 1904. Maritate con Ana Caamaño y Gómez-Cornejo, con qui ille habeva octo filios: **Reinaldo Flores Caamaño **Luis Alberto Flores Caamaño **Juan José Flores Caamaño **Rosa Laura Flores Caamaño **Ana María Flores Caamaño **Alfredo Flores Caamaño **María Luisa Flores Caamaño **Víctor Flores Caamaño *Amalia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1841. Maritate con Leonardo Charles Stagg, con qui illa habeva quatro filios: **Leonardo Stagg Flores **Carlos Stagg Flores **Enrique Stagg Flores **Evelina Stagg Flores *Matilde Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 24 de septembre 1842 e morte le 7 de augusto 1921. Maritate le 1 de januario 1869 con Federico Hurtado y Brizón, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Isabel María Hurtado Flores **Rosa Matilde Hurtado Flores **Sara Hurtado Flores *Josefina Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1844. Maritate con Felipe Barriga y Carcelén de Guevara, filio de [[Mariana Carcelén]], con qui illa habeva un filio qui non attingeva le etate adulte: **Felipe Barriga Flores *Isabel Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1845. Maritate con Fernando de García-Moreno y Drouet. Sin descendentes. == Dissolution del Grande Colombia == {{AP|Dissolution del Grande Colombia}} [[Quito]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] e [[Guayaquil]] esseva annexate al [[Grande Colombia]] in 1822. Durante le Colonia (1563–1809–1820–1822), sub le nomine de [[Real Audientia de Quito]], iste tres regiones faceva parte, successivemente, del viceregno del [[Viceregno de Nove Granada|Nove Granada]]. Illes comenciava lor vita soveran in 1830 con le experientia negative del centralismo viceregal e grancolombian e sin le experientia positive de un administration de prime nivello. Pro ir de Guayaquil a Quito se gastava 14 dies; de Quito a Cuenca, altere 14; de Cuenca a Guayaquil, cinque, e cinque de [[Tulcán]] a Quito. Desde [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]] esseva plus facile transportar se a [[Piura]] que al citate de Cuenca. Le via Quito–Riobamba se trovava in mal stato. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un pais desarticulate e mal communicate. Le Sierra centro-nord formava un unitate geographic, ecologic e politic. Illa se susteneva per un agricultura de subsistentia con un bon mercato interne potential e suffreva le crise de su «industria» textile a causa del competition del libere commercio. Le Sierra sud viveva del agricultura, del parve mination, del texitos, del artesanato, del [[cascarilla]] e del bestiame. Su economia se trovava etiam in crise, proque illa habeva cofinanciate le guerras del independentia peruvian. Le Costa se orientava circa Guayaquil e Guayaquil, circa le cacao. Su ricchessa habeva augmentate con le commercio. Le axe secundari [[Provincia de Manabí|Manabí]]–[[Provincia de Esmeraldas|Esmeraldas]] bulliva de activitates mercantil. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un realitate economic positive in un region e negative in le duo alteres. Le hacienda deveniva gradualmente le base del poter politic. Specialmente in le Sierra centro-nord, le haciendas se susteneva super le labor fortiate de indigenas. Le plantationes de cacao del Costa habeva etiam besonio de iste mano de obra, ma liberemente contractate. Le parve proprietarios de ambes regiones timeva esser absorbite per iste centros. Le population del pais, secundo le estimation le plus optimista, attingeva 800 mill habitantes, plus del medietate del quales viveva in le Sierra nor-central. Minus de un pro cento del population frequentava le schola ille anno. Le proprietate del terra se concentrava majoritariemente in le manos del elite creol e del elite creol. Le population mestice, in su majoritate, non habeva accesso a terras e dependeva del labor salariale in mestieres e labores agricole pro su subsistentia. Al sclavos afroecuadorian non esseva recognoscite alcun derecto civil. Le indigenas, mantenite durante seculos in le ignorantia e le alcohol, esseva considerate como minors. Le major parte laborava pro le haciendas e pagava tributos. In 1830, le aduanas de Guayaquil e le tributo del indigenas constitueva le principal fonte de entratas del Stato. Ecuador revendicava pro se le limites del [[Real Audientia de Quito]], que includeva le departamentos colombian de [[Nariño (Colombia)|Nariño]], [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]], [[Putumayo (Colombia)|Putumayo]] e parte de [[Valle del Cauca]]. Ma Nove Granada se atteneva a un division administrative interne (1824), que le favorava. Al sud, le [[Tractato de Guayaquil]] (1829) designava le [[Río Marañón|Marañón]]–[[Río Amazonas|Amazonas]] como limite del Grande Colombia e, ergo, de Ecuador. Le ambitiones de gruppos de interesse local e le crise politic al interior del Grande Colombia persuadeva Flores a conspirar contra Bolivar e provocar le secession del departamento del Sud. Quasi al mesme tempore, le general [[José Antonio Páez]] faceva le mesme in [[Venezuela]]. Le 13 de maio 1830, pauc menses post le separation de [[Venezuela]], le Departamentos que componeva le «District del Sud» del Grande Colombia (Departamentos del Ecuador, Guayaquil e Azuay) se declarava stato independente con le nomine de «Stato de Ecuador». Flores assumeva primo le carga de Chef Supreme e postea celle de Presidente Provisional del nove Stato, usque a su nomination definitive como Presidente Constitutional le 22 de septembre 1830. Alcun historiatores specula que le Presidentia de Ecuador esseva destinate al Mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]], assassinate in [[Berruecos]] durante le periodo de separation. Tanto Flores como le general colombian [[José María Obando]] esseva accusate de esser detra le assassination, ma nulle de iste suspiciones poteva esser probate. Sucre prefereva viagiar a Bogota, al [[Congresso Admirabile]], ante que remaner in Ecuador, ubi un assemblea constituente habeva essite convocate in le citate de [[Riobamba]]. Pauc post le initio de su presidentia, un parte del population del provincias de Pasto, Popayán e Buenaventura declarava su voluntate de incorporar se a Ecuador. Le Presidente Juan José Flores, post haber mandate guarniciones a Pasto, visitava iste citates, ubi ille promulgava un decreto declarante le incorporation de Cauca a Ecuador. Le Congresso Ordinari de 1831 declarava officialmente le incorporation del Departamento de Cauca a Ecuador. Le 22 de julio 1831 Nove Granada reclamava le restitution de iste Departamento a Ecuador. Le General [[José Hilario López]] se rebellava in [[Popayán]] in favor de Nove Granada e un confronto militar habeva loco inter le armea ecuatorian dirigite per Flores e le armea granadin, commandate per [[José María Obando]]. Flores non poteva triumphar proque le fronte interne de Ecuador se debilitava a causa del insurrectiones de [[Ambato]] e [[Latacunga]] contra su Governamento. Le ecuatorianos triumphava in alcun confrontos, ma le manca de provisionamentos e le rebellion del battallion Quito determinava le chute del citate de Pasto. Ante iste situation, Flores celebrava un Tractato de pace e limites con Nove Granada in le citate de Pasto le 8 de decembre 1832, fixante le fluvio Carchi como limite frontalier inter le duo Statios e lassante pendente le decision super le portos de La Tola e Tumaco, in le provincia de Buenaventura. Le [[Tractato de Pasto]] fixava le limites de un parte del frontiera, ma non del resto del territorio de Ecuador, que veniva a esser delimite plus tarde con Colombia. == Le prime Constitution == Flores convocava 21 deputatos, septe per region, respectivemente, pro reunir se in [[Riobamba]]. In minus de un mense illes redigeva e promulgava le prime Constitution, eligeva Quito como capital e eligeva Flores como presidente per 19 votos contra un. Ma illes faceva 18 scrutinio pro eliger como vice-presidente [[José Joaquín Olmedo]]. Su competitor esseva le quiteño Manuel Matheu, Marchese de Maenza.<ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.haciendalacienega.com/historia/ |título=Historia – Hacienda La Cienega |fechaacceso=7 de enero de 2017 |sitioweb=[www.haciendalacienega.com](http://www.haciendalacienega.com)}}</ref> Desde le nascentia del Republica existeva un lucta pro le poter inter le notabiles de Quito e Guayaquil. Cata notabile recipeva duo pesos per die pro lor servicios constituente. (Un vacca lactifere valiva alora quatro pesos). Le Constitution lassava le porta aperte pro formar un sol Stato con Colombia. Illa proponeva un Stato presidentialista, soveran, alternative, democratic e moderne. Le election esseva independente e indirecte mediante assembleas parochial, cantonal e provincial; ben que solmente poteva votar le viros alfabetisate maritate de qualcunque etate o celibes de 22 annos o plus qui possedeva immobiles de al minus 300 pesos o un profession non servile (advocato, medico, sacerdote, monacho). Le candidatos a cargas de representation popular habeva besonio de un plus grande quantitate, e 30 mill pesos in immobiles pro esser eligibile al presidentia. Le indigenas remaneva sub le tutela del parochos, e le traffico de sclavos africanos esseva restringite al labor in haciendas e minas. == Prime presidentia == [[Archivo:Juan José Flores.jpg|thumb|Portraito de Juan José Flores. Prime Presidente de Ecuador.|250px]] Flores non poteva governar in pace e debeva recurrer al fortia. Il debeva suffocar le revolution del general venezuelan [[Luis Urdaneta]] —nepote del general [[Rafael Urdaneta]]— (1830–1831), facer guerra a Colombia (1832), punir tres insurrectiones de battaliones e combatter contra ideologos utilitarista (1833), affrontar [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] (1833–1834) e esmagar le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] (1832–1834),<ref>{{cita web |url = http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |título = Revolución de los Chihuahuas |fechaacceso = 19 de julio de 2018 |sitioweb = Enciclopedia Del Ecuador |idioma = castellano |cita = La llamada “Revolución de los Chihuahuas” fue una de esas desventuradas hazañas guerreras de los primeros años de nuestra vida republicana, y constituye uno de los capítulos más importantes de la historia nacional. Comenzó a gestarse cuando el Congreso de 1833, en sesión a la que no concurrió Vicente Rocafuerte -entonces diputado por la Provincia de Guayaquil- concedió al Gral. Juan José Flores, Presidente de la República, facultades extraordinarias para gobernar al país. (...) La revolución adoptó entonces el nombre de “Chihuahuas”, puesto que este fue el nombre que se le diera a los simpatizantes de Rocafuerte, en vista de que este había servido durante algunos años a las causas libertarias en México. |formato = html |urlarchivo = https://web.archive.org/web/20160829151351/http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |fechaarchivo = 29 de agosto de 2016 }}</ref> e finalmente impedir que [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]], [[Esmeraldas (Ecuador)|Esmeraldas]] e le Sierra nor-central se separava de Ecuador pro incorporar se a Colombia (1834–1835). Post le morte de Bolivar (17 de decembre 1830), le [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]] e [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]] demandava esser annexate a Ecuador. Colombia lo impedi per le derrota del tropas de Flores, e Ecuador perdeva iste territorios ligate al [[Audientia de Quito]] desde le {{siglo|XVI||s}}. Iste fallimento e le privilegios del mal considerate militares venezuelan rendeva le presidente impopular. Un gruppo de intellectuales, ancian patriotas del 10 de augusto 1809 e del 2 de augusto 1810 e anticlericales, formava le «Societate de El Quiteño Libre». Desde maio 1833 iste societate opponeva se al governamento in le jornal del mesme nomine. [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] opponeva se al facultates extraordinari concedite a Flores e renunciava a su sede parlamentar. Durante su governamento, le 12 de februario 1832, le [[Islas Galápagos]] esseva annexate a Ecuador; pro iste motivo, alcun tempore plus tarde un del insulas esseva baptisate in su honor como '''[[Isla Floreana (Galápagos)|Isla Floreana]].''' Se distingueva le emission de alcun leges sur le moneta, accordos con le Ecclesia Catholic e le acceptation del debita externe grancolombian ([[Deuda Inglesa]]) contrahite per Venezuela, Colombia e Ecuador pro finantiar le independentia. A Ecuador, que non esseva presente in le negotiationes, esseva assignate le 21,5 % del debita, plus de 22 milliones de pesos. Le entratas del governamento in 1834 attingeva a pena 708 mill pesos. Flores assecurava un sorta de pacto de non-aggression inter gruppos de proprietarios terrier del [[Region Interandine del Ecuador|Sierra de Ecuador]] e gruppos agro-exportator del [[Region Litoral del Ecuador|Costa]]. Su presentia politic durante plus de 15 annos interrumpite generava que un gruppo de [[Revolution Marcista|revolutionarios marcistas]] pressava pro su partita de Guayaquil e pro le partita del integre [[stato-major]] [[extranjero]]. Flores finiva su mandato con un crise politic e le menacia del dissolution del Stato. === Revolution del Chihuahuas e Jefaturas Supreme de Rocafuerte e Valdivieso === Le 12 de octobre 1832 comenciava in Guayaquil le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] dirigite per militares discontentes e politicos. Un septimana plus tarde, le «quiteños libres» attacava un quartel in Quito. Iste 19 de octobre, alcun de lor leaders esseva occidite a lanceate o decapitate. Le 20 de octobre, Rocafuerte, in via verso le exilio in Peru, esseva liberate per le chihuahuas e proclamate jefe supreme de Guayaquil. Le chihuahuas bloccava le porto occupate per Flores e initiava insurrectiones in le villages del peninsula de Santa Elena, del golfo de Guayaquil, del basse bacia del Guayas e de Manabi. Rocafuerte esseva capturate e livrate a Flores le 18 de junio 1834. Un septimana antea, [[José Félix Valdivieso]], ministro de Flores, se habeva proclamate jefe supreme de Ibarra. Cuenca e Loja, discontentes del centralismo administrative, adheriva a ille. Ante iste circumstantias, al initio de julio, Flores arrivava a un pacto con Rocafuerte, secundo le qual Rocafuerte accederia al Presidentia e Flores al jefatura supreme del Exercito. Le chihuahuas debeva submitter se sub pena de accusationes de traition al patria. Valdivieso occupava Quito e le Sierra central. Le chihuahuas non acceptava le pacto. Alcun de illes se jungeva a Valdivieso, le resto esseva reprimite usque ben entrate in le anno 1836. Rocafuerte, acclamate como jefe supreme del Guayas in un assemblea popular, convocava un secunde Convention (constitutiente) pro reformar le Carta Politic e clauder le possibilitate de un federation con Colombia. A fin de vincer le federalista Valdivieso, Rocafuerte poneva Flores al capite de su tropas, qui batteva le tropas de Valdivieso in le battalia de Miñarica, apud Ambato (18 de januario 1835). Le poeta Olmedo, in honor del victoria e dirigente se al [[Volcan Chimborazo|Chimborazo]], le exhortava: ''«Rege del Andes, inclina le ardua fronte, que passa le victor».'' == Secunde Presidentia == [[Archivo:Grabado de la Hacienda La Elvira, de Juan José Flores (1852).jpg|thumb|Gravure del Hacienda La Elvira (1852), proprietate emblematic del familia Flores-Jijón de Vivanco.|300px]] Flores esseva eligite al prime scrutinio per 29 del 38 votos del Congresso. Su re-election esseva probabilemente convenite desde le pacto con Rocafuerte in 1834. Flores offereva al Congresso e al Nation respectar le libertate del personas e del pressa, non exiliar nemo, dar impulso al politica externe, continuar le obra educational de Rocafuerte e observar un conducta «franc e moderate, firme, impartial e juste». Con iste offerta ille se appoiava super le successo administrative e civilisator de Rocafuerte e, al mesme tempore, se distantiava del mal reputation del Rocafuerte implacabile e dure. [[Benigno Malo]], un statista cuencano, diceva de iste secunde periodo floreano: «Iste parve epocha esseva le plus belle pagina civic de Flores como homine de governamento». Durante le ultime anno de su governamento, le gestion de Flores esseva objecto de criticas crescente pro su supponite abandono del obras public e accusationes de corruption inter alte functionarios. In iste contexto, circulava in Quito le jornal oppositionista La Linterna Mágica, editate in Piura per Pedro Moncayo, qui exerceva un opposition ferree al regime. Le journalist fratre Vicente Solano affirmava que de 700 mille pesos del renta national, 400 mille esseva expendite pro mantener le fidelitate del Exercito. Le intervention de Flores con duo mille soldatos in Nove Granada contribueva plus ancora a su deterioration. Movite per un petition del governamento colombian, ille combatteva un insurrection in [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]]. Flores credeva que, sur le plano personal, ille dareva un lection al insurrecte general Obando, su ancian inimico e calumniator inveterate in le caso del assassination de Sucre. Ille se imaginava que, sur le plano public, ille recupereva, al minus in parte, le territorios perdite durante su prime administration e facerea entrar in le cassas fiscal 300 mille pesos como compensation colombian. Ma quando ille debeva intervenir novemente in Pasto, le popularitate de Flores comenciava a declinar. Como Solano lo habeva insinuate, sub le pretexto de «irregularitates» occurrite in [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] durante le election de representantes e del absentia del representantes del Guayas al Congresso Extraordinari a causa del [[fiebre jaune]] que in octobre 1842 habeva causate 326 victimas, Flores convocava un Convention pro le 15 de januario 1843 e promulgava un lege electoral que deveniva un colpo de Stato in su favor.<ref>{{Cita libro|título=Fondo Jijón y Caamaño|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=ijYaAAAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVu56wsvjhAhULn-AKHTkxDPoQ6AEIQzAE|editorial=Centro de Investigación y Cultura, Banco Central del Ecuador|fecha=1987|fechaacceso=30 de abril de 2019|idioma=es|nombre=Banco Central del Ecuador Archivo|apellidos=Histórico}}</ref> == Tertie Presidentia == Le Convention se reuniva in Quito le 15 de januario 1843. Trenta del 36 conventionarios orava in le cathedral, pro postea sessionar in le Collegio San Buenaventura. Del conventionarios, 32 del representantes esseva empleatos del Stato, del quales 5 esseva generales e 5 esseva coroneles, tote illes estranjeros salvo un. Le reforma consisteva, inter altere questiones, in prolongar le periodo presidential a octo annos e permitter al presidente de esser reelegite post un periodo; in facer que le Congresso se reunirea cata quatro annos, que le senatores durarea 12 annos e le deputatos octo annos. Le proposition esseva acceptate. Flores esseva reelegite per 34 del 36 votos del sala. Le nove constitution esseva appellate "[[Carta del Sclavitude]]". In addition, illa contineva principios como le libertate de cultos in le esfera private e claudeva le via al politicisation del clero.<ref>{{Cita libro|título=El Año ecuatoriano|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=SkQ0AQAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvovils_jhAhVtTd8KHVCGDjwQ6AEISjAF|fecha=1952|fechaacceso=30 de abril de 2019|idioma=es}}</ref> Su governamento durante iste tertie periodo affrontava un opposition dur, proveniente tanto del clero como del opposition originante del nove imposto de tres pesos e quatro reales, con exemption pro indigenas e sclavos, ben que le imposto esseva postea abolite; del accusation de haber essite implicate in le assassination de Sucre; del fallimento del expedition a Nove Granada; de un negotiation limitalic fallite con Peru; e del presentia e poter del militares estranjeros —12 del 15 generales esseva estranjeros—, insimul con le abuso del fundos de un legado destinate al collegio [[Vicente León]] per Flores e su proximos. A isto se addeva un conspiracy dirigite per juvene intellectuales in Quito, inter illes Gabriel García Moreno; e le «nationalismo» del notabiles guayaquileños. Tote isto esseva stimolate per le 14 manifestos «A la Nación», lanceate per Rocafuerte desde Lima inter 1843 e 1845. Le governator de Guayaquil, a causa del febre jaune, habeva arrivat tarde al Convention. Ille esseva representante de Cuenca. Rocafuerte se opponeva a grande parte del reforma proponite per Flores. Ille qualificava su collaboratores de "[[jenízaro]]s" e se exiliava in Lima. Iste manifestos appellava a insurrection in nomine del nationalismo: ''«Union, enthusiasmo, valor, constantia e tosto le victoria essera vostre. Derrocante le perfide tiranno de Venezuela, vos restituera le gaudio de vostre usurpate derectos...»'', diceva le quinte de illes. ''«E le eventos se precipitava al voce tonante de Rocafuerte»'', scribe le historiator [[Luis Robalino Dávila]]. A tote le tumultos popular in varie locos del Sierra al crito de ''«Morte al tres pesos!, Viva le religion!»'', se succedeva le colpo definitive: le pronunciamento militar nationalista e del notabiles de Guayaquil, le 6 de martio 1845. Le insurgentes formava un governamento provisorie al qual se adheriva [[Manabí]] e Cuenca. Flores resisteva usque junio con su tropas stationate in «La Elvira», hacienda de su proprietate, e capitulava ante iste governamento per medio de un tractato, appellate «de La Virginia», nomine del hacienda del poeta Olmedo, ubi illo esseva signate le 17 de junio 1845. === Obras importante durante su presidentia === * Constitution de Ecuador de 1809 * Le 20 de decembre 1830, ille decretava le annexation del [[Departamento del Cauca (Gran Colombia)|Departamento del Cauca]], conditionate usque al reunion del proxime congresso, al qual concurrerea le deputatos de ille Departamento. Le 7 de octobre 1831, le congresso ecuatorian approbava un Lege incorporante le Departamento del Cauca al Stato ecuatorian e approbante le Decreto del Poter Executive in le qual ille admitteva iste incorporation. * Ille incorporava le Islas Galápagos le 12 de februario 1832. * Le tractato de Pando-Noboa con Peru esseva signate. * Le tractato de Pace con Chile esseva signate. * Ille fundava le Collegio del Guayas, actualmente cognoscite como [[Colegio Nacional Vicente Rocafuerte]]. * Refaction e remodelation del [[Palatio de Carondelet]] in 1892. === Deuda externe === In decembre 1834 le delegation ecuatorian non assistiva al reunion pro le repartition del debita del independentia. A causa del absentia de Ecuador, a ille esseva assignate le 21,5 pro cento del debita, equivalente a 22.230.631,64 pesos.<ref>{{Cita web |autor=Humberto Oña Villarreal |título=Juan José Flores |url=http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaacceso=30 de septiembre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621205626/http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaarchivo=21 de junio de 2013 }}</ref> == Exilio, rehabilitation e ultime campanias == Plus tarde, Flores, ja desde le exilio, complottava un invasion de Ecuador pro le qual ille obteneva appoio e finantiamento de [[María Cristina de Borbón-Dos Sicilias]], regina regente de [[Espania]], con le fin de installar su filio [[Agustín Muñoz y Borbón]] sur le [[Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador|throno ecuatorian]]. On parla etiam de negotiationes con le rege francese [[Luis Felipe I de Francia|Luis Felipe I]], pro nominar como Reges de Ecuador su decime filio, [[Antonio de Orleans]], [[Duca de Montpensier]], e su sposa, le infanta espaniol [[Luisa Fernanda de Borbón]], filia etiam del mentionate regina Maria Cristina.<ref name="Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis">{{Cita web |autor=Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis |título=El general Juan José Flores y el Perú |url=http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |fechaacceso=9 de febrero de 2013 |obra=Historia del Perú, América Latina y el mundo. Siglos XIX y XX |fecha=03/2012 |fechaarchivo=15 de octubre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015055220/http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Le tentativa esseva repellete con severitate e Flores debeva retornar al exilio. Durante un tempore ille resideva in [[Costa Rica]], ubi ille habeva un amicitate proxime con le presidente [[José María Castro Madriz]]. Le Congresso le declarava ''cittadino distinguite de Costa Rica'', ma Flores declinava le honor e poco postea quitava le pais. In 1855, durante su tempore in [[Lima]], ille esseva un del socios fundatores del [[Club Nacional (Lima)|Club Nacional]]. In martio 1857, ille arrivava in Venezuela, ubi tentava mediar sin successo in le conflictos suscitate inter le liberales qui supportava le presidente [[José Tadeo Monagas]] e le conservatores qui tentava de derocar le sub le direction del general [[José Antonio Páez]]. Multes in [[Caracas]] videva in Flores le persona ideal pro diriger le [[revolution]]. Ille esseva un procer e habeva essite Presidente de Ecuador, ma quando Flores se informava del situation, ille quitava immediatemente le pais e se dirigeva a [[Lima]]. In 1860 Flores commandava le armea del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]], ben que García Moreno habeva essite un firmo oppositionista. Flores participava in le campo quiteño durante le guerra civil de 1859–1860, affrontante le governamento de facto de Guayaquil, que pretendeva le secession del citate, sub le direction del general [[Guillermo Franco Herrera]], qui ille batteva in le combate de [[Mapasingue]]. Le secession del provincia de Guayaquil e su posterior annexation a Peru esseva evitate per le [[declaration de independentia de Loja]] como Republica Federal in 1859. In 1863 ille commandava le Exercito ecuatorian in le guerra contra Colombia, ma esseva vincite in le [[Battalia de Cuaspud]]. == Morte == [[Archivo:Tumba de Juan José Flores, Catedral Metropolitana de Quito.jpg|miniaturadeimagen|275x275px|Tumba in le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]].]] In 1864, Flores partiva de Quito pro combatter un expedition del ex-presidente [[José María Urbina y Viteri|José María Urbina]] in le [[Golfo de Guayaquil]]. Durante le Combate de Santa Rosa, ille recipeva un tiro perdite in le basso ventre e moriva le 1 de octobre a bordo del vapor ''Smirck'', presso le [[Isla Puná]].<ref name="JGZ">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Gomezjurado Zevallos |nombre1=Javier |título=Quito: Historia del Cabildo y la ciudad |fecha=2015 |editorial=Instituto Metropolitano de Patrimonio |ubicación=Quito |isbn=978-9942-20-821-7 |páginas=329-330 |edición=primera |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |publicación=Revista de Estudios Históricos |fecha=1993 |número=Nº37-38 |página=445|editorial=Instituto Chileno de Investigaciones Genealógicas}}</ref> Pro melior conservation, le cadavere de Flores esseva ponite in un barril de alcohol e transportate in un nave de guerra desde [[Machala]] a [[Guayaquil]], ubi alcun familiares attendeva con un luxuose coffre pro transportar le a Quito, ubi ille esseva inhumate.<ref name="JGZ"/> On dice que le barril de alcohol remaneva abandonate in le porto, e que alcun marinarios lo vendeva a un taberniero del [[Malecón 2000|Malecón]].<ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Pérez Pimentel |nombre1=Rodolfo |título=El Ecuador Profundo, tomo III |fecha=1988 |editorial=Editorial de la Universidad de Guayaquil |ubicación=Guayaquil |página=208|edición=primera |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016}}</ref> In su honor, le presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]] ordinava, per medio de un decreto executive expedite le 8 de octobre 1864, que in tote le provincias del pais se celebrara exequias de prime classe in honor al general Flores, que le empleatos public e militares portara luto stricte durante tres dies, a partir del vigilia del funerales que haberea loco le 13 de octobre in le [[Cathedral de Quito]], que le bandera del Palatio de Carondelet e del edificios public remanerea a medie asta durante le mesme tempore e, finalmente, que se elaborara un mausoleo de marmore con le inscription: ''Al patre del Patria, le populo grate''.<ref>{{Cita publication|apellidos1=Orbes M. |nombre1=Camilo |título=Correspondencia inédita del Libertador Simón Bolívar |páginas=90-91 |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016 |editorial=Biblioteca Ángel Arango - Banco de la República |ubicación=Bogotá}}</ref> Desde alora, su restos mortales e los de su sposa se trova in le cripta presidential intra le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]]. In le mesme edificio se trova etiam le restos de [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e de [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. == Decorationes == * [[Anexo:Grandes Oficiales de la Legión de Honor|Grande official]] del [[Legion de Honor]], concedite per le rege [[Luis Felipe I de Francia]] in 1844.<ref>{{Cita libro |apellidos1=Van Aken |nombre1=Mark J. |título=King of the Night: Juan Jose Flores & Ecuador 1824-1864 |fecha=1989 |editorial=[[University of California Press]] |ubicación=Los Ángeles |isbn=0-520-06277-9 |página=[https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332 332] |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016 |idioma=inglés |url=https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332 }}</ref> * Cavallero del [[Ordine de Carlos III]], concedite le 29 de septembre 1844.<ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Costa y Turell |nombre1=Modesto |título=Tratado completo de la ciencia del blason: ó sea, Código heráldico-histórico |fecha=1878 |editorial=Editorial L. Tasso |ubicación=Madrid |página=336 |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=QTg9AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |fechaacceso=14 de noviembre de 2015|formato=e-book}}</ref> == Honores postume == In novembre 1864, pauc septimanas post su decesso, le Cabildo del citate de [[Quito]] tentava placiar un portraito del ex-presidente in su Sala de Sessiones, ma illo non esseva acceptate per tote le membros, qui permitteva solmente un discurso in su honor, sublineante su patriotismo e actiones benefic al pais, concludente le intervention con le phrase: «''Concittadinos, le torcha del vita de iste heroe se ha extinguite, ma ille nos lassa aperte le sentieros que conduce al templo del gloria; imita le''».<ref name="JGZ"/> In su honor, in su [[Puerto Cabello|citate natal]] existe: * Un parochia. * Un loco denominate «Plaza Flores». * Un schola basic. * Duo promotiones de officiales, ambe graduate del [[Academia Militar del Exercito Bolivarian|Academia Militar de Venezuela]], porta su nomine como heroe eponymic. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Nascite in Puerto Cabello]] [[Categoria:Decedite in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite foras del pais]] [[Categoria:Governatores]] [[Categoria:Militares de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Militares proceres del guerra del independentia de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador que esseva distronate per un colpo de Stato]] [[Categoria:Isla Floreana]] [[Categoria:Equites del Ordine de Carlos III]] [[Categoria:Grandes officiales del Legion de Honor]] [[Categoria:Deputatos e membros del assembleas de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Generales de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Proprietarios de terras de Ecuador]] i2jub8xrq3dnsgrjpam3xsp0t93ukjj 699501 699500 2026-09-03T04:42:22Z Interlingvisto 60932 699501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Juan José Flores y Aramburu''' ([[Puerto Cabello]], 19 de julio 1800–[[Isla Puná]], 1 de octobre 1864) esseva un [[militari]], [[politico]] e [[statista]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]], de origine venezuelan. Il es particularmente cognoscite como un del plus influente leaders politic de [[Ecuador]] a partir de 1830, essente su prime [[presidente]]. Il occupava le carga in tres occasiones: de 1830 a 1834; de 1839 a 1843; e de 1843 a 1845.<ref name="diccionariobiograficoecuador_1">{{Cita web |url=http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |título=Pérez Pimentel, Rodolfo: Diccionario biográfico Ecuador, tomo 10 – Juan José Flores y Aramburú |fechaacceso=31 de mayo de 2013 |fechaarchivo=4 de marzo de 2016 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |deadurl=yes |title=Archive copy |accessdate=2026-08-30 |archivedate=2016-03-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm }}</ref> Il se distingueva como strategista del armeada de [[Grande Colombia]], habente attingite le grado de coronel ante su 30e anno de etate. Un vice le independentia esseva consolidate, [[Simón Bolívar]] le designava como governator del [[Distrito del Sur]] del [[Grande Colombia]]. Quando iste district se separava de ille in 1830, illo deveniva le actual [[Republica del Ecuador]], de que Flores esseva investite como prime presidente. == Biographia == Nascite le 19 de julio 1800 in [[Puerto Cabello]], [[Capitania General de Venezuela]], [[Imperio espaniol]]. Filio de Juan José Aramburu, mercator peninsular, e su matre esseva Rita Flores, originari de Puerto Cabello. Il entrava multo juven al armea espaniol, ubi comenciava como militar, ma decideva inscriber se al fortias independentista de [[Simon Bolivar]]. A 23 annos, ille jam exerceva como colonello e governator del provincia de Pasto. In 1823 ille arrivava in Ecuador como comandante general del armea e in 1828 e 1829 participava in le defensa del [[District del Sud]] del [[Grande Colombia]], ubi ille contribueva al victoria del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] super le tropas peruvian in le [[Battalia de Portete de Tarqui]]. In 1830, ille esseva nominate le prime [[Presidente de Ecuador]] per le Congresso Constituent de Riobamba del mesme anno. Con iste facto, le 11 de septembre 1830, le presidente Flores, insimul con le 21 deputatos constituente, deveniva un del prime personas a obtener le nationalitate ecuatorian, secundo le promulgate [[Constitution de Ecuador de 1830]]. Curiosemente, ille obteneva su nationalitate venezuelan plus tarde, proque le [[Constitution de Venezuela de 1830]] esseva promulgate 13 dies post le constitution ecuatorian. Il exerceva iste carga in tres occasiones, usque a 1845, quando ille esseva obligate a abandonar le pais post le derrota que ille suffreva in le [[Revolution marcista|Revolution del 6 de martio]]. Il retornava in 1859 e serviva in le campanias contra Peru e in le guerra civil sub le commandamento del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. === Prime governamento (1830–1834) === Un vice in le poter, Flores consolidava un alliantia politic inter le latifundismo traditional del Sierra, al qual ille se habeva ligate per matrimonio con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV" /> e le proprietarios de terras de Guayaquil e le altos commandantes del armea. Le [[Dominatio florean|floreanismo]], como esseva appellate le gruppo de su partisanos, nasceva del tradition conservator del [[bolivarianismo]]. In le anno 1831, durante su governamento, esseva create le Societate Colonisatrice del Archipelago de Colon, nomine con le qual, in ille epocha, esseva cognoscite le [[Insulas Galapagos]], sub le commandamento del general [[José de Villamil]]. Le anno sequente, le 20 de januario 1832, le [[goleta]] Mercedes partiva de Guayaquil e, sub le direction del colonello Ignacio Hernández, le insulas Galapagos esseva incorporate officialmente al Ecuador. Su governamento esseva characterisate per instabilitate interne, accusationes de corruption e difficultates pro mantener le ordine public, assi como per tensiones con le fortias armate. Il habeva duo guerras con Nove Granada, in le quales Ecuador esseva vincite.<ref name=":0">{{Cita libro|apellidos=Ayala|nombre=Enrique|título=Estudios Sociales 6|fechaacceso=https://educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/09/librostexto/Estudios_Sociales_6.pdf|año=2016|editorial=Corporación Editora Nacional|editor=Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador|ubicación=Quito-Ecuador|páginas=35-37}}</ref> In 1831 ille affrontava con successo un rebellion de [[Luis Urdaneta]] e in 1832 faceva guerra con Colombia. In 1833 ille puniva severemente plure battaliones revoltate e le ideologos appellate utilitaristas. In addition, ille debeva affrontar qui esseva su vice-presidente, Vicente Rocafuerte, con qui ille attingeva un accordo pro conducer iste ultime al presientia. Flores vinceva le fortias que se opponeva al governamento de Rocafuerte in [[Battalia de Miñarica|Miñarica]] in 1835.<ref name=":0" /> === Secunde governamento (1839–1843) === Durante su mandato transitori, Flores negotiava con Rocafuerte. Il debeva etiam reducer un insurrection in Pasto, al nord. E un epidemia de febre jalne in Guayaquil, apportate per marinarios veniente de Panama, que decimava le citate. === Tertie governamento (1843–1845) === In 1843, quando su mandato terminava, ille faceva un colpo de Stato, essente eligite presidente pro le tertie vice per un Assemblea Constituent mediante un constitution que esseva appellate “Carta de Servitude”.<ref name=":0" /> In 1845 se organisava un movimento contra ille e ille esseva expellite del poter. Esseva signate un documento denominate ''Pronunciamento Popular de Guayaquil'', e Flores partiva in exilio. Il habeva quatro gruppos disputante le governamento, e le presidente del momento, García Moreno, demandava su adjuta. Flores dirigeva un armea e vinceva le general Guillermo Franco, qui, con le supporto de Francia, se trovava in le zona portuari. Iste action esseva denominate le battalia de Guayaquil. Tres annos plus tarde, a 63 annos, ille debeva abandonar su retiro pro commandar de novo le armea e combatter contra le milicias colombian, e esseva vincite in le campos de Cuaspud. === Matrimonio === [[File:Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco y Chiriboga.jpg|miniaturadeimagen|[[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]], circa 1840.]] Flores, designate prefecto del [[Departamento de Ecuador|Departamento del Sud]], se maritava con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Villalba |nombre1=Jorge |título=El general Juan José Flores: fundador de la república de Ecuador |fecha=1994 |editorial=Centro de Estudios Históricos del Ejército |ubicación=Quito |páginas=50-55}}</ref> descendente per linea paterne del [[Comtes de Casa Jijón]], titulo que illa arrivava a disputar sin successo con su cosino Francisco Jijón.<ref name="CML">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Larrea |nombre1=Carlos Manuel |título=Antonio Flores Jijón, su vida y sus obras |fecha=1974 |editorial=Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones |ubicación=Quito |página=16}}</ref> Le reception habeva loco in le salons del [[Palatio de Carondelet]], con tote le pompa; pro isto, ille habeva facite pintar 22 retratos del generales ligate al [[Independente del Ecuador]], que ille collocava originalmente in le galeria del edificio e postea transfereva a su proprietate del Quinta El Placer.<ref>{{Cita libro |título=Museo Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño y el patrimonio artístico |fecha=1978 |editorial=Centro de Publicaciones de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador |ubicación=Quito |página=56}}</ref> On dice que [[Mercedes Jijón|Mercedes]] esseva un juvena belle, de portamento distinguite, con un profunde senso de solidaritate e del familia.<ref name="RPP">{{Cita web|apellidos1=Pérez Pimentel |nombre1=Rodolfo |título=Jijón Vivanco Mercedes |url=http://www.archivobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo1/Jij%C3%B3n-Vivanco-Mercedes.htm |obra=Archivo biográfico del Ecuador (tomo 1)|fechaacceso=15 de abril de 2015}}</ref> Le mesme [[Simon Bolivar]] parlava de Mercedes in iste terminos, post haber la cognoscite le 12 de april 1829: «''io non sape si illa es plus discrete que belle, o plus belle que discrete''».<ref name="LQ">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Jurado Noboa |nombre1=Fernando |enlaceautor1=Fernando Jurado Noboa |título=Las quiteñas |fecha=1995 |editorial=Dinediciones |ubicación=Quito}}</ref><ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Pardo de Guevara y Valdés |nombre1=Eduardo |título=Actas de la XI Reunión Americana de Genealogía |fecha=2005 |editorial=Editorial CSIC-Press |ubicación=Santiago de Compostela |página=426 |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=lyH-3P31Qs0C&pg=PA426&lpg=PA426&dq=%22Mercedes+Jij%C3%B3n%22&source=bl&ots=RXiwDRi84L&sig=uLoRKSbRqwFz40hvXsFvAG6MiKw&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=jZ8uVcWGCa7jsATPj4DgDQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=%22Mercedes%20Jij%C3%B3n%22&f=false |fechaacceso=15 de abril de 2015}}</ref> Le 11 de julio 1829, Flores e su sposa esseva le padrinos del baptismo de Teresa de Sucre y Carcelén de Guevara, le unic filia del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e [[Mariana Carcelén|Mariana Carcelén de Guevara]], iste ultime, secunde cosina de Mercedes.<ref>{{enlace roto|1={{Cita libro |apellidos1=Flores Caamaño |nombre1=Alfredo |título=El verdadero testamento del Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho |fecha=1926 |editorial=Universidad Central del Ecuador |ubicación=Quito |página=65 |url=http://repositorio.casadelacultura.gob.ec:8280/bitstream/34000/943/1/FR1-L-000265-Flores-Verdadero.pdf |fechaacceso=14 de febrero de 2016 }} |2=http://repositorio.casadelacultura.gob.ec:8280/bitstream/34000/943/1/FR1-L-000265-Flores-Verdadero.pdf |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |publicación=Boletín Nº53 |fecha=1970 |página=302|editorial=Academia Nacional de Historia de Ecuador |ubicación=Quito}}</ref> === Descendentia === Le matrimonio habeva tresdece filios, octo feminas e cinque viros, qui les daría circa 35 nepotes:<ref name=MAD>{{cita web|apellidos1=Alvarado Dávila|nombre1=Mauricio|título=Mercedes Jijón|obra=Los Orígenes de los Ecuatorianos|idioma=español|fechaacceso=4 de septiembre de 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cita publicación|título=Heráldica, historia y genealogía|publicación=Revista Semana Ecuador|fecha=2 de octubre de 2016|página=30|url=https://www.pressreader.com/ecuador/semana-ecuador/20161002/page/30|fechaacceso=15 de julio de 2019}}</ref> *Elvira Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1826. Maritate in 1844 con Eusebio Isaza y Muñoz, con qui illa habeva cinque filios: **Elvira Isaza Flores (1845) **Mercedes Isaza Flores (1847) **José Antonio Isaza Flores (1849–1892) **Miguel Isaza Flores (1850) **María Isaza Flores (1852) *Mercedes Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 16 de septembre 1828. Maritate le 14 de decembre 1850 con Antonio Fernández Salvador y Gangotena. Sin descendentes. *Juan José Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1831 e morte in [[Montreaux]] le 10 de septembre 1891. Maritate con Ángela Icaza y Aguirre-Abad. Sin descendentes. *José Federico Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 22 de april 1832 e morte in [[Paris]] le 27 de octobre 1879. Maritate con Mercedes Arteta y Arteta. *[[Antonio Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] le 23 de octobre 1833 e morte in [[Geneva]] le 30 de augusto 1915. Maritate con [[Leonor Ruiz de Apodaca]], con qui ille habeva duo filias: **Leonor Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1874) **Elvira Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1876), marchesa consorte de Villebrune *Virginia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1835. Maritate circa 1865 con Pedro Pablo García Moreno, con qui illa habeva duo filios: **Rodolfo García-Moreno y Flores **Ana Luisa García-Moreno y Flores *Victoria Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Guayaquil]] in septembre 1838. Maritate le 23 de junio 1865 con Narciso Isaza Muñoz, fratre de su cognato, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Juan José Isaza Flores (1866–1925) **Carlota Isaza Flores **Mercedes Isaza Flores *Timoléon Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1839 e morte in 1899. Maritate le 26 de octobre 1862 con María Mercedes Chiriboga y Fernández-Salvador, con qui ille habeva septe filios: **Lucía Flores Chiriboga (1884) **Raimundo Flores Chiriboga (1886–1967) **Antonio Flores Chiriboga (1888) **Fanny Flores Chiriboga (1890) **Mercedes Flores Chiriboga (1892) **Timoleón Flores Chiriboga (1896–1936) **Amalia Flores Chiriboga (1898) *[[Reinaldo Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] in 1840 e morte in 1904. Maritate con Ana Caamaño y Gómez-Cornejo, con qui ille habeva octo filios: **Reinaldo Flores Caamaño **Luis Alberto Flores Caamaño **Juan José Flores Caamaño **Rosa Laura Flores Caamaño **Ana María Flores Caamaño **Alfredo Flores Caamaño **María Luisa Flores Caamaño **Víctor Flores Caamaño *Amalia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1841. Maritate con Leonardo Charles Stagg, con qui illa habeva quatro filios: **Leonardo Stagg Flores **Carlos Stagg Flores **Enrique Stagg Flores **Evelina Stagg Flores *Matilde Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 24 de septembre 1842 e morte le 7 de augusto 1921. Maritate le 1 de januario 1869 con Federico Hurtado y Brizón, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Isabel María Hurtado Flores **Rosa Matilde Hurtado Flores **Sara Hurtado Flores *Josefina Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1844. Maritate con Felipe Barriga y Carcelén de Guevara, filio de [[Mariana Carcelén]], con qui illa habeva un filio qui non attingeva le etate adulte: **Felipe Barriga Flores *Isabel Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1845. Maritate con Fernando de García-Moreno y Drouet. Sin descendentes. == Dissolution del Grande Colombia == {{AP|Dissolution del Grande Colombia}} [[Quito]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] e [[Guayaquil]] esseva annexate al [[Grande Colombia]] in 1822. Durante le Colonia (1563–1809–1820–1822), sub le nomine de [[Real Audientia de Quito]], iste tres regiones faceva parte, successivemente, del viceregno del [[Viceregno de Nove Granada|Nove Granada]]. Illes comenciava lor vita soveran in 1830 con le experientia negative del centralismo viceregal e grancolombian e sin le experientia positive de un administration de prime nivello. Pro ir de Guayaquil a Quito se gastava 14 dies; de Quito a Cuenca, altere 14; de Cuenca a Guayaquil, cinque, e cinque de [[Tulcán]] a Quito. Desde [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]] esseva plus facile transportar se a [[Piura]] que al citate de Cuenca. Le via Quito–Riobamba se trovava in mal stato. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un pais desarticulate e mal communicate. Le Sierra centro-nord formava un unitate geographic, ecologic e politic. Illa se susteneva per un agricultura de subsistentia con un bon mercato interne potential e suffreva le crise de su «industria» textile a causa del competition del libere commercio. Le Sierra sud viveva del agricultura, del parve mination, del texitos, del artesanato, del [[cascarilla]] e del bestiame. Su economia se trovava etiam in crise, proque illa habeva cofinanciate le guerras del independentia peruvian. Le Costa se orientava circa Guayaquil e Guayaquil, circa le cacao. Su ricchessa habeva augmentate con le commercio. Le axe secundari [[Provincia de Manabí|Manabí]]–[[Provincia de Esmeraldas|Esmeraldas]] bulliva de activitates mercantil. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un realitate economic positive in un region e negative in le duo alteres. Le hacienda deveniva gradualmente le base del poter politic. Specialmente in le Sierra centro-nord, le haciendas se susteneva super le labor fortiate de indigenas. Le plantationes de cacao del Costa habeva etiam besonio de iste mano de obra, ma liberemente contractate. Le parve proprietarios de ambes regiones timeva esser absorbite per iste centros. Le population del pais, secundo le estimation le plus optimista, attingeva 800 mill habitantes, plus del medietate del quales viveva in le Sierra nor-central. Minus de un pro cento del population frequentava le schola ille anno. Le proprietate del terra se concentrava majoritariemente in le manos del elite creol e del elite creol. Le population mestice, in su majoritate, non habeva accesso a terras e dependeva del labor salariale in mestieres e labores agricole pro su subsistentia. Al sclavos afroecuadorian non esseva recognoscite alcun derecto civil. Le indigenas, mantenite durante seculos in le ignorantia e le alcohol, esseva considerate como minors. Le major parte laborava pro le haciendas e pagava tributos. In 1830, le aduanas de Guayaquil e le tributo del indigenas constitueva le principal fonte de entratas del Stato. Ecuador revendicava pro se le limites del [[Real Audientia de Quito]], que includeva le departamentos colombian de [[Nariño (Colombia)|Nariño]], [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]], [[Putumayo (Colombia)|Putumayo]] e parte de [[Valle del Cauca]]. Ma Nove Granada se atteneva a un division administrative interne (1824), que le favorava. Al sud, le [[Tractato de Guayaquil]] (1829) designava le [[Río Marañón|Marañón]]–[[Río Amazonas|Amazonas]] como limite del Grande Colombia e, ergo, de Ecuador. Le ambitiones de gruppos de interesse local e le crise politic al interior del Grande Colombia persuadeva Flores a conspirar contra Bolivar e provocar le secession del departamento del Sud. Quasi al mesme tempore, le general [[José Antonio Páez]] faceva le mesme in [[Venezuela]]. Le 13 de maio 1830, pauc menses post le separation de [[Venezuela]], le Departamentos que componeva le «District del Sud» del Grande Colombia (Departamentos del Ecuador, Guayaquil e Azuay) se declarava stato independente con le nomine de «Stato de Ecuador». Flores assumeva primo le carga de Chef Supreme e postea celle de Presidente Provisional del nove Stato, usque a su nomination definitive como Presidente Constitutional le 22 de septembre 1830. Alcun historiatores specula que le Presidentia de Ecuador esseva destinate al Mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]], assassinate in [[Berruecos]] durante le periodo de separation. Tanto Flores como le general colombian [[José María Obando]] esseva accusate de esser detra le assassination, ma nulle de iste suspiciones poteva esser probate. Sucre prefereva viagiar a Bogota, al [[Congresso Admirabile]], ante que remaner in Ecuador, ubi un assemblea constituente habeva essite convocate in le citate de [[Riobamba]]. Pauc post le initio de su presidentia, un parte del population del provincias de Pasto, Popayán e Buenaventura declarava su voluntate de incorporar se a Ecuador. Le Presidente Juan José Flores, post haber mandate guarniciones a Pasto, visitava iste citates, ubi ille promulgava un decreto declarante le incorporation de Cauca a Ecuador. Le Congresso Ordinari de 1831 declarava officialmente le incorporation del Departamento de Cauca a Ecuador. Le 22 de julio 1831 Nove Granada reclamava le restitution de iste Departamento a Ecuador. Le General [[José Hilario López]] se rebellava in [[Popayán]] in favor de Nove Granada e un confronto militar habeva loco inter le armea ecuatorian dirigite per Flores e le armea granadin, commandate per [[José María Obando]]. Flores non poteva triumphar proque le fronte interne de Ecuador se debilitava a causa del insurrectiones de [[Ambato]] e [[Latacunga]] contra su Governamento. Le ecuatorianos triumphava in alcun confrontos, ma le manca de provisionamentos e le rebellion del battallion Quito determinava le chute del citate de Pasto. Ante iste situation, Flores celebrava un Tractato de pace e limites con Nove Granada in le citate de Pasto le 8 de decembre 1832, fixante le fluvio Carchi como limite frontalier inter le duo Statios e lassante pendente le decision super le portos de La Tola e Tumaco, in le provincia de Buenaventura. Le [[Tractato de Pasto]] fixava le limites de un parte del frontiera, ma non del resto del territorio de Ecuador, que veniva a esser delimite plus tarde con Colombia. == Le prime Constitution == Flores convocava 21 deputatos, septe per region, respectivemente, pro reunir se in [[Riobamba]]. In minus de un mense illes redigeva e promulgava le prime Constitution, eligeva Quito como capital e eligeva Flores como presidente per 19 votos contra un. Ma illes faceva 18 scrutinio pro eliger como vice-presidente [[José Joaquín Olmedo]]. Su competitor esseva le quiteño Manuel Matheu, Marchese de Maenza.<ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.haciendalacienega.com/historia/ |título=Historia – Hacienda La Cienega |fechaacceso=7 de enero de 2017 |sitioweb=[www.haciendalacienega.com](http://www.haciendalacienega.com)}}</ref> Desde le nascentia del Republica existeva un lucta pro le poter inter le notabiles de Quito e Guayaquil. Cata notabile recipeva duo pesos per die pro lor servicios constituente. (Un vacca lactifere valiva alora quatro pesos). Le Constitution lassava le porta aperte pro formar un sol Stato con Colombia. Illa proponeva un Stato presidentialista, soveran, alternative, democratic e moderne. Le election esseva independente e indirecte mediante assembleas parochial, cantonal e provincial; ben que solmente poteva votar le viros alfabetisate maritate de qualcunque etate o celibes de 22 annos o plus qui possedeva immobiles de al minus 300 pesos o un profession non servile (advocato, medico, sacerdote, monacho). Le candidatos a cargas de representation popular habeva besonio de un plus grande quantitate, e 30 mill pesos in immobiles pro esser eligibile al presidentia. Le indigenas remaneva sub le tutela del parochos, e le traffico de sclavos africanos esseva restringite al labor in haciendas e minas. == Prime presidentia == [[File:Juan José Flores.jpg|thumb|Portraito de Juan José Flores. Prime Presidente de Ecuador.|250px]] Flores non poteva governar in pace e debeva recurrer al fortia. Il debeva suffocar le revolution del general venezuelan [[Luis Urdaneta]] —nepote del general [[Rafael Urdaneta]]— (1830–1831), facer guerra a Colombia (1832), punir tres insurrectiones de battaliones e combatter contra ideologos utilitarista (1833), affrontar [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] (1833–1834) e esmagar le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] (1832–1834),<ref>{{cita web |url = http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |título = Revolución de los Chihuahuas |fechaacceso = 19 de julio de 2018 |sitioweb = Enciclopedia Del Ecuador |idioma = castellano |cita = La llamada “Revolución de los Chihuahuas” fue una de esas desventuradas hazañas guerreras de los primeros años de nuestra vida republicana, y constituye uno de los capítulos más importantes de la historia nacional. Comenzó a gestarse cuando el Congreso de 1833, en sesión a la que no concurrió Vicente Rocafuerte -entonces diputado por la Provincia de Guayaquil- concedió al Gral. Juan José Flores, Presidente de la República, facultades extraordinarias para gobernar al país. (...) La revolución adoptó entonces el nombre de “Chihuahuas”, puesto que este fue el nombre que se le diera a los simpatizantes de Rocafuerte, en vista de que este había servido durante algunos años a las causas libertarias en México. |formato = html |urlarchivo = https://web.archive.org/web/20160829151351/http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |fechaarchivo = 29 de agosto de 2016 }}</ref> e finalmente impedir que [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]], [[Esmeraldas (Ecuador)|Esmeraldas]] e le Sierra nor-central se separava de Ecuador pro incorporar se a Colombia (1834–1835). Post le morte de Bolivar (17 de decembre 1830), le [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]] e [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]] demandava esser annexate a Ecuador. Colombia lo impedi per le derrota del tropas de Flores, e Ecuador perdeva iste territorios ligate al [[Audientia de Quito]] desde le {{siglo|XVI||s}}. Iste fallimento e le privilegios del mal considerate militares venezuelan rendeva le presidente impopular. Un gruppo de intellectuales, ancian patriotas del 10 de augusto 1809 e del 2 de augusto 1810 e anticlericales, formava le «Societate de El Quiteño Libre». Desde maio 1833 iste societate opponeva se al governamento in le jornal del mesme nomine. [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] opponeva se al facultates extraordinari concedite a Flores e renunciava a su sede parlamentar. Durante su governamento, le 12 de februario 1832, le [[Islas Galápagos]] esseva annexate a Ecuador; pro iste motivo, alcun tempore plus tarde un del insulas esseva baptisate in su honor como '''[[Isla Floreana (Galápagos)|Isla Floreana]].''' Se distingueva le emission de alcun leges sur le moneta, accordos con le Ecclesia Catholic e le acceptation del debita externe grancolombian ([[Deuda Inglesa]]) contrahite per Venezuela, Colombia e Ecuador pro finantiar le independentia. A Ecuador, que non esseva presente in le negotiationes, esseva assignate le 21,5 % del debita, plus de 22 milliones de pesos. Le entratas del governamento in 1834 attingeva a pena 708 mill pesos. Flores assecurava un sorta de pacto de non-aggression inter gruppos de proprietarios terrier del [[Region Interandine del Ecuador|Sierra de Ecuador]] e gruppos agro-exportator del [[Region Litoral del Ecuador|Costa]]. Su presentia politic durante plus de 15 annos interrumpite generava que un gruppo de [[Revolution Marcista|revolutionarios marcistas]] pressava pro su partita de Guayaquil e pro le partita del integre [[stato-major]] [[extranjero]]. Flores finiva su mandato con un crise politic e le menacia del dissolution del Stato. === Revolution del Chihuahuas e Jefaturas Supreme de Rocafuerte e Valdivieso === Le 12 de octobre 1832 comenciava in Guayaquil le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] dirigite per militares discontentes e politicos. Un septimana plus tarde, le «quiteños libres» attacava un quartel in Quito. Iste 19 de octobre, alcun de lor leaders esseva occidite a lanceate o decapitate. Le 20 de octobre, Rocafuerte, in via verso le exilio in Peru, esseva liberate per le chihuahuas e proclamate jefe supreme de Guayaquil. Le chihuahuas bloccava le porto occupate per Flores e initiava insurrectiones in le villages del peninsula de Santa Elena, del golfo de Guayaquil, del basse bacia del Guayas e de Manabi. Rocafuerte esseva capturate e livrate a Flores le 18 de junio 1834. Un septimana antea, [[José Félix Valdivieso]], ministro de Flores, se habeva proclamate jefe supreme de Ibarra. Cuenca e Loja, discontentes del centralismo administrative, adheriva a ille. Ante iste circumstantias, al initio de julio, Flores arrivava a un pacto con Rocafuerte, secundo le qual Rocafuerte accederia al Presidentia e Flores al jefatura supreme del Exercito. Le chihuahuas debeva submitter se sub pena de accusationes de traition al patria. Valdivieso occupava Quito e le Sierra central. Le chihuahuas non acceptava le pacto. Alcun de illes se jungeva a Valdivieso, le resto esseva reprimite usque ben entrate in le anno 1836. Rocafuerte, acclamate como jefe supreme del Guayas in un assemblea popular, convocava un secunde Convention (constitutiente) pro reformar le Carta Politic e clauder le possibilitate de un federation con Colombia. A fin de vincer le federalista Valdivieso, Rocafuerte poneva Flores al capite de su tropas, qui batteva le tropas de Valdivieso in le battalia de Miñarica, apud Ambato (18 de januario 1835). Le poeta Olmedo, in honor del victoria e dirigente se al [[Volcan Chimborazo|Chimborazo]], le exhortava: ''«Rege del Andes, inclina le ardua fronte, que passa le victor».'' == Secunde Presidentia == [[File:Grabado de la Hacienda La Elvira, de Juan José Flores (1852).jpg|thumb|Gravure del Hacienda La Elvira (1852), proprietate emblematic del familia Flores-Jijón de Vivanco.|300px]] Flores esseva eligite al prime scrutinio per 29 del 38 votos del Congresso. Su re-election esseva probabilemente convenite desde le pacto con Rocafuerte in 1834. Flores offereva al Congresso e al Nation respectar le libertate del personas e del pressa, non exiliar nemo, dar impulso al politica externe, continuar le obra educational de Rocafuerte e observar un conducta «franc e moderate, firme, impartial e juste». Con iste offerta ille se appoiava super le successo administrative e civilisator de Rocafuerte e, al mesme tempore, se distantiava del mal reputation del Rocafuerte implacabile e dure. [[Benigno Malo]], un statista cuencano, diceva de iste secunde periodo floreano: «Iste parve epocha esseva le plus belle pagina civic de Flores como homine de governamento». Durante le ultime anno de su governamento, le gestion de Flores esseva objecto de criticas crescente pro su supponite abandono del obras public e accusationes de corruption inter alte functionarios. In iste contexto, circulava in Quito le jornal oppositionista La Linterna Mágica, editate in Piura per Pedro Moncayo, qui exerceva un opposition ferree al regime. Le journalist fratre Vicente Solano affirmava que de 700 mille pesos del renta national, 400 mille esseva expendite pro mantener le fidelitate del Exercito. Le intervention de Flores con duo mille soldatos in Nove Granada contribueva plus ancora a su deterioration. Movite per un petition del governamento colombian, ille combatteva un insurrection in [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]]. Flores credeva que, sur le plano personal, ille dareva un lection al insurrecte general Obando, su ancian inimico e calumniator inveterate in le caso del assassination de Sucre. Ille se imaginava que, sur le plano public, ille recupereva, al minus in parte, le territorios perdite durante su prime administration e facerea entrar in le cassas fiscal 300 mille pesos como compensation colombian. Ma quando ille debeva intervenir novemente in Pasto, le popularitate de Flores comenciava a declinar. Como Solano lo habeva insinuate, sub le pretexto de «irregularitates» occurrite in [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] durante le election de representantes e del absentia del representantes del Guayas al Congresso Extraordinari a causa del [[fiebre jaune]] que in octobre 1842 habeva causate 326 victimas, Flores convocava un Convention pro le 15 de januario 1843 e promulgava un lege electoral que deveniva un colpo de Stato in su favor.<ref>{{Cita libro|título=Fondo Jijón y Caamaño|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=ijYaAAAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVu56wsvjhAhULn-AKHTkxDPoQ6AEIQzAE|editorial=Centro de Investigación y Cultura, Banco Central del Ecuador|fecha=1987|fechaacceso=30 de abril de 2019|idioma=es|nombre=Banco Central del Ecuador Archivo|apellidos=Histórico}}</ref> == Tertie Presidentia == Le Convention se reuniva in Quito le 15 de januario 1843. Trenta del 36 conventionarios orava in le cathedral, pro postea sessionar in le Collegio San Buenaventura. Del conventionarios, 32 del representantes esseva empleatos del Stato, del quales 5 esseva generales e 5 esseva coroneles, tote illes estranjeros salvo un. Le reforma consisteva, inter altere questiones, in prolongar le periodo presidential a octo annos e permitter al presidente de esser reelegite post un periodo; in facer que le Congresso se reunirea cata quatro annos, que le senatores durarea 12 annos e le deputatos octo annos. Le proposition esseva acceptate. Flores esseva reelegite per 34 del 36 votos del sala. Le nove constitution esseva appellate "[[Carta del Sclavitude]]". In addition, illa contineva principios como le libertate de cultos in le esfera private e claudeva le via al politicisation del clero.<ref>{{Cita libro|título=El Año ecuatoriano|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=SkQ0AQAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvovils_jhAhVtTd8KHVCGDjwQ6AEISjAF|fecha=1952|fechaacceso=30 de abril de 2019|idioma=es}}</ref> Su governamento durante iste tertie periodo affrontava un opposition dur, proveniente tanto del clero como del opposition originante del nove imposto de tres pesos e quatro reales, con exemption pro indigenas e sclavos, ben que le imposto esseva postea abolite; del accusation de haber essite implicate in le assassination de Sucre; del fallimento del expedition a Nove Granada; de un negotiation limitalic fallite con Peru; e del presentia e poter del militares estranjeros —12 del 15 generales esseva estranjeros—, insimul con le abuso del fundos de un legado destinate al collegio [[Vicente León]] per Flores e su proximos. A isto se addeva un conspiracy dirigite per juvene intellectuales in Quito, inter illes Gabriel García Moreno; e le «nationalismo» del notabiles guayaquileños. Tote isto esseva stimolate per le 14 manifestos «A la Nación», lanceate per Rocafuerte desde Lima inter 1843 e 1845. Le governator de Guayaquil, a causa del febre jaune, habeva arrivat tarde al Convention. Ille esseva representante de Cuenca. Rocafuerte se opponeva a grande parte del reforma proponite per Flores. Ille qualificava su collaboratores de "[[jenízaro]]s" e se exiliava in Lima. Iste manifestos appellava a insurrection in nomine del nationalismo: ''«Union, enthusiasmo, valor, constantia e tosto le victoria essera vostre. Derrocante le perfide tiranno de Venezuela, vos restituera le gaudio de vostre usurpate derectos...»'', diceva le quinte de illes. ''«E le eventos se precipitava al voce tonante de Rocafuerte»'', scribe le historiator [[Luis Robalino Dávila]]. A tote le tumultos popular in varie locos del Sierra al crito de ''«Morte al tres pesos!, Viva le religion!»'', se succedeva le colpo definitive: le pronunciamento militar nationalista e del notabiles de Guayaquil, le 6 de martio 1845. Le insurgentes formava un governamento provisorie al qual se adheriva [[Manabí]] e Cuenca. Flores resisteva usque junio con su tropas stationate in «La Elvira», hacienda de su proprietate, e capitulava ante iste governamento per medio de un tractato, appellate «de La Virginia», nomine del hacienda del poeta Olmedo, ubi illo esseva signate le 17 de junio 1845. === Obras importante durante su presidentia === * Constitution de Ecuador de 1809 * Le 20 de decembre 1830, ille decretava le annexation del [[Departamento del Cauca (Gran Colombia)|Departamento del Cauca]], conditionate usque al reunion del proxime congresso, al qual concurrerea le deputatos de ille Departamento. Le 7 de octobre 1831, le congresso ecuatorian approbava un Lege incorporante le Departamento del Cauca al Stato ecuatorian e approbante le Decreto del Poter Executive in le qual ille admitteva iste incorporation. * Ille incorporava le Islas Galápagos le 12 de februario 1832. * Le tractato de Pando-Noboa con Peru esseva signate. * Le tractato de Pace con Chile esseva signate. * Ille fundava le Collegio del Guayas, actualmente cognoscite como [[Colegio Nacional Vicente Rocafuerte]]. * Refaction e remodelation del [[Palatio de Carondelet]] in 1892. === Deuda externe === In decembre 1834 le delegation ecuatorian non assistiva al reunion pro le repartition del debita del independentia. A causa del absentia de Ecuador, a ille esseva assignate le 21,5 pro cento del debita, equivalente a 22.230.631,64 pesos.<ref>{{Cita web |autor=Humberto Oña Villarreal |título=Juan José Flores |url=http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaacceso=30 de septiembre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621205626/http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaarchivo=21 de junio de 2013 }}</ref> == Exilio, rehabilitation e ultime campanias == Plus tarde, Flores, ja desde le exilio, complottava un invasion de Ecuador pro le qual ille obteneva appoio e finantiamento de [[María Cristina de Borbón-Dos Sicilias]], regina regente de [[Espania]], con le fin de installar su filio [[Agustín Muñoz y Borbón]] sur le [[Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador|throno ecuatorian]]. On parla etiam de negotiationes con le rege francese [[Luis Felipe I de Francia|Luis Felipe I]], pro nominar como Reges de Ecuador su decime filio, [[Antonio de Orleans]], [[Duca de Montpensier]], e su sposa, le infanta espaniol [[Luisa Fernanda de Borbón]], filia etiam del mentionate regina Maria Cristina.<ref name="Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis">{{Cita web |autor=Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis |título=El general Juan José Flores y el Perú |url=http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |fechaacceso=9 de febrero de 2013 |obra=Historia del Perú, América Latina y el mundo. Siglos XIX y XX |fecha=03/2012 |fechaarchivo=15 de octubre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015055220/http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Le tentativa esseva repellete con severitate e Flores debeva retornar al exilio. Durante un tempore ille resideva in [[Costa Rica]], ubi ille habeva un amicitate proxime con le presidente [[José María Castro Madriz]]. Le Congresso le declarava ''cittadino distinguite de Costa Rica'', ma Flores declinava le honor e poco postea quitava le pais. In 1855, durante su tempore in [[Lima]], ille esseva un del socios fundatores del [[Club Nacional (Lima)|Club Nacional]]. In martio 1857, ille arrivava in Venezuela, ubi tentava mediar sin successo in le conflictos suscitate inter le liberales qui supportava le presidente [[José Tadeo Monagas]] e le conservatores qui tentava de derocar le sub le direction del general [[José Antonio Páez]]. Multes in [[Caracas]] videva in Flores le persona ideal pro diriger le [[revolution]]. Ille esseva un procer e habeva essite Presidente de Ecuador, ma quando Flores se informava del situation, ille quitava immediatemente le pais e se dirigeva a [[Lima]]. In 1860 Flores commandava le armea del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]], ben que García Moreno habeva essite un firmo oppositionista. Flores participava in le campo quiteño durante le guerra civil de 1859–1860, affrontante le governamento de facto de Guayaquil, que pretendeva le secession del citate, sub le direction del general [[Guillermo Franco Herrera]], qui ille batteva in le combate de [[Mapasingue]]. Le secession del provincia de Guayaquil e su posterior annexation a Peru esseva evitate per le [[declaration de independentia de Loja]] como Republica Federal in 1859. In 1863 ille commandava le Exercito ecuatorian in le guerra contra Colombia, ma esseva vincite in le [[Battalia de Cuaspud]]. == Morte == [[File:Tumba de Juan José Flores, Catedral Metropolitana de Quito.jpg|miniaturadeimagen|275x275px|Tumba in le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]].]] In 1864, Flores partiva de Quito pro combatter un expedition del ex-presidente [[José María Urbina y Viteri|José María Urbina]] in le [[Golfo de Guayaquil]]. Durante le Combate de Santa Rosa, ille recipeva un tiro perdite in le basso ventre e moriva le 1 de octobre a bordo del vapor ''Smirck'', presso le [[Isla Puná]].<ref name="JGZ">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Gomezjurado Zevallos |nombre1=Javier |título=Quito: Historia del Cabildo y la ciudad |fecha=2015 |editorial=Instituto Metropolitano de Patrimonio |ubicación=Quito |isbn=978-9942-20-821-7 |páginas=329-330 |edición=primera |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |publicación=Revista de Estudios Históricos |fecha=1993 |número=Nº37-38 |página=445|editorial=Instituto Chileno de Investigaciones Genealógicas}}</ref> Pro melior conservation, le cadavere de Flores esseva ponite in un barril de alcohol e transportate in un nave de guerra desde [[Machala]] a [[Guayaquil]], ubi alcun familiares attendeva con un luxuose coffre pro transportar le a Quito, ubi ille esseva inhumate.<ref name="JGZ"/> On dice que le barril de alcohol remaneva abandonate in le porto, e que alcun marinarios lo vendeva a un taberniero del [[Malecón 2000|Malecón]].<ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Pérez Pimentel |nombre1=Rodolfo |título=El Ecuador Profundo, tomo III |fecha=1988 |editorial=Editorial de la Universidad de Guayaquil |ubicación=Guayaquil |página=208|edición=primera |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016}}</ref> In su honor, le presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]] ordinava, per medio de un decreto executive expedite le 8 de octobre 1864, que in tote le provincias del pais se celebrara exequias de prime classe in honor al general Flores, que le empleatos public e militares portara luto stricte durante tres dies, a partir del vigilia del funerales que haberea loco le 13 de octobre in le [[Cathedral de Quito]], que le bandera del Palatio de Carondelet e del edificios public remanerea a medie asta durante le mesme tempore e, finalmente, que se elaborara un mausoleo de marmore con le inscription: ''Al patre del Patria, le populo grate''.<ref>{{Cita publication|apellidos1=Orbes M. |nombre1=Camilo |título=Correspondencia inédita del Libertador Simón Bolívar |páginas=90-91 |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016 |editorial=Biblioteca Ángel Arango - Banco de la República |ubicación=Bogotá}}</ref> Desde alora, su restos mortales e los de su sposa se trova in le cripta presidential intra le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]]. In le mesme edificio se trova etiam le restos de [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e de [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. == Decorationes == * [[Anexo:Grandes Oficiales de la Legión de Honor|Grande official]] del [[Legion de Honor]], concedite per le rege [[Luis Felipe I de Francia]] in 1844.<ref>{{Cita libro |apellidos1=Van Aken |nombre1=Mark J. |título=King of the Night: Juan Jose Flores & Ecuador 1824-1864 |fecha=1989 |editorial=[[University of California Press]] |ubicación=Los Ángeles |isbn=0-520-06277-9 |página=[https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332 332] |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016 |idioma=inglés |url=https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332 }}</ref> * Cavallero del [[Ordine de Carlos III]], concedite le 29 de septembre 1844.<ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Costa y Turell |nombre1=Modesto |título=Tratado completo de la ciencia del blason: ó sea, Código heráldico-histórico |fecha=1878 |editorial=Editorial L. Tasso |ubicación=Madrid |página=336 |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=QTg9AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |fechaacceso=14 de noviembre de 2015|formato=e-book}}</ref> == Honores postume == In novembre 1864, pauc septimanas post su decesso, le Cabildo del citate de [[Quito]] tentava placiar un portraito del ex-presidente in su Sala de Sessiones, ma illo non esseva acceptate per tote le membros, qui permitteva solmente un discurso in su honor, sublineante su patriotismo e actiones benefic al pais, concludente le intervention con le phrase: «''Concittadinos, le torcha del vita de iste heroe se ha extinguite, ma ille nos lassa aperte le sentieros que conduce al templo del gloria; imita le''».<ref name="JGZ"/> In su honor, in su [[Puerto Cabello|citate natal]] existe: * Un parochia. * Un loco denominate «Plaza Flores». * Un schola basic. * Duo promotiones de officiales, ambe graduate del [[Academia Militar del Exercito Bolivarian|Academia Militar de Venezuela]], porta su nomine como heroe eponymic. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Nascite in Puerto Cabello]] [[Categoria:Decedite in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite foras del pais]] [[Categoria:Governatores]] [[Categoria:Militares de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Militares proceres del guerra del independentia de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador que esseva distronate per un colpo de Stato]] [[Categoria:Isla Floreana]] [[Categoria:Equites del Ordine de Carlos III]] [[Categoria:Grandes officiales del Legion de Honor]] [[Categoria:Deputatos e membros del assembleas de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Generales de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Proprietarios de terras de Ecuador]] epficrr72vzttdjmrr9913n9zj4923s 699502 699501 2026-09-03T04:42:48Z Interlingvisto 60932 699502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Juan José Flores y Aramburu''' ([[Puerto Cabello]], 19 de julio 1800–[[Isla Puná]], 1 de octobre 1864) esseva un [[militari]], [[politico]] e [[statista]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]], de origine venezuelan. Il es particularmente cognoscite como un del plus influente leaders politic de [[Ecuador]] a partir de 1830, essente su prime [[presidente]]. Il occupava le carga in tres occasiones: de 1830 a 1834; de 1839 a 1843; e de 1843 a 1845.<ref name="diccionariobiograficoecuador_1">{{Cita web |url=http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |título=Pérez Pimentel, Rodolfo: Diccionario biográfico Ecuador, tomo 10 – Juan José Flores y Aramburú |fechaacceso=31 de mayo de 2013 |fechaarchivo=4 de marzo de 2016 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |deadurl=yes |title=Archive copy |accessdate=2026-08-30 |archivedate=2016-03-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm }}</ref> Il se distingueva como strategista del armeada de [[Grande Colombia]], habente attingite le grado de coronel ante su 30e anno de etate. Un vice le independentia esseva consolidate, [[Simón Bolívar]] le designava como governator del [[Distrito del Sur]] del [[Grande Colombia]]. Quando iste district se separava de ille in 1830, illo deveniva le actual [[Republica del Ecuador]], de que Flores esseva investite como prime presidente. == Biographia == Nascite le 19 de julio 1800 in [[Puerto Cabello]], [[Capitania General de Venezuela]], [[Imperio espaniol]]. Filio de Juan José Aramburu, mercator peninsular, e su matre esseva Rita Flores, originari de Puerto Cabello. Il entrava multo juven al armea espaniol, ubi comenciava como militar, ma decideva inscriber se al fortias independentista de [[Simon Bolivar]]. A 23 annos, ille jam exerceva como colonello e governator del provincia de Pasto. In 1823 ille arrivava in Ecuador como comandante general del armea e in 1828 e 1829 participava in le defensa del [[District del Sud]] del [[Grande Colombia]], ubi ille contribueva al victoria del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] super le tropas peruvian in le [[Battalia de Portete de Tarqui]]. In 1830, ille esseva nominate le prime [[Presidente de Ecuador]] per le Congresso Constituent de Riobamba del mesme anno. Con iste facto, le 11 de septembre 1830, le presidente Flores, insimul con le 21 deputatos constituente, deveniva un del prime personas a obtener le nationalitate ecuatorian, secundo le promulgate [[Constitution de Ecuador de 1830]]. Curiosemente, ille obteneva su nationalitate venezuelan plus tarde, proque le [[Constitution de Venezuela de 1830]] esseva promulgate 13 dies post le constitution ecuatorian. Il exerceva iste carga in tres occasiones, usque a 1845, quando ille esseva obligate a abandonar le pais post le derrota que ille suffreva in le [[Revolution marcista|Revolution del 6 de martio]]. Il retornava in 1859 e serviva in le campanias contra Peru e in le guerra civil sub le commandamento del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. === Prime governamento (1830–1834) === Un vice in le poter, Flores consolidava un alliantia politic inter le latifundismo traditional del Sierra, al qual ille se habeva ligate per matrimonio con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV" /> e le proprietarios de terras de Guayaquil e le altos commandantes del armea. Le [[Dominatio florean|floreanismo]], como esseva appellate le gruppo de su partisanos, nasceva del tradition conservator del [[bolivarianismo]]. In le anno 1831, durante su governamento, esseva create le Societate Colonisatrice del Archipelago de Colon, nomine con le qual, in ille epocha, esseva cognoscite le [[Insulas Galapagos]], sub le commandamento del general [[José de Villamil]]. Le anno sequente, le 20 de januario 1832, le [[goleta]] Mercedes partiva de Guayaquil e, sub le direction del colonello Ignacio Hernández, le insulas Galapagos esseva incorporate officialmente al Ecuador. Su governamento esseva characterisate per instabilitate interne, accusationes de corruption e difficultates pro mantener le ordine public, assi como per tensiones con le fortias armate. Il habeva duo guerras con Nove Granada, in le quales Ecuador esseva vincite.<ref name=":0">{{Cita libro|apellidos=Ayala|nombre=Enrique|título=Estudios Sociales 6|fechaacceso=https://educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/09/librostexto/Estudios_Sociales_6.pdf|año=2016|editorial=Corporación Editora Nacional|editor=Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador|ubicación=Quito-Ecuador|páginas=35-37}}</ref> In 1831 ille affrontava con successo un rebellion de [[Luis Urdaneta]] e in 1832 faceva guerra con Colombia. In 1833 ille puniva severemente plure battaliones revoltate e le ideologos appellate utilitaristas. In addition, ille debeva affrontar qui esseva su vice-presidente, Vicente Rocafuerte, con qui ille attingeva un accordo pro conducer iste ultime al presientia. Flores vinceva le fortias que se opponeva al governamento de Rocafuerte in [[Battalia de Miñarica|Miñarica]] in 1835.<ref name=":0" /> === Secunde governamento (1839–1843) === Durante su mandato transitori, Flores negotiava con Rocafuerte. Il debeva etiam reducer un insurrection in Pasto, al nord. E un epidemia de febre jalne in Guayaquil, apportate per marinarios veniente de Panama, que decimava le citate. === Tertie governamento (1843–1845) === In 1843, quando su mandato terminava, ille faceva un colpo de Stato, essente eligite presidente pro le tertie vice per un Assemblea Constituent mediante un constitution que esseva appellate “Carta de Servitude”.<ref name=":0" /> In 1845 se organisava un movimento contra ille e ille esseva expellite del poter. Esseva signate un documento denominate ''Pronunciamento Popular de Guayaquil'', e Flores partiva in exilio. Il habeva quatro gruppos disputante le governamento, e le presidente del momento, García Moreno, demandava su adjuta. Flores dirigeva un armea e vinceva le general Guillermo Franco, qui, con le supporto de Francia, se trovava in le zona portuari. Iste action esseva denominate le battalia de Guayaquil. Tres annos plus tarde, a 63 annos, ille debeva abandonar su retiro pro commandar de novo le armea e combatter contra le milicias colombian, e esseva vincite in le campos de Cuaspud. === Matrimonio === [[File:Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco y Chiriboga.jpg|thumb|[[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]], circa 1840.]] Flores, designate prefecto del [[Departamento de Ecuador|Departamento del Sud]], se maritava con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Villalba |nombre1=Jorge |título=El general Juan José Flores: fundador de la república de Ecuador |fecha=1994 |editorial=Centro de Estudios Históricos del Ejército |ubicación=Quito |páginas=50-55}}</ref> descendente per linea paterne del [[Comtes de Casa Jijón]], titulo que illa arrivava a disputar sin successo con su cosino Francisco Jijón.<ref name="CML">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Larrea |nombre1=Carlos Manuel |título=Antonio Flores Jijón, su vida y sus obras |fecha=1974 |editorial=Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones |ubicación=Quito |página=16}}</ref> Le reception habeva loco in le salons del [[Palatio de Carondelet]], con tote le pompa; pro isto, ille habeva facite pintar 22 retratos del generales ligate al [[Independente del Ecuador]], que ille collocava originalmente in le galeria del edificio e postea transfereva a su proprietate del Quinta El Placer.<ref>{{Cita libro |título=Museo Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño y el patrimonio artístico |fecha=1978 |editorial=Centro de Publicaciones de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador |ubicación=Quito |página=56}}</ref> On dice que [[Mercedes Jijón|Mercedes]] esseva un juvena belle, de portamento distinguite, con un profunde senso de solidaritate e del familia.<ref name="RPP">{{Cita web|apellidos1=Pérez Pimentel |nombre1=Rodolfo |título=Jijón Vivanco Mercedes |url=http://www.archivobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo1/Jij%C3%B3n-Vivanco-Mercedes.htm |obra=Archivo biográfico del Ecuador (tomo 1)|fechaacceso=15 de abril de 2015}}</ref> Le mesme [[Simon Bolivar]] parlava de Mercedes in iste terminos, post haber la cognoscite le 12 de april 1829: «''io non sape si illa es plus discrete que belle, o plus belle que discrete''».<ref name="LQ">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Jurado Noboa |nombre1=Fernando |enlaceautor1=Fernando Jurado Noboa |título=Las quiteñas |fecha=1995 |editorial=Dinediciones |ubicación=Quito}}</ref><ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Pardo de Guevara y Valdés |nombre1=Eduardo |título=Actas de la XI Reunión Americana de Genealogía |fecha=2005 |editorial=Editorial CSIC-Press |ubicación=Santiago de Compostela |página=426 |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=lyH-3P31Qs0C&pg=PA426&lpg=PA426&dq=%22Mercedes+Jij%C3%B3n%22&source=bl&ots=RXiwDRi84L&sig=uLoRKSbRqwFz40hvXsFvAG6MiKw&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=jZ8uVcWGCa7jsATPj4DgDQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=%22Mercedes%20Jij%C3%B3n%22&f=false |fechaacceso=15 de abril de 2015}}</ref> Le 11 de julio 1829, Flores e su sposa esseva le padrinos del baptismo de Teresa de Sucre y Carcelén de Guevara, le unic filia del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e [[Mariana Carcelén|Mariana Carcelén de Guevara]], iste ultime, secunde cosina de Mercedes.<ref>{{enlace roto|1={{Cita libro |apellidos1=Flores Caamaño |nombre1=Alfredo |título=El verdadero testamento del Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho |fecha=1926 |editorial=Universidad Central del Ecuador |ubicación=Quito |página=65 |url=http://repositorio.casadelacultura.gob.ec:8280/bitstream/34000/943/1/FR1-L-000265-Flores-Verdadero.pdf |fechaacceso=14 de febrero de 2016 }} |2=http://repositorio.casadelacultura.gob.ec:8280/bitstream/34000/943/1/FR1-L-000265-Flores-Verdadero.pdf |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |publicación=Boletín Nº53 |fecha=1970 |página=302|editorial=Academia Nacional de Historia de Ecuador |ubicación=Quito}}</ref> === Descendentia === Le matrimonio habeva tresdece filios, octo feminas e cinque viros, qui les daría circa 35 nepotes:<ref name=MAD>{{cita web|apellidos1=Alvarado Dávila|nombre1=Mauricio|título=Mercedes Jijón|obra=Los Orígenes de los Ecuatorianos|idioma=español|fechaacceso=4 de septiembre de 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cita publicación|título=Heráldica, historia y genealogía|publicación=Revista Semana Ecuador|fecha=2 de octubre de 2016|página=30|url=https://www.pressreader.com/ecuador/semana-ecuador/20161002/page/30|fechaacceso=15 de julio de 2019}}</ref> *Elvira Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1826. Maritate in 1844 con Eusebio Isaza y Muñoz, con qui illa habeva cinque filios: **Elvira Isaza Flores (1845) **Mercedes Isaza Flores (1847) **José Antonio Isaza Flores (1849–1892) **Miguel Isaza Flores (1850) **María Isaza Flores (1852) *Mercedes Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 16 de septembre 1828. Maritate le 14 de decembre 1850 con Antonio Fernández Salvador y Gangotena. Sin descendentes. *Juan José Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1831 e morte in [[Montreaux]] le 10 de septembre 1891. Maritate con Ángela Icaza y Aguirre-Abad. Sin descendentes. *José Federico Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 22 de april 1832 e morte in [[Paris]] le 27 de octobre 1879. Maritate con Mercedes Arteta y Arteta. *[[Antonio Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] le 23 de octobre 1833 e morte in [[Geneva]] le 30 de augusto 1915. Maritate con [[Leonor Ruiz de Apodaca]], con qui ille habeva duo filias: **Leonor Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1874) **Elvira Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1876), marchesa consorte de Villebrune *Virginia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1835. Maritate circa 1865 con Pedro Pablo García Moreno, con qui illa habeva duo filios: **Rodolfo García-Moreno y Flores **Ana Luisa García-Moreno y Flores *Victoria Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Guayaquil]] in septembre 1838. Maritate le 23 de junio 1865 con Narciso Isaza Muñoz, fratre de su cognato, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Juan José Isaza Flores (1866–1925) **Carlota Isaza Flores **Mercedes Isaza Flores *Timoléon Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1839 e morte in 1899. Maritate le 26 de octobre 1862 con María Mercedes Chiriboga y Fernández-Salvador, con qui ille habeva septe filios: **Lucía Flores Chiriboga (1884) **Raimundo Flores Chiriboga (1886–1967) **Antonio Flores Chiriboga (1888) **Fanny Flores Chiriboga (1890) **Mercedes Flores Chiriboga (1892) **Timoleón Flores Chiriboga (1896–1936) **Amalia Flores Chiriboga (1898) *[[Reinaldo Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] in 1840 e morte in 1904. Maritate con Ana Caamaño y Gómez-Cornejo, con qui ille habeva octo filios: **Reinaldo Flores Caamaño **Luis Alberto Flores Caamaño **Juan José Flores Caamaño **Rosa Laura Flores Caamaño **Ana María Flores Caamaño **Alfredo Flores Caamaño **María Luisa Flores Caamaño **Víctor Flores Caamaño *Amalia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1841. Maritate con Leonardo Charles Stagg, con qui illa habeva quatro filios: **Leonardo Stagg Flores **Carlos Stagg Flores **Enrique Stagg Flores **Evelina Stagg Flores *Matilde Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 24 de septembre 1842 e morte le 7 de augusto 1921. Maritate le 1 de januario 1869 con Federico Hurtado y Brizón, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Isabel María Hurtado Flores **Rosa Matilde Hurtado Flores **Sara Hurtado Flores *Josefina Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1844. Maritate con Felipe Barriga y Carcelén de Guevara, filio de [[Mariana Carcelén]], con qui illa habeva un filio qui non attingeva le etate adulte: **Felipe Barriga Flores *Isabel Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1845. Maritate con Fernando de García-Moreno y Drouet. Sin descendentes. == Dissolution del Grande Colombia == {{AP|Dissolution del Grande Colombia}} [[Quito]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] e [[Guayaquil]] esseva annexate al [[Grande Colombia]] in 1822. Durante le Colonia (1563–1809–1820–1822), sub le nomine de [[Real Audientia de Quito]], iste tres regiones faceva parte, successivemente, del viceregno del [[Viceregno de Nove Granada|Nove Granada]]. Illes comenciava lor vita soveran in 1830 con le experientia negative del centralismo viceregal e grancolombian e sin le experientia positive de un administration de prime nivello. Pro ir de Guayaquil a Quito se gastava 14 dies; de Quito a Cuenca, altere 14; de Cuenca a Guayaquil, cinque, e cinque de [[Tulcán]] a Quito. Desde [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]] esseva plus facile transportar se a [[Piura]] que al citate de Cuenca. Le via Quito–Riobamba se trovava in mal stato. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un pais desarticulate e mal communicate. Le Sierra centro-nord formava un unitate geographic, ecologic e politic. Illa se susteneva per un agricultura de subsistentia con un bon mercato interne potential e suffreva le crise de su «industria» textile a causa del competition del libere commercio. Le Sierra sud viveva del agricultura, del parve mination, del texitos, del artesanato, del [[cascarilla]] e del bestiame. Su economia se trovava etiam in crise, proque illa habeva cofinanciate le guerras del independentia peruvian. Le Costa se orientava circa Guayaquil e Guayaquil, circa le cacao. Su ricchessa habeva augmentate con le commercio. Le axe secundari [[Provincia de Manabí|Manabí]]–[[Provincia de Esmeraldas|Esmeraldas]] bulliva de activitates mercantil. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un realitate economic positive in un region e negative in le duo alteres. Le hacienda deveniva gradualmente le base del poter politic. Specialmente in le Sierra centro-nord, le haciendas se susteneva super le labor fortiate de indigenas. Le plantationes de cacao del Costa habeva etiam besonio de iste mano de obra, ma liberemente contractate. Le parve proprietarios de ambes regiones timeva esser absorbite per iste centros. Le population del pais, secundo le estimation le plus optimista, attingeva 800 mill habitantes, plus del medietate del quales viveva in le Sierra nor-central. Minus de un pro cento del population frequentava le schola ille anno. Le proprietate del terra se concentrava majoritariemente in le manos del elite creol e del elite creol. Le population mestice, in su majoritate, non habeva accesso a terras e dependeva del labor salariale in mestieres e labores agricole pro su subsistentia. Al sclavos afroecuadorian non esseva recognoscite alcun derecto civil. Le indigenas, mantenite durante seculos in le ignorantia e le alcohol, esseva considerate como minors. Le major parte laborava pro le haciendas e pagava tributos. In 1830, le aduanas de Guayaquil e le tributo del indigenas constitueva le principal fonte de entratas del Stato. Ecuador revendicava pro se le limites del [[Real Audientia de Quito]], que includeva le departamentos colombian de [[Nariño (Colombia)|Nariño]], [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]], [[Putumayo (Colombia)|Putumayo]] e parte de [[Valle del Cauca]]. Ma Nove Granada se atteneva a un division administrative interne (1824), que le favorava. Al sud, le [[Tractato de Guayaquil]] (1829) designava le [[Río Marañón|Marañón]]–[[Río Amazonas|Amazonas]] como limite del Grande Colombia e, ergo, de Ecuador. Le ambitiones de gruppos de interesse local e le crise politic al interior del Grande Colombia persuadeva Flores a conspirar contra Bolivar e provocar le secession del departamento del Sud. Quasi al mesme tempore, le general [[José Antonio Páez]] faceva le mesme in [[Venezuela]]. Le 13 de maio 1830, pauc menses post le separation de [[Venezuela]], le Departamentos que componeva le «District del Sud» del Grande Colombia (Departamentos del Ecuador, Guayaquil e Azuay) se declarava stato independente con le nomine de «Stato de Ecuador». Flores assumeva primo le carga de Chef Supreme e postea celle de Presidente Provisional del nove Stato, usque a su nomination definitive como Presidente Constitutional le 22 de septembre 1830. Alcun historiatores specula que le Presidentia de Ecuador esseva destinate al Mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]], assassinate in [[Berruecos]] durante le periodo de separation. Tanto Flores como le general colombian [[José María Obando]] esseva accusate de esser detra le assassination, ma nulle de iste suspiciones poteva esser probate. Sucre prefereva viagiar a Bogota, al [[Congresso Admirabile]], ante que remaner in Ecuador, ubi un assemblea constituente habeva essite convocate in le citate de [[Riobamba]]. Pauc post le initio de su presidentia, un parte del population del provincias de Pasto, Popayán e Buenaventura declarava su voluntate de incorporar se a Ecuador. Le Presidente Juan José Flores, post haber mandate guarniciones a Pasto, visitava iste citates, ubi ille promulgava un decreto declarante le incorporation de Cauca a Ecuador. Le Congresso Ordinari de 1831 declarava officialmente le incorporation del Departamento de Cauca a Ecuador. Le 22 de julio 1831 Nove Granada reclamava le restitution de iste Departamento a Ecuador. Le General [[José Hilario López]] se rebellava in [[Popayán]] in favor de Nove Granada e un confronto militar habeva loco inter le armea ecuatorian dirigite per Flores e le armea granadin, commandate per [[José María Obando]]. Flores non poteva triumphar proque le fronte interne de Ecuador se debilitava a causa del insurrectiones de [[Ambato]] e [[Latacunga]] contra su Governamento. Le ecuatorianos triumphava in alcun confrontos, ma le manca de provisionamentos e le rebellion del battallion Quito determinava le chute del citate de Pasto. Ante iste situation, Flores celebrava un Tractato de pace e limites con Nove Granada in le citate de Pasto le 8 de decembre 1832, fixante le fluvio Carchi como limite frontalier inter le duo Statios e lassante pendente le decision super le portos de La Tola e Tumaco, in le provincia de Buenaventura. Le [[Tractato de Pasto]] fixava le limites de un parte del frontiera, ma non del resto del territorio de Ecuador, que veniva a esser delimite plus tarde con Colombia. == Le prime Constitution == Flores convocava 21 deputatos, septe per region, respectivemente, pro reunir se in [[Riobamba]]. In minus de un mense illes redigeva e promulgava le prime Constitution, eligeva Quito como capital e eligeva Flores como presidente per 19 votos contra un. Ma illes faceva 18 scrutinio pro eliger como vice-presidente [[José Joaquín Olmedo]]. Su competitor esseva le quiteño Manuel Matheu, Marchese de Maenza.<ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.haciendalacienega.com/historia/ |título=Historia – Hacienda La Cienega |fechaacceso=7 de enero de 2017 |sitioweb=[www.haciendalacienega.com](http://www.haciendalacienega.com)}}</ref> Desde le nascentia del Republica existeva un lucta pro le poter inter le notabiles de Quito e Guayaquil. Cata notabile recipeva duo pesos per die pro lor servicios constituente. (Un vacca lactifere valiva alora quatro pesos). Le Constitution lassava le porta aperte pro formar un sol Stato con Colombia. Illa proponeva un Stato presidentialista, soveran, alternative, democratic e moderne. Le election esseva independente e indirecte mediante assembleas parochial, cantonal e provincial; ben que solmente poteva votar le viros alfabetisate maritate de qualcunque etate o celibes de 22 annos o plus qui possedeva immobiles de al minus 300 pesos o un profession non servile (advocato, medico, sacerdote, monacho). Le candidatos a cargas de representation popular habeva besonio de un plus grande quantitate, e 30 mill pesos in immobiles pro esser eligibile al presidentia. Le indigenas remaneva sub le tutela del parochos, e le traffico de sclavos africanos esseva restringite al labor in haciendas e minas. == Prime presidentia == [[File:Juan José Flores.jpg|thumb|Portraito de Juan José Flores. Prime Presidente de Ecuador.|250px]] Flores non poteva governar in pace e debeva recurrer al fortia. Il debeva suffocar le revolution del general venezuelan [[Luis Urdaneta]] —nepote del general [[Rafael Urdaneta]]— (1830–1831), facer guerra a Colombia (1832), punir tres insurrectiones de battaliones e combatter contra ideologos utilitarista (1833), affrontar [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] (1833–1834) e esmagar le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] (1832–1834),<ref>{{cita web |url = http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |título = Revolución de los Chihuahuas |fechaacceso = 19 de julio de 2018 |sitioweb = Enciclopedia Del Ecuador |idioma = castellano |cita = La llamada “Revolución de los Chihuahuas” fue una de esas desventuradas hazañas guerreras de los primeros años de nuestra vida republicana, y constituye uno de los capítulos más importantes de la historia nacional. Comenzó a gestarse cuando el Congreso de 1833, en sesión a la que no concurrió Vicente Rocafuerte -entonces diputado por la Provincia de Guayaquil- concedió al Gral. Juan José Flores, Presidente de la República, facultades extraordinarias para gobernar al país. (...) La revolución adoptó entonces el nombre de “Chihuahuas”, puesto que este fue el nombre que se le diera a los simpatizantes de Rocafuerte, en vista de que este había servido durante algunos años a las causas libertarias en México. |formato = html |urlarchivo = https://web.archive.org/web/20160829151351/http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |fechaarchivo = 29 de agosto de 2016 }}</ref> e finalmente impedir que [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]], [[Esmeraldas (Ecuador)|Esmeraldas]] e le Sierra nor-central se separava de Ecuador pro incorporar se a Colombia (1834–1835). Post le morte de Bolivar (17 de decembre 1830), le [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]] e [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]] demandava esser annexate a Ecuador. Colombia lo impedi per le derrota del tropas de Flores, e Ecuador perdeva iste territorios ligate al [[Audientia de Quito]] desde le {{siglo|XVI||s}}. Iste fallimento e le privilegios del mal considerate militares venezuelan rendeva le presidente impopular. Un gruppo de intellectuales, ancian patriotas del 10 de augusto 1809 e del 2 de augusto 1810 e anticlericales, formava le «Societate de El Quiteño Libre». Desde maio 1833 iste societate opponeva se al governamento in le jornal del mesme nomine. [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] opponeva se al facultates extraordinari concedite a Flores e renunciava a su sede parlamentar. Durante su governamento, le 12 de februario 1832, le [[Islas Galápagos]] esseva annexate a Ecuador; pro iste motivo, alcun tempore plus tarde un del insulas esseva baptisate in su honor como '''[[Isla Floreana (Galápagos)|Isla Floreana]].''' Se distingueva le emission de alcun leges sur le moneta, accordos con le Ecclesia Catholic e le acceptation del debita externe grancolombian ([[Deuda Inglesa]]) contrahite per Venezuela, Colombia e Ecuador pro finantiar le independentia. A Ecuador, que non esseva presente in le negotiationes, esseva assignate le 21,5 % del debita, plus de 22 milliones de pesos. Le entratas del governamento in 1834 attingeva a pena 708 mill pesos. Flores assecurava un sorta de pacto de non-aggression inter gruppos de proprietarios terrier del [[Region Interandine del Ecuador|Sierra de Ecuador]] e gruppos agro-exportator del [[Region Litoral del Ecuador|Costa]]. Su presentia politic durante plus de 15 annos interrumpite generava que un gruppo de [[Revolution Marcista|revolutionarios marcistas]] pressava pro su partita de Guayaquil e pro le partita del integre [[stato-major]] [[extranjero]]. Flores finiva su mandato con un crise politic e le menacia del dissolution del Stato. === Revolution del Chihuahuas e Jefaturas Supreme de Rocafuerte e Valdivieso === Le 12 de octobre 1832 comenciava in Guayaquil le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] dirigite per militares discontentes e politicos. Un septimana plus tarde, le «quiteños libres» attacava un quartel in Quito. Iste 19 de octobre, alcun de lor leaders esseva occidite a lanceate o decapitate. Le 20 de octobre, Rocafuerte, in via verso le exilio in Peru, esseva liberate per le chihuahuas e proclamate jefe supreme de Guayaquil. Le chihuahuas bloccava le porto occupate per Flores e initiava insurrectiones in le villages del peninsula de Santa Elena, del golfo de Guayaquil, del basse bacia del Guayas e de Manabi. Rocafuerte esseva capturate e livrate a Flores le 18 de junio 1834. Un septimana antea, [[José Félix Valdivieso]], ministro de Flores, se habeva proclamate jefe supreme de Ibarra. Cuenca e Loja, discontentes del centralismo administrative, adheriva a ille. Ante iste circumstantias, al initio de julio, Flores arrivava a un pacto con Rocafuerte, secundo le qual Rocafuerte accederia al Presidentia e Flores al jefatura supreme del Exercito. Le chihuahuas debeva submitter se sub pena de accusationes de traition al patria. Valdivieso occupava Quito e le Sierra central. Le chihuahuas non acceptava le pacto. Alcun de illes se jungeva a Valdivieso, le resto esseva reprimite usque ben entrate in le anno 1836. Rocafuerte, acclamate como jefe supreme del Guayas in un assemblea popular, convocava un secunde Convention (constitutiente) pro reformar le Carta Politic e clauder le possibilitate de un federation con Colombia. A fin de vincer le federalista Valdivieso, Rocafuerte poneva Flores al capite de su tropas, qui batteva le tropas de Valdivieso in le battalia de Miñarica, apud Ambato (18 de januario 1835). Le poeta Olmedo, in honor del victoria e dirigente se al [[Volcan Chimborazo|Chimborazo]], le exhortava: ''«Rege del Andes, inclina le ardua fronte, que passa le victor».'' == Secunde Presidentia == [[File:Grabado de la Hacienda La Elvira, de Juan José Flores (1852).jpg|thumb|Gravure del Hacienda La Elvira (1852), proprietate emblematic del familia Flores-Jijón de Vivanco.|300px]] Flores esseva eligite al prime scrutinio per 29 del 38 votos del Congresso. Su re-election esseva probabilemente convenite desde le pacto con Rocafuerte in 1834. Flores offereva al Congresso e al Nation respectar le libertate del personas e del pressa, non exiliar nemo, dar impulso al politica externe, continuar le obra educational de Rocafuerte e observar un conducta «franc e moderate, firme, impartial e juste». Con iste offerta ille se appoiava super le successo administrative e civilisator de Rocafuerte e, al mesme tempore, se distantiava del mal reputation del Rocafuerte implacabile e dure. [[Benigno Malo]], un statista cuencano, diceva de iste secunde periodo floreano: «Iste parve epocha esseva le plus belle pagina civic de Flores como homine de governamento». Durante le ultime anno de su governamento, le gestion de Flores esseva objecto de criticas crescente pro su supponite abandono del obras public e accusationes de corruption inter alte functionarios. In iste contexto, circulava in Quito le jornal oppositionista La Linterna Mágica, editate in Piura per Pedro Moncayo, qui exerceva un opposition ferree al regime. Le journalist fratre Vicente Solano affirmava que de 700 mille pesos del renta national, 400 mille esseva expendite pro mantener le fidelitate del Exercito. Le intervention de Flores con duo mille soldatos in Nove Granada contribueva plus ancora a su deterioration. Movite per un petition del governamento colombian, ille combatteva un insurrection in [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]]. Flores credeva que, sur le plano personal, ille dareva un lection al insurrecte general Obando, su ancian inimico e calumniator inveterate in le caso del assassination de Sucre. Ille se imaginava que, sur le plano public, ille recupereva, al minus in parte, le territorios perdite durante su prime administration e facerea entrar in le cassas fiscal 300 mille pesos como compensation colombian. Ma quando ille debeva intervenir novemente in Pasto, le popularitate de Flores comenciava a declinar. Como Solano lo habeva insinuate, sub le pretexto de «irregularitates» occurrite in [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] durante le election de representantes e del absentia del representantes del Guayas al Congresso Extraordinari a causa del [[fiebre jaune]] que in octobre 1842 habeva causate 326 victimas, Flores convocava un Convention pro le 15 de januario 1843 e promulgava un lege electoral que deveniva un colpo de Stato in su favor.<ref>{{Cita libro|título=Fondo Jijón y Caamaño|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=ijYaAAAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVu56wsvjhAhULn-AKHTkxDPoQ6AEIQzAE|editorial=Centro de Investigación y Cultura, Banco Central del Ecuador|fecha=1987|fechaacceso=30 de abril de 2019|idioma=es|nombre=Banco Central del Ecuador Archivo|apellidos=Histórico}}</ref> == Tertie Presidentia == Le Convention se reuniva in Quito le 15 de januario 1843. Trenta del 36 conventionarios orava in le cathedral, pro postea sessionar in le Collegio San Buenaventura. Del conventionarios, 32 del representantes esseva empleatos del Stato, del quales 5 esseva generales e 5 esseva coroneles, tote illes estranjeros salvo un. Le reforma consisteva, inter altere questiones, in prolongar le periodo presidential a octo annos e permitter al presidente de esser reelegite post un periodo; in facer que le Congresso se reunirea cata quatro annos, que le senatores durarea 12 annos e le deputatos octo annos. Le proposition esseva acceptate. Flores esseva reelegite per 34 del 36 votos del sala. Le nove constitution esseva appellate "[[Carta del Sclavitude]]". In addition, illa contineva principios como le libertate de cultos in le esfera private e claudeva le via al politicisation del clero.<ref>{{Cita libro|título=El Año ecuatoriano|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=SkQ0AQAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvovils_jhAhVtTd8KHVCGDjwQ6AEISjAF|fecha=1952|fechaacceso=30 de abril de 2019|idioma=es}}</ref> Su governamento durante iste tertie periodo affrontava un opposition dur, proveniente tanto del clero como del opposition originante del nove imposto de tres pesos e quatro reales, con exemption pro indigenas e sclavos, ben que le imposto esseva postea abolite; del accusation de haber essite implicate in le assassination de Sucre; del fallimento del expedition a Nove Granada; de un negotiation limitalic fallite con Peru; e del presentia e poter del militares estranjeros —12 del 15 generales esseva estranjeros—, insimul con le abuso del fundos de un legado destinate al collegio [[Vicente León]] per Flores e su proximos. A isto se addeva un conspiracy dirigite per juvene intellectuales in Quito, inter illes Gabriel García Moreno; e le «nationalismo» del notabiles guayaquileños. Tote isto esseva stimolate per le 14 manifestos «A la Nación», lanceate per Rocafuerte desde Lima inter 1843 e 1845. Le governator de Guayaquil, a causa del febre jaune, habeva arrivat tarde al Convention. Ille esseva representante de Cuenca. Rocafuerte se opponeva a grande parte del reforma proponite per Flores. Ille qualificava su collaboratores de "[[jenízaro]]s" e se exiliava in Lima. Iste manifestos appellava a insurrection in nomine del nationalismo: ''«Union, enthusiasmo, valor, constantia e tosto le victoria essera vostre. Derrocante le perfide tiranno de Venezuela, vos restituera le gaudio de vostre usurpate derectos...»'', diceva le quinte de illes. ''«E le eventos se precipitava al voce tonante de Rocafuerte»'', scribe le historiator [[Luis Robalino Dávila]]. A tote le tumultos popular in varie locos del Sierra al crito de ''«Morte al tres pesos!, Viva le religion!»'', se succedeva le colpo definitive: le pronunciamento militar nationalista e del notabiles de Guayaquil, le 6 de martio 1845. Le insurgentes formava un governamento provisorie al qual se adheriva [[Manabí]] e Cuenca. Flores resisteva usque junio con su tropas stationate in «La Elvira», hacienda de su proprietate, e capitulava ante iste governamento per medio de un tractato, appellate «de La Virginia», nomine del hacienda del poeta Olmedo, ubi illo esseva signate le 17 de junio 1845. === Obras importante durante su presidentia === * Constitution de Ecuador de 1809 * Le 20 de decembre 1830, ille decretava le annexation del [[Departamento del Cauca (Gran Colombia)|Departamento del Cauca]], conditionate usque al reunion del proxime congresso, al qual concurrerea le deputatos de ille Departamento. Le 7 de octobre 1831, le congresso ecuatorian approbava un Lege incorporante le Departamento del Cauca al Stato ecuatorian e approbante le Decreto del Poter Executive in le qual ille admitteva iste incorporation. * Ille incorporava le Islas Galápagos le 12 de februario 1832. * Le tractato de Pando-Noboa con Peru esseva signate. * Le tractato de Pace con Chile esseva signate. * Ille fundava le Collegio del Guayas, actualmente cognoscite como [[Colegio Nacional Vicente Rocafuerte]]. * Refaction e remodelation del [[Palatio de Carondelet]] in 1892. === Deuda externe === In decembre 1834 le delegation ecuatorian non assistiva al reunion pro le repartition del debita del independentia. A causa del absentia de Ecuador, a ille esseva assignate le 21,5 pro cento del debita, equivalente a 22.230.631,64 pesos.<ref>{{Cita web |autor=Humberto Oña Villarreal |título=Juan José Flores |url=http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaacceso=30 de septiembre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621205626/http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaarchivo=21 de junio de 2013 }}</ref> == Exilio, rehabilitation e ultime campanias == Plus tarde, Flores, ja desde le exilio, complottava un invasion de Ecuador pro le qual ille obteneva appoio e finantiamento de [[María Cristina de Borbón-Dos Sicilias]], regina regente de [[Espania]], con le fin de installar su filio [[Agustín Muñoz y Borbón]] sur le [[Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador|throno ecuatorian]]. On parla etiam de negotiationes con le rege francese [[Luis Felipe I de Francia|Luis Felipe I]], pro nominar como Reges de Ecuador su decime filio, [[Antonio de Orleans]], [[Duca de Montpensier]], e su sposa, le infanta espaniol [[Luisa Fernanda de Borbón]], filia etiam del mentionate regina Maria Cristina.<ref name="Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis">{{Cita web |autor=Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis |título=El general Juan José Flores y el Perú |url=http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |fechaacceso=9 de febrero de 2013 |obra=Historia del Perú, América Latina y el mundo. Siglos XIX y XX |fecha=03/2012 |fechaarchivo=15 de octubre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015055220/http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Le tentativa esseva repellete con severitate e Flores debeva retornar al exilio. Durante un tempore ille resideva in [[Costa Rica]], ubi ille habeva un amicitate proxime con le presidente [[José María Castro Madriz]]. Le Congresso le declarava ''cittadino distinguite de Costa Rica'', ma Flores declinava le honor e poco postea quitava le pais. In 1855, durante su tempore in [[Lima]], ille esseva un del socios fundatores del [[Club Nacional (Lima)|Club Nacional]]. In martio 1857, ille arrivava in Venezuela, ubi tentava mediar sin successo in le conflictos suscitate inter le liberales qui supportava le presidente [[José Tadeo Monagas]] e le conservatores qui tentava de derocar le sub le direction del general [[José Antonio Páez]]. Multes in [[Caracas]] videva in Flores le persona ideal pro diriger le [[revolution]]. Ille esseva un procer e habeva essite Presidente de Ecuador, ma quando Flores se informava del situation, ille quitava immediatemente le pais e se dirigeva a [[Lima]]. In 1860 Flores commandava le armea del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]], ben que García Moreno habeva essite un firmo oppositionista. Flores participava in le campo quiteño durante le guerra civil de 1859–1860, affrontante le governamento de facto de Guayaquil, que pretendeva le secession del citate, sub le direction del general [[Guillermo Franco Herrera]], qui ille batteva in le combate de [[Mapasingue]]. Le secession del provincia de Guayaquil e su posterior annexation a Peru esseva evitate per le [[declaration de independentia de Loja]] como Republica Federal in 1859. In 1863 ille commandava le Exercito ecuatorian in le guerra contra Colombia, ma esseva vincite in le [[Battalia de Cuaspud]]. == Morte == [[File:Tumba de Juan José Flores, Catedral Metropolitana de Quito.jpg|thumb|275x275px|Tumba in le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]].]] In 1864, Flores partiva de Quito pro combatter un expedition del ex-presidente [[José María Urbina y Viteri|José María Urbina]] in le [[Golfo de Guayaquil]]. Durante le Combate de Santa Rosa, ille recipeva un tiro perdite in le basso ventre e moriva le 1 de octobre a bordo del vapor ''Smirck'', presso le [[Isla Puná]].<ref name="JGZ">{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Gomezjurado Zevallos |nombre1=Javier |título=Quito: Historia del Cabildo y la ciudad |fecha=2015 |editorial=Instituto Metropolitano de Patrimonio |ubicación=Quito |isbn=978-9942-20-821-7 |páginas=329-330 |edición=primera |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |publicación=Revista de Estudios Históricos |fecha=1993 |número=Nº37-38 |página=445|editorial=Instituto Chileno de Investigaciones Genealógicas}}</ref> Pro melior conservation, le cadavere de Flores esseva ponite in un barril de alcohol e transportate in un nave de guerra desde [[Machala]] a [[Guayaquil]], ubi alcun familiares attendeva con un luxuose coffre pro transportar le a Quito, ubi ille esseva inhumate.<ref name="JGZ"/> On dice que le barril de alcohol remaneva abandonate in le porto, e que alcun marinarios lo vendeva a un taberniero del [[Malecón 2000|Malecón]].<ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Pérez Pimentel |nombre1=Rodolfo |título=El Ecuador Profundo, tomo III |fecha=1988 |editorial=Editorial de la Universidad de Guayaquil |ubicación=Guayaquil |página=208|edición=primera |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016}}</ref> In su honor, le presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]] ordinava, per medio de un decreto executive expedite le 8 de octobre 1864, que in tote le provincias del pais se celebrara exequias de prime classe in honor al general Flores, que le empleatos public e militares portara luto stricte durante tres dies, a partir del vigilia del funerales que haberea loco le 13 de octobre in le [[Cathedral de Quito]], que le bandera del Palatio de Carondelet e del edificios public remanerea a medie asta durante le mesme tempore e, finalmente, que se elaborara un mausoleo de marmore con le inscription: ''Al patre del Patria, le populo grate''.<ref>{{Cita publication|apellidos1=Orbes M. |nombre1=Camilo |título=Correspondencia inédita del Libertador Simón Bolívar |páginas=90-91 |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016 |editorial=Biblioteca Ángel Arango - Banco de la República |ubicación=Bogotá}}</ref> Desde alora, su restos mortales e los de su sposa se trova in le cripta presidential intra le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]]. In le mesme edificio se trova etiam le restos de [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e de [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. == Decorationes == * [[Anexo:Grandes Oficiales de la Legión de Honor|Grande official]] del [[Legion de Honor]], concedite per le rege [[Luis Felipe I de Francia]] in 1844.<ref>{{Cita libro |apellidos1=Van Aken |nombre1=Mark J. |título=King of the Night: Juan Jose Flores & Ecuador 1824-1864 |fecha=1989 |editorial=[[University of California Press]] |ubicación=Los Ángeles |isbn=0-520-06277-9 |página=[https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332 332] |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016 |idioma=inglés |url=https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332 }}</ref> * Cavallero del [[Ordine de Carlos III]], concedite le 29 de septembre 1844.<ref>{{Cita libro|apellidos1=Costa y Turell |nombre1=Modesto |título=Tratado completo de la ciencia del blason: ó sea, Código heráldico-histórico |fecha=1878 |editorial=Editorial L. Tasso |ubicación=Madrid |página=336 |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=QTg9AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |fechaacceso=14 de noviembre de 2015|formato=e-book}}</ref> == Honores postume == In novembre 1864, pauc septimanas post su decesso, le Cabildo del citate de [[Quito]] tentava placiar un portraito del ex-presidente in su Sala de Sessiones, ma illo non esseva acceptate per tote le membros, qui permitteva solmente un discurso in su honor, sublineante su patriotismo e actiones benefic al pais, concludente le intervention con le phrase: «''Concittadinos, le torcha del vita de iste heroe se ha extinguite, ma ille nos lassa aperte le sentieros que conduce al templo del gloria; imita le''».<ref name="JGZ"/> In su honor, in su [[Puerto Cabello|citate natal]] existe: * Un parochia. * Un loco denominate «Plaza Flores». * Un schola basic. * Duo promotiones de officiales, ambe graduate del [[Academia Militar del Exercito Bolivarian|Academia Militar de Venezuela]], porta su nomine como heroe eponymic. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Nascite in Puerto Cabello]] [[Categoria:Decedite in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite foras del pais]] [[Categoria:Governatores]] [[Categoria:Militares de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Militares proceres del guerra del independentia de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador que esseva distronate per un colpo de Stato]] [[Categoria:Isla Floreana]] [[Categoria:Equites del Ordine de Carlos III]] [[Categoria:Grandes officiales del Legion de Honor]] [[Categoria:Deputatos e membros del assembleas de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Generales de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Proprietarios de terras de Ecuador]] 5jyhbokpudxp2qinbgfwbhopovq6qaf 699503 699502 2026-09-03T04:47:58Z Interlingvisto 60932 699503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Juan José Flores y Aramburu''' ([[Puerto Cabello]], 19 de julio 1800–[[Isla Puná]], 1 de octobre 1864) esseva un [[militari]], [[politico]] e [[statista]] [[Ecuador|ecuadorian]], de origine venezuelan. Il es particularmente cognoscite como un del plus influente leaders politic de [[Ecuador]] a partir de 1830, essente su prime [[presidente]]. Il occupava le carga in tres occasiones: de 1830 a 1834; de 1839 a 1843; e de 1843 a 1845.<ref name="diccionariobiograficoecuador_1">{{Cita web |url=http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |título=Pérez Pimentel, Rodolfo: Diccionario biográfico Ecuador, tomo 10 – Juan José Flores y Aramburú |fechaacceso=31 de mayo de 2013 |fechaarchivo=4 de marzo de 2016 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm |deadurl=yes |title=Archive copy |accessdate=2026-08-30 |archivedate=2016-03-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201800/http://www.diccionariobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo10/f4.htm }}</ref> Il se distingueva como strategista del armeada de [[Grande Colombia]], habente attingite le grado de coronel ante su 30e anno de etate. Un vice le independentia esseva consolidate, [[Simón Bolívar]] le designava como governator del [[Distrito del Sur]] del [[Grande Colombia]]. Quando iste district se separava de ille in 1830, illo deveniva le actual [[Republica del Ecuador]], de que Flores esseva investite como prime presidente. == Biographia == Nascite le 19 de julio 1800 in [[Puerto Cabello]], [[Capitania General de Venezuela]], [[Imperio espaniol]]. Filio de Juan José Aramburu, mercator peninsular, e su matre esseva Rita Flores, originari de Puerto Cabello. Il entrava multo juven al armea espaniol, ubi comenciava como militar, ma decideva inscriber se al fortias independentista de [[Simon Bolivar]]. A 23 annos, ille jam exerceva como colonello e governator del provincia de Pasto. In 1823 ille arrivava in Ecuador como comandante general del armea e in 1828 e 1829 participava in le defensa del [[District del Sud]] del [[Grande Colombia]], ubi ille contribueva al victoria del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] super le tropas peruvian in le [[Battalia de Portete de Tarqui]]. In 1830, ille esseva nominate le prime [[Presidente de Ecuador]] per le Congresso Constituent de Riobamba del mesme anno. Con iste facto, le 11 de septembre 1830, le presidente Flores, insimul con le 21 deputatos constituente, deveniva un del prime personas a obtener le nationalitate ecuatorian, secundo le promulgate [[Constitution de Ecuador de 1830]]. Curiosemente, ille obteneva su nationalitate venezuelan plus tarde, proque le [[Constitution de Venezuela de 1830]] esseva promulgate 13 dies post le constitution ecuatorian. Il exerceva iste carga in tres occasiones, usque a 1845, quando ille esseva obligate a abandonar le pais post le derrota que ille suffreva in le [[Revolution marcista|Revolution del 6 de martio]]. Il retornava in 1859 e serviva in le campanias contra Peru e in le guerra civil sub le commandamento del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. === Prime governamento (1830–1834) === Un vice in le poter, Flores consolidava un alliantia politic inter le latifundismo traditional del Sierra, al qual ille se habeva ligate per matrimonio con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV" /> e le proprietarios de terras de Guayaquil e le altos commandantes del armea. Le [[Dominatio florean|floreanismo]], como esseva appellate le gruppo de su partisanos, nasceva del tradition conservator del [[bolivarianismo]]. In le anno 1831, durante su governamento, esseva create le Societate Colonisatrice del Archipelago de Colon, nomine con le qual, in ille epocha, esseva cognoscite le [[Insulas Galapagos]], sub le commandamento del general [[José de Villamil]]. Le anno sequente, le 20 de januario 1832, le [[goleta]] Mercedes partiva de Guayaquil e, sub le direction del colonello Ignacio Hernández, le insulas Galapagos esseva incorporate officialmente al Ecuador. Su governamento esseva characterisate per instabilitate interne, accusationes de corruption e difficultates pro mantener le ordine public, assi como per tensiones con le fortias armate. Il habeva duo guerras con Nove Granada, in le quales Ecuador esseva vincite.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Ayala|first=Enrique|title=Estudios Sociales 6|access-date=2016|year=2016|publisher=Corporación Editora Nacional|editor=Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador|location=Quito, Ecuador|pages=35–37|url=https://educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/09/librostexto/Estudios_Sociales_6.pdf}}</ref> In 1831 ille affrontava con successo un rebellion de [[Luis Urdaneta]] e in 1832 faceva guerra con Colombia. In 1833 ille puniva severemente plure battaliones revoltate e le ideologos appellate utilitaristas. In addition, ille debeva affrontar qui esseva su vice-presidente, Vicente Rocafuerte, con qui ille attingeva un accordo pro conducer iste ultime al presientia. Flores vinceva le fortias que se opponeva al governamento de Rocafuerte in [[Battalia de Miñarica|Miñarica]] in 1835.<ref name=":0" /> === Secunde governamento (1839–1843) === Durante su mandato transitori, Flores negotiava con Rocafuerte. Il debeva etiam reducer un insurrection in Pasto, al nord. E un epidemia de febre jalne in Guayaquil, apportate per marinarios veniente de Panama, que decimava le citate. === Tertie governamento (1843–1845) === In 1843, quando su mandato terminava, ille faceva un colpo de Stato, essente eligite presidente pro le tertie vice per un Assemblea Constituent mediante un constitution que esseva appellate “Carta de Servitude”.<ref name=":0" /> In 1845 se organisava un movimento contra ille e ille esseva expellite del poter. Esseva signate un documento denominate ''Pronunciamento Popular de Guayaquil'', e Flores partiva in exilio. Il habeva quatro gruppos disputante le governamento, e le presidente del momento, García Moreno, demandava su adjuta. Flores dirigeva un armea e vinceva le general Guillermo Franco, qui, con le supporto de Francia, se trovava in le zona portuari. Iste action esseva denominate le battalia de Guayaquil. Tres annos plus tarde, a 63 annos, ille debeva abandonar su retiro pro commandar de novo le armea e combatter contra le milicias colombian, e esseva vincite in le campos de Cuaspud. === Matrimonio === [[File:Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco y Chiriboga.jpg|thumb|[[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]], circa 1840.]] Flores, designate prefecto del [[Departamento de Ecuador|Departamento del Sud]], se maritava con le aristocrata e proprietaria de terras [[Otavalo|otavaleniana]] [[Mercedes Jijón de Vivanco]],<ref name="JV">{{cite book|last=Villalba|first=Jorge|title=El general Juan José Flores: fundador de la república de Ecuador|date=1994|publisher=Centro de Estudios Históricos del Ejército|location=Quito|pages=50–55 }} </ref> descendente per linea paterne del [[Comtes de Casa Jijón]], titulo que illa arrivava a disputar sin successo con su cosino Francisco Jijón.<ref name="CML">{{cite book|last=Larrea|first=Carlos Manuel|title=Antonio Flores Jijón, su vida y sus obras|date=1974|publisher=Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones|location=Quito|page=16}}</ref> Le reception habeva loco in le salons del [[Palatio de Carondelet]], con tote le pompa; pro isto, ille habeva facite pintar 22 retratos del generales ligate al [[Independente del Ecuador]], que ille collocava originalmente in le galeria del edificio e postea transfereva a su proprietate del Quinta El Placer.<ref>{{cite book|title=Museo Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño y el patrimonio artístico|date=1978|publisher=Centro de Publicaciones de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador|location=Quito|page=56}}</ref> On dice que [[Mercedes Jijón|Mercedes]] esseva un juvena belle, de portamento distinguite, con un profunde senso de solidaritate e del familia.<ref name="RPP">{{Cita web|apellidos1=Pérez Pimentel |nombre1=Rodolfo |título=Jijón Vivanco Mercedes |url=http://www.archivobiograficoecuador.com/tomos/tomo1/Jij%C3%B3n-Vivanco-Mercedes.htm |obra=Archivo biográfico del Ecuador (tomo 1)|fechaacceso=15 de abril de 2015}}</ref> Le mesme [[Simon Bolivar]] parlava de Mercedes in iste terminos, post haber la cognoscite le 12 de april 1829: «''io non sape si illa es plus discrete que belle, o plus belle que discrete''».<ref name="LQ">{{cite book |last=Jurado Noboa |first=Fernando |author-link=Fernando Jurado Noboa |title=Las quiteñas |date=1995 |publisher=Dinediciones |location=Quito }} </ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Pardo de Guevara y Valdés |first=Eduardo |title=Actas de la XI Reunión Americana de Genealogía |date=2005 |publisher=Editorial CSIC-Press |location=Santiago de Compostela |page=426 |url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=lyH-3P31Qs0C&pg=PA426&lpg=PA426&dq=%22Mercedes+Jij%C3%B3n%22&source=bl&ots=RXiwDRi84L&sig=uLoRKSbRqwFz40hvXsFvAG6MiKw&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=jZ8uVcWGCa7jsATPj4DgDQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=%22Mercedes%20Jij%C3%B3n%22&f=false |access-date=2015-04-15 }} </ref> Le 11 de julio 1829, Flores e su sposa esseva le padrinos del baptismo de Teresa de Sucre y Carcelén de Guevara, le unic filia del mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e [[Mariana Carcelén|Mariana Carcelén de Guevara]], iste ultime, secunde cosina de Mercedes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flores Caamaño|first=Alfredo|title=El verdadero testamento del Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho|date=1926|publisher=Universidad Central del Ecuador|location=Quito|page=65|url=http://repositorio.casadelacultura.gob.ec:8280/bitstream/34000/943/1/FR1-L-000265-Flores-Verdadero.pdf|access-date=2016-02-14}}</ref> === Descendentia === Le matrimonio habeva tresdece filios, octo feminas e cinque viros, qui les daría circa 35 nepotes:<ref name=MAD>{{cita web|apellidos1=Alvarado Dávila|nombre1=Mauricio|título=Mercedes Jijón|obra=Los Orígenes de los Ecuatorianos|idioma=español|fechaacceso=4 de septiembre de 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cita publicación|título=Heráldica, historia y genealogía|publicación=Revista Semana Ecuador|fecha=2 de octubre de 2016|página=30|url=https://www.pressreader.com/ecuador/semana-ecuador/20161002/page/30|fechaacceso=15 de julio de 2019}}</ref> *Elvira Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1826. Maritate in 1844 con Eusebio Isaza y Muñoz, con qui illa habeva cinque filios: **Elvira Isaza Flores (1845) **Mercedes Isaza Flores (1847) **José Antonio Isaza Flores (1849–1892) **Miguel Isaza Flores (1850) **María Isaza Flores (1852) *Mercedes Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 16 de septembre 1828. Maritate le 14 de decembre 1850 con Antonio Fernández Salvador y Gangotena. Sin descendentes. *Juan José Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1831 e morte in [[Montreaux]] le 10 de septembre 1891. Maritate con Ángela Icaza y Aguirre-Abad. Sin descendentes. *José Federico Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 22 de april 1832 e morte in [[Paris]] le 27 de octobre 1879. Maritate con Mercedes Arteta y Arteta. *[[Antonio Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] le 23 de octobre 1833 e morte in [[Geneva]] le 30 de augusto 1915. Maritate con [[Leonor Ruiz de Apodaca]], con qui ille habeva duo filias: **Leonor Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1874) **Elvira Flores y Ruiz de Apodaca (1876), marchesa consorte de Villebrune *Virginia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Babahoyo]] in 1835. Maritate circa 1865 con Pedro Pablo García Moreno, con qui illa habeva duo filios: **Rodolfo García-Moreno y Flores **Ana Luisa García-Moreno y Flores *Victoria Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Guayaquil]] in septembre 1838. Maritate le 23 de junio 1865 con Narciso Isaza Muñoz, fratre de su cognato, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Juan José Isaza Flores (1866–1925) **Carlota Isaza Flores **Mercedes Isaza Flores *Timoléon Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1839 e morte in 1899. Maritate le 26 de octobre 1862 con María Mercedes Chiriboga y Fernández-Salvador, con qui ille habeva septe filios: **Lucía Flores Chiriboga (1884) **Raimundo Flores Chiriboga (1886–1967) **Antonio Flores Chiriboga (1888) **Fanny Flores Chiriboga (1890) **Mercedes Flores Chiriboga (1892) **Timoleón Flores Chiriboga (1896–1936) **Amalia Flores Chiriboga (1898) *[[Reinaldo Flores Jijón]], nascite in [[Quito]] in 1840 e morte in 1904. Maritate con Ana Caamaño y Gómez-Cornejo, con qui ille habeva octo filios: **Reinaldo Flores Caamaño **Luis Alberto Flores Caamaño **Juan José Flores Caamaño **Rosa Laura Flores Caamaño **Ana María Flores Caamaño **Alfredo Flores Caamaño **María Luisa Flores Caamaño **Víctor Flores Caamaño *Amalia Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1841. Maritate con Leonardo Charles Stagg, con qui illa habeva quatro filios: **Leonardo Stagg Flores **Carlos Stagg Flores **Enrique Stagg Flores **Evelina Stagg Flores *Matilde Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] le 24 de septembre 1842 e morte le 7 de augusto 1921. Maritate le 1 de januario 1869 con Federico Hurtado y Brizón, con qui illa habeva tres filios: **Isabel María Hurtado Flores **Rosa Matilde Hurtado Flores **Sara Hurtado Flores *Josefina Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1844. Maritate con Felipe Barriga y Carcelén de Guevara, filio de [[Mariana Carcelén]], con qui illa habeva un filio qui non attingeva le etate adulte: **Felipe Barriga Flores *Isabel Flores Jijón, nascite in [[Quito]] in 1845. Maritate con Fernando de García-Moreno y Drouet. Sin descendentes. == Dissolution del Grande Colombia == {{AP|Dissolution del Grande Colombia}} [[Quito]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] e [[Guayaquil]] esseva annexate al [[Grande Colombia]] in 1822. Durante le Colonia (1563–1809–1820–1822), sub le nomine de [[Real Audientia de Quito]], iste tres regiones faceva parte, successivemente, del viceregno del [[Viceregno de Nove Granada|Nove Granada]]. Illes comenciava lor vita soveran in 1830 con le experientia negative del centralismo viceregal e grancolombian e sin le experientia positive de un administration de prime nivello. Pro ir de Guayaquil a Quito se gastava 14 dies; de Quito a Cuenca, altere 14; de Cuenca a Guayaquil, cinque, e cinque de [[Tulcán]] a Quito. Desde [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]] esseva plus facile transportar se a [[Piura]] que al citate de Cuenca. Le via Quito–Riobamba se trovava in mal stato. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un pais desarticulate e mal communicate. Le Sierra centro-nord formava un unitate geographic, ecologic e politic. Illa se susteneva per un agricultura de subsistentia con un bon mercato interne potential e suffreva le crise de su «industria» textile a causa del competition del libere commercio. Le Sierra sud viveva del agricultura, del parve mination, del texitos, del artesanato, del [[cascarilla]] e del bestiame. Su economia se trovava etiam in crise, proque illa habeva cofinanciate le guerras del independentia peruvian. Le Costa se orientava circa Guayaquil e Guayaquil, circa le cacao. Su ricchessa habeva augmentate con le commercio. Le axe secundari [[Provincia de Manabí|Manabí]]–[[Provincia de Esmeraldas|Esmeraldas]] bulliva de activitates mercantil. Ecuador comenciava su vita soveran con un realitate economic positive in un region e negative in le duo alteres. Le hacienda deveniva gradualmente le base del poter politic. Specialmente in le Sierra centro-nord, le haciendas se susteneva super le labor fortiate de indigenas. Le plantationes de cacao del Costa habeva etiam besonio de iste mano de obra, ma liberemente contractate. Le parve proprietarios de ambes regiones timeva esser absorbite per iste centros. Le population del pais, secundo le estimation le plus optimista, attingeva 800 mill habitantes, plus del medietate del quales viveva in le Sierra nor-central. Minus de un pro cento del population frequentava le schola ille anno. Le proprietate del terra se concentrava majoritariemente in le manos del elite creol e del elite creol. Le population mestice, in su majoritate, non habeva accesso a terras e dependeva del labor salariale in mestieres e labores agricole pro su subsistentia. Al sclavos afroecuadorian non esseva recognoscite alcun derecto civil. Le indigenas, mantenite durante seculos in le ignorantia e le alcohol, esseva considerate como minors. Le major parte laborava pro le haciendas e pagava tributos. In 1830, le aduanas de Guayaquil e le tributo del indigenas constitueva le principal fonte de entratas del Stato. Ecuador revendicava pro se le limites del [[Real Audientia de Quito]], que includeva le departamentos colombian de [[Nariño (Colombia)|Nariño]], [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]], [[Putumayo (Colombia)|Putumayo]] e parte de [[Valle del Cauca]]. Ma Nove Granada se atteneva a un division administrative interne (1824), que le favorava. Al sud, le [[Tractato de Guayaquil]] (1829) designava le [[Río Marañón|Marañón]]–[[Río Amazonas|Amazonas]] como limite del Grande Colombia e, ergo, de Ecuador. Le ambitiones de gruppos de interesse local e le crise politic al interior del Grande Colombia persuadeva Flores a conspirar contra Bolivar e provocar le secession del departamento del Sud. Quasi al mesme tempore, le general [[José Antonio Páez]] faceva le mesme in [[Venezuela]]. Le 13 de maio 1830, pauc menses post le separation de [[Venezuela]], le Departamentos que componeva le «District del Sud» del Grande Colombia (Departamentos del Ecuador, Guayaquil e Azuay) se declarava stato independente con le nomine de «Stato de Ecuador». Flores assumeva primo le carga de Chef Supreme e postea celle de Presidente Provisional del nove Stato, usque a su nomination definitive como Presidente Constitutional le 22 de septembre 1830. Alcun historiatores specula que le Presidentia de Ecuador esseva destinate al Mariscallo [[Antonio José de Sucre]], assassinate in [[Berruecos]] durante le periodo de separation. Tanto Flores como le general colombian [[José María Obando]] esseva accusate de esser detra le assassination, ma nulle de iste suspiciones poteva esser probate. Sucre prefereva viagiar a Bogota, al [[Congresso Admirabile]], ante que remaner in Ecuador, ubi un assemblea constituente habeva essite convocate in le citate de [[Riobamba]]. Pauc post le initio de su presidentia, un parte del population del provincias de Pasto, Popayán e Buenaventura declarava su voluntate de incorporar se a Ecuador. Le Presidente Juan José Flores, post haber mandate guarniciones a Pasto, visitava iste citates, ubi ille promulgava un decreto declarante le incorporation de Cauca a Ecuador. Le Congresso Ordinari de 1831 declarava officialmente le incorporation del Departamento de Cauca a Ecuador. Le 22 de julio 1831 Nove Granada reclamava le restitution de iste Departamento a Ecuador. Le General [[José Hilario López]] se rebellava in [[Popayán]] in favor de Nove Granada e un confronto militar habeva loco inter le armea ecuatorian dirigite per Flores e le armea granadin, commandate per [[José María Obando]]. Flores non poteva triumphar proque le fronte interne de Ecuador se debilitava a causa del insurrectiones de [[Ambato]] e [[Latacunga]] contra su Governamento. Le ecuatorianos triumphava in alcun confrontos, ma le manca de provisionamentos e le rebellion del battallion Quito determinava le chute del citate de Pasto. Ante iste situation, Flores celebrava un Tractato de pace e limites con Nove Granada in le citate de Pasto le 8 de decembre 1832, fixante le fluvio Carchi como limite frontalier inter le duo Statios e lassante pendente le decision super le portos de La Tola e Tumaco, in le provincia de Buenaventura. Le [[Tractato de Pasto]] fixava le limites de un parte del frontiera, ma non del resto del territorio de Ecuador, que veniva a esser delimite plus tarde con Colombia. == Le prime Constitution == Flores convocava 21 deputatos, septe per region, respectivemente, pro reunir se in [[Riobamba]]. In minus de un mense illes redigeva e promulgava le prime Constitution, eligeva Quito como capital e eligeva Flores como presidente per 19 votos contra un. Ma illes faceva 18 scrutinio pro eliger como vice-presidente [[José Joaquín Olmedo]]. Su competitor esseva le quiteño Manuel Matheu, Marchese de Maenza.<ref>{{Cita web |url=http://www.haciendalacienega.com/historia/ |título=Historia – Hacienda La Cienega |fechaacceso=7 de enero de 2017 |sitioweb=[www.haciendalacienega.com](http://www.haciendalacienega.com)}}</ref> Desde le nascentia del Republica existeva un lucta pro le poter inter le notabiles de Quito e Guayaquil. Cata notabile recipeva duo pesos per die pro lor servicios constituente. (Un vacca lactifere valiva alora quatro pesos). Le Constitution lassava le porta aperte pro formar un sol Stato con Colombia. Illa proponeva un Stato presidentialista, soveran, alternative, democratic e moderne. Le election esseva independente e indirecte mediante assembleas parochial, cantonal e provincial; ben que solmente poteva votar le viros alfabetisate maritate de qualcunque etate o celibes de 22 annos o plus qui possedeva immobiles de al minus 300 pesos o un profession non servile (advocato, medico, sacerdote, monacho). Le candidatos a cargas de representation popular habeva besonio de un plus grande quantitate, e 30 mill pesos in immobiles pro esser eligibile al presidentia. Le indigenas remaneva sub le tutela del parochos, e le traffico de sclavos africanos esseva restringite al labor in haciendas e minas. == Prime presidentia == [[File:Juan José Flores.jpg|thumb|Portraito de Juan José Flores. Prime Presidente de Ecuador.|250px]] Flores non poteva governar in pace e debeva recurrer al fortia. Il debeva suffocar le revolution del general venezuelan [[Luis Urdaneta]] —nepote del general [[Rafael Urdaneta]]— (1830–1831), facer guerra a Colombia (1832), punir tres insurrectiones de battaliones e combatter contra ideologos utilitarista (1833), affrontar [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] (1833–1834) e esmagar le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] (1832–1834),<ref>{{cita web |url = http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |título = Revolución de los Chihuahuas |fechaacceso = 19 de julio de 2018 |sitioweb = Enciclopedia Del Ecuador |idioma = castellano |cita = La llamada “Revolución de los Chihuahuas” fue una de esas desventuradas hazañas guerreras de los primeros años de nuestra vida republicana, y constituye uno de los capítulos más importantes de la historia nacional. Comenzó a gestarse cuando el Congreso de 1833, en sesión a la que no concurrió Vicente Rocafuerte -entonces diputado por la Provincia de Guayaquil- concedió al Gral. Juan José Flores, Presidente de la República, facultades extraordinarias para gobernar al país. (...) La revolución adoptó entonces el nombre de “Chihuahuas”, puesto que este fue el nombre que se le diera a los simpatizantes de Rocafuerte, en vista de que este había servido durante algunos años a las causas libertarias en México. |formato = html |urlarchivo = https://web.archive.org/web/20160829151351/http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/historia-del-ecuador/revolucion-los-chihuahuas/ |fechaarchivo = 29 de agosto de 2016 }}</ref> e finalmente impedir que [[Loja (Ecuador)|Loja]], [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]], [[Esmeraldas (Ecuador)|Esmeraldas]] e le Sierra nor-central se separava de Ecuador pro incorporar se a Colombia (1834–1835). Post le morte de Bolivar (17 de decembre 1830), le [[Cauca (Colombia)|Cauca]] e [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]] demandava esser annexate a Ecuador. Colombia lo impedi per le derrota del tropas de Flores, e Ecuador perdeva iste territorios ligate al [[Audientia de Quito]] desde le {{siglo|XVI||s}}. Iste fallimento e le privilegios del mal considerate militares venezuelan rendeva le presidente impopular. Un gruppo de intellectuales, ancian patriotas del 10 de augusto 1809 e del 2 de augusto 1810 e anticlericales, formava le «Societate de El Quiteño Libre». Desde maio 1833 iste societate opponeva se al governamento in le jornal del mesme nomine. [[Vicente Rocafuerte]] opponeva se al facultates extraordinari concedite a Flores e renunciava a su sede parlamentar. Durante su governamento, le 12 de februario 1832, le [[Islas Galápagos]] esseva annexate a Ecuador; pro iste motivo, alcun tempore plus tarde un del insulas esseva baptisate in su honor como '''[[Isla Floreana (Galápagos)|Isla Floreana]].''' Se distingueva le emission de alcun leges sur le moneta, accordos con le Ecclesia Catholic e le acceptation del debita externe grancolombian ([[Deuda Inglesa]]) contrahite per Venezuela, Colombia e Ecuador pro finantiar le independentia. A Ecuador, que non esseva presente in le negotiationes, esseva assignate le 21,5 % del debita, plus de 22 milliones de pesos. Le entratas del governamento in 1834 attingeva a pena 708 mill pesos. Flores assecurava un sorta de pacto de non-aggression inter gruppos de proprietarios terrier del [[Region Interandine del Ecuador|Sierra de Ecuador]] e gruppos agro-exportator del [[Region Litoral del Ecuador|Costa]]. Su presentia politic durante plus de 15 annos interrumpite generava que un gruppo de [[Revolution Marcista|revolutionarios marcistas]] pressava pro su partita de Guayaquil e pro le partita del integre [[stato-major]] [[extranjero]]. Flores finiva su mandato con un crise politic e le menacia del dissolution del Stato. === Revolution del Chihuahuas e Jefaturas Supreme de Rocafuerte e Valdivieso === Le 12 de octobre 1832 comenciava in Guayaquil le [[Revolution del Chihuahuas]] dirigite per militares discontentes e politicos. Un septimana plus tarde, le «quiteños libres» attacava un quartel in Quito. Iste 19 de octobre, alcun de lor leaders esseva occidite a lanceate o decapitate. Le 20 de octobre, Rocafuerte, in via verso le exilio in Peru, esseva liberate per le chihuahuas e proclamate jefe supreme de Guayaquil. Le chihuahuas bloccava le porto occupate per Flores e initiava insurrectiones in le villages del peninsula de Santa Elena, del golfo de Guayaquil, del basse bacia del Guayas e de Manabi. Rocafuerte esseva capturate e livrate a Flores le 18 de junio 1834. Un septimana antea, [[José Félix Valdivieso]], ministro de Flores, se habeva proclamate jefe supreme de Ibarra. Cuenca e Loja, discontentes del centralismo administrative, adheriva a ille. Ante iste circumstantias, al initio de julio, Flores arrivava a un pacto con Rocafuerte, secundo le qual Rocafuerte accederia al Presidentia e Flores al jefatura supreme del Exercito. Le chihuahuas debeva submitter se sub pena de accusationes de traition al patria. Valdivieso occupava Quito e le Sierra central. Le chihuahuas non acceptava le pacto. Alcun de illes se jungeva a Valdivieso, le resto esseva reprimite usque ben entrate in le anno 1836. Rocafuerte, acclamate como jefe supreme del Guayas in un assemblea popular, convocava un secunde Convention (constitutiente) pro reformar le Carta Politic e clauder le possibilitate de un federation con Colombia. A fin de vincer le federalista Valdivieso, Rocafuerte poneva Flores al capite de su tropas, qui batteva le tropas de Valdivieso in le battalia de Miñarica, apud Ambato (18 de januario 1835). Le poeta Olmedo, in honor del victoria e dirigente se al [[Volcan Chimborazo|Chimborazo]], le exhortava: ''«Rege del Andes, inclina le ardua fronte, que passa le victor».'' == Secunde Presidentia == [[File:Grabado de la Hacienda La Elvira, de Juan José Flores (1852).jpg|thumb|Gravure del Hacienda La Elvira (1852), proprietate emblematic del familia Flores-Jijón de Vivanco.|300px]] Flores esseva eligite al prime scrutinio per 29 del 38 votos del Congresso. Su re-election esseva probabilemente convenite desde le pacto con Rocafuerte in 1834. Flores offereva al Congresso e al Nation respectar le libertate del personas e del pressa, non exiliar nemo, dar impulso al politica externe, continuar le obra educational de Rocafuerte e observar un conducta «franc e moderate, firme, impartial e juste». Con iste offerta ille se appoiava super le successo administrative e civilisator de Rocafuerte e, al mesme tempore, se distantiava del mal reputation del Rocafuerte implacabile e dure. [[Benigno Malo]], un statista cuencano, diceva de iste secunde periodo floreano: «Iste parve epocha esseva le plus belle pagina civic de Flores como homine de governamento». Durante le ultime anno de su governamento, le gestion de Flores esseva objecto de criticas crescente pro su supponite abandono del obras public e accusationes de corruption inter alte functionarios. In iste contexto, circulava in Quito le jornal oppositionista La Linterna Mágica, editate in Piura per Pedro Moncayo, qui exerceva un opposition ferree al regime. Le journalist fratre Vicente Solano affirmava que de 700 mille pesos del renta national, 400 mille esseva expendite pro mantener le fidelitate del Exercito. Le intervention de Flores con duo mille soldatos in Nove Granada contribueva plus ancora a su deterioration. Movite per un petition del governamento colombian, ille combatteva un insurrection in [[Pasto (Colombia)|Pasto]]. Flores credeva que, sur le plano personal, ille dareva un lection al insurrecte general Obando, su ancian inimico e calumniator inveterate in le caso del assassination de Sucre. Ille se imaginava que, sur le plano public, ille recupereva, al minus in parte, le territorios perdite durante su prime administration e facerea entrar in le cassas fiscal 300 mille pesos como compensation colombian. Ma quando ille debeva intervenir novemente in Pasto, le popularitate de Flores comenciava a declinar. Como Solano lo habeva insinuate, sub le pretexto de «irregularitates» occurrite in [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]] durante le election de representantes e del absentia del representantes del Guayas al Congresso Extraordinari a causa del [[fiebre jaune]] que in octobre 1842 habeva causate 326 victimas, Flores convocava un Convention pro le 15 de januario 1843 e promulgava un lege electoral que deveniva un colpo de Stato in su favor.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fondo Jijón y Caamaño|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=ijYaAAAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+decreto+marzo+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVu56wsvjhAhULn-AKHTkxDPoQ6AEIQzAE |publisher=Centro de Investigación y Cultura, Banco Central del Ecuador|date=1987|access-date=2019-04-30|language=es|author=Banco Central del Ecuador Archivo Histórico}} </ref> == Tertie Presidentia == Le Convention se reuniva in Quito le 15 de januario 1843. Trenta del 36 conventionarios orava in le cathedral, pro postea sessionar in le Collegio San Buenaventura. Del conventionarios, 32 del representantes esseva empleatos del Stato, del quales 5 esseva generales e 5 esseva coroneles, tote illes estranjeros salvo un. Le reforma consisteva, inter altere questiones, in prolongar le periodo presidential a octo annos e permitter al presidente de esser reelegite post un periodo; in facer que le Congresso se reunirea cata quatro annos, que le senatores durarea 12 annos e le deputatos octo annos. Le proposition esseva acceptate. Flores esseva reelegite per 34 del 36 votos del sala. Le nove constitution esseva appellate "[[Carta del Sclavitude]]". In addition, illa contineva principios como le libertate de cultos in le esfera private e claudeva le via al politicisation del clero.<ref>{{cite book|title=El Año ecuatoriano|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=SkQ0AQAAIAAJ&q=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&dq=juan+jose+flores+15+de+enero+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvovils_jhAhVtTd8KHVCGDjwQ6AEISjAF|date=1952|access-date=2019-04-30|language=es}} </ref> Su governamento durante iste tertie periodo affrontava un opposition dur, proveniente tanto del clero como del opposition originante del nove imposto de tres pesos e quatro reales, con exemption pro indigenas e sclavos, ben que le imposto esseva postea abolite; del accusation de haber essite implicate in le assassination de Sucre; del fallimento del expedition a Nove Granada; de un negotiation limitalic fallite con Peru; e del presentia e poter del militares estranjeros —12 del 15 generales esseva estranjeros—, insimul con le abuso del fundos de un legado destinate al collegio [[Vicente León]] per Flores e su proximos. A isto se addeva un conspiracy dirigite per juvene intellectuales in Quito, inter illes Gabriel García Moreno; e le «nationalismo» del notabiles guayaquileños. Tote isto esseva stimolate per le 14 manifestos «A la Nación», lanceate per Rocafuerte desde Lima inter 1843 e 1845. Le governator de Guayaquil, a causa del febre jaune, habeva arrivat tarde al Convention. Ille esseva representante de Cuenca. Rocafuerte se opponeva a grande parte del reforma proponite per Flores. Ille qualificava su collaboratores de "[[jenízaro]]s" e se exiliava in Lima. Iste manifestos appellava a insurrection in nomine del nationalismo: ''«Union, enthusiasmo, valor, constantia e tosto le victoria essera vostre. Derrocante le perfide tiranno de Venezuela, vos restituera le gaudio de vostre usurpate derectos...»'', diceva le quinte de illes. ''«E le eventos se precipitava al voce tonante de Rocafuerte»'', scribe le historiator [[Luis Robalino Dávila]]. A tote le tumultos popular in varie locos del Sierra al crito de ''«Morte al tres pesos!, Viva le religion!»'', se succedeva le colpo definitive: le pronunciamento militar nationalista e del notabiles de Guayaquil, le 6 de martio 1845. Le insurgentes formava un governamento provisorie al qual se adheriva [[Manabí]] e Cuenca. Flores resisteva usque junio con su tropas stationate in «La Elvira», hacienda de su proprietate, e capitulava ante iste governamento per medio de un tractato, appellate «de La Virginia», nomine del hacienda del poeta Olmedo, ubi illo esseva signate le 17 de junio 1845. === Obras importante durante su presidentia === * Constitution de Ecuador de 1809 * Le 20 de decembre 1830, ille decretava le annexation del [[Departamento del Cauca (Gran Colombia)|Departamento del Cauca]], conditionate usque al reunion del proxime congresso, al qual concurrerea le deputatos de ille Departamento. Le 7 de octobre 1831, le congresso ecuatorian approbava un Lege incorporante le Departamento del Cauca al Stato ecuatorian e approbante le Decreto del Poter Executive in le qual ille admitteva iste incorporation. * Ille incorporava le Islas Galápagos le 12 de februario 1832. * Le tractato de Pando-Noboa con Peru esseva signate. * Le tractato de Pace con Chile esseva signate. * Ille fundava le Collegio del Guayas, actualmente cognoscite como [[Colegio Nacional Vicente Rocafuerte]]. * Refaction e remodelation del [[Palatio de Carondelet]] in 1892. === Deuda externe === In decembre 1834 le delegation ecuatorian non assistiva al reunion pro le repartition del debita del independentia. A causa del absentia de Ecuador, a ille esseva assignate le 21,5 pro cento del debita, equivalente a 22.230.631,64 pesos.<ref>{{Cita web |autor=Humberto Oña Villarreal |título=Juan José Flores |url=http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaacceso=30 de septiembre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621205626/http://www.explored.com.ec/ecuador/jflores.htm |fechaarchivo=21 de junio de 2013 }}</ref> == Exilio, rehabilitation e ultime campanias == Plus tarde, Flores, ja desde le exilio, complottava un invasion de Ecuador pro le qual ille obteneva appoio e finantiamento de [[María Cristina de Borbón-Dos Sicilias]], regina regente de [[Espania]], con le fin de installar su filio [[Agustín Muñoz y Borbón]] sur le [[Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador|throno ecuatorian]]. On parla etiam de negotiationes con le rege francese [[Luis Felipe I de Francia|Luis Felipe I]], pro nominar como Reges de Ecuador su decime filio, [[Antonio de Orleans]], [[Duca de Montpensier]], e su sposa, le infanta espaniol [[Luisa Fernanda de Borbón]], filia etiam del mentionate regina Maria Cristina.<ref name="Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis">{{Cita web |autor=Orrego Penagos, Juan Luis |título=El general Juan José Flores y el Perú |url=http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |fechaacceso=9 de febrero de 2013 |obra=Historia del Perú, América Latina y el mundo. Siglos XIX y XX |fecha=03/2012 |fechaarchivo=15 de octubre de 2013 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015055220/http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/37266/el-general-juan-jose-flores-y-el-peru-1 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> Le tentativa esseva repellete con severitate e Flores debeva retornar al exilio. Durante un tempore ille resideva in [[Costa Rica]], ubi ille habeva un amicitate proxime con le presidente [[José María Castro Madriz]]. Le Congresso le declarava ''cittadino distinguite de Costa Rica'', ma Flores declinava le honor e poco postea quitava le pais. In 1855, durante su tempore in [[Lima]], ille esseva un del socios fundatores del [[Club Nacional (Lima)|Club Nacional]]. In martio 1857, ille arrivava in Venezuela, ubi tentava mediar sin successo in le conflictos suscitate inter le liberales qui supportava le presidente [[José Tadeo Monagas]] e le conservatores qui tentava de derocar le sub le direction del general [[José Antonio Páez]]. Multes in [[Caracas]] videva in Flores le persona ideal pro diriger le [[revolution]]. Ille esseva un procer e habeva essite Presidente de Ecuador, ma quando Flores se informava del situation, ille quitava immediatemente le pais e se dirigeva a [[Lima]]. In 1860 Flores commandava le armea del presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]], ben que García Moreno habeva essite un firmo oppositionista. Flores participava in le campo quiteño durante le guerra civil de 1859–1860, affrontante le governamento de facto de Guayaquil, que pretendeva le secession del citate, sub le direction del general [[Guillermo Franco Herrera]], qui ille batteva in le combate de [[Mapasingue]]. Le secession del provincia de Guayaquil e su posterior annexation a Peru esseva evitate per le [[declaration de independentia de Loja]] como Republica Federal in 1859. In 1863 ille commandava le Exercito ecuatorian in le guerra contra Colombia, ma esseva vincite in le [[Battalia de Cuaspud]]. == Morte == [[File:Tumba de Juan José Flores, Catedral Metropolitana de Quito.jpg|thumb|275x275px|Tumba in le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]].]] In 1864, Flores partiva de Quito pro combatter un expedition del ex-presidente [[José María Urbina y Viteri|José María Urbina]] in le [[Golfo de Guayaquil]]. Durante le Combate de Santa Rosa, ille recipeva un tiro perdite in le basso ventre e moriva le 1 de octobre a bordo del vapor ''Smirck'', presso le [[Isla Puná]].<ref name="JGZ">{{cite book|last=Gomezjurado Zevallos|first=Javier|title=Quito: Historia del Cabildo y la ciudad|date=2015|publisher=Instituto Metropolitano de Patrimonio|location=Quito|isbn=978-9942-20-821-7|pages=329–330|edition=first|access-date=2016-01-20}} </ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |publicación=Revista de Estudios Históricos |fecha=1993 |número=Nº37-38 |página=445|editorial=Instituto Chileno de Investigaciones Genealógicas}}</ref> Pro melior conservation, le cadavere de Flores esseva ponite in un barril de alcohol e transportate in un nave de guerra desde [[Machala]] a [[Guayaquil]], ubi alcun familiares attendeva con un luxuose coffre pro transportar le a Quito, ubi ille esseva inhumate.<ref name="JGZ"/> On dice que le barril de alcohol remaneva abandonate in le porto, e que alcun marinarios lo vendeva a un taberniero del [[Malecón 2000|Malecón]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Pérez Pimentel|first=Rodolfo|title=El Ecuador Profundo, tomo III|date=1988|publisher=Editorial de la Universidad de Guayaquil|location=Guayaquil|page=208|edition=first|access-date=2016-01-20}}</ref> In su honor, le presidente [[Gabriel García Moreno]] ordinava, per medio de un decreto executive expedite le 8 de octobre 1864, que in tote le provincias del pais se celebrara exequias de prime classe in honor al general Flores, que le empleatos public e militares portara luto stricte durante tres dies, a partir del vigilia del funerales que haberea loco le 13 de octobre in le [[Cathedral de Quito]], que le bandera del Palatio de Carondelet e del edificios public remanerea a medie asta durante le mesme tempore e, finalmente, que se elaborara un mausoleo de marmore con le inscription: ''Al patre del Patria, le populo grate''.<ref>{{Cita publication|apellidos1=Orbes M. |nombre1=Camilo |título=Correspondencia inédita del Libertador Simón Bolívar |páginas=90-91 |fechaacceso=20 de enero de 2016 |editorial=Biblioteca Ángel Arango - Banco de la República |ubicación=Bogotá}}</ref> Desde alora, su restos mortales e los de su sposa se trova in le cripta presidential intra le [[Catedral Metropolitana de Quito]]. In le mesme edificio se trova etiam le restos de [[Antonio José de Sucre]] e de [[Gabriel García Moreno]]. == Decorationes == * [[Anexo:Grandes Oficiales de la Legión de Honor|Grande official]] del [[Legion de Honor]], concedite per le rege [[Luis Felipe I de Francia]] in 1844.<ref>{{cite book|last=Van Aken|first=Mark J.|title=King of the Night: Juan Jose Flores & Ecuador 1824-1864|date=1989|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|location=Los Ángeles|isbn=0-520-06277-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332 332]|access-date=2016-01-20|language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/kingofnightjuanj0000vana/page/332}}</ref> * Cavallero del [[Ordine de Carlos III]], concedite le 29 de septembre 1844.<ref>{{cite book|last=Costa y Turell|first=Modesto|title=Tratado completo de la ciencia del blason: ó sea, Código heráldico-histórico|date=1878|publisher=Editorial L. Tasso|location=Madrid|page=336|url=https://books.google.com.ec/books?id=QTg9AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|access-date=2015-11-14|format=e-book}}</ref> == Honores postume == In novembre 1864, pauc septimanas post su decesso, le Cabildo del citate de [[Quito]] tentava placiar un portraito del ex-presidente in su Sala de Sessiones, ma illo non esseva acceptate per tote le membros, qui permitteva solmente un discurso in su honor, sublineante su patriotismo e actiones benefic al pais, concludente le intervention con le phrase: «''Concittadinos, le torcha del vita de iste heroe se ha extinguite, ma ille nos lassa aperte le sentieros que conduce al templo del gloria; imita le''».<ref name="JGZ"/> In su honor, in su [[Puerto Cabello|citate natal]] existe: * Un parochia. * Un loco denominate «Plaza Flores». * Un schola basic. * Duo promotiones de officiales, ambe graduate del [[Academia Militar del Exercito Bolivarian|Academia Militar de Venezuela]], porta su nomine como heroe eponymic. {{Referentias}} [[Categoria:Nascite in Puerto Cabello]] [[Categoria:Decedite in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador nascite foras del pais]] [[Categoria:Governatores]] [[Categoria:Militares de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Militares proceres del guerra del independentia de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Tentativa de reconquista espaniol in Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Presidentes de Ecuador que esseva distronate per un colpo de Stato]] [[Categoria:Isla Floreana]] [[Categoria:Equites del Ordine de Carlos III]] [[Categoria:Grandes officiales del Legion de Honor]] [[Categoria:Deputatos e membros del assembleas de Ecuador]] [[Categoria:Generales de Venezuela]] [[Categoria:Proprietarios de terras de Ecuador]] n6rg60v1s96y56b4wmedgw03p0b2nmr 0 61225 699491 2026-09-02T19:59:45Z Gmillernd 20128 Samuel de Champlain 699491 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Samuel-de-champlain-s.jpg|thumb|Samuel de champlain]] '''Samuel de Champlain''' (1574-1635) explorava un grande parte del nord-est de [[America del Nord]] pro [[Francia]] e es cogniscite como "le patre de Nove Francia". Champlain nasceva a un familia de navigatores in Francia. Ille univa se con un viage de Espania al [[Indias Occidental]] in 1599. Champlain esseva nominate le geographo del rege Henry IV, e accompianava un viage a America del Nord 1601-1603. Considerate multo utile, ille accompaniava un altere viage in 1605. Ille designava cartos de un grande parte del costa del est de America del Nord e del litore del riviera [[Sancte Laurentio]]. Multe franceses, qui essayava de comenciava vita in Nove Francia moriva a causa de fame, mais Champlain superviveva jammais. Champlain se retornava con in 1608 per un altere viage e fixava le loco de un fortessa, que postea deveniva le citate de [[Quebec]]. Le loco deveniva profitabile a causa de negotio de pelles con le [[Indiano american|indianos]]. Champlain voleva christianisar le indianos. Un parte del indianos approbava e un altere non le franceses. Champlain combatteva contra le indianos, sovente apud indianos amical. Ille esseva vulnerate in un battalia in 1615. Champlain se retornava a Francia a vices e scribeva multo super su aventuras. Ille se retornava de novo a America como un officiero del armea. [[Anglaterra]] attacava Quebec in 1629. Champlain cedeva al illes e portava a Anglaterra como un prisionero. Ille esseva permittite a retornar se a Francia. Post un accordo in 1632, ille esseva nominate le governator de Quebec. Con sanitate mal ille lassava le posto in 1633. Ille moriva la in 1635. Un laco in le stato de Nove York presente ha su nomine. * Multe articulos historic da le nascentia de Champlain como incognite, totevia su certificato de nascentia esseva discoperite recentemente in 2012. ==Referentias== https://www.biography.com/history-culture/samuel-de-champlain https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/samuel-de-champlain https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/subject/samuel-de-champlain/ n6g0q993djoao0v1vbdwtg66txxoi9c 699492 699491 2026-09-02T20:03:40Z Gmillernd 20128 699492 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Samuel-de-champlain-s.jpg|thumb|Samuel de champlain]] '''Samuel de Champlain''' (1574<ref>Multe articulos historic da le nascentia de Champlain como incognite, totevia su certificato de nascentia esseva discoperite recentemente in 2012. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain</ref>-1635) explorava un grande parte del nord-est de [[America del Nord]] pro [[Francia]] e es cogniscite como "le patre de Nove Francia". Champlain nasceva a un familia de navigatores in Francia. Ille univa se con un viage de Espania al [[Indias Occidental]] in 1599. Champlain esseva nominate le geographo del rege Henry IV, e accompianava un viage a America del Nord 1601-1603. Considerate multo utile, ille accompaniava un altere viage in 1605. Ille designava cartos de un grande parte del costa del est de America del Nord e del litore del riviera [[Sancte Laurentio]]. Multe franceses, qui essayava de comenciava vita in Nove Francia moriva a causa de fame, mais Champlain superviveva jammais. Champlain se retornava con in 1608 per un altere viage e fixava le loco de un fortessa, que postea deveniva le citate de [[Quebec]]. Le loco deveniva profitabile a causa de negotio de pelles con le [[Indiano american|indianos]]. Champlain voleva christianisar le indianos. Un parte del indianos approbava e un altere non le franceses. Champlain combatteva contra le indianos, sovente apud indianos amical. Ille esseva vulnerate in un battalia in 1615. Champlain se retornava a Francia a vices e scribeva multo super su aventuras. Ille se retornava de novo a America como un officiero del armea. [[Anglaterra]] attacava Quebec in 1629. Champlain cedeva al illes e portava a Anglaterra como un prisionero. Ille esseva permittite a retornar se a Francia. Post un accordo in 1632, ille esseva nominate le governator de Quebec. Con sanitate mal ille lassava le posto in 1633. Ille moriva la in 1635. Un laco in le stato de Nove York presente ha su nomine. ==Referentias== https://www.biography.com/history-culture/samuel-de-champlain https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/samuel-de-champlain https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/subject/samuel-de-champlain/ 5z2ict7e8267m8dst5d4tyn8ly6zyha 699493 699492 2026-09-02T20:07:35Z Gmillernd 20128 699493 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Samuel-de-champlain-s.jpg|thumb|Samuel de champlain]] '''Samuel de Champlain''' (1574<ref>Multe articulos historic da le nascentia de Champlain como incognite, totevia su certificato de nascentia esseva discoperite recentemente in 2012. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain</ref>-1635) explorava un grande parte del nord-est de [[America del Nord]] pro [[Francia]] e es cogniscite como "le patre de Nove Francia". Champlain nasceva a un familia de navigatores in Francia. Ille univa se con un viage de Espania al [[Indias Occidental]] in 1599. Champlain esseva nominate le geographo del rege Henry IV, e accompianava un viage a America del Nord 1601-1603. Considerate multo utile, ille accompaniava un altere viage in 1605. Ille designava cartos de un grande parte del costa del est de America del Nord e del litore del [[fluvio de Sancte Laurentio]]. Multe franceses, qui essayava de comenciava vita in Nove Francia moriva a causa de fame, mais Champlain superviveva jammais. Champlain se retornava con in 1608 per un altere viage e fixava le loco de un fortessa, que postea deveniva le citate de [[Quebec]]. Le loco deveniva profitabile a causa de negotio de pelles con le [[Indiano american|indianos]]. Champlain voleva christianisar le indianos. Un parte del indianos approbava e un altere non le franceses. Champlain combatteva contra le indianos, sovente apud indianos amical. Ille esseva vulnerate in un battalia in 1615. Champlain se retornava a Francia a vices e scribeva multo super su aventuras. Ille se retornava de novo a America como un officiero del armea. [[Anglaterra]] attacava Quebec in 1629. Champlain cedeva al illes e portava a Anglaterra como un prisionero. Ille esseva permittite a retornar se a Francia. Post un accordo in 1632, ille esseva nominate le governator de Quebec. Con sanitate mal ille lassava le posto in 1633. Ille moriva la in 1635. Un laco in le stato de Nove York presente ha su nomine. ==Referentias== https://www.biography.com/history-culture/samuel-de-champlain https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/samuel-de-champlain https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/subject/samuel-de-champlain/ 2ijb12sz1zy11425zv8e9ws07yztntx 699495 699493 2026-09-02T20:12:01Z Gmillernd 20128 699495 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Samuel-de-champlain-s.jpg|thumb|Samuel de Champlain]] '''Samuel de Champlain''' (1574<ref>Multe articulos historic da le nascentia de Champlain como incognite, totevia su certificato de nascentia esseva discoperite recentemente in 2012. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain</ref>-1635) explorava un grande parte del nord-est de [[America del Nord]] pro [[Francia]] e es cogniscite como "le patre de Nove Francia". Champlain nasceva a un familia de navigatores in Francia. Ille univa se con un viage de Espania al [[Indias Occidental]] in 1599. Champlain esseva nominate le geographo del rege Henry IV, e accompianava un viage a America del Nord 1601-1603. Considerate multo utile, ille accompaniava un altere viage in 1605. Ille designava cartos de un grande parte del costa del est de America del Nord e del litore del [[fluvio de Sancte Laurentio]]. Multe franceses, qui essayava de comenciava vita in Nove Francia moriva a causa de fame, mais Champlain superviveva jammais. Champlain se retornava con in 1608 per un altere viage e fixava le loco de un fortessa, que postea deveniva le citate de [[Quebec]]. Le loco deveniva profitabile a causa de negotio de pelles con le [[Indiano american|indianos]]. Champlain voleva christianisar le indianos. Un parte del indianos approbava e un altere non le franceses. Champlain combatteva contra le indianos, sovente apud indianos amical. Ille esseva vulnerate in un battalia in 1615. Champlain se retornava a Francia a vices e scribeva multo super su aventuras. Ille se retornava de novo a America como un officiero del armea. [[Anglaterra]] attacava Quebec in 1629. Champlain cedeva al illes e portava a Anglaterra como un prisionero. Ille esseva permittite a retornar se a Francia. Post un accordo in 1632, ille esseva nominate le governator de Quebec. Con sanitate mal ille lassava le posto in 1633. Ille moriva la in 1635. Un laco in le stato de Nove York presente ha su nomine. ==Referentias== https://www.biography.com/history-culture/samuel-de-champlain https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/samuel-de-champlain https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/subject/samuel-de-champlain/ 0esasz6s6ptrsjptk4voobpo4o2myxz 699496 699495 2026-09-02T20:13:47Z Gmillernd 20128 699496 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Samuel-de-champlain-s.jpg|thumb|Samuel de Champlain]] '''Samuel de Champlain''' (1574<ref>Multe articulos historic da le nascentia de Champlain como incognite, totevia su certificato de nascentia esseva discoperite recentemente in 2012. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain</ref>-1635) explorava un grande parte del nord-est de [[America del Nord]] pro [[Francia]] e es cogniscite como "le patre de Nove Francia". Champlain nasceva a un familia de navigatores in Francia. Ille univa se con un viage de Espania al [[Indias Occidental]] in 1599. Champlain esseva nominate le geographo del rege Henry IV, e accompianava un viage a America del Nord 1601-1603. Considerate multo utile, ille accompaniava un altere viage in 1605. Ille designava cartos de un grande parte del costa del est de America del Nord e del litore del [[fluvio de Sancte Laurentio]]. Multe franceses, qui essayava de comenciar vita in Nove Francia moriva a causa de fame, mais Champlain superviveva jammais. Champlain se retornava con in 1608 per un altere viage e fixava le loco de un fortessa, que postea deveniva le citate de [[Quebec]]. Le loco deveniva profitabile a causa de negotio de pelles con le [[Indiano american|indianos]]. Champlain voleva christianisar le indianos. Un parte del indianos approbava e un altere non le franceses. Champlain combatteva contra le indianos, sovente apud indianos amical. Ille esseva vulnerate in un battalia in 1615. Champlain se retornava a Francia a vices e scribeva multo super su aventuras. Ille se retornava de novo a America como un officiero del armea. [[Anglaterra]] attacava Quebec in 1629. Champlain cedeva al illes e portava a Anglaterra como un prisionero. Ille esseva permittite a retornar se a Francia. Post un accordo in 1632, ille esseva nominate le governator de Quebec. Con sanitate mal ille lassava le posto in 1633. Ille moriva la in 1635. Un laco in le stato de Nove York presente ha su nomine. ==Referentias== https://www.biography.com/history-culture/samuel-de-champlain https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-de-Champlain https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/samuel-de-champlain https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/subject/samuel-de-champlain/ nnilxpkemzc1bclpkj970mma1rmv7aj