Wikipedia iawiki https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagina_principal MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.18 first-letter Multimedia Special Discussion Usator Discussion Usator Wikipedia Discussion Wikipedia File Discussion File MediaWiki Discussion MediaWiki Patrono Discussion Patrono Adjuta Discussion Adjuta Categoria Discussion Categoria Portal Discussion Portal Appendice Discussion Appendice TimedText TimedText talk Modulo Discussion Modulo Evento Discussion Evento 0 2628 699713 672512 2026-09-08T06:36:16Z Tortoise0308 17411 Gran -> Grande 699713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar Palacios y Blanco ''' ([[24 de julio]] [[1783]], [[Caracas]], [[Venezuela]] – [[17 de decembre]] [[1830]], [[Santa Marta]], [[Colombia]]) esseva un [[militar]] e [[politico]] [[America del Sud|sudamerican]], propulsor del independentia de [[Venezuela]], de [[Colombia]], de [[Ecuador]], de [[Peru]], de [[Panama]] e de [[Bolivia]]. == Vita juvene == Ille esseva de origine [[Pais Basc|basc]], concretemente del village [[Ziortza-Bolibar]] in [[Biscaya]]. Quando ille habeva novem annos de etate su parentes jam habeva morite. Su avunculo empleava varie [[preceptor]]es pro inseniar le e educar le, sed ille esseva un problema disciplinari. In fin, su avunculo empleava [[Simón Rodríguez]] e le problema se resolveva. Le duo deveniva bon amicos. Durante sex annos, usque le juvene compliva dece-quatro annos, Rodríguez le inseniava le ideas del grande [[philosopho]]s europee de ille tempore, qui credeva in le libertate e le equalitate pro omne personas, pensatores como [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]], qui inseniava que "on pensa solmente de como proteger su filio… on debeva inseniar le a proteger se… como superviver, in caso necessari in le frigido penetrante de [[Islanda]] o in le rocca ardente de [[Malta]]". E tal cosas Rodríguez inseniava al juvene Bolívar. Con le lectiones scholar ille anque le inseniava a luctar e como viver in un [[silva]] e in le [[citate]]. Ille le inseniava a superviver situationes difficile. Rodríguez debeva sortir de Venezuela in [[1797]] proque ille habeva participate in un [[revolution]] que faceva fiasco. In ille tempore il jam habeva gente que voleva liberar Venezuela ab le dominio espaniol. Varie annos plus tarde, le duo Simones se reuniva de novo, viagiante trans [[Europa]], le secunde visita de Bolívar a ibi. Ille arrivava al etate de dece-sex annos. Al etate de dece-octo annos Simón Bolívar se maritava con le filia de un [[nobile]] espaniol e retornava con illa a Venezuela. Su juvene sposa moriva dece menses post arrivar a Venezuela a causa del [[febre jalne]]. Simón retornava a Europa e iste visita cambiarea su vita. Ille esseva in [[Paris]], [[Francia]], ubi [[Napoléon Bonaparte]] se coronava [[imperator]]. Durante que ille observava centos de milles de personas tanto animate e allegre, il le pareva que le major desiro de un persona es vider se in le medietate de un gruppo de personas qui exprime assi ille typo de affecto e de amor. Ille dicerea plus tarde que isto le faceva pensar super su proprie paupere pais tanto infelice e del gloria que un persona obtinerea qui poterea liberar lo. Con Simón Rodríguez de novo, ille visitava [[Roma]]. In un monte in le alto del citate, Simón Bolívar se genuflecteva e jurava que ille laborarea sin fatiga usque Venezuela esserea liberate ab le dominio espaniol. Bolívar dedicarea le resto de su vita a complir ille promissa. == ''El libertador'' == Post multe annos terribile e duo revolutiones plus tarde Simón Bolívar comenciava a realisar su sonio. Le initio, on pote dicer, occurreva in [[1819]]. Bolívar jam habeva participate in un revolution dirigite per le General [[Francisco de Miranda]]. Illo esseva un fiasco. Un secunde revolution dirigite per Bolívar mesme faceva etiam fiasco. Ille quasi habeva succedite sed al fin ille perdeva contra le vaccheros del valle del [[Orinoco]], qui luctava al latere del espanioles. Dece-cinque annos post le juramento super un del montes de Roma, Bolívar dirigeva un exercitio de duo milles e cento homines usque Nove Granada (hodie [[Colombia]] e [[Panama]]) desde le region del Orinoco de Venezuela. Bolívar jam habeva habite fiasco in duo revolutiones sed iste vice, contra septe mille soldatos espaniol, ille triumpharea. Ille habeva prendite cinque annos pro recomponer su nove armea, post le fiasco del secunde revolution, sed iste vice Bolívar se habeva unite al General [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] de Nove Granada. Insimul con alcun truppas [[Grande Britannia|britannic]] e [[Irlanda|irlandese]] illes liberarea primo Nove Granada e plus tarde Venezuela. Il esseva le tempore de [[pluvia]]s quando Bolívar sortiva. Il habeva tres camminos pro arrivar a Nove Granada. Bolívar seligeva le plus difficile proque le inimico non suspectarea ni expectarea que illes lo usarea. Avantiante con le armea, Bolívar iva de alto a basso animante su truppas. Ille adjutava le debiles e le malades. Quando su armea passava trans le planas de [[Casanara]], illes marchava durante un septimana con aqua usque le cinctura. Illes debeva poner lor [[fusil]]es supra lor capites. Il habeva necun sentiero e illes debeva aperir le cammino per le spisse silva. Il non habeva pontes e isto faceva que illes avantiava lentemente. Al fin del planas illes se incontrava con le Montanias del [[Andes]]. Bolívar perdeva multe soldatos in le montanias. Multe soldatos moriva del frigido e alteres retornava a causa de maladia e del terreno impenetrabile a alcunes de lor cavallos. Sed Simón Bolívar continuava in avante, dirigente le armea per le montanias e descendente a Nove Granada. Quando Bolívar arrivava a Nove Granada, su armea contava solmente alcun centos de homines. Sed su plano de surprender le espanioles esseva un successo. Quando le soldatos espaniol se recuperava del confusion, il esseva multo tarde: Bolívar habeva triumphate. Al tertie die su armea arrivava a Bogotá. In decembre ille esseva nominate [[presidente]] e chef militar del Republica de [[Colombia]]. Iste nove [[republica]] esseva formate de [[Nove Granada]], [[Venezuela]] e [[Quito]] (nominate [[Ecuador]] plus tarde). Le sol problema esseva que grande partes de Venezuela e Ecuador remaneva sub dominio espaniol. In [[junio]] [[1821]], Bolívar vinceva contra le espanioles in le battalia de [[Carabobo]] e Venezuela deveniva libere. Bolívar lassava le General Santander in carga del pais como ille lo habeva facite in Nove Granada e tunc se dedicava a liberar Ecuador. In Ecuador Bolívar faceva le cognoscentia del grande amor de su vita: [[Manuela Sáenz]]. In [[1824]], Bolívar con su chef de stato major, Antonio José Sucre, adjutava a liberar [[Peru]]. Alcun menses depost, Sucre liberava le Alte Peru. Iste nove pais decideva appellar se [[Bolivia]] in honor de Bolívar. Bolívar esseva ora presidente de [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]] e le Republica de [[Colombia]], que includeva [[Nove Granada]], [[Venezuela]] e [[Ecuador]]. Il se habeva proponite formar un liga de paises hispanoamerican. In [[1826]], il habeva un assemblea in [[Panama]] que includeva le paises de Bolívar, [[America Central]], e [[Mexico]]. Le convention non habeva multe successo, sed esseva le initio de cooperation international. In [[1826]], Simón Bolívar comenciava a perder le poter. Venezuela e Nove Granada non voleva plus esser unite in un sol pais. Il erumpeva un guerra civil e Bolívar sortiva ex Peru pro tentar conservar le Republica de Colombia unite. Ille non poteva facer lo. E le gente non amava le modo per le qual ille habeva prendite le pais. De facto ille escappava ab assassination unicamente per le corage e le sapientia de [[Manuela Sáenz]] in [[Bogotá]], Colombia, in [[1828]]. In le medienocte Bolívar se eveliava con le latratos de [[cane]]s e sonos estranie in le palatio. Ille prendeva su spada e su pistola e comenciava currer verso le portas, sed Manuela le deteneva. Le voces foras clamava "Morte al tyranno!" e "Morte a Bolívar!" Manuela aperiva un fenestra e Bolívar sortiva per illo. In iste momento le portas se aperiva con un grande colpo. Manuela prendeva un spada e confrontava le assassinos. Illes esseva multo surprendite per le action de iste femina, e illa les diceva que Bolívar esseva alibi. Al fin, Bolívar arrivava al perception que ille habeva devenite un obstaculo pro le paises que ille mesme habeva adjutate a liberar. In vista de isto, in [[maio]] [[1830]] ille decideva a sortir de [[America del Sud]] e viagiar a [[Europa]]. Nonobstante, quando ille esseva justo super le puncto de partir, ille recipeva novas que il habeva problemas in Bogotá e ille cancellava su viage. Ille restava al casa de un cavallero espaniol qui sempre habeva admirate Bolívar. Ibi Bolívar passava su tempore e il esseva ibi que ille moriva de [[tuberculosis]] le [[17 de decembre]] [[1830]]. == Legato == Le legato politic de Bolívar esse massive, e il totevia esse un figura importante in le scena cultural e politic de America del Sud. Pretensions al mantello de Bolívar initiava in le [[annos 1840]] e ja continue in le era moderne. Le "[[Bolivarianismo]]" del decennios recente esse sol un manifestation de iste phenomeno. Bolívar se describeva in plure litteras como un "liberal". Il admirava le [[Revolution American]], e esseva un critico notabile del [[Revolution Francese]], ma su philosophia non esseva le philosophia del chefes del revolution in le [[Statos Unite de America]]. Aun que il preferiva un governamento centralisate, il esseva firmemente contra-[[sclavitude]], non como su pendantes in [[America de Nord]], despecto de esser de un area que contava super sclavitude como un fonte de labor. Entre le libros que il habeva quando il scribeva le [[Constitution de Bolivia]] esseva ''[[Le Spirito del Leges]]'' per [[Montesquieu]]. Le constitution bolivian habeva un termino de vita pro le presedentia e un senato hereditari, effectivemente recreante le [[Constitution britannic non scribite]], como il existeva al tempore, sin le creation de un [[monarchia]] formal. Su essayos de crear un constitution similar in [[Grande Colombia]] in le [[annos 1820]] causava su rejection. Il requireva plus que un decennio pro rehabilitar su imagine public in America del Sud. Del [[annos 1840]], le memoria de Bolívar esseva utile pro le construction de un feritate national. In Venezuela, particularmente, le stato patronava un "culto" de Bolivar. Proque su mantello esse importante al identitates national de Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru e Bolivia, il esse prendite per quasi tote le politicos de cata philosophia politic. == Ligamines externe == {{commonscat|Simón Bolívar}} * [http://www.analitica.com/bitblioteca/bolivar/ Simón Bolívar in La BitBlioteca] * [http://www.venezuelatuya.com/biografias/bolivar.htm Simón Bolívar - Venezuelatuya] * [http://www.simon-bolivar.org Simón Bolívar, le homine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308234525/http://www.simon-bolivar.org/bolivar/biografias_familia_sb.html |date=2009-03-08 }} * [http://www.marxists.org/espanol/m-e/1850s/58-boliv.htm Bolívar y Ponte] Articulo biographic publicate in le tertie tomo de ''The New American Cyclopedia.'' Scribite in [[januario]] [[1858]] per [[Karl Marx]]. * [http://www.simon-bolivar.h80.org/ Simon Bolivar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628233647/http://www.simon-bolivar.h80.org/ |date=2007-06-28 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bolivar, Simon}} [[Categoria:Gente venezuelan]] [[Categoria:Politicos]] [[Categoria:Militares]] [[Categoria:Revolutionarios]] [[Categoria:Historia de America del Sud]] c10t64o1p4nmaw0fk7330vzl8az4mh9 0 7865 699695 699662 2026-09-07T18:50:04Z Tim Ocean 30221 ort. 699695 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[skepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant tracava un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le [[aesthetica]] nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser securate per medio de un [[federation]] international de estados [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su cognomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de arneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] 549ld9ue768raj44b29gbytt8dyi9m2 699696 699695 2026-09-07T18:53:00Z Tim Ocean 30221 ort. 699696 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant tracava un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le [[aesthetica]] nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser securate per medio de un [[federation]] international de estados [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su cognomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de arneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] 017ht4s4mac7edugz3464ce4rkbs765 699697 699696 2026-09-07T18:55:35Z Tim Ocean 30221 ort. 699697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant tracava un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le esthetica nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser assecurate per medio de un [[federation]] international de statos [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su cognomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de arneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] c6f5nszbnhpt4grjbn96y0rnp1iszq7 699698 699697 2026-09-07T18:59:00Z Tim Ocean 30221 faceva? 699698 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant faceva un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le esthetica nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser assecurate per medio de un [[federation]] international de statos [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su cognomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de arneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] d78156e7ekzzerguf5qwgx5uryuw9h1 699699 699698 2026-09-07T19:10:06Z Tim Ocean 30221 /* Prime annos de vita */ supernomine? 699699 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant faceva un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le esthetica nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser assecurate per medio de un [[federation]] international de statos [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su supernomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de arneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] flog2o1wgqordwgnk2r3mkerdl0nbyw 699700 699699 2026-09-07T19:14:34Z Tim Ocean 30221 /* Prime annos de vita */ harneses? 699700 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant faceva un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le esthetica nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser assecurate per medio de un [[federation]] international de statos [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su supernomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de harneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studioso juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] nu7tk6o13i2v9ol808cc3p9hn5luepy 699701 699700 2026-09-07T19:23:52Z Tim Ocean 30221 /* Studioso juvene */ studente? 699701 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant faceva un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le esthetica nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser assecurate per medio de un [[federation]] international de statos [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su supernomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de harneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studente juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Aesthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias aesthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al [[Aesthetica|theoria aesthetic]] es developpate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "aesthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "aesthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective poisque illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] oqfh5osbyi3khzrkq4i80xezoqw062q 699702 699701 2026-09-07T19:26:48Z Tim Ocean 30221 /* Aesthetica */ ort. 699702 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant faceva un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le esthetica nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser assecurate per medio de un [[federation]] international de statos [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su supernomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de harneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studente juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser tracciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Esthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias esthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al theoria esthetic es disveloppate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "esthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "esthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective pois que illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] qtalnstthl730k0ieyh8utrqg08tpzb 699703 699702 2026-09-07T19:27:25Z Tim Ocean 30221 /* Scriptores religiose */ traciate? 699703 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Immanuel Kant'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260223061940/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=23 February 2026 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary|Dictionario anglese de Collins]]''.</ref><ref>[[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Dictionario non-abbreviate de anglese de Random House Webster]]''.</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}</ref>}} (nasceva como '''Emanuel Kant'''; 22 april 1724 – 12 februario 1804) esseva un [[philosopho]] german. Nascite in [[Königsberg]] in le [[Regno de Prussia]], ille es considerate un del pensatores central del [[Illuminismo]]. Su obras comprehensive e systematic in [[epistemologia]], [[metaphysica]], [[logica]], [[ethica]], [[esthetica]], [[theoria politic]], e le [[philosophia del religion]] ha facite de ille un del figuras le plus influente e le plus discutite del [[philosophia occidental]] moderne. Le philosophia de Kant es centrate super le subjecto human e motivate per le desiro de assecurar le possibilitate tanto del cognoscentia como del moralitate contra le menacias del [[scepticismo]] e del [[determinismo]]. In le ''[[Critica del ration pur|Critica del Ration Pur]]'' (1781/1787), Kant argumenta in favor de [[idealismo transcendental]], le doctrina que [[spatio]] e [[tempore]] es solmente "formas de [[Anschauung|intuition]]" ({{Langx|de|[[Anschauung]]|links=no}}) que structura tote le [[experientia]] e que nos ha cognoscentia solmente del "apparentias" e non del natura de [[Cosa in se|cosas in se mesme]]. Kant faceva un parallel con le [[Revolution copernican|Revolution copernican]] in su proposition de considerar le objectos del experientia como conforme al formas spatial e temporal de [[Anschauung|intuition]] del personas e al [[Categoria (Kant)|categorias]] del intellecto, in loco del methodo traditional de monstrar como le mente poterea conformar se a su objectos. Kant credeva que le [[ration]] es le fonte del [[moralitate]] e que le [[imperativo categoric]] obliga tote agentes rational. Il credeva que le esthetica nasce de un facultate de judicio disinteressate. Kant sperava que le [[pace]] perpetue poterea esser assecurate per medio de un [[federation]] international de statos [[republicanismo|republican]] e per le [[multilateralismo|cooperation international]]. Kant credeva que le religion ver es fundate super le moralitate. Le natura exacte de su conceptiones religiose es un question disputate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pasternack |first=Lawrence |date=March 2020 |title=On the Alleged Augustinianism in Kant’s Religion |url=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/on-the-alleged-augustinianism-in-kants-religion/FE116D6118D49612EF6F3C4181EF2A74] |journal=Kantian Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1017/S1369415419000487 |issn=1369-4154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmquist |first=Stephen |last2=The Society of Christian Philosophers |date=1989 |title=Immanuel Kant: A Christian Philosopher? |url=https://place.asburyseminary.edu/faithandphilosophy/vol6/iss1/5|journal=Faith and Philosophy |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–75 |doi=10.5840/faithphil1989619 |issn=0739-7046}}</ref> ==Prime annos de vita== Immanuel Kant nasceva le 22 april 1724 in un familia german prussian de fide [[Lutheranismo|lutheran]] in [[Königsberg]] in [[Prussia Oriental]] (hodie [[Oblast de Kaliningrad]], Russia). Su matre, Anna Regina Reuter, nasceva in Königsberg de un patre originari de [[Nuremberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Su supernomine es a vices erroneemente date como Porter. Le patre de Kant, Johann Georg Kant, esseva un fabricante german de harneses originari de [[Klaipėda|Memel]],{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} al tempore le citate le plus nord-oriental de Prussia (hodie Klaipėda, Lituania). Kant credeva que su familia esseva de origine scotic, ben que isto non ha essite verificate per recerca genealogic.<ref>R. K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.</ref> Kant esseva baptisate como Emanuel, cambiando le orthographia de su nomine a Immanuel post haber apprendite le [[lingua hebraic|hebraico]].{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Il esseva le quarto de novem filios (sex del qual attingeva le etate adulte).<ref>{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de |accessdate=25 August 2026 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf }}</ref> Le familia Kant accentuava le valores [[Pietismo|pietistic]] de devotion religiose, humilitate, e un interpretation literal del [[Biblia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}</ref> Le education initial de Immanuel Kant esseva stricte, punitive e multo disciplinate, con emphase super le [[latino]] e le [[instruction religiose]] plus tosto que super mathematica e scientia.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}} In su annos posterior, Kant viveva un vita strictemente ordinate. On diceva que le vicinos poteva reglar lor horologios sur su promenades quotidian.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considerava le matrimonio duo vices, primo con un vidua e pois con un femina de [[Westphalia]], ma in ambes occasiones ille expectava troppo longe.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Ben que ille nunquam se maritava, ille habeva totevia un vita social satisfacente; ille esseva un docente popular e un autor modestemente prospere, mesmo ante de comenciar su obras philosophic major.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}} ===Studente juvene=== Kant demonstrava un aptitude precoce pro le studio. Il frequentava primo le [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (alora dirigite per [[Franz Albert Schultz]]), del qual il se diplomava al fin del estate de 1740. In 1740, a etate de 16 annos, il se inscribeva al [[Universitate de Königsberg]], ubi il remanerea plus tarde pro le resto de su vita professional.<ref>''Le American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.</ref> Il studiava le philosophia de [[Gottfried Leibniz]] e [[Christian Wolff (philosopho)|Christian Wolff]] sub [[Martin Knutzen]] (professor associate de Logica e Metaphysica ab 1734 usque a su morte in 1751), un [[rationalismo|rationalista]] qui esseva etiam familiar con le progressos in le philosophia e le scientia britan[n]ic e introduceva Kant al nove physica mathematic de [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuadeva Kant del theoria del [[harmonia pre-stabilite]], quam ille considerava como "le cossino del mente pigre".<ref>{{cite book|title=Que le Testudo nos inseniava: Le historia del philosophia|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}</ref> Il dissuadeva etiam Kant del [[idealismo]], le idea que le realitate es purmente mental, un conception que le majoritate del philosophos del XVIIIe seculo considerava negativemente. Le theoria del [[idealismo transcendental]] que Kant includerea plus tarde in le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' esseva sviluppate partialmente in opposition al idealismo traditional. Kant habeva contactos con studentes, collegas, amicos e commensales qui frequentava le [[loge masonic]] local.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Le francmasones in le Antique Prussia 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Su principal [[editor]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], esseva etiam un francmason.<ref name="buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044">Erich Donnert, ''Europa in le prime epocha moderne: Fontes incognite. Essays super le evolution, le precursores, le limites e le continuation del epocha moderne in e circa Europa. Indices del contento del volumines 1–6. Indice de personas del volumines 1–7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p. 1044. [[https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]</ref> Le accidente vascular cerebral de su patre e su morte subsequente in 1746 interrumpeva su studios. Kant quitava Königsberg poco post augusto 1748;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} il retornava ibi in augusto 1754.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Il deveniva un tutor private in le citates circum Königsberg, ma continuava su recerca erudite. In 1749, il publicava su prime obra philosophic, ''[[Pensamentos super le ver estimation del vires vivente]]'' (scribite in 1745–1747).<ref>[[Eric Watkins (philosopho)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Scientia natural'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Pensamentos super le ver estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 martio 2016 }}.</ref> Durante le occupation russe de Königsberg durante le [[Guerra de Septem Annos]] (1758–1762), le situation financiari de Kant se meliorava, proque ille obteneva un numero de assignationes ben pagate como tutor ab officiales militar e administratores civil russe stationate in le citate. In decembre 1758, post le morte de Johann David Kypke, Kant faceva un petition al imperatrice [[Elisabeth de Russia|Elisabeth]] pro esser nominate al catedra vacante de logica e metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg, ma le position esseva attribuite a un altere candidato.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: Un biographia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=118–122}}</ref> == Obra precoce == Kant es meliormente cognoscite pro su obras in le philosophia del etica e metaphysica, ma ille etiam contribueva significantemente a altere disciplinas. In 1754, durante que ille considerava un question pro un premio del [[Academia de Scientias de Prussia|Academia de Berlin]] concernente le problema del rotation del Terra, ille argumentava que le gravitation del Luna ralentisarea le rotation terrestre. Ille etiam proponeva le argumento que le gravitation eventualmente causarea que le [[blocage tidal|blocation tidal]] del [[Luna]] [[resonantia orbital|coincider]] con le rotation del Terra.{{efn|Kant ipse pare haber considerate su contribution non assatis importante pro publicar su argumentos in un commentario de jornal super le question del premio, e ille non los submitteva al Academia: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up|chapter=Si le Terra ha subite un alteration de su rotation axial|title=Le cosmogonia de Kant|translator-last=Hastie|translator-first=William|location=Glasgow|publisher=James Maclehose|orig-date=1754|year=1900|pages=1–11|access-date=29 martio 2022}}. Le premio esseva in vice attribuite in 1756 a P. Frisi, qui incorrectemente argumentava contra le ralentissement del rotation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=Le philosophia del juvene Kant: Le projecto precritic|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}</ref>}}<ref name="nebulous">{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=Un historia del physica planetari moderne: Terra nebulose|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}</ref> Le anno sequente, ille extendeva iste ratiocinio al [[formation e evolution del Systema Solar]] in su ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]''.<ref name="nebulous"/> In 1755, Kant recipeva un licentia pro docer al Universitate de Königsberg e comenciava a dar cursos super un varietate de themas, includente mathematica, physica, logica e metaphysica. In su essay de 1756 super le theoria del ventos ("Nove remarcas pro un elucidation del theoria del ventos"), Kant presentava un perception qualitative de lo que es ora appellate [[fortia de Coriolis]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Scientia natural|chapter=Nove notas pro explicar le theoria del ventos, in le qual, al mesme tempore, ille invita al frequentation de su cursos (1756)|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}</ref> In 1756, Kant etiam publicava tres articulos super le [[terremoto de Lisboa de 1755]].<ref>Vide: *Kant, I. (1756a) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448 "Del causas del tremores terrestre al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente"] [Super le causas del terremotos al occasion del desastre que affligeva le regiones occidental de Europa verso le fin del anno precedente] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academia Regal Prussian de Scientias), ed.s (1902) ''Le scriptos colligite de Kant'' [Le scriptos colligite de Kant] (in german) Berlin, Germania: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427. *Kant, I. (1756b) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460 "Historia e description natural del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra"] [Historia e description del natura del eventos le plus remarcabile del terremoto que al fin del anno 1755 faceva tremular un grande parte del Terra], ibid. pp. 429–461. *Kant, I. (1756c) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494 "Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le tremores terrestre observate desde alcun tempore"] [Continuation del consideration de Immanuel Kant super le terremotos que esseva sentite alcun tempore ante], ibid. pp. 463–472. *Amador, Filomena (2004) "Le causas del terremoto de Lisboa de 1755 in Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. ''Actas del VIII Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas'' [Actas del Octave Congresso del Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas] (in anglese) Logroño, Espania: Societate Espaniol de Historia del Scientias e del Technicas (Universitate de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</ref> Le theoria de Kant, que involveva alterationes in enorme cavernas plen de gases calide, ben que incorrecte, esseva un del prime tentativas systematic de explicar terremotos in terminos natural in vice de terminos supernatural. In 1757, Kant comenciava a dar cursos de geographia, facente de ille un del prime professores a inseniar explicitemente le geographia como subjecto independente.<ref name="Richards-1974">{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Le geographia e le cartas mental de Kant|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596| issn=0020-2754 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reconsiderar le geographia de Kant|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 septembre 2019|archive-date=1 augusto 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Geographia esseva un del themas de curso le plus popular de Kant, e in 1802, un compilation per Friedrich Theodor Rink del notas de su cursos, ''Geographia physica'', esseva publicate. Post que Kant deveniva professor in 1770, ille amplificava le themas de su cursos pro includer cursos super [[derecto natural]], etica e [[anthropologia]], insimul con altere themas.<ref name="Richards-1974" /> [[File:Kant wohnhaus 2.jpg|thumb|Le casa de Kant in Königsberg in un pictura de 1842]] In le ''Historia natural universal'', Kant exponeva le [[hypothese nebular]], in le qual ille deduceva que le [[Systema Solar]] se habeva formate ex un grande nube de gas, un [[nebula]]. Kant etiam deduceva correctemente que le [[Via Lactea]] esseva un [[galaxia|grande disco de stellas]], del qual ille theorizeva que illo se habeva formate ex un nube de gas rotante multo plus grande. Ille suggereva in plus que altere "nebulas" distante poterea esser altere galaxias. Iste postulationes aperiva nove horizontes pro le astronomia, pro le prime vice extendente su dominio ultra le systema solar verso le mundos galactic e intergalactic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=Un, duo, tres... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=Un, duo, tres... Infinity}}</ref> De alora in ultra, Kant dedicava su effortios sempre plus al questiones philosophic, ben que ille continuava a scriber super le scientias durante tote su vita. Al initio del annos 1760, ille produceva un serie de obras importante in philosophia. ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'', un obra super logica, esseva publicate in 1762. Duo altere obras appareva le anno sequente: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' e ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]''. In 1764, Kant habeva devenite un autor popular notabile, e scribeva ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime e altere scriptos|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>; ille esseva secunde a [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in un competition pro le premio del Academia de Berlin con su ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (often appellate "Le essay pro le premio"). In 1766, Kant scribeva un obra critic super ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' de [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. In 1770, Kant esseva nominate Professor Plen de Logica e Metaphysica al Universitate de Königsberg. Pro defender iste nomination, Kant scribeva su [[dissertation inaugural]] ''Super le forma e le principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile''.{{efn|Pois que ille habeva scribite su ultime [[thesis de habilitation]] 14 annos ante, un nove thesis de habilitation esseva requirite (vide S. J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Reconsiderar le idealismo german'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).}} Iste obra marcava le apparition de plure themas central de su obra mature, includente le distinction inter le facultates del pensamento intellectual e le receptivitate sensibile. Omitter iste distinction significarea committer le error de [[subreption]], e, como ille dice in le ultime capitulo del dissertation, solmente evitante iste error pote le metaphysica prosperar. Ben que il es ver que Kant scribeva su maxime obras relativemente tarde in su vita, il existe un tendentia a subestimar le valor de su obras plus juvene. Le investigationes recente super Kant ha dedicate plus attention al iste scriptos "pre-critic", e ha recognoscite un certe grado de continuitate con su obra mature.<ref>Cf., per exemplo, Susan Shell, ''Le incarnation del ration'' (Chicago, 1996)</ref> ===Publication del ''Critica del Ration Pur''=== {{AP|Critica del Ration Pur}} [[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Le philosophe [[David Hume]] per [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]]]] A etate 46, Kant esseva un erudito establite e un philosophe de influentia crescente, e multo esseva expectate de ille. In correspondentia con su ex-studente e amico [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitteva que, in le dissertation inaugural, ille habeva fallite explicar le relation inter nostre facultates sensibile e intellectual.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watkins|first=Erik|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0521781626|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantscritiqueofp0000unse_a3l2/page/276 276]}}</ref> Ille debeva explicar como nos combina lo que es cognoscite como cognition sensorial con le altere typo de cognition —id es, cognition rational— iste duo essente relationate ma habente processos multo differente. Kant attribueva etiam a [[David Hume]] le facto de haber le eveliate de un "{{vanchor|somno dogmatic}}" in le qual ille habeva acceptate sin questionar le principios de religione e de [[natural philosophy|philosophia natural]].<ref name="Smith-1952"><nowiki>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man) and His Gods|location=New York|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|page=[[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404](https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404<nowiki>) 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</nowiki></ref><ref>Kant, ''PFM'' 4:260</ref> Hume, in su ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' de 1739, habeva argumentate que le personas cognosce le mente solmente per un serie subjective, essentialmente illusori, de perceptiones. Ideias como [[causalitate]], [[moralitate]] e [[Objecto (philosophia)|objectos]] non es evidente in le experientia, dunque lor realitate pote esser questionate. Kant pensava que le ration poteva remover iste scepticismo, e ille se proponeva resolver iste problemas. Ben que amante del compania e conversation con alteres, Kant se isolava e resisteva al tentativas de su amicos de retirar le de su isolation.{{efn|In 1778, in responsa a un de iste propositiones per un ex-discipulo, Kant scribeva: "Cata cambiamento me rende apprehensive, mesmo si illo offere le plus grande promissa de meliorar mi condition, e io es persuadite per iste instincto natural mie que io debe esser prudente si io vole que le filos que le Destino fila assi tenue e debile in mi caso continua a esser filate durante alicun longor. Mi grande gratias a mi benvolentes e amicos, qui pensa de me con tanta benevolentia que illes se occupa de mi benesser, ma al mesme tempore un requesta multo humile de proteger me in mi condition actual contra omne perturbation." <ref>Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005). {{ISBN|978-1840466645}}</ref>}} Quando Kant emergeva de su silentio in 1781, le resultato esseva le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', imprimite per [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]]. Kant respondeva al [[empiricismo]] de Hume affirmante que alcun cognition existe inherentemente in le mente, independente del experientia.<ref name="Smith-1952" /> Ille traheva un parallel con le [[Revolution Copernican]] in su proposition que le objectos del mundo pote esser intuite ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', e que le [[Anschauung|intuition]] es consequentemente distincte del [[Objectivitate (philosophia)|realitate objective]]. Forsan le question le plus directemente disputate esseva le argumento de Hume contra omne connexion necessari inter eventos causales, que Hume characterizava como le "cemento del universo". In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant argumenta in favor de lo que ille considera le justification ''a priori'' de tal connexion necessari.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A188-211/B233-56</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant by Johann Christoph Frisch.jpg|left|thumb|Portraito de Kant per [[Johann Christoph Frisch]], post Johann Gottlieb Becker, {{circa|1770}}]] Ben que hodie recognoscite como un del maximo grande obras in le historia del philosophia, le ''Critique'' disappunctava le lectores de Kant al momento de su publication initial.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0470673317|location=Malden, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/kantianreasonheg0000dorr/page/37 37]}}</ref> Le libro esseva longe, con plus de 800 paginas in le edition original in germano, e scribite in un stilo complicate. Kant esseva multo contristate per su reception.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=250–254}} Su ex-studente [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticava le obra pro poner le ration como un entitate digne de critica per se, in vice de considerar le processo de ratiocinio in le contexto del linguage e del personalitate integre de un persona.<ref>[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.</ref> Simile a [[Christian Garve]] e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], ille rejectava le position de Kant que spatio e tempore possede un forma que pote esser analysate. Garve e [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder|Feder]] etiam criticava le ''Critique'' pro non explicar le differentias in le perception de sensationes.<ref>Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.</ref> Su densitate lo rendeva, como Herder diceva in un littera a [[Johann Georg Hamann]], un "nucleo dur a rumper", obscurate per "tote iste pesante tela de aranea".<ref>''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.</ref> Su reception contrastava fortemente con le laudes que Kant habeva recipite pro obras anterior, como su ''Essay del Premio'' e le obras plus breve que precedeva le prime ''Critique''. Recognoscente le necessitate de clarificar le tractato original, Kant scribeva le ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 como un summario de su opiniones principal. Poco postea, le amico de Kant [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]] (1739–1805), un professor de mathematica, publicava ''Explicationes del Professor Kant super le Critique del Ration Pura'' (Königsberg, 1784), que esseva un breve ma multo exacte commentario super le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=268–269}} Le reputation de Kant cresceva gradualmente durante le ultime parte del decennio 1780, stimulate per un serie de obras importante: le essay de 1784, "[[Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; le ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' de 1785 (su prime obra super philosophia moral); e le ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' de 1786. Le fama de Kant finalmente veniva de un fonte inesperate. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] publicava un serie de litteras public super le philosophia kantian. In iste litteras, Reinhold presentava le philosophia de Kant como un responsa al controverse intellectual central del epocha: le [[controversia del pantheismo]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] habeva accusate le recentemente defuncte [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (un distinguite dramaturgo e essayista philosophic) de [[Spinozism]]. Un tal accusation, equivalente a un accusation de atheismo, esseva energicamente negate per le amico de Lessing, [[Moses Mendelssohn]], e isto conduceva a un dispute public acerbe inter partisanos. Le controversia gradualmente se transformava in un debatto super le valores del [[Illuminismo]] e le valor del ration. Reinhold manteneva in su litteras que le ''Critica del Ration Pur'' de Kant poteva resolver iste dispute per defender le autoritate e le limites del ration. Le litteras de Reinhold esseva multo legite e faceva de Kant le philosophe le plus famose de su epocha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0521823036|location=Cambridge, UK|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_h4p5/page/631 631]}}</ref> == Opera posterior == Kant publicava un secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' in 1787, profundemente revidente le prime partes del libro. Le major parte de su obra subsequente se concentrava super altere areas del philosophia. Il continuava a disveloppar su philosophia moral, specialmente in le ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' de 1788 (cognoscite como le secunde ''Critica''), e le ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' de 1797. Le ''[[Critica del potentia del judicio]]'' de 1790 (le tertie ''Critica'') applicava le systema kantian al [[esthetica]] e al [[teleologia]]. In 1792, le tentativa de Kant de publicar le Secunde del quatro partes de ''[[Religion intra le limites del simple ration]]'',<ref name="KReligion">Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Religion intra le limites del simple ration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 |date=4 martio 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 februario 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7 Contento.] Con un [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15 |date=3 augusto 2020 }} de Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,</ref> in le revista ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', incontrava opposition del [[Frederico Gulielmo II de Prussia|rege]] [[censura|commission de censura]], que habeva essite establite le mesme anno in le contexto del [[Revolution francese]]. Kant arrangiava alora que le quatro partes esseva publicate como un libro, transmittente lo per le departamento de philosophia del [[Universitate de Jena]] pro evitar le necessitate de censura theologic. Iste insubordination valeva a ille un reprimenda, ora famose, del rege. Quando ille nihilominus publicava un secunde edition in 1794, le censor esseva tanto irate que ille arrangiava un decreto royal que exigeva que Kant nunquam plus publicava ni parlava publicamente super religion. Kant publicava alora su responsa al reprimenda del rege e explicava se mesme in le prefacio de ''[[Le conflicto del facultates]]'' (1798). [[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|Kant con amicos, includente [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel le Senior|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]], e [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]]]] Il etiam scribeva un numero de essayos semi-popular super historia, religion, politica, e altere themas. Iste obras esseva ben recipite per le contemporaneos de Kant e confirmava su status preeminente in le philosophia del [[seculo XVIII]]. Il habeva plure revistas dedicate exclusivemente a defender e criticar le philosophia kantian. Nonobstante su successo, le tendentias philosophic se moveva in un altere direction. Plure del discipulos e sequaces le plus importante de Kant (includente [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], e [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]) transformava le position kantian. Le etapas progressive del revision del doctrinas de Kant marcava le emergentia del [[idealismo german]]. In un de su ultime actos in explication de un position super questiones philosophic, Kant se opponeva a iste disveloppamentos e denunciava publicamente Fichte in un carta aperte in 1799.<ref name="Fichte">{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Carta aperte de Kant denuncianti le philosophia de Fichte|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1800, un studente de Kant nominate Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) publicava un manual de [[logica]] pro docentes appellate ''[[Logica]]'', que ille habeva preparate al demanda de Kant. Jäsche preparava le ''Logica'' usante un copia de un manual de logica de [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] appellate ''[[Excerption del doctrina del ration]]'', in le qual Kant habeva scribite copiose notas e annotationes. Le ''Logica'' ha essite considerate de importantia fundamental pro le philosophia de Kant e pro su comprehension. Le grande logico del [[seculo XIX]] [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarcat, in un recension incomplete del traduction anglese de Thomas Kingsmill Abbott del introduction al ''Logica'', que "tote le philosophia de Kant gira circa su logica."<ref>Peirce, C.S., ''[[Collecte de documentos de Charles Sanders Peirce]]'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant e su refutation del idealismo' p. 15 </ref> De plus, [[Robert S. Hartman]] e Wolfgang Schwarz scribeva in le introduction del traductores a lor traduction anglese del ''Logica'': "Su importantia reside non solmente in su signification pro le ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'', cuje secunde parte es un reformulation de principios fundamental del ''[[Logica]]'', ma etiam in su position intra le totalitate del obra de Kant."<ref>Kant, Immanuel, ''[[Logica]]'', G.B. Jäsche (ed.), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (traductores), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.</ref> == Morte e sepultura == Le salute de Kant, sempre precari, se deteriorava. Il moriva in Königsberg le 12 februario 1804, pronuncianti ''Es ist gut'' ("Es es bon") ante su morte.<ref>Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.</ref> Su ultime obra incomplite esseva publicate como ''[[Opus Postume]]''. Kant faceva sempre un figura curioso durante su vita per su habitos modeste e rigorosemente planificate, que esseva describite como regular como un horologio. [[Heinrich Heine]] observava le magnitude de su "pensamentos destructive, que fracassava le mundo" e le considerava un sorta de "executionator" philosophic, comparante le con [[Maximilien Robespierre]] con le observation que ambe "representava al plus alte grado le typo del burgese provincial. Natura los habeva destinate a pesar caffe e zucchero, ma le Fato determinava que illes deberea pesar altere cosas e poneva sur le balancia de un un rege, e sur le balancia del altere un deo."<ref>{{cite web |url=[http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |title=Heine sur Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf](https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf) |url-status=live }}</ref> Quando su corpore esseva transferite a un nove loco de sepultura, su cranio esseva mesurate durante le exhumation e trovate esser plus grande que le medie del viros german, con un fronte "alte e large".<ref>''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284</ref> Su fronte ha essite un objecto de interesse desde que illo deveniva ben cognoscite per su portraits: "In le portrait de Döbler e in le reproduction fidel, ben que expressionistic, de Kiefer, como etiam in multe altere portraits de Kant del fin del [[seculo XVIII]] e del initio del [[seculo XIX]], le fronte es remarquabilemente grande e decidite in retro."<ref>Immanuel Kant e le frontieras del historia del arte, Mark Cheetham, in ''Le subjectos del historia del arte: objectos historic in perspectivas contemporanee'', p. 16</ref> [[File:Kaliningrad 05-2017 img05 Kant Island.jpg|upright|thumb|Le tumba de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]] Le [[mausoleo]] de Kant adjunge le angulo nord-est del [[Catedral de Königsberg]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Le mausoleo esseva construite per le architecto [[Friedrich Lahrs]] e completate in 1924, a tempore pro le bicentenario del nascentia de Kant. Originarimente, Kant esseva sepelite intra le cathedral, ma in 1880 su restos esseva transferite a un capella [[neo-gothic]] adjacente al angulo nord-est del cathedral. Durante le annos, le capella deveniva in mal stato e esseva demolite pro facer loco al mausoleo, que esseva construite in le mesme loco. Le tumba e su mausoleo es inter le poc artefactos del epoca german que esseva preservate per le [[Sovietes]] post que illes capturava le citate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar](http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resuscitar) Königsberg: un citate russe reguarda su radices german|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=25 July 2014|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}})</ref> In le [[seculo XXI]], multe nove maritos porta flores al mausoleo. Artefactos anteriormente possedite per Kant, cognoscite como ''Kantiana'', esseva includite in le [[Museo del citate de Königsberg]]; tamen, le museo esseva destruite durante le [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]]. Un replica del statua de Kant que, durante le epoca german, stava ante le edificio principal del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], esseva donate per un entitate german al initio del annos 1990 e placiate in le mesme terreno. Post le [[Expulsion e fuga del germanos (1944–1950)|expulsion]] del population german de Königsberg al fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial, le Universitate de Königsberg, ubi Kant inseniava, esseva reimplaciate per le [[Universitate de Stato de Kaliningrad]] de lingua russe, que se appropriava del campus e del edificios supervivente. In 2005, le universitate esseva renominate [[Universitate de Stato Immanuel Kant de Russia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Miłosz J. |date=2018 |title=Le futuro de Kant: Debattos super le identitate del Oblast de Kaliningrad |url=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305) |journal=Slavic Review |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=937–956 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.291 |jstor=26644305 |issn=0037-6779|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Le cambio de nomine, considerate un question cargate politic, a causa del sentimentos mixta del residentes super su passato german,<ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2005 |title=Kaliningrad lotta con su hereditage german |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700](https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=DW News }}</ref> esseva annunciate durante un ceremonia al qual assistiva le presidente russe [[Vladimir Putin]] e le cancellero german [[Gerhard Schröder]],<!--http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/33684/photos--><ref>{{cite news |last=Dempsey |first=Judy |date=1 July 2005 |title=Enclave russe arriva in un dispute diplomatic |url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/world/europe/russian-enclave-lands-in-diplomatic-donnybrook.html) |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=3 July 2005 |title=Iran como thema del reunion al Mar Baltic |url=[https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921](https://www.dw.com/en/iran-the-topic-in-baltic-sea-meeting/a-1637921) |access-date=23 April 2024 |agency=Agence-France Press|via=DW News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ypi |first=Lea |date=20 April 2024 |title=Kant e le argumento pro le pace |url=[https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07](https://www.ft.com/content/c7432bdc-3449-421e-8045-701ac16a3d07) |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Financial Times |issn=0307-1766}}</ref> e le universitate formava un [[Societate Kantian]], dedicate al studio del [[kantianismo]]. In 2010, le universitate esseva ancora renominate [[Universitate Federal Baltic Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2010 |title=Decreto executive super le establimento del Universitate Immanuel Kant |url=[http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/9234)<!--http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1131--> |access-date=23 April 2024 |website=Presidente de Russia}}</ref> == Philosophia<!--'Kantianism', 'Kantian', and 'Kantian philosophy' redirect here-->== [[File:Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, view 2, Berlin, 1798, marble - Bode-Museum - DSC02884.JPG|thumb|Busto de Kant per [[Emanuel Bardou]], 1798]] Como multe de su contemporaneos, Kant esseva profundemente impressionate per le progressos scientific facite per [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] e alteres. Iste nove evidentia del potentia del ration human poneva in question pro multe personas le autoritate traditional del politica e religion. In particular, le vision mecanic moderne del mundo poneva in question le possibilitate mesme del moralitate; nam, si il non existe alcun agentia, il non pote haber responsabilitate.<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' Bxxviii–Bxxx</ref>{{sfn|di Giovanni|2005}} Le objectivo del projecto critic de Kant es de assecurar le autonomia human, le base del religion e del moralitate, contra iste menacia del mechanismo — e de facer lo in un maniera que preserva le progressos del scientia moderne.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §2.1}} In le ''Critica del Ration Pura'', Kant summarisa su preoccupationes philosophic in le sequente tres questiones: # Que pote io cognoscer? # Que debe io facer? # Que pote io sperar?<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A804–05/B833</ref> Le ''[[Critica del Ration Pura]]'' se concentra super le prime question e aperi un spatio conceptual pro un responsa al secunde question. Illo argumenta que, ben que nos non pote strictemente ''saper'' que nos es libere, nos pote — e pro fines practic debe — ''pensar'' nos mesme como libere. In le proprie parolas de Kant: «Io debeva negar le cognoscentia pro facer loco al fide.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxxx</ref> Le philosophia moral de Kant es ulteriormente disveloppate in le ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', le ''[[Metaphysica del Moralia]]'', e le ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]''.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023}} Le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del Potentia de Judicar]]'' sustene que nos pote rationalmente sperar le unitate harmoniose del dominios theoric e practic tractate in le prime duo ''Criticas'', sur le base de nostre experientia affective del beltate natural e, plus generalmente, del organisation [[Teleologia in biologia|teleologic]] del mundo natural.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=6–8}} In ''[[Religion intra le Limites del Simple Ration|Religion intra le Limites del Pura Ration]]'', Kant tenta completar su responsa al tertie question argumentante pro un forma rationalista de religion fundate super nostre vitas practic (i.e., moral).<ref>di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In ''Religion and Rational Theology''. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin.</ref> Iste obras omnes pone le [[subjecto (philosophia)|subjecto]] human active e rational al centro del mundos cognitive e moral. In breve, Kant argumenta que le [[mente]] mesme apporta necessariemente un contribution constitutive al [[cognition|cognoscentia]], que iste contribution es transcendental plus tosto que psychologic, e que ager autonomemente significa ager secundo principios moral rational.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020}} === Le projecto critic de Kant === {{vide etiam|Critica del Ration Pura}} [[File:Kant017.jpg|thumb|Kant per [[Carle Vernet]]]] Le ''Critica del Ration Pura'' de 1781 (revise in 1787) ha sovente essite citate como le obra le plus significative de metaphysica e [[epistemologia]] in le philosophia moderne.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rohlf |first=Michael |title=Immanuel Kant |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |archive-date=14 November 2019 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=[[Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford]]}}</ref> In le prime ''Critica'', e etiam in obras posterior, Kant formula le «problema general» e le «problema real del ration pura» in terminos del sequente question: «Como es possibile judicios synthetic ''a priori''?»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B135</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=51}} Pro comprender iste assertion, il es necessari definir alcun terminos. Primo, Kant face un distinction inter duo fontes de cognoscentia: # Cognoscientias ''a priori'': «cognoscentia independente de tote experientia e mesmo de tote le impression del sensos». # Cognoscientias ''a posteriori'': cognoscentias que ha lor fontes in le experientia — isto es, que es empiric.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B1–3</ref> Secundo, ille face un distinction inter duo typos de judicios: # Judicios analytic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Tote le celibes es non-maritate», o «Tote le corpores es extendite». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de clarification». # Judicios synthetic: judicios in le quales le concepto del predicato non es continente in le concepto del subjecto; per exemplo, «Alcun celibes es sol», «Tote le cygnos es blanc», o «Tote le corpores ha peso». Illos pote etiam esser appellate «judicios de amplification».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A6–8/B10–12</ref> Tote le judicios analytic es ''a priori'', proque le experientia non es necessari pro analysar le contento de un concepto que nos ja possede.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B11</ref> In contrasto, un judicio synthetic es un judicio cuje concepto del predicato contine alco que non se trova in le concepto del subjecto. Le exemplos le plus evidente de judicio synthetic es judicios fundate super observationes empiric.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} Le duo typos de cognoscentia e le duo typos de judicio produce un tabella a quatro divisiones: {| class="wikitable" |+Tabella de Judicios ! !A priori !A posteriori |- |'''Analytic''' |analytic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Tote le corpores es extendite.») |analytic ''a posteriori'' (impossibile) |- |'''Synthetic''' |synthetic ''a priori'' (p.ex., «Cata effecto ha un causa.») |synthetic ''a posteriori'' (p.ex., «Le systema solar ha octo planetas.») |} Kant credeva que le philosophos anterior habeva negligite le judicios synthetic ''a priori'', e habeva accordate attention solmente al judicios analytic ''a priori'' e synthetic ''a posteriori''. [[David Hume]], per exemplo, credeva que tote le cognoscentia es o «relationes de ideas» (que es analytic ''a priori'') o «questiones de facto» (que es synthetic ''a posteriori'').<ref>Hume, David. ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. Section 4; Part 1.</ref> Le taxonomia de Hume exclude le synthetic ''a priori''. Ma, stabiliente le synthetic ''a priori'' como un tertie typo de judicio, Kant crede que nos pote resister al scepticismo de Hume concernente a questiones como causalitate e le cognoscentia metaphysic plus generalmente. Isto es proque, a differentia de judicios simplemente ''a posteriori'', le judicios ''a priori'' ha «universalitate ver o stricte» e include un assertion de «necessitate».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B3–4</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=52–54}} E, a differentia de assertiones simplemente analytic, le judicios synthetic extende nostre cognoscentia ultra le concepto del subjecto. Isto significa que monstrar como judicios synthetic ''a priori'' es possibile equivale a monstrar como un cognoscentia substantiv super le characteristicas necessari del mundo es possibile. Kant mesme considera incontroverse le facto que nos ha cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' — specialmente in mathematica. Considera le proposition «7 + 5 = 12». Kant asserta que le concepto de «12» non es continente in le conceptos de «5», «7» e del operation de addition.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B14–17</ref> Tamen, ben que ille considera le possibilitate de tal cognoscentia como evidente, Kant assume nihilominus le carga de monstrar como tal cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' in mathematica e le scientias natural es possibile, e in le Dialectica Transcendental attacca le possibilitate de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' del metaphysica traditional. Le objectivo duple del ''Critica'' es tanto ''probar'' como ''explicar'' le possibilitate de iste cognoscentia.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=55}} Kant dice: «Il ha duo truncos del cognoscentia human, que forsan pote provenir de un radice commun ma pro nos incognite, namely le sensibilitate e le intellecto, per le prime del qual objectos nos es ''date'', ma per le secunde illos es ''pensate''.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A15/B29, emphases added</ref> Le termino de Kant pro le objecto del sensibilitate es «intuition», e su termino pro le objecto del intellecto es «concepto». In terminos general, le prime es un representation non-discursive de un objecto ''particular'', e le secunde es un representation discursive (o mediate) de un ''typo general'' de objecto.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=32, 61}} Le conditiones del experientia possibile require tanto intuitiones como conceptos, i.e., le affection del sensibilitate receptive e le potentia activemente synthesizante del intellecto.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.12}}{{efn|Plus technicamente, Kant exprime su puncto general que tote cognoscentia authentic require tanto input sensorial como organisation intellectual dicente que tote cognoscentia require tanto «intuitiones» como «conceptos» (p.ex., A 50 / B 74). Intuitiones e conceptos es duo species differente del genere «representation» (''Vorstellung''), le termino le plus general de Kant pro omne stato cognitive (vide A 320 / B 376–7). Al initio del «Esthetica Transcendental», Kant declara que un «intuition» es nostre typo le plus directe o «immediate» de representation de objectos, in contrasto con un «concepto» que representa sempre un objecto «per un detour (''indirecte'')» — isto es, simplemente per alicun «marca» o proprietate que le objecto possede (A 19 / B 33). In su manual de logica, Kant defini un intuition como un «representation ''singular''» — isto es, un que representa un objecto particular — dum un concepto es sempre un «''universal'' (''repraesentatio per notas communes'')», que representa proprietates commun a multe objectos (''Logic'', §1, 9:91).{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=60–61}}}} Dunque le assertion: «Pensamentos sin contento es vacue, intuitiones sin conceptos es cec.»<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A51/B75</ref> Le strategia basic de Kant in le prime parte del ''Critica del Ration Pura'' consistera in argumentar que certe intuitiones e conceptos es pur — isto es, illos es apportate integremente per le mente, independente de omne cosa empiric. Le cognoscentia generate super iste base, sub certe conditiones, pote esser synthetic ''a priori''. Iste insight es cognoscite como le «Revolution Copernican» de Kant, proque justo como Copernico faceva progressar le astronomia per un cambiamento radical de perspectiva, assi Kant pretende hic facer le mesme pro le metaphysica.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Bxvi–xviii</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§2.2}} Le secunde parte del ''Critica'' es le parte explicitamente ''critic''. In le «Dialectica Transcendental», Kant argumenta que multe del assertiones del metaphysica rationalista traditional viola le criterios que ille pretende establir in le prime parte, «constructive», de su libro, e conduce inevitabilemente a contradictiones.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=2(g)}}{{sfn|Guyer|2014|loc=ch. 4}} Tamen, como Kant observa, «le ration human, sin esser movite per le simple vanitate de saper toto, inexorabilemente perseque, impulsate per su proprie besonio, tal questiones que non pote esser respondite per ulle uso experientiale del ration».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B21</ref> Le projecto del ''Critica'' es establir usque a qual puncto le ration pote legitime perseverar in tal direction.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi–xii</ref> === Doctrina del idealismo transcendental === {{vide etiam|Idealismo transcendental}} In le section del ''Critica'' intitulate «Le Esthetica Transcendental», Kant argumenta in favor del doctrina del [[idealismo transcendental]]. Le doctrina es «transcendental» proque illo explica un condition necessari pro le possibilitate del experientia e es un forma de «idealismo» proque ille conditiones depende de characteristicas del mente. Le detalios del interpretation correcte del idealismo transcendental es controversate, ma existe un large accordo super duo theses basic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(d)}} Primo, le spatio e le tempore non es ''cosas in se mesme'', ma simple formas de intuition (le spatio es le forma del intuition ''externe'', e le tempore es le forma del intuition ''interne''). Secundo, nos ha cognoscentia solmente del ''apparentias'' e non del cosas in se mesme. Le secunde these, secundo Kant, seque del prime: proque nostre formas ''a priori'' de intuition es conditiones necessari del possibilitate del experientia, omne cosa que cade foras de lo que nostre facultate sensibile pote reciper es incognoscibile. {{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}}<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A43/B59–60, A369</ref> Nihilominus, ben que Kant dice que le spatio e le tempore es «transcendentalmente ideal» — le ''formas pur'' del sensibilitate human, plus tosto que parte del natura o del realitate como illo es in se mesme — ille asserta etiam que illos es «empiricamente real», per lo que ille vole dicer «que “tote lo que pote presentar se a nos externemente como un objecto” es tanto in le spatio como in le tempore, e que nostre intuitiones interne de nos mesme es in le tempore».<ref>Kant ''CPuR'' A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51</ref>{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc=§3}} Qualcunque sia le interpretation del doctrina de Kant, ille voleva distinguer su position del [[idealismo subjective]] de [[George Berkeley]].{{sfn|Stang|2022|loc=§2.3}} [[Paul Guyer]], ben que critic de multe del argumentos de Kant in iste section, scribe super le Esthetica Transcendental que illo «non solmente pone le prime petra del theoria constructive del cognoscentia de Kant; illo etiam pone le fundamento tanto pro su critica como pro su reconstruction del metaphysica traditional. Illo argumenta que tote cognoscentia authentic require un componente sensorial, e assi que assertiones metaphysic que transcende le possibilitate de confirmation sensorial non pote jammais esser cognoscentia.»{{sfn|Guyer|2014|p=60}} ==== Disaccordos interpretative ==== Un interpretation, cognoscite como le interpretation del «duo aspectos» (o «un sol mundo»), considera le idealismo transcendental como, fundamentalmente, un these ''epistemologic''. Secundo iste lectura de Kant, popularisate specialmente per [[Henry E. Allison]], le [[cosa in se mesme]] e le apparentia phenomenal es le mesme objecto, e le idealismo transcendental es un these super lo que es necessari pro mentes finite e discursive pro ''considerar'' objectos tal como illos es date a nos per le sensibilitate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allison |first=Henry E. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense |year=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300102666 |pages=11-19}}</ref> Alcun commentatores,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allais |first=Lucy |title=Manifest Reality: Kant's Idealism and his Realism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780198747130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Langton |first=Rae |title=Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves |date=2004 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-924317-4 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford}}</ref> durante que illes concorda que il existe un sol insimul de objectos, considera le idealismo transcendental como un these super le ''proprietates'' de iste objectos, de qualcun nos ha accesso, dum alteres es incognoscibile pro nos. Le altere linea prominente de interpretation es le vision del «duo mundos» (a vices associate con interpretationes «phenomenaliste»<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strawson |first=Peter Frederick |title=The bounds of sense: an essay on Kant's 'Critique of pure reason' |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04030-3 |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref>). Secundo iste vision, le apparentias non es le mesme cosas que le cosas in se mesme, e le idealismo transcendental non es simplemente un these super lo que es necessari pro nos pro considerar objectos que es transcendentalmente independente de nos. Alcun defensores del «duo mundos» considera que Kant asserta que le apparentias es identic con nostre representationes de illos,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the claims of knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |last2=Kant |first2=Immanuel |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-33772-4 |edition=1. publ. 1987, repr |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feder |first=Johann Georg Heinrich |last2=Garve |first2=Christian |date=1782 |title=Feder-Garve Review of the Critique of Pure Reason |journal=Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen}}</ref> durante que alteres considera que ille simplemente asserta que le apparentias es partialmente fundate super cosas in se mesme sin esser identic con illas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stang |first=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism |date=2016 |work=The Encyclopedia Philosophic de Stanford |pages=§3.2 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/) |access-date=6 April 2026 |edition=Spring 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref> === Le theoria de Kant super le judicio === {{vide etiam|Categoria (Kant)}} [[File:Immanuelkant.JPG|thumb|Statua de Kant in le Schola de Philosophia e Scientias Human del [[Universitate Federal de Minas Gerais]] (UFMG), [[Belo Horizonte]], Brasil]] Post le «Analytica Transcendental» veni le «Logica Transcendental». Dum le prime se occupava del contributiones del sensibilitate, le secunde se occupa, primo, del contributiones del intellecto («Analytica Transcendental») e, secundo, del facultate del ''ration'' como fonte tanto de errores metaphysic como de principios regulative authentic («Dialectica Transcendental»). Le «Analytica Transcendental» es ulteriormente dividite in duo sectiones. Le prime, «Analytica del Conceptos», se occupa de establir le universalitate e necessitate del conceptos ''pur'' del intellecto (i.e., le categorias). Iste section contine le famose «deduction transcendental» de Kant. Le secunde, «Analytica del Principios», se occupa del application de iste conceptos pur in judicios ''empiric''. Iste secunde section es plus longe que le prime e es ulteriormente dividite in numerose sub-sectiones.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=4–13}} ==== Deduction transcendental del categorias del intellecto ==== Le «Analytica del Conceptos» argumenta in favor del validitate universal e necessari del conceptos pur del intellecto, o categorias, per exemplo, le conceptos de substantia e causalitate. Iste dece-duo categorias basic defini lo que significa esser un ''cosa in general'' —isto es, illos articula le conditiones necessari secundo le qual alique es un possibile objecto del experientia. Iste categorias, in combination con le formas ''a priori'' del intuition, es le base de tote cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Secundo [[Paul Guyer]] e [[Allen W. Wood]], «le idea de Kant es que, justo como il ha certe characteristicas essential de tote judicios, assi debe haber certe manieras correspondente in le qual nos forma le conceptos de objectos pro que judicios pote esser facite super objectos».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=8}} Kant presenta duo lineas central de argumentation in supporto de su assertiones concernente le categorias. Le prime, cognoscite como le «deduction metaphysic», procede analyticmente ab un tabella del functiones logic aristotelic del judicio. Como Kant esseva consciente, isto assume precisamente lo que le sceptico refuta, a saper, le existentia de cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori''. Pro iste ration, Kant presenta etiam un argumento synthetic que non depende del assumption in question.{{sfn|Guyer|2014|pp=89–90}} Iste argumento, presentate sub le titulo «Deduction Transcendental del Conceptos Pur del Intellecto», es largemente considerate tanto le plus importante como le plus difficile del argumentos de Kant in le ''Critica''. Kant mesme diceva que illo esseva le parte que requireva le plus labor de su parte.<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' Axi</ref> Frustrate per le reception confuse del prime edition de su libro, ille lo rescribeva completemente pro le secunde edition.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(e)}}{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4}} Le «Deduction Transcendental» presenta le argumento de Kant que iste conceptos pur se applica universal e necessariemente al objectos que es date in le experientia. Secundo Guyer e Wood, «Il centra su argumento super le premissa que nostre experientia pote esser attribuite a un sol subjecto identic, per medio de lo que ille appella le “unita transcendental del apperception”, solmente si le elementos del experientia date in le intuition es syntheticamente combinate assi que illos nos presenta objectos que es pensate per medio del categorias».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=9}} Le principio de apperception de Kant es que «Le Io pensa debe poter accompaniar tote mi representationes; nam alteremente alique esserea representate in me que non poterea esser pensate de sorta, lo que equivale a dicer que le representation o esserea impossibile o, al minus, nihil esserea pro me».<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' B131-32</ref> Le possibilitate ''necessari'' del auto-attribution del representationes del autoconscientia, identic con se mesme trans le tempore, es un veritate conceptual ''a priori'' que non pote esser fundate super le experientia.{{sfn|Rohlf|2020|loc = §4.1}} Isto es solmente un esquissa general de un del argumentos que Kant presenta. ==== Principios del intellecto pur ==== Le deduction de Kant del categorias in le «Analytica del Conceptos», si illo es succedite, demonstra su assertiones concernente le categorias solmente in un maniera abstracte. Le carga del «Analytica del Principios» es monstrar tanto ''que'' illos debe applicar universalmente al objectos date in le experientia real (i.e., multitudes de intuition) como ''como'' illos face isto.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=9–10}} In le prime libro<!--????--> de iste section<!--????--> super le «[[Schema (Kant)|schematismo]]», Kant conecta cata un del categorias puramente logic del intellecto al temporalitate del intuition pro monstrar que, ben que illos non es empiric, illos tamen ha application al objectos del experientia. Le secunde libro continua iste linea de argumento in quatro capitulos, cata un associate con un del gruppos de categorias. In certe casos, illo adde un connexion con le dimension spatial del intuition al categorias que illo analysa.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=10–11}} Le quarte capitulo de iste section, «Le Analogias del Experientia», marca un cambiamento ab principios «mathematical» a principios «dynamic», isto es, a illos que tracta del relationes inter objectos. Alcun commentatores considera isto le section le plus significative del ''Critica''.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=11}} Le analogias es tres in numero: # ''Principio del persistentia del substantia'': Kant se occupa hic del conditiones general pro determinar le relationes temporal inter le objectos del experientia. Ille argumenta que le unitate del tempore implica que «tote cambiamento debe consister in le alteration de estados in un substantia subjacente, cuje existentia e quantitate debe esser inalterabile o conservate».<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A182–26/B224–36</ref> # ''Principio del succession temporal secundo le lege del causalitate'': Hic Kant argumenta que «nos pote facer judicios determinate super le succession objective de eventos, in contrasto con successiones simplemente subjective de representationes, solmente si cata alteration objective seque un regula necessari de succession, o un lege causal». Isto es le responsa le plus directe de Kant al scepticismo de [[Humeanismo#Causalitate e necessitate|Hume]] concernente le causalitate.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A186–211/B232–56</ref> # ''Principio del simultaneitate secundo le lege del reciprocitate o communitate'': Le ultime analogia argumenta que «judicios determinate que objectos (o estados de substantia) in differente regiones del spatio existe simultaneemente es possibile solmente si tal objectos es in un relation causal mutual de communitate o interaction reciprocal». Isto es le responsa de Kant al these de [[Leibniz]] in le ''[[Monadologia]]''.<ref>see Kant, ''CPuR'' A211-15/B256-62</ref>{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=11–12}} Le quarte section de iste capitulo, que non es un analogia, tracta del uso empiric del categorias modal. Illo esseva le fin del capitulo in le edition A del ''Critica''. Le edition B include un altere breve section, «Le Refutation del Idealismo». In iste section, per medio de un analyse del concepto de autoconscientia, Kant argumenta que su idealismo transcendental es un idealismo «critic» o «formal» que non nega le existentia de un realitate separate de nostre representationes subjective.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=12}} Le capitulo final del «Analytica del Principios» distingui le ''[[phenomena]]'', del qual nos pote haber cognoscentia authentic, ab le ''[[noumena]]'', un termino que se refere a objectos de pensamento pur que nos non pote cognoscer, ma al qual nos pote tamen referer «in un senso negative».{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=12–13}} Un Appendice al section disveloppa ulteriormente le critica de Kant del rationalismo leibnizian-wolffian argumentante que su metaphysica «dogmatic» confunde le «simple characteristicas del conceptos per medio del qual nos pensa cosas ... [con] characteristicas del objectos mesme». Contra isto, Kant reafirma su proprie insistentia super le necessitate de un componente sensibile in tote cognoscentia authentic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=13}} ===Critica del metaphysica=== Le secunde del duo divisiones de "Le logica transcendental", "Le dialectica transcendental", contine le portion "negative" del ''Critica'' de Kant, que se basa super le argumentos "positive" del precedente "Analytica transcendental" pro revelar le limites del speculation metaphysic. In particular, illo cerca a demonstrar como fallace le tentativas del ration de attinger cognoscentia independente del sensibilitate. Iste effortio, argumenta Kant, es condemnate al fallimento, que ille pretende demonstrar monstrante que le ration, non limitate per le sensos, es sempre capace de generar conclusiones opost o alteremente incompatibile. Como "le columba legier, in volo libere per le aere, sentiente le resistentia que illo incontra" , le ration "pote haber le idea que illo poterea facer mesmo melio in un spatio sin aere". Contra isto, Kant sustene que, absente friction epistemic, il non pote haber cognoscentia. Nonobstante, le critica de Kant non es completemente destructive. Il presenta le excessos speculative del metaphysica traditional como inherente a nostre mesme capacitate de ration. In ultra, ille argumenta que lor productos non es sin un certe valor ''regulative'' (accuratemente qualificate).<ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521317245 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantclaimsofknow0000guye/page/52 52]–55}}</ref> ====Super le conceptos del ration pur==== Kant appella le conceptos basic del metaphysica "ideas". Illos es differente del conceptos del intellecto in tanto que illos non es limitate per le restriction critic que limita le cognoscentia al conditiones de experientia possibile e a lor objectos. "Illusion transcendental" es le termino de Kant pro le tendentia del ration a producer tal ideas.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Ben que le ration ha un "uso logic" consistente simplemente in traher inferentias ex principios, in "Le dialectica transcendental", Kant se interessa al pretensive "uso real" del ration pro attinger conclusiones per medio de un ratiocination syllogistic regressive sin controlo.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Le tres categorias de ''relation'', quando illos es persequite sin reguardo al limites del experientia possibile, produce le tres ideas central del metaphysica traditional: # ''Le anima'': le concepto de substantia como subjecto ultime; # ''Le mundo in su totalitate'': le concepto de causalitate como serie complete; e # ''Deo'': le concepto de communitate como fundamento commun de tote le possibilitates.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=15}} Ben que Kant nega que iste ideas pote esser objectos de cognoscentia genuin, ille argumenta que illos resulta del impulsion inherent del ration a unificar le cognoscentia in un integre systematic.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g)}} Le metaphysica de Leibniz e Wolff esseva dividite in quatro partes: ontologia, psychologia, cosmologia e theologia. Kant substitue le prime per le resultatos positive del prime parte del ''Critica''. Il propone de substituer le tres sequente per su doctrinas posterior de anthropologia, le fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural, e le postulation critic del libertate human e del moralitate.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=14}} ====Dialectic inferentias del ration pur==== In le secunde del duo libros de "Le Dialectic transcendental", Kant se effortia a demonstrar le natura contradictori del ration sin limites. Il face isto per disveloppar contradictiones in cata un del tres disciplinas metaphysic que, secundo su argumento, es in facto pseudoscientias. Iste section del ''Critica'' es longe e le argumentos de Kant es extrememente detaliate. In iste contexto, il non es possibile facer multo plus que enumerar le themas discutite. Le prime capitulo tracta lo que Kant appella le ''paralogismos'' —i.e., inferentias false— que le ration pur face in le disciplina metaphysic del psychologia rational. Il argumenta que on non pote considerar le simple pensamento de "Io" in le proposition "Io pensa" como le cognoscentia correcte de "Io" como objecto. In iste maniera, ille pretende refutar varie theses metaphysic concernente le substantialitate, unitate e identitate de se del anima.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.i)}} Le secunde capitulo, le plus longe, tracta le thema que Kant appella le [[Kant's antinomies|''antinomias del ration pur'']] —i.e., le contradictiones del ration con se mesme— in le disciplina metaphysic del cosmologia rational. Originalmente, Kant habeva pensate que tote illusion transcendental poterea esser analysate in terminos antinomic.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=16}} Il presenta quatro casos in le quales, secundo ille, le ration es capace de provar theses opposite con equal plausibilitate: # Que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le universo es simultaneemente finite e infinite in spatio e tempore"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le materia es e non es infinite divisibile in partes sempre plus parve"; # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que le libero arbitrio non pote esser un parte causalmente efficace del mundo (proque tote le natura es deterministic) e tamen que illo debe esser un tal causa"; e # que "le ration pare esser capace de provar que existe e non existe un ente necessari (que alcunos identificarea con Deo)".{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}}{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|pp=16–17}} Kant argumenta ulteriormente que, in cata caso, su doctrina del idealismo transcendental es capace de resolver le antinomia.{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc= §2(g.ii)}} Le tertie capitulo examina argumentos fallace concernente Deo in le theologia rational sub le titulo del "Ideal del Ration Pur". (Dum un ''idea'' es un concepto pur generate per le ration, un ''ideal'' es le concepto de un idea como un cosa individual.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=17}}) Hic Kant examina e pretende refutar tres argumentos traditional pro le existentia de Deo: le [[argumento ontologic]], le [[argumento cosmologic]], e le [[argumento physico-theologic]] (i.e., le argumento del designio).{{sfn|Jankowiak|2023|loc=§2(g.iii)}} Le resultatos del dialectic transcendental usque a iste puncto pare esser completemente negative. In un appendice a iste section, Kant rejecta un tal conclusion. Le ideas del ration pur, ille argumenta, ha un importante function ''regulative'' in diriger e organisar nostre investigationes theoric e practic. Le obras posterior de Kant disveloppa iste function a longe e in detalio.{{sfn|Guyer|Wood|1998|p=18}} ===Pensamento moral=== {{Main|Ethica kantian}} Kant disveloppava su ethica, o philosophia moral, in tres obras: ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1785), ''[[Critica del Ration Practic]]'' (1788), e ''[[Metaphysica del Morales]]'' (1797). Concernente al moralitate, Kant argumentava que le origine del [[Bonitate e theoria del valor|bon]] non jace in alique cosa exterior al [[human]] subjecto, sia in le [[natura]] o date per [[Deo]], ma solmente in le bon voluntate mesme. Un bon voluntate es illo que age per deber, in accordo con le lege moral universal que le esser human autonome se da libere a se mesme. Iste lege obliga un a tractar le humanitate —comprehendite como agentia rational e representate tanto per se mesme como per alteres— como un [[fin in se mesme]] e non simplemente como [[medio (philosophia)|medio]] pro altere fines que le individuo pote haber. Kant es cognoscite pro su theoria que tote [[obligation moral]] es fundate in lo que ille appella le "[[imperative categoric]]", derivate del concepto de [[deber]]. Il argumenta que le lege moral es un principio del [[ration]] mesme, non fundate super factos contingente del mundo, como lo que nos renderea felice; ager secundo le lege moral non ha altere motivo que "dignitate de esser felice".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A806/B834</ref> Nonobstante, le expertos es largemente de accordo que le ethica de Kant precede, in le major parte de su ideas central, le periodo critic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ursprünge der Ethik Kants in seinen vorkritischen Schriften und Reflektionen |date=1961 |publisher=Hain |url=[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_Urspr%C3%BCnge_der_Ethik_Kants_in_seinen.html?id=8hps0QEACAAJ |language=de}}; {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Problem der Kontingenz der Welt: Versuch einer positiven Aufarbeitung der Kritik Kants am kosmologischen Argument |date=1969 |publisher=Herder |url=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Das_Problem_der_Kontingenz_der_Welt/4itIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=inauthor:%22Josef%20Schmucker%22) |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sala |first1=Giovanni |title=Kants "Kritik der praktischen Vernunft": ein Kommentar |date=2004 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |isbn=3534157419}}</ref> ====Idea del libertate==== In le ''Critica del Ration Pur'', Kant distingue inter le idea transcendental del libertate, que como concepto psychologic es "principalmente empiric" e refere a "si un facultate de initiar per se mesme un serie de cosas o estados successive debe esser assumite",<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467">Kant, ''CPuR'' A448/B467</ref> e le concepto practic del libertate como independentia de nostre voluntate del "coercition" o "necessitation per impulsos sensibile". Kant trova un fonte de difficultate in le facto que le idea practic del libertate es fundate super le idea transcendental del libertate,<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A533–34/B561–62</ref> ma, pro rationes practic, usa le signification practic, non prendente "nulle consideration de ... su signification transcendental", que ille considera esser propriemente "disponite" in le Tertie Antinomia, e que, como elemento in le question del libertate del voluntate, es pro le philosophia "un ver obstaculo" que ha embarrassate le ration speculative.<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/> Kant appella ''practic'' "tote lo que es possibile per libertate"; ille appella le leges practic pur que jammais es date per conditiones sensibile, ma que es tenite analogemente al lege universal del causalitate, "leges moral". Le ration pote dar nos solmente le "leges pragmatic de action libere per le sensos", ma le leges practic pur date per le ration ''a priori'' dicta "lo que debe esser facite".<ref name="Kant, CPuR A448/B467"/><ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A800–02/B 828–30</ref> Le categorias kantian del libertate functiona principalmente como conditiones pro le possibilitate de actiones (i) esser libere, (ii) esser comprendite como libere, e (iii) esser evaluate moralmente. Pro Kant, ben que le actiones como objectos theoric es constituite per medio del categorias theoric, le actiones como objectos practic (objectos del uso practic del ration, que pote esser bon o mal) es constituite per medio del categorias del libertate. Solmente in iste maniera pote le actiones, como phenomena, esser consequentias del libertate, e esser comprendite e evaluate como tal.<ref>[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.</ref> ====Imperative categoric==== Kant face un distinction inter imperativos categoric e [[imperative hypothetic]]. Un ''imperative hypothetic'' es uno que debe esser obsequite pro satisfacer desiros contingente. Un ''imperative categoric'' obliga le [[agente rational]] independentemente de su desiros: per exemplo, tote agentes rational ha le deber de respectar altere agentes rational como fines individual in se mesmes, independentemente del circumstantias, mesmo si a vices il es in le interesse egoistic de un persona de non facer lo. Iste imperativos es moralmente obligatori a causa del forma categoric de lor maximas, e non a causa de factos contingente concernente un agente.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 83.</ref> A differentia de imperativos hypothetic, que nos obliga in tanto que nos es parte de un gruppo o societate a que nos debe deberes, nos non pote optar ex le imperative categoric, proque nos non pote optar ex le facto de esser agentes rational. Nos debe un deber al rationalitate in virtute de esser agentes rational; ergo, principios moral rational se applica a tote agentes rational in tote momentos.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}} Dicite in altere terminos, con tote formas de rationalitate instrumental excludite del moralitate, "le lege moral mesme, sustene Kant, pote esser solmente le forma del legalitate mesme, proque nihil altere remane quando tote contento ha essite rejectate".{{sfn|Schneewind|2010|p=261}} Kant propone tres formulationes del imperative categoric. Il asserta que illos es necessariemente equivalente, como expressiones del universalitate pur del lege moral in se mesme;<ref>Kant, ''G''. 4:420–421, 436.</ref> multe estudioses non es convincite.<ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78</ref> Le formulationes es le sequente: * ''Formula del Lege Universal'': ** "Age solmente secundo ille maxima per le qual tu pote al mesme tempore voler que illo deveni un lege universal";<ref name="Kant, G 4:421">Kant, ''G'' 4:421</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Lege del Natura'': "Age assi como si le maxima de tu action, per tu voluntate, deberea devenir un lege universal del natura."<ref name="Kant, G 4:421"/> * ''Formula del Humanitate como Fin in se mesme'': ** "Age de maniera que tu usa le humanitate, tanto in tu proprie persona como in le persona de cata altere, sempre al mesme tempore como fin e jammais simplemente como medio".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:429</ref> * ''Formula del Autonomia'': ** "le idea del voluntate de cata esser rational como un voluntate que da lege universal",<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:431; cf. 4:432</ref> o "Non eliger alteremente que in maniera que le maximas de tu election sia al mesme tempore comprehendite con illo, in le mesme volition, como lege universal";<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438</ref> alternativemente, *** ''Formula del Regno del Fines'': "Age secundo maximas de un membro universalmente legislative de un regno simplemente possibile de fines."<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439</ref><ref>Wood, Allen. (2017) ''Formulas of the Moral Law''. Cambridge University Press, p.6</ref> Kant defini ''maxima'' como un "principio subjective del volition", que es distinguite de un "principio objective o 'lege practic'". Dum le ultime es valide pro cata esser rational e es un "principio secundo le qual ille debe ager", un maxima "contine le regula practic que le ration determina in accordo con le conditiones del subjecto (frequentemente su ignorantia o inclinationes) e es assi le principio secundo le qual le subjecto age".<ref>Caygill, Howard. (1995) ''A Kant Dictionary''. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citante ''GMM''.</ref> Le maximas falle a qualificar como leges practic si illos produce un contradiction in conception o un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Un contradiction in conception occurre quando, si un maxima esseva universalizate, illo cessarea de haber senso, proque le "maxima se destruererea necessariemente a si mesme tosto que illo esseva facite un lege universal".<ref>Kant, ''G'' 4:403.</ref> Per exemplo, si le maxima "Es permissibile romper promissas" esseva universalizate, nulle persona haberea confidentia in promissas facite, e assi le idea de un promissa devenirea sin signification; le maxima esserea contradictori a se mesme, proque, quando illo es universalizate, le promissas cessa de haber signification. Le maxima non es moral proque il es logicamente impossibile universalizar lo —nos non pote conceber un mundo in le qual iste maxima es universalisate.<ref>Driver 2007, p. 88.</ref> Un maxima pote anque esser immoral si illo crea un contradiction in le voluntate quando universalizate. Isto non significa un contradiction logic, ma que le universalisation del maxima conduce a un stato de cosas que nulle esser ''rational'' desira. ===="Le doctrina del virtute"==== Como Kant explica in le 1785 ''[[Fundamento del Metaphysica del Morales]]'' e como su titulo indica directemente, ille texto es "nihil plus que le recerca e establimento del ''principio supreme del moralitate''".<ref>Kant, ''GMM'' 4:392.</ref> Su promittite ''Metaphysica del Morales'' esseva multo retardate e non appareva usque a su duo partes, "Le Doctrina del Derecto" e "Le Doctrina del Virtute", esser publicate separatemente in 1797 e 1798.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.</ref> Le prime tracta le philosophia politic; le secunde, le ethica. "Le Doctrina del Virtute" presenta "un narration multo differente del rationamento moral ordinari" ab illo suggerite per le ''Fundamento''.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Illo se interessa a ''deberes del virtute'' o "fines que al mesme tempore es deberes".<ref>Kant, ''MM''. 6:382–391.</ref> Il es hic, in le dominio del ethica, que le major innovation de ''Le Metaphysica del Morales'' se trova. Secundo le explication de Kant, "le rationamento moral ordinari es fundamentalmente teleologic —illo es rationamento concernente le fines que le moralitate nos obliga a persequer, e le prioritates inter iste fines que nos es obligate a observar".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=69}} <blockquote>Il existe duo classes de fines que es nostre deber haber: nostre proprie perfection e le felicitate de alteres (''MS'' 6:385). "Perfection" include tanto nostre perfection natural (le disveloppamento de nostre talentos, habilitates e capacitate de comprender) como nostre perfection moral (nostre disposition virtuose) (''MS'' 6:387). Le "felicitate" de un persona es le plus grande integre rational del fines que le persona ha fixate pro su proprie satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=70}}</blockquote> Le elaboration de Kant de iste doctrina teleologic propone un theoria moral multo differente de illo que normalmente es attribuite a ille super le base de su obras foundational sol. === Politica === {{vide etiam|Politica philosophic de Immanuel Kant}} In ''Vers le Pace Perpetual: Un Projecto Philosophic'', Kant enumerava plure conditiones que ille considerava necessari pro terminar guerras e crear un pace durabile. Inter illas esseva un mundo de republicas constitutional.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:349–353</ref> Su theoria republican esseva extendite in le "Doctrina del Drito", le prime parte del ''[[Metaphysica del Morals]]'' (1797).<ref>Manfred Riedel, ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984</ref> Kant credeva que le historia universal conduce al fin ultime de un mundo de statos republican in pace, ma su theoria non esseva pragmatic. Le processo esseva describite in ''Pace Perpetual'' como natural plus tosto que rational: {{blockquote|Lo que offere iste ''garantia'' (securitate) es nihil minus que le grande artista ''natura'' (''natura daedala rerum''), de cuje curso mechanic appare visibilemente le finalitate, lassante concordia emerger per medio del discordia inter esseres human, mesmo contra lor voluntate; e pro iste ration natura, considerate como necessitate per un causa cuje lege de operationes es incognoscibile a nos, es appellate ''fato'', ma si nos considera su finalitate in le curso del mundo como le profunde sapientia de un causa superior, dirigite verso le fin objective ultime del genere human e predeterminante iste curso del mundo, illo es appellate ''providentia''.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:360–362</ref>}} Le pensamento politic de Kant pote esser resumite como governamento republican e organisation international: "In terminos plus characteristicamente kantian, illo es un doctrina del stato fundate super le lege (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') e del pace eternal. In facto, in cata un de iste formulationes, le duo terminos exprime le mesme idea: celle de constitution legal o de 'pace per le lege'.<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582</ref> "Le philosophia politic de Kant, essente essentialmente un doctrina juridic, rejecta per definition le opposition inter education moral e le joco de passiones como fundamentos alternative pro le vita social. Le stato es definite como le union de homines sub lege. Le stato in le proprie senso es constituite per leges que es necessari ''a priori'' proque illos deriva del ipse concepto del lege. Un regime pote esser judicate per nulle altere criterios ni assignate altere functiones que illos proprie al ordine legal como tal."<ref>Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', editate per Leo Strauss e Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603</ref> Kant se opponeva al "democratia", que in su epocha significava [[democratia directe]], proque ille credeva que le regula del majoritate poneva in periculo le libertate individual. Ille declarava que "''democratia'' in le stricte senso del parola es necessariemente un ''despotismo'' proque illo establi un poter executive in le qual omnes decide pro e, si necesse, contra un (qui assi non concorda), de sorta que omnes, qui tamen non es omnes, decide; e isto es un contradiction del voluntate general con se mesme e con libertate."<ref>Kant, p. 8:352</ref> Como le major parte del autores de su epocha, Kant distingueva tres formas de governamento —democratia, aristocratia e monarchia— con [[governamento mixte]] como le forma plus ideal.<ref>Kant, ''PP'' 8:352</ref> Ille credeva in ideales e formas republican de governamento, e in le [[dominio del lege]] que resultava de illos.<ref>Kant, pp. 8:349–8:353</ref> Ben que Kant publicava isto como un "obra popular", [[Mary J. Gregor]] observa que duo annos plus tarde, in ''Metaphysica del Morals'', Kant pretende demonstrar ''systematicamente'' que "establir un pace universal e durabile constitue non solmente un parte del doctrina del drito, sed plus tosto le integre fin ultime del doctrina del drito intra le limites del ration pur".<ref>Kant, ''MM'' 6:355</ref><ref>Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in ''Practical Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 313</ref> Le pensamento politic posterior de Kant esseva profundemente preoccupate per le problema del guerra e le possibilitate de establir un pace durabile inter le statos. In ''[[Pace Perpetual: Un Sketch Philosophic|Vers le Pace Perpetual]]'' (1795), ille argumentava que un pace durabile non poteva esser securate simplemente per tractatos, ma requireva constitutiones republican, respecto del derecto international e un federation voluntari de statos libere. Ille se opponeva al [[guerra de conquista|guerras de conquista]], al exercitos permanente e al practicas politic que incoragiava conflictos futur, e ille considerava le developpamento progressive de relationes international legal como un del tarefas politic central del humanitate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kant's Social and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2016 |url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Higgins |first=Olivier |title=Kant on Peace, Honor and the "Point of View" of Princes, 1755–1795 |journal=Modern Intellectual History |year=2023 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=738–763 |doi=10.1017/S1479244322000476 }}</ref> ''Le Doctrina del Drito'', publicate in 1797, contine le contribution le plus mature e systematic de Kant al philosophia politic. Illo tracta del deberes secundo le lege, que es "concernite solmente con le protection del libertate externe del individuos" e es indifferente al motivationes. Ben que existe un deber moral "de limitar nos a actiones que es juste, iste deber non es parte de [le drito] ipse".{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}} Su idea politic basic es que "le derecto de cata persona de esser su proprie maestro es compatibile con le derectos de alteres solmente si institutiones juridic public existe".<ref>Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) ''Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, p. 9.</ref> Ille formula le principio universal del drito como: {{Citation|Omne action es ''juste'' si illo pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal, o si, secundo su maxima, le libertate de selection de cata uno pote coexister con le libertate de omnes secundo un lege universal. (''MS'' 6:230).{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=68}}}} ===Scriptores religiose=== {{Main|Religion intra le limites del ration pur}} A partir del seculo XX, commentatores tendeva a vider Kant como habente un relation tensionate con le religion, ben que isto non esseva le opinion predominante durante le seculo XIX. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], cuje litteras adjutava a render Kant famose, scribeva: «Io crede que io pote inferer sin reservation que le interesse del religion, e del christianitate in particular, concorda completemente con le resultato del Critica del Ration.»<ref>Karl Leonhard Reinhold, ''Letters on the Kantian Philosophy'' (1786), 3rd Letter</ref> Secundo [[Johann Friedrich Schultz]], qui scribeva un del prime commentarios super Kant: «E non es iste systema mesme in le plus splendide accordo con le religion christian? Non deveni le divinitate e le beneficentia de iste ultime tanto plus evidente?»<ref>Johann Schultz, ''Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (1784), 141.</ref> Le ration pro iste interpretationes esseva le theologia moral de Kant e le opinion largemente diffundite que su philosophia esseva le grande antithese a [[Spinozismo]], que esseva largemente considerate un forma de pantheismo sophistificate o mesmo de atheismo. Proque le philosophia de Kant negligeva le possibilitate de arguer pro Deo per le ration pur sol, per le mesme ration illo etiam negligeva le possibilitate de arguer contra Deo per le ration pur sol. Kant dirige su criticas le plus forte contra le organisation e le practicas del institutiones religiose que incoragia lo que ille considera un religion de falso servicio a Deo.<ref>Kant, ''RBMR'' Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163]</ref> Inter le objectos principal de su critica es le rituales externe, le superstition e un ecclesia hierarchic. Ille vide iste practicas como effortios pro render se agradabile a Deo per medios altere que le adherentia conscientiose al principio del rectitude moral in eliger e sequer le maximas proprie. Le criticas de Kant super iste questiones, insimul con su rejection de certe provas theoretic del existentia de Deo fundate super le ration pur, particularmente le [[argumento ontologic]], e su commentario philosophic super certe doctrinas christian, ha resultate in interpretationes que considera Kant hostil al religion in general e al christianitate in particular.<ref>E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.</ref> Altere interpretes, nonobstante, considera que Kant tentava distinguer le credentias christian defendibile del illas indefendibile.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's) Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/%7Curl-status%3Dlive%7D%7D)</ref> Concernente le conception de Kant del religion, alcun criticos ha arguite que ille esseva sympathic al deismo.<ref>Per exemplo Peter Byrne, qui scribeva super le relation de Kant con le deismo. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.</ref> Altere criticos ha arguite que le conception moral de Kant passa del deismo al theismo (como theismo moral), per exemplo Allen W. Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.</ref> e etiam [[Merold Westphal]].<ref>Westphal, Merold (2010), ''The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.</ref> Quanto al libro de Kant ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur|Religion intra le limites del Ration Pur]]'', esseva accentuate que Kant reduceva le religiositate a rationalitate, le religion a moralitate, e le christianitate a ethica;<ref>Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.</ref> tamen, multe interpretes, inter illes Wood,<ref>Wood, Allen W. (2020), ''Kant and Religion'', Cambridge University Press, p. 2.</ref> insimul con Lawrence Pasternack,<ref>Vider per exemplo Lawrence Pasternack, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason'' (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240.</ref> ora concorda con le assertion de [[Stephen Palmquist]] que un melior maniera de leger le ''Religion'' de Kant es vider lo como un tentativa de elevar le moralitate al stato de religion.<ref>Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", ''Kant-Studien'' 83.2, pp. 129–148.</ref> Le philosopho german Josef Schmucker monstrava que le critica de Kant del provas traditional del existentia de Deo precede su periodo critic e pote esser traciate retro al annos 1760, como etiam le developpamento de su concepto del ideal transcendental.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Die Ontotheologie des vorkritischen Kant |date=1980 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin, BRD New York |isbn=311008130X}} e {{cite book |last1=Schmucker |first1=Josef |title=Das Weltproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft: Kommentar und Strukturanalyse des ersten Buches und des zweiten Hauptstücks des zweiten Buches der transzendentalen Dialektik |date=1990 |publisher=Bouvier Verl |location=Bonn |isbn=3416021851}}</ref> === Esthetica === {{vide etiam|Teleologia de Kant}} [[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Gravura de Kant per Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, a partir de un pictura de Todd Schorr]] Kant tracta le natura subjective de qualitates e experientias esthetic in ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' (1764). Le contribution de Kant al theoria esthetic es disveloppate in le ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'' (1790), ubi ille investiga le possibilitate e le stato logic de "judicamentos de gusto". In le "Analytica del Belle", le prime division major del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant usa le termino "esthetic" in un maniera que se approxima a su senso moderne.<ref>Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", ''[[https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf](https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf) Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'', volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024</ref> In le ''[[Critica del Ration Pure]]'', pro notar le differentias essential inter judicamentos de gusto, judicamentos moral e judicamentos scientific, Kant abandona le termino "esthetic" como designante le critica del gusto, notante que le judicamentos de gusto nunquam pote esser "dirigite" per "leges ''a priori''".<ref>Kant, ''CPuR'' A22/B36</ref> Post [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]], qui scribeva ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),{{efn|Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (Vide etiam: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.}} Kant esseva un del prime philosophos a developpar e integrar le theoria aesthetic in un systema philosophic unificate e comprehensibile, utilisante ideas que habeva un rolo integral in tote su philosophia.<ref>German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Belle" del ''[[Critica del Judicio|Critica del potentia de judicar]]'', Kant dice que le beltate non es un proprietate de un obra de arte o de un phenomeno natural, sed plus tosto le conscientia del placer que accompania le "libere joco" del imagination e del intellecto. Ben que il pare que nos usa le ration pro decider lo que es belle, le judicio non es un judicio cognitive,{{efn|Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.}} "e per consequentia non logic, sed aesthetic".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §1</ref> Un judicio pure de gusto es subjective pois que illo se refere al responsa emotional del subjecto e es fundate solmente super le appreciation del objecto ipse: illo es un placer disinteressate, e nos senti que le judicios pure de gusto (i.e., judicios de beltate) reclama validitate universal.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§ 20–22</ref> Iste validitate universal non deriva de un concepto determinate de beltate, sed de le ''senso commun''.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §40</ref> Kant credeva anque que un judicio de gusto comparti characteristicas con un judicio moral: ambes es disinteressate, e nos considera les universalmente valide.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §59</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guyer |first=Paul |title=Kant and the Claims of Taste |year=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674500358 |pages=15–20}}</ref> In le capitulo "Analytica del Sublime", Kant identifica le [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] como un qualitate aesthetic que, como le beltate, es subjective, sed que, a differentia del beltate, se refere a un relation indeterminate inter le facultates del imagination e del ration. Illo comparti anque le character del judicamentos moral in su implication del ration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clewis |first=Robert R. |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521760867 |pages=48–52}}</ref> Le sentimento del sublime, dividite in duo modos distincte (le sublime mathematic e le sublime dynamic),<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §24</ref> describe duo momentos subjective concernente le relation del facultate del imagination al ration. Alcun commentatores sustene que le philosophia critic de Kant contine un tertie typo del sublime, le sublime moral, que es le responsa aesthetic al lege moral o a un representation, e un disveloppamento del sublime "nobile" in le theoria de Kant de 1764.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=[http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=[http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US](http://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US) |url-status=live }}</ref> Le sublime mathematic resulta del fallimento del imagination a comprender objectos natural que appare sin limites e sin forma, o que appare "absolute grande".<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§23–25</ref> Iste fallimento imaginative es alora recuperate per le placer prendite in le assertion del ration del concepto de infinito. In iste movimento le facultate del ration prova esser superior a nostre fallibile self sensibile.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§25–26</ref> In le sublime dynamic, il ha le senso de annihilation del self sensibile quando le imagination tenta comprender un potentia enorme. Iste potentia del natura nos mena, sed per le resistentia del ration a tal annihilation sensibile, le subjecto senti un placer e un senso del vocation moral human. Iste appreciation del sentimento moral per medio del exposition al [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] adjuta a developpar le character moral.<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §§28–29</ref> Kant developpava un theoria del [[Humor|humor]],<ref>Kant, ''CPJ'' §54</ref> que ha essite interpretate como un theoria del "incongruentia". Il illustrava su theoria del humor per narrar tres scherzos in le ''Critica del Judicio''. Il pensava que le impacto physiologic del humor es simile a illo del musica.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jakobidze-Gitman|first=Alexander|title=Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking|journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies|year=2020|volume=10|pages=17–33|doi=10.25364/24.10:2020.2}}</ref> Kant developpava un distinction inter un objecto de arte como valor material subjecte al conventiones del societate e le condition transcendental del judicio de gusto como un valor "refinate" in su ''Idea pro un Historia Universal con un Fin Cosmopolita'' (1784). In le Quarte e Quinte Theses de iste obra ille identificava tote arte como le "fructos del insociabilitate" debite al "antagonismo in societate" del homines<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:20–22</ref> e, in le Septime These, affirmava que, ben que tal proprietate material es indicative de un stato civilisate, sol le ideal del moralitate e le universalisation del valor refine per le melioration del mente "appartene a cultura".<ref>Kant, ''UH'' 8:24–26.</ref> ===Anthropologia=== Kant faceva lectiones super [[Historia del anthropologia|anthropologia]], le studio del natura human, durante vinti-tres annos.<ref><nowiki>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=</nowiki>[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils) |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791468494 |page=[[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21](https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21<nowiki>) 7]}}</nowiki></ref> Su ''[[Anthropologia ab un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' esseva publicate in 1798. Transcriptiones del lectiones de Kant super anthropologia esseva publicate pro le prime vice in 1997 in germano.<ref>Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).</ref> Kant esseva inter le prime personas de su epocha a introducer le anthropologia como area intellectual de studio, multo ante que le campo deveniva popular, e su textos es considerate como habente facite progressar le campo. Su puncto de vista influentiava le obras de philosophos posterior como [[Martin Heidegger]] e [[Paul Ricœur]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piercey |first1=Robert |last2=Philosophy Documentation Center |date=2011 |title=Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism |url=[http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection](http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection) |journal=Idealistic Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.5840/idstudies201141315 |issn=0046-8541|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva le prime a suggerer le uso de un approccio dimensional al diversitate human. Il analysava le natura del [[Hippocrate]]-[[Galen]] [[quatro temperamentos]] e representava in duo dimensiones "lo que pertine al facultate del desiderio de un esser human": "su aptitude natural o disposition natural" e "su temperamento o sensibilitate".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:285</ref> Le colericos esseva describite como emotional e energetic, le flemmaticos como equilibrate e debile, le sanguinees como equilibrate e energetic, e le melancholicos como emotional e debile. Iste duo dimensiones reapparer in tote le modelos subsequente de temperamento e tractos de personalitate. Kant considerava le anthropologia in duo grande categorias: (1) le approccio physiologic, que ille appellava "lo que le natura face del esser human"; e (2) le approccio pragmatic, que explora le cosas que un human "pote e debe facer de se ipse".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:119</ref> ====Vistas super le racia==== Le theoria de Kant super le racia e su opiniones prejudicial es inter le areas le plus controverse del recerca kantian recente.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1438443614 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany, New York |pages=12–30 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zorn |first=Daniel-Pascal |title=Kant—a Racist? |url=[https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/](https://public-history-weekly.org/8-2020-8/kant-a-racist/) |journal=Public History Weekly |year=2020 |volume=2020 |issue=8 |doi=10.1515/phw-2020-17156 |s2cid=225247836 |issn=2197-6376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}<!-- <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleingeld |first=Pauline |date=October 2007 |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/KLEKST |journal=Philosophical Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=229 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x}}</ref>--> Ben que pauc, si alcun, contesta le racismo manifeste e le chauvinismo presente in su obra, un question plus contestate es le grado in le qual illo degrada o invalida su altere contributiones. Su criticos le plus sever asserta que Kant manipulava intentionalmente le scientia pro supportar le sclavitude e le discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eze |first=Emmanuel |chapter=The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology |date=1997 |url=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO](https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO) |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |pages=103–140 |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |publisher=Blackwell |access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serequeberhan |first=T. |date=1996 |title=Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant |journal=The Philosophical Forum |s2cid=170547963 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Alteres recognosce que ille viveva in un epocha de scientia immatur, con multe credentias erronee, alcun racist, tote apparente decennios ante le evolution, le genetica molecular e altere scientias que hodie es considerate como evidente.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts |url=[https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962](https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962) |access-date=20 April 2023 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geismann |first=Georg |date=1 January 2022 |title=Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist' |url=[https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist](https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist) |journal=Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=263–357 |doi=10.3790/jre.30.1.263 |s2cid=255676303 |issn=0944-4610|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kant esseva un del pensatores plus notabile del [[Illuminismo]] a defender le racismo. Le philosopho [[Charles W. Mills]] es inequivoc: "Kant es etiam considerate como un del figuras central in le nascentia del racismo 'scientific' moderne. Dum altere contributores al pensamento racial precoce como Carolus Linnaeus e Johann Friedrich Blumenbach habeva offerite solmente observationes 'empiric' (virgulettes de cautela necessari!), Kant produceva un ''theoria'' complete del racia."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112|p=95}} Exemplos de su commentarios racistas pote esser trovate in ''Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime'', ubi ille rejecta le opinion de un "carpintero negro" dicente:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-71113-5 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}</ref> <blockquote>Il poterea haber hic qualcosa digne de consideration, excepto le facto que <u>iste scelerato esseva completemente nigre de capite a pede, un prova distincte que lo que ille diceva esseva stupide</u>.</blockquote>Il usa etiam assertiones de [[David Hume|Hume]] pro formular opiniones raciste:<ref name=":3" /> <blockquote>Le negros de Africa <u>ha per natura nulle sentimento que se eleva supra le ridiculo</u>. Sr. Hume provoca quicunque a citar un sol exemplo ubi un negro ha demonstrate talentos, e asserta que inter le centos de milles de negros que ha essite transportate alterubi ab lor paises, ben que multes de illes ha essite liberate, tamen <u>nulle ha unquam essite trovate qui ha accomplishite alque grande in le arte o in le scientia o monstrate ulle altere qualitate digne de laude, durante que inter le blancos il ha sempre illes qui se eleva del plus basse plebe e per dons extraordinari gania le respecto del mundo. Assi essential es le differentia inter iste duo typos human, e illo pare esser tanto grande con respecto al capacitate del mente como con respecto al color.</u> Le religion del fetiches, que es diffundite inter illes, es forsan un sorta de idolatria, que cade tanto profundemente in le ridiculo como pare esser possibile pro le natura human. Un penna de ave, un corno de vacca, un concha, o qualcunque altere cosa commun, tosto que illo es consecrate con certe parolas, deveni un objecto de veneration e de invocation durante le juramentos. <u>Le negros es multo vanitose, ma al maniera del Negro, e assi loquace que illes debe esser separate le unes ab le alteres per colpos.</u></blockquote> Il deride etiam le costumes de terras non-europee como China, India, Japon e Arabia. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>In Peking, quando il ha un eclipse del sol o del luna, illes continua ancora le ceremonia de expeller con un grande strepito le dracon que devorarea iste corpos celeste, e <u>illes conserva un costume miserabile ab le plus ancian tempores de ignorantia</u>, ben que ora on es melior informate.</blockquote> In su ''De le differente racias del homine'', ille usa multo de racismo scientific pro describer differente racias. Un exemplo es:<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2016 |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=[https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/](https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/) |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=Black Central Europe |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>Le profusion de particulas de ferro que se trova altrimenti in le sanguine de omne esser human, e que, in iste caso, es precipitate in le substantia reticulate per le evaporation del acido phosphoric (<u>lo que explica proque tote le negros ha mal odor</u>), es le causa del nigritie que brilla trans le epidermide. Le pesante contento de ferro in le sanguine pare etiam esser necessari pro impedir le debilitamento de tote le partes del corpore. Le pelle oleose, que debilita le mucus nutritive necessari al crescimento del capillos, permitte a pena le production del lana que coper le testa. <u>In plus, le calor humide generalmente promove le forte crescimento del animales.</u> In breve, tote iste factores explica le origine del Negro, <u>qui es ben adaptate a su clima, isto es, forte, carnal e agile.</u> Tamen, proque ille es assi abundantemente provite per su terra natal, <u>ille es etiam pigre, indolente e morose.</u></blockquote> Pro justificar le superioritate del blancos, ille scribe in le mesme essay:<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>Inter le blancos, tamen, iste acidos e le contento alkaline volatile non es reflectite del toto proque le ferro in le liquores corporee ha essite dissolvite, monstrante assi tanto le <u>perfecte mixtura del liquores como le fortia de iste stirpe human in comparation con alteres.</u></blockquote> Usante le [[quatro temperamentos]] del Grecia antique, Kant proponeva un hierarchia de categorias racial includente europeos blancos, africanos negros e americanos indigenas.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |chapter=On the Different Races of Man |title=Race and the Enlightenment: a reader |url=https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=063120136X |editor-last=Eze |editor-first=Emmanuel Chukwudi |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceenlightenmen0000unse/page/38 38]–49 |oclc=34663347 |orig-date=1775, 1777}}</ref> Ben que ille esseva un defensor del [[racismo scientific]] durante le major parte de su carriera, le opiniones de Kant super le racia cambiava significantemente durante le ultime decennio de su vita, e ille finalmente rejectava le [[colonialismo]] europee in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795), e possibilemente abandonava su opiniones super le hierarchias racial tamben (ben que ille nunquam los repudiava explicitemente).{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}}{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=91–112}}<ref name=":2" />{{efn|Kant scribeva que "[Le blancos] contine tote le impulsos del natura in affectiones e passiones, tote le talentos, tote le dispositiones al cultura e civilisation e pote tanto facilemente obedir como governar. Illes es le sol personas qui sempre progresse verso le perfection." Il describe le sud-asiaticos como "educate al grado le plus alte ma solmente in le artes e non in le scientias". Il dice que le Hindustanis nunquam pote attinger le nivello del conceptos abstracte e que un "grande hindustani" es un qui ha "progresso multo in le arte del deception e possede multe moneta". Il affirma que le hindus remane sempre como illes es e nunquam pote progressar. Super le africanos negros, Kant scribeva que "illos pote esser educate ma solmente como servientes, isto es, illes se lassa formar". Pro Kant, "le Negro pote esser disciplinate e cultivate, ma nunquam es vermente civilisate. Il cade de su proprie accordo in le savagitate." Super le americanos indigenas, Kant opinava que illes "non pote esser educate". Il los appellava immotivate, carente de affection, passion e amor, e los describerea como troppo debile pro labor, inapte a ulle cultura, e troppo [[Quatro temperamentos|flemmatic]] pro diligentia. Il diceva que le americanos indigenas es "multo infra le Negro, qui sin dubita occupa le plus basse de tote le nivellos restante per le quales nos designa le differente racias". Kant declarava que "le americanos e le negros non pote governar se mesme. Illes servi assi solmente como sclavos."{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=169–193}}{{sfn|Bowersox|2016}}}} Kant esseva un adversario del [[Miscegenation|miscigenation]], credente que le blancos esserea "degradate" e que le "fusion de racias" es indesirabile, proque "non cata racia adopta le costumes e le mores del europeos". Il declara que "in loco del assimilation, que esseva intendite per le mixtura del varie racias, le natura ha hic facite un lege justo del contrario".<ref>Kant ''APPV'' 7:320</ref> Kant esseva etiam un antisemita, credente que le [[Judaeos|judeos]] esseva incapace de transcender le fortias material, lo que un ordine moral exigeva. In iste maniera, le judeos es presentate como le contrario de christianos autonome e rational, e ergo incapace de esser incorporate in un societate christian etic. In su "Anthropologia", Kant appellava le judeos "un nation de fraudatores" e los representava como "un gruppo que ha sequite non le via del libertate transcendental ma illo del sclavitude al mundo material".{{sfn|Shrage|2019}} Mills scribeva que Kant ha essite "purificate pro le consumption public"; su obras raciste esseva convenientemente ignorate.{{sfn|Mills|2017|pp=95–97}} [[Robert Bernasconi]] affirmava que Kant "forniva le prime definition scientific de racia". [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]] es creditate con haber portate al lumine le contributiones de Kant al racismo durante le annos 1990 inter le philosophos occidental, qui, secundo ille, frequentemente dissimulava iste parte de su vita e obra.{{sfn|Bouie|2018}} Pauline Kleingeld argumenta que, ben que Kant "defendeva un hierarchia racial al minus usque al fin del annos 1780", su opiniones super le racia cambiava significantemente in obras publicate durante le ultime decennio de su vita. In particular, illa argumenta que Kant rejectava opiniones anterior ligate al hierarchias racial e al derectos o statuto moral diminuite de non-blancos in ''[[Pace perpetue: un projecto philosophic|Pace perpetue]]'' (1795). Iste obra contineva etiam argumentos extensive contra le [[colonialismo]] europee, que ille declarava moralmente injuste e incompatibile con le derectos equal possedite per le populationes indigene. Kleingeld argumenta que iste cambio in le opiniones de Kant plus tarde in su vita ha essite frequentemente oblidate o ignorate in le litteratura super le anthropologia raciste de Kant, e que le cambio suggere un recognition tardive del facto que le hierarchia racial esseva incompatibile con un quadro moral universalitate.{{sfn|Kleingeld|2007|pp=573–592}} Ben que le rhetoric raciste de Kant es indicative del stato del erudition e del scientia in le XVIII seculo, le philosopho german [[Daniel-Pascal Zorn]] explica le risco de prender citationes del epocha foras de lor contexto. Multe del citationes le plus outrageous de Kant proveni ab un serie de articulos de 1777–1788, un intercambio public inter Kant, Herder, le scientista natural [[Georg Forster]], e altere eruditos eminente de ille epocha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings |date=2013 |others=Jon M. Mikkelsen |isbn=978-1461943129 |editor-last=Mikkelsen |editor-first=Jon M. |location=Albany |oclc=861693001 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|pp=298–301, 343–345}}<ref>cf. Kant, ''DCHR'' 8:91–106</ref> Kant affirma que tote le racias del humanitate es del mesme specie, contestante le position de Forster e alteres que le racias esseva species distincte. Ben que su commentario es clarmente partial in alcun casos, certe assertiones extreme esseva specialmente formulate pro paraphrasar o contradir Forster e altere autores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Considerante le arco complete del erudition de Kant, Zorn nota le progression tanto in su obras philosophic como anthropologic, "con le qual ille argumenta, contra le ''zeitgeist'', pro le unitate del humanitate".<ref name=":1" /> ==== Vistas super le feminas ==== Le opiniones de Kant super le feminas pote esser trovate in su obras como ''Observationes'' (1764) e ''Anthropologia'' (1798), in le quales, negante al feminas le plen capacitate pro principios moral e le equal stato civic, ille los tracta como moralmente e politicemente subordinate al homines, e non como agentes complete in lor proprie derecto. Kant credeva que homines e feminas es naturalmente differente e debe sviluppar differente typos de excellentia: le homines es characterisate per ration, principios e le "sublime", durante que le feminas es characterisate per sentimento, beltate e sensibilitate. Il susteneva que le feminas es intelligente, ma credeva que illas non age secundo principios moral abstracte in le mesme maniera que le homines; in vice de isto, illas possede un "belle virtute" fundate super sympathia, cura e judicio emotional plus tosto que super deber rational. In su obra precoce ille videva iste virtute feminine como valorose e socialmente benefic, ma in su scriptos posterior ille negava sempre plus le capacitate del feminas pro ver autonomia moral, argumentante que solmente le action rational governate per principios constitue le plen virtute. Como resultato, Kant veniva a considerar le feminas como inadapte al plen equalitate moral e politic, assignante les un rolo principal in le matrimonio, le harmonia social e le refinamento del societate, plus tosto que in un vita moral o civic independente.<ref name=":3" /> ==Influentia e hereditage== [[File:300Jahrfeier.jpg|thumb|Poster celebrante le 300 annos del [[Universitate de Königsberg]], 1844. Inter alteres, Kant e [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] es honorate.]] Le influentia de Kant super le pensamento occidental ha essite profunde.{{efn|Oliver A. Johnson asserta que, "con le possibile exception del ''Republica'' de Plato, (''Critica del ration pur'') es le libro philosophic le plus importante jam scripte." Articulo super Kant in le collection ''Great thinkers of the Western World'', Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.}} Ben que le principios basic del [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant (isto es, que le spatio e le tempore es formas ''a priori'' del perception human plus tosto que proprietates real e le assertion que le logica formal e le logica transcendental coincide) ha essite declarate false per le scientia e le logica moderne,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|year=1966|url=https://archive.org/details/boundsofsenseess0000stra_u5x0|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html|access-date=2 September 2020|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live|accessdate=25 August 2026|archivedate=9 August 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html}}]()</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mind_1985-10_94_376/page/596|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> e non determina plus le agenda intellectual del philosophos contemporanee, Kant es creditate con haber innovate le maniera in que le investigation philosophic esseva effectuate al minus usque al initio del dece-none seculo.<!--not very long! early twentieth?--> Iste cambio consisteva de plure innovationes intimemente relationate que, ben que multo controverse in se mesme, deveniva importante in philosophia ulterior e in le scientias social in senso large: * Le subjecto human vidite como le centro del investigation del cognoscentia human, de sorta que es impossibile philosophar super cosas como illos existe independentemente del perception human o de como illos es "pro nos";<ref>Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1](https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1) |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref> * le notion que il es possibile discoperir e explorar systematicamente le limites inherente del capacitate human de cognoscer completemente ''a priori''; * le notion del "imperative categoric", un assertion que le personas es naturalmente dotate del capacitate e del obligation verso le recte ration e le action. Forsan su citation le plus famose es prendite del ''Critica del ration practic'': "Duo cosas plen mi mente de admiration e reverentia sempre nove e crescente ... : ''le celo stellate supra me e le lege moral intra me''";<ref>Kant, ''CPracR'' 5:161</ref> * le concepto de "conditiones de possibilitate", como in su notion del "conditiones del experientia possibile"; isto es, que cosas, cognoscentia e formas de conscientia se basa super conditiones precedente que los rende possibile, de sorta que, pro comprender o cognoscer los, plure conditiones debe esser comprendite: ** le assertion que le experientia objective es activemente constituite o construite per le functionamento del mente human; ** le concepto del autonomia moral como central al humanitate; e ** le assertion del principio que le esseres human debe esser tractate como fines e non simplemente como medios. * le [[Distinction analytic–synthetic|distinction analytic-synthetic]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction | date=2023 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic/#Kan) }}</ref> Le ideas de Kant ha essite incorporate in un varietate de scholas de pensamento. Illos include [[Idealismo german|idealismo german]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Beiser |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick C. Beiser |title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanidealismst0000beis |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0674007703 |pages=Part I}}</ref> [[Marxismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism after Marx |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=1998 |isbn=978-0333738399 |pages=22–25}}</ref> [[Positivismo|positivismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kolakowski |first=Leszek |title=Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle |url=https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1972 |isbn=0140212248 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/positivistphilos0000koak/page/67 67]–69}}</ref> [[Phenomenologia (philosophia)|phenomenologia]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Carman |first=Taylor |title=Merleau-Ponty |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0415360616 |pages=34–36}}</ref> [[Existentialismo|existentialismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301 |publisher=Meridian Books |date=1989 |isbn=978-0452009301 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780452009301/page/n10 9]–12}}</ref> [[Theoria critic|theoria critic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe |publisher=MIT Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0745608303 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philosophicaldis0000habe/page/109 109]–113}}</ref> [[Philosophia linguistic|philosophia linguistic]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dummett |first=Michael |title=Origins of Analytical Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0674644731 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/page/45 45]–47}}</ref> [[Structuralismo|structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=Jean |title=Structuralism |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |isbn=978-0415262491 |pages=10–12}}</ref> [[Poststructuralismo|post-structuralismo]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Norris |first=Christopher |title=Deconstruction: Theory and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr |publisher=Routledge |date=2003 |isbn=978-0415061742 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deconstructionth00norr/page/40 40]–42}}</ref> e [[Deconstruction|deconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Culler |first=Jonathan |title=On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0801479182 |pages=53–56}}</ref> ===Influentia historic=== [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statua de Kant in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. Replica per {{Interlanguage link|Harald Haacke|de}} del original per [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], que esseva perdite in 1945.]] Durante su proprie vita, multo attention critic esseva dedicate al pensamento de Kant. Il influentiava [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], e [[Novalis]] durante le annos 1780 e 1790. [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] esseva grandemente influentiate per Kant e adjutava a diffunder le cognoscentia de ille, e del Idealismo german in general, in le Regno Unite e le Statos Unite. In su ''[[Biographia Literaria]]'' (1817), ille attribue al ideas de Kant su conviction que le mente non es un agente passive, ma un agente active in le apprehension del realitate. Hegel esseva un del prime grande criticos de Kant. Secundo Hegel, le integre projecto de separar un "subjecto transcendental" (isto es, le conscientia human) tanto del individuo vivente como del natura, historia e societate esseva fundamentalmente defective,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> ben que partes de ille projecto poteva esser utilisate in un nove direction. Concernements similar motivava le criticas de Hegel del concepto de autonomia moral de Kant, al qual Hegel opponeva un ethica centrate super le "vita ethic" del communitate.{{efn|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences''. trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right''. Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right''. trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.}} In un senso, le notion de Hegel del "vita ethic" es intendite a includer, plus tosto que reimplaciar, le [[Ethica kantian|ethica kantian]]. E Hegel pote esser vidite como attemptante defender le idea de libertate de Kant como un superar le "desiderios" finite per medio del ration. Assi, in contrasto con criticos ulterior como Nietzsche o Russell, Hegel comparti alcun del preoccupationes de Kant.{{efn|Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.}} Le pensamento de Kant super le religion esseva usate in Britannia per philosophos como [[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cody |first=David |date= |title=Carlyle: Sources and Influence |url=[https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html](https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html) |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Victorian Web}}</ref> pro contestar le declino del fide religiose in le dece-none seculo. Autores catholic britanno, notabilemente [[G. K. Chesterton]] e [[Hilaire Belloc]], sequeva iste approccio.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morse |first=David |title=The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0333913918 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofvirtuebriti0000davi/page/198 198]–200}}</ref> Criticas de Kant esseva commun in le vistas realista del nove [[Positivismo|positivismo]] de ille tempore. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] esseva fortemente influentiate per le [[Idealismo transcendental|idealismo transcendental]] de Kant. Como [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]] e Fichte ante ille, Schopenhauer esseva critic de le theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Le cosas-in-se, illes argumentava, non es ni le causa de lo que nos observa, ni completemente foras de nostre accesso. Desde le ''Critica del ration pur'', philosophos ha essite criticos del theoria de Kant del cosa-in-se. Multes ha argomentate que, si un tal cosa existe ultra le experientia, alora on non pote postular que illo nos affice causalmente, proque isto implicarea extender le categoria "causalitate" ultra le dominio del experientia.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} Con le successo e le large influentia del scriptos de Hegel, le proprie influentia de Kant comenciava a declinar, ma un reevaluation de su ideas comenciava in Germania in 1865 con le publication de ''Kant und die Epigonen'' per [[Otto Liebmann]], cu motto esseva "Retro a Kant". Il sequeva un importante renascentia del philosophia theoric de Kant, cognoscite como [[Neo-kantianismo|neo-kantianismo]]. Le notion de Kant del "critica" ha essite plus largemente influente. Le prime romanticos german, specialmente [[Friedrich Schlegel]] in su "Fragmentos de Athenaeum", usava le conception reflexive de Kant del critica in lor theoria romantic del poesia.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> In le [[aesthetica]] tamben, [[Clement Greenberg]], in su essay classic "Modernist Painting", usa le critica kantian, que Greenberg appella "critica immanente", pro justificar le objectivos del [[Arte abstracte|pictura abstracte]], un movimento que Greenberg videva como consciente del limitation clave — le planitate — que constitue le medio del pictura.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> Le philosopho francese [[Michel Foucault]] esseva etiam grandemente influentiate per le notion de Kant de "critica" e scribeva plure textos super Kant pro reexaminar le Illuminismo como un forma de "pensamento critic". Il iva usque a classificar su proprie philosophia como un "historia critic del modernitate, radicate in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref> Kant credeva que le veritates mathematic es formas de cognoscentia [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']], lo que significa que illos es necessari e universal, ma cognoscite per le intuition ''a priori'' del spatio e del tempore, como preconditiones transcendental del experientia.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Le commentarios frequentemente breve de Kant super le [[Mathematica|mathematica]] influentiava le schola mathematic cognoscite como [[Intuitionismo|intuitionismo]], un movimento in le [[philosophia del mathematica]] opponite al [[Formalismo (mathematica)|formalismo]] de [[David Hilbert]] e al [[Logicismo|logicismo]] de [[Gottlob Frege]] e [[Bertrand Russell]].{{efn|[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.}} ===Influentia super pensatores moderne=== [[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|upright|Marca postalde [[Germania Occidental]], 1974, commemorante le 250me anniversario del nascentia de Kant]] Con su ''Pace perpetue'', Kant es considerate como habente prefigurate multe del ideas que veniva a formar le [[theoria del pace democratic]], un del principal controversias in le [[scientia politic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm|archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27|doi-access=|url-access=subscription}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |date=17 February 2008 }}</ref> Plus concretemente, le theorista constructivista [[Alexander Wendt]] proponeva que le anarchia del systema international pote evolver ab le anarchia hobbesian "brutal" comprendite per le theoristas realista, trans [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], per le anarchia lockean, e finalmente verso un anarchia kantian in le qual le estados vidererea lor interesses proprie como inseparabilemente ligate al benesser de altere estados, transformante assi le politica international in un forma multo plus pacific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wendt |first=Alexander |title=Social Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryofin0000wend_z8x6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |pages=chapter 6}}</ref> Inter le kantians prominente recente se trova le philosophos britanno [[P. F. Strawson]],{{efn|Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.}} [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=14 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> e [[Quassim Cassam]],<ref>Cassam, Q. ''The Possibility of Knowledge'' Oxford: 2009</ref> e le philosophos american [[Wilfrid Sellars]],<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes''. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> [[Lewis White Beck]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ijpj1tB3Qr0C&q=lEWIS+wHITE+bECK#v=snippet&q=lEWIS%20wHITE%20bECK&f=false ''Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers''. Shook, John R. Ed. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol], 2005 p. 166 {{ISBN|9781843710370}} Lewis White Beck on Google Books</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806211_Lewis_White_Beck_on_Reasons_and_Causes "Lewis White Beck On Reasons and Causes", Guyer, Paul. ''Journal on the History of Ideas'' July, 2002 63 (3) pp. 539–548 Lewis White Beck on researchgate.net]</ref> e [[Christine Korsgaard]].{{efn|Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.{{ISBN|978-0521496445}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''.}} A causa del influentia de Strawson e Sellars, inter alteres, il ha habite un renovate interesse in le conception de Kant del mente. Central a multe debattos in le [[philosophia del psychologia]] e le [[scientia cognitiv]] es le conception de Kant del unitate del conscientia. [[Jürgen Habermas]] e [[John Rawls]] es duo importante philosophos politic e moral cuje obra es fortemente influentiate per le philosophia moral de Kant.{{efn|See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action''. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.}} Illes ha argomentate contra le [[relativismo]],<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): ''Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148.</ref> supportante le opinion kantian que le universalitate es essential a omne philosophia moral viabile. Le studio de [[Mou Zongsan]] super Kant ha essite citate como un parte multo crucial in le disveloppamento del philosophia personal de Mou, specialmente le [[Neo-confucianismo|Neo-confucianismo]]. Largemente considerate le studioso de Kant le plus influente in China, le critique rigorose de Mou del philosophia de Kant — habente traducite le tres [[Critica del ration pur|criticas]] de Kant — serviva como un attempto ardente de reconciliar le philosophia chinese e occidental durante que illo accresceva le pression pro [[Westernization|occidentalisation]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |year= 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3110226249|page=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing-Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=21 February 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref> [[File:Kant-Münze DDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Moneta commemorative del [[Germania Oriental|Germania Oriental]] in honor de Kant, 1974]] A causa del profunditate del cambio de paradigma de Kant, su influentia se extende multo ultra isto a pensatores qui ni refere specificamente a su obra ni usa su terminologia. Le influentia de Kant se extendeva al scientias social, comportamental e physic — como in le sociologia de [[Max Weber]], le psychologia de [[Jean Piaget]] e [[Carl Jung]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BALIKA.pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status= }}</ref> Le obra de Kant super mathematica e cognoscentia synthetic ''a priori'' es etiam citate per le physico theoric [[Albert Einstein]] como un influentia precoce super su disveloppamento intellectual, ben que illo esseva un influentia que ille plus tarde criticava e rejectava.<ref>Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20.</ref> In le annos 2020, il ha essite un interesse renovate in le theoria de Kant super le mente ab le puncto de vista del [[logica formal]] e del [[informatica]].<ref>Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', ''The Review of Symbolic Logic'', 4 (2011), 254–289.</ref> ===Lista de obras major=== Abbreviationes usate in le corpore del articulo es in '''grasse''' inter consolas. Salvo indication contraire, le pagination es celle del edition critic ''Akademie'', que pote esser trovate in le margines del traductiones de Cambridge. * 1749: ''[[Pensamentos super le estimation ver de fortias vivente]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'') * 1755: ''[[Historia natural universal e theoria del celos]]'' ['''UNH'''] ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels}}) * 1755: ''Breve esquisse de certe meditationes super le foco'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[thesis de magistro]] sub [[Johann Gottfried Teske]])<ref>The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).</ref><ref>Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.</ref><ref>Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.</ref><ref>Available [[https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html](https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html) |date=6 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1755: ''Un nove elucidation del principios prime de cognition metaphysic'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[thesis doctoral]]))<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).</ref> * 1756: ''Le uso in philosophia natural de metaphysica combinate con geometria, parte I: Monadologia physic'' ['''PM'''] (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviate como ''Monadologia Physica'' ([[thesis de habilitation]] como requisito pro un position de [[professor extraordinari]]))<ref>Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).</ref> * 1762: ''[[Le false subtilitate del quatro figuras syllogistic]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'') * 1763: ''[[Le sol argumento possibile in supporto de un demonstration del existentia de Deo]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'') * 1763: ''Tentativa de introducer le concepto de magnitudes negative in philosophia'' ['''NQ'''] (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'') * 1764: ''[[Observationes super le sentimento del belle e del sublime]]'' ['''OFBS'''] (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'') * 1764: ''Essay super le morbo del capite'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'') * 1764: ''Investigation concernente le distinction del principios del theologia natural e del moralitate'' (le ''Essay premiate'') ['''PNTM'''] (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'') * 1766: ''[[Somnios de un visionario de spiritos]]'' ['''DSS'''] (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')<ref>Available [[https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant](https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant) online at Archive.org].</ref> * 1768: ''Super le fundamento ultime del differentiation del regiones in spatio'' [1768] (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')<ref>Immanuel Kant, [[https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU) |date=16 July 2018 }}.</ref> * 1770: ''Dissertation super le forma e principios del mundo sensibile e intelligibile'' ['''ID'''] (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' [thesis doctoral])<ref>The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).</ref><ref>Available [[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123) |date=3 August 2020 }}.</ref><ref>English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].</ref> * 1775: ''Super le differente racias del homines'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'') * 1781: Prime edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR A''']<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The](http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The) Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2](https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2) December 2008}}</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1783: ''[[Prolegomenos a omne metaphysica futur]]'' ['''PFM'''] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'') * 1784: "[[Un responsa al question: Quid es le Illumination?]]" ['''WE?'''] ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")<ref>{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=[http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1784: "[[Idea pro un historia universal con un fin cosmopolita]]" ['''UH'''] ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''") * 1785: "Determination del concepto de un racia human" ['''DCHR'''] (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'') * 1785: ''[[Fundamento del metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''G'''] (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'') * 1786: ''[[Fundamentos metaphysic del scientia natural]]'' ['''MFNS'''] (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'') * 1786: "Que significa orientar se in le pensar?" ['''OT'''] ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''") * 1786: ''[[Incipiente conjectural del historia human]]'' ['''CB'''] (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'') * 1787: Secunde edition del ''[[Critica del ration pur]]'' ['''CPuR B''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique](http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique) of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1788: ''[[Critica del ration practic]]'' ['''CPracR'''] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1790: ''[[Critica del judicio]]'' ['''CPJ'''] (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'') * 1793: ''[[Religion intra le limites del ration pur]]'' ['''RBMR'''] (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')<ref name="KReligion"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion](http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion) within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1793: ''Super le ancian proverbio: Que pote esser correcte in theoria, ma non functiona in le practica'' ['''TP'''] (''Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis'') * 1795: ''[[Pace perpetue: un esquisse philosophic]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mountr Holyoke |access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> ['''PP'''] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel](http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel) Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|date=24 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1797: ''[[Metaphysica del morales]]'' ['''MM'''] (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). Le prime parte es Le Doctrina del Jure, que ha sovente essite publicate separatemente como Le Scientia del Jure. * 1798: ''[[Anthropologia desde un puncto de vista pragmatic]]'' ['''APPV'''] (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'') * 1798: ''Conflictto del facultates'' ['''CF''']<ref>{{cite web|url=[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant](http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant), The Contest of Faculties|year=1798|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}})</ref> (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')<ref>{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel) Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}})</ref> * 1800: ''[[Logica]]'' (''Logik'') * 1803: ''Super pedagogia'' (''Über Pädagogik'')<ref>Available [[http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803](https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803) |date=10 March 2016 }}.</ref> * 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' ['''OP'''] * 1817: ''Lectiones super theologia philosophic'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'', editate per K. H. L. Pölitz) [Le edition anglese de A. W. Wood & G. M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) es basate super le secunde edition de Pölitz, 1830, de iste lectiones.]{{efn|As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.}} == Notas == <references group="lower-alpha"/> {{Ref}} == Bibliographia == === Introduction === * [[Gottfried Gabriel]]: ''Kant. Eine kurze Einführung in das Gesamtwerk.'' UTB, Paderborn 2022, ISBN 978-3-8252-5793-4. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biographie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-498-02491-4. * Stefan Gerlach: ''Immanuel Kant.'' UTB-Profile/A. Francke, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-7720-8393-8. * Jean Grondin: ''Kant zur Einführung.'' 3. Auflage. Junius, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-88506-363-8. * [[Otfried Höffe]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' 7. Auflage. Beck, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-45977-1. * [[Heiner F. Klemme]]: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Campus, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-593-37185-5. * Heiner F. Klemme, Ansgar Lorenz: ''Immanuel Kant. Philosophie für Einsteiger.'' Wilhelm Fink, Paderborn 2017, ISBN 978-3-7705-6044-8. * [[Georg Römpp]]: ''Kant leicht gemacht.'' 2. Auflage. UTB/Böhlau, Köln/Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2707-4. * Arno Schubbach: ''Immanuel Kant zur Einführung.'' Junius, Hamburg 2022, ISBN 978-3-96060-331-3. === Biographias === * [[Steffen Dietzsch]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Reclam, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-379-00806-0. * [[Manfred Geier]]: ''Kants Welt. Eine Biografie.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 2005, ISBN 3-499-61365-4. * Arsenij Gulyga: ''Immanuel Kant.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-518-45568-0. * {{BBKL | url=https://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629032840/http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/k/Kant.shtml |archivedate=2007-06-29 |autor=Karl Knauß|band=3|spalten=1020-1095}} * Manfred Kühn: ''Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-50918-5. * [[Wolfgang Ritzel]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Eine Biographie.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 3-11-010634-5. * [[Uwe Schultz]]: ''Immanuel Kant in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.'' Erweiterte Neuauflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50659-9. * [[Karl Vorländer]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/vorlaender-kant.html Immanuel Kant. Der Mann und das Werk].'' Meiner, Leipzig 1924. (3., erweiterte Auflage, Meiner, Hamburg 1992; Reprint: Fourier, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-932412-18-4) === Generalitates === * [[Josef Bohatec]]: ''Die Religionsphilosophie Kants in der Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer theologisch-dogmatischen Quellen.'' Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1938. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1966) * [[Ernst Cassirer]]: ''[http://www.archive.org/details/kantslebenundleh00cassuoft Kants Leben und Lehre].'' Berlin 1921. (Band 8 der ''Gesammelten Werke.'') Meiner, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-7873-1408-3. * [[Wolfgang Carl]]: ''Die transzendentale Deduktion der Kategorien in der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-465-02532-6. * [[Wolfgang Deppert]]: ''ZEIT – Die Begründung des Zeitbegriffs, seine notwendige Spaltung und der ganzheitliche Charakter seiner Teile.'' nz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-515-05219-4, S. 35–79 * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Individualistische Wirtschaftsethik.'' Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03585-3. * Wolfgang Deppert: ''Theorie der Wissenschaft.'' 4 Bände, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3658151232. * [[Farah Dustdar]]: ''Vom Mikropluralismus zu einem makropluralistischen Politikmodell. Kants wertgebundener Liberalismus'' (= ''[[Beiträge zur politischen Wissenschaft]].'' Band 115). Duncker und Humblot, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-428-09997-4. * [[Julius Ebbinghaus]]: ''Gesammelte Aufsätze, Vorträge und Reden.'' Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1968 (enthält die wichtigsten Aufsätze Ebbinghaus’ zu Kants theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie). * [[Norbert Fischer (Philosoph)|Norbert Fischer]] (Hrsg.): ''Kant und der Katholizismus – Stationen einer wechselhaften Geschichte.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-28507-3. * Norbert Fischer, [[Maximilian Forschner]] (Hrsg.): ''Die Gottesfrage in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants.'' Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-451-30135-3. * [[Volker Gerhardt]]: ''Immanuel Kant. Vernunft und Leben.'' Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-018235-2. * {{Literatur |Autor=Volker Gerhardt, Matthias Weber, Maja Schepelmann |Titel=Immanuel Kant 1724-2024: ein europäischer Denker|Verlag=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |Datum=2022 |Reihe=Schriften des Bundesinstituts für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im Östlichen Europa, 83 |ISBN=978-3-11-076281-5}} * Stefan Gerlach: ''Wie ist Freiheit möglich? Eine Untersuchung über das Lösungspotenzial zum Determinismusproblem in Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft.'' Francke, Tübingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7720-8360-0. * Ina Goy: ''Kants Theorie der Biologie. Ein Kommentar, eine Lesart, eine historische Einordnung'' (= Kant-Studien, Ergänzunghefte, Bd. 190). de Gruyter, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-047110-6. * Inan Goy (Hrsg.): ''Kant on proofs for God's existence.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2023, ISBN 978-3-11-068890-0. * Dietmar Heidemann, Kristina Engelhard (Hrsg.): ''Warum Kant heute? Systematische Bedeutung und Rezeption seiner Philosophie in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-11-017477-4. * [[Otfried Höffe]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003576-5. * Otfried Höffe: ''Königliche Völker. Zu Kants kosmopolitischer Rechts- und Friedenstheorie.'' Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-518-29119-X. * Otfried Höffe: ''Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Die Grundlegung der modernen Philosophie.'' Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-50919-3. * Dieter Hüning, Burkhard Tuschling (Hrsg.): ''Recht, Staat und Völkerrecht bei Immanuel Kant. Marburger Tagung zu Kants „Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Rechtslehre“.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09602-9. * [[Karl Jaspers]]: ''Kant. Leben, Werke, Wirkung.'' Piper, München 1975, ISBN 3-492-00424-5. * [[Wolfgang Kersting]]: ''Wohlgeordnete Freiheit. Immanuel Kants Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie.'' 3., erweiterte und bearbeitete Auflage. Mentis-Verlag, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-89785-587-8. * Nikolai F. Klimmek: ''Kants System der transzendentalen Ideen'' (= ''Kant-Studien, Ergänzungshefte.'' Band 147). De Gruyter, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-11-018349-8. * [[Rudolf Langthaler]] und Magnus Striet: ''Vernunftreligion statt Kirchenglaube? Kants unerledigte Anfragen an die Theologie''. Verlag Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2024, ISBN 978-3-451-02413-9. * Darius Koriako: ''Kants Philosophie der Mathematik. Grundlagen – Voraussetzungen – Probleme.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-7873-1429-6. * Günter Lottes, Uwe Steiner (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant. German Professor and World-Philosopher. Deutscher Professor und Weltphilosoph.'' Wehrhahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-86525-214-2. * [[Werner Moskopp]]: ''Struktur und Dynamik in Kants Kritiken. Kantstudien Ergänzungshefte.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021232-7. * Roland Mugerauer: ''Immanuel Kants transzendentaler Kritizismus und die Frage nach Gott: eine orientierende Skizze.'' Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag, Baden-Baden 2021, ISBN 978-3-8288-4711-8. * Robert Nehring: ''Kritik des Common Sense: Gesunder Menschenverstand, reflektierende Urteilskraft und Gemeinsinn – der Sensus communis bei Kant.'' Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13161-7. * [[Günther Patzig]]: ''Wie sind synthetische Urteile a priori möglich?'' In: Josef Speck (Hrsg.): ''Grundprobleme der großen Philosophen. Philosophie der Neuzeit II.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988, ISBN 3-525-03306-0. * Jannis Pissis: ''Kants transzendentale Dialektik.'' de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028156-9. * [[Hermann Schmitz (Philosoph)|Hermann Schmitz]]: ''Was wollte Kant?'' Bouvier, Bonn 1989, ISBN 3-416-02178-9. * Jürgen Stolzenberg (Hrsg.): ''Kant in der Gegenwart.'' De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-017529-5. * [[Dieter Sturma]], Karl Ameriks (Hrsg.): ''Kants Ethik.'' Mentis Verlag, Paderborn 2004, ISBN 3-89785-308-6. * [[Werner Thiede]] (Hrsg.): ''Glauben aus eigener Vernunft? Kants Religionsphilosophie und die Theologie.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-525-56703-0. * [[Marcus Willaschek]]: Kant: Die Revolution des Denkens. C. H. Beck, München 2023, ISBN 3-406-80743-7 === Critica === * [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]]: ''Kritik der theoretischen Philosophie,'' Band [https://books.google.de/books?id=sAUHAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 1] und [https://books.google.de/books?id=Is8AAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false 2], Hamburg 1801 (als Kommentar zur ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' angelegt; Kritik vom Standpunkt des britischen Empirismus). * [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]: ''[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Schopenhauer,+Arthur/Die+Welt+als+Wille+und+Vorstellung/Erster+Band/Anhang.+Kritik+der+Kantischen+Philosophie Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie].'' In: ''[[Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung]].'' (Erster Band. Anhang) * [[Broder Christiansen]]: ''Kantkritik. 1. Teil. Kritik der kantischen Erkenntnislehre.'' Clauss und Feddersen, Hanau 1911. * Bernward Gesang (Hrsg.): ''Kants vergessener Rezensent. Die Kritik der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie Kants in fünf frühen Rezensionen von [[Hermann Andreas Pistorius]].'' In: ''Kant-Forschungen.'' Bd. 18, Felix Meiner, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7873-1823-0, S. XI ([http://books.google.de/books?id=ZvhA6H7a2j8C&pg=PR11 Digitalisat]). * [[Otto Willmann]]: ''Geschichte des Idealismus, Band 3: Der Idealismus der Neuzeit.'' Scientia-Verlag, Aalen 1979, ISBN 3-511-03710-7 (Darin insbesondere: Kapitel XV: ''Die Subjektivierung des Idealen durch Kants Autonomismus''). * [[Engelbert Recktenwald]]: ''Gott, Freiheit und moralisches Gesetz. Kritische Untersuchungen zur Ethik Kants''. Verlag Karl Alber, Baden-Baden 2025, ISBN 978-3-495-98957-9. === Opus postumum === * [[Erich Adickes]]: ''Kants Opus postumum dargestellt und beurteilt.'' Reuther & Reichard, Berlin 1920 (Kant-Studien. Ergänzungshefte; Nr. 50). * [[Kurt Hübner (Philosoph)|Kurt Hübner]]: ''Leib und Erfahrung in Kants Opus postumum.'' In: Gerold Prauss (Hrsg.): ''Kant: Zur Deutung seiner Theorie von Erkennen und Handeln.'' Kiepenheuer und Witsch, Köln 1973, ISBN 3-462-00962-1, S. 192–204. * Dina Emundts: ''Kants Übergangskonzeption im „Opus postumum“. Zur Rolle des Nachlasswerkes für die Grundlegung der empirischen Physik'' (= ''Quellen und Studien zur Philosophie.'' Band 62). De Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018052-9. === Instrumentos auxiliare === * [[Rudolf Eisler (Philosoph)|Rudolf Eisler]]: ''[https://www.textlog.de/kant-lexikon.html Kant-Lexikon. Nachschlagewerk zu Kants sämtlichen Schriften, Briefen und handschriftlichem Nachlaß].'' Berlin 1930. (Reprint: Olms, Hildesheim 1984, ISBN 3-487-00744-4) * [[Heinz Heimsoeth]]: ''Astronomisches und Theologisches in Kants Weltverständnis'' (= ''Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz.'' Jahrgang 1963, Nr. 9). * [[Gerd Irrlitz]]: ''Kant-Handbuch. Leben und Werk.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-476-01234-4. * ''Kant im Kontext.'' III: ''Werke, Briefwechsel, Nachlass und Vorlesungen auf CD-ROM.'' Komplettausgabe 2007 von Immanuel Kant. InfoSoftWare, ISBN 978-3-932094-29-3. (2., erw. Auflage. 2009) * [[Rudolf Malter]] (Hrsg.): ''Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch.'' Meiner, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-7873-1382-6. * [[Carl Christian Erhard Schmid]]: ''Wörterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften.'' 4. Auflage Jena 1798 [http://books.google.de/books?id=3_YGAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Carl+Christian+Erhard+Schmid%22&hl=de&sa=X&ei=6v4sUdiSOYTk4QTy8oA4&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false (Google)] * ''Immanuel Kant: Die drei Kritiken in ihrem Zusammenhang mit dem Gesamtwerk.'' Mit einem verbindenden Text zusammengefasst von Raymund Schmidt. Leipzig 1933. * [[Marcus Willaschek]], Jürgen Stolzenberg, [[Georg Mohr (Philosoph)|Georg Mohr]], Stefano Bacin (Hrsg.): ''Kant-Lexikon.'' 3 Bände. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-017259-1. {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Categoria:Philosophos]] [[Categoria:Gente german]] [[Categoria:Philosophos politic]] n83fxwcr5ndgn9bs3d3xr7za71tngph 0 13069 699704 673336 2026-09-07T20:09:15Z ~2026-48432-83 61167 Some stuff at the beginning 699704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox entitate territorial administrative}} '''Boston''' es un citate en le [[Statos Unite de America|Statos Unite De America.]] Boston es le plus grande citate e le capital de [[Massachusetts]], in le [[contato Suffolk]]. Secundo le [[censo]] de [[2000]], le population del citate esseva {{formatnum:589141}} habitantes. [[Categoria:Citates in Massachusetts]] aus4xeiaegfavb7q3dj7zud1du7uz6o 10 14948 699714 329999 2026-09-08T06:41:16Z Tortoise0308 17411 Gran -> Grande 699714 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navbox |name = Colombia topics |state = <includeonly>{{{state|collapsed}}}</includeonly> |title = {{flagcountry|Colombia}} topics |groupstyle = padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em; <!--reduces wide gap between wrapped groupname lines--> |liststyle = padding:0.5em 0; line-height:1.4em; <!--otherwise lists can appear to form continuous whole--> |group1 = [[History of Colombia|History]] |list1 = {{Navbox subgroups |groupstyle = padding-left:1.7em; <!--so level with group3 subgroup names--> |liststyle = padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; <!--otherwise lists can appear to form continuous whole--> |group1 = [[Timeline of Colombian history|Timeline]] |list1 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Indigenous peoples in Colombia|Indigenous peoples]]{{·w}} [[Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations|Spanish conquest]]{{·w}} [[New Kingdom of Granada]]{{·w}} [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]]{{·w}} [[Bolívar's War]] ([[War of Independence of Grande Colombia|Independence]]){{·w}} [[United Provinces of New Granada]]{{·w}} [[Grande Colombia]]{{·w}} [[Republic of New Granada]]{{·w}} [[Granadine Confederation]]{{·w}} [[United States of Colombia]]{{·w}} [[Republic of Colombia]]{{·w}} [[Thousand Days War]]{{·w}} [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|Separation of Panama]]{{·w}} [[Colombia-Peru War]]{{·w}} ''[[La Violencia]]''{{·w}} [[National Front (Colombia)|National Front]]{{·w}} [[Colombian armed conflict (1964–present)|Current internal armed conflict]] {{nowrap end}} |group2 = By topic |list2 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Demographic history of Colombia|Demographic]]{{·w}} [[Economic history of Colombia|Economic]]{{·w}} [[Military history of Colombia|Military]]{{·w}} [[Natural history of Colombia|Natural]] {{nowrap end}} }} |group2 = [[Geography of Colombia|Geography]] |list2style = background:transparent;<!--(subgroups in use)--> |list2 = {{Navbox subgroups |groupstyle = padding-left:2.2em; <!--so level with group3 subgroup names--> |liststyle = padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; <!--otherwise lists can appear to form continuous whole--> |group1 = General |list1 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Geology of Colombia|Geology]]{{·w}} [[Natural Regions of Colombia|Natural Regions]] ([[Caribbean Region of Colombia|Caribbean]]{{·w}} [[Pacific Region of Colombia|Pacific]]{{·w}} [[Andean Region of Colombia|Andean]]{{·w}} [[Amazon Region of Colombia|Amazon]]{{·w}} [[Orinoquía Region of Colombia|Orinoquía]]{{·w}} [[Insular Region (Colombia)|Insular]]) {{nowrap end}} |group2 = By topic |list2 = {{nowrap begin}} [[List of cities in Colombia|Cities]]{{·w}} [[Climate of Colombia|Climate]]{{·w}} [[:Category:Mountain ranges of Colombia|Mountains]]{{·w}} [[:Category:Islands of Colombia|Islands]]{{·w}} [[List of rivers in Colombia|Rivers]]{{·w}} [[Fauna of Colombia|Fauna]]{{·w}} [[Flora of Colombia|Flora]]{{·w}} [[List of national parks of Colombia|Protected Areas]]{{·w}} [[Environmental issues in Colombia|Environmental issues]]{{·w}} [[Natural hazards in Colombia|Natural hazards]] {{nowrap end}} }} |group3 = [[Government of Colombia|Government]] |list3 = {{Navbox subgroups |liststyle = padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; <!--otherwise lists can appear to form continuous whole--> |group1 = [[Colombian Constitution|Constitution]] |list1 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Judicial System of Colombia|Law]]{{·w}} [[Colombian Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]{{·w}} [[Separation of Powers under the Colombian Constitution|Separation of Powers]] {{nowrap end}} |group2 = [[Executive Branch of Colombia|Executive]] |list2 = {{nowrap begin}} [[President of Colombia|President]]{{·w}} [[Vice President of Colombia|Vice President]]{{·w}} [[Council of Ministers of the Republic of Colombia|Council of Ministers]]{{·w}} [[Government entities of Colombia|Government agencies]] |group3 = [[Legislative Branch of Colombia|Legislative]] |list3 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Congress of Colombia|Congress]] ([[Senate of Colombia|Senate]]{{·w}} [[Chamber of Representatives of Colombia|Representatives]]) {{nowrap end}} |group4 = [[Judicial Branch of Colombia|Judicial]] |list4 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Superior Council of Judicature|Superior Council]]{{·w}} [[Attorney General of Colombia|Attorney General]]{{·w}} [[Colombian Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]{{·w}} [[Constitutional Court of Colombia|Constitutional Court]] {{nowrap end}} |group5 = [[Control Institutions in Colombia|Control]] |list5 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Controller General of Colombia|Controller General]]{{·w}} [[Ombudsman of Colombia|Ombudsman]]{{·w}} [[Auditor General of Colombia|Auditor General]]{{·w}} [[Inspector General of Colombia|Inspector General]] {{nowrap end}} }} |group4 = <!--[[Administrative divisions of Colombia|-->Administrative<br/>divisions<!--]]--> |list4 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Bogotá, Capital District|Capital District]]{{·w}} [[Departments of Colombia|Departments]]{{·w}} [[Municipalities of Colombia|Municipalities]]{{·w}} [[Corregimiento]]s {{nowrap end}} |group4 = [[Politics of Colombia|Politics]] |list4 = {{nowrap begin}} [[List of political parties in Colombia|Political parties]]{{·w}} [[Colombian electoral system|Electoral system]]{{·w}} [[Elections in Colombia|Elections]]{{·w}} [[Political ideologies in Colombia|Political ideologies]] ([[Liberalism in Colombia|Liberalism]]{{·w}} [[Conservatism in Colombia|Conservatism]]{{·w}} [[Guerrilla movements in Colombia|Guerrilla movements]]{{·w}} [[Paramilitarism in Colombia|Paramilitarism]]){{·w}} [[Political scandals of Colombia|Political scandals]] {{nowrap end}} |group5 = [[Economy of Colombia|Economy]] |list5 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Agriculture in Colombia|Agriculture]]{{·w}} [[Banking in Colombia|Banking]]{{·w}} [[Bank of the Republic (Colombia)|Central Bank]]{{·w}} [[Communications in Colombia|Communications]]{{·w}} [[Industrial sector of Colombia|Industry]]{{·w}} [[List of Colombian companies|Companies]]{{·w}} [[Colombian peso|Currency]]{{·w}} [[Energy and mining in Colombia|Energy and mining]]{{·w}} [[Bolsa de Valores de Colombia|Stock Exchange]]{{·w}} [[Taxation in Colombia|Taxation]]{{·w}} [[Poverty in Colombia|Poverty]] {{nowrap end}} |group6 = [[Demographics of Colombia|Demographics]] |list6 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Colombia 1993 Census|1993 Census]]{{·w}} [[Colombia 2005 Census|2005 Census]]{{·w}} [[Immigration to Colombia|Immigration]]{{·w}} [[Emigration from Colombia|Emigration]]{{·w}} [[Languages of Colombia|Languages]] ([[Colombian Spanish]]){{·w}} [[Health care in Colombia|Health care]]{{·w}} [[Education in Colombia|Education]]{{·w}} [[Religion in Colombia|Religion]]{{·w}} [[Metropolitan Areas of Colombia|Metropolitan Areas]]{{·w}} [[Human rights in Colombia|Human rights]]{{·w}} [[Narcotrafficking in Colombia|Drug trafficking]]{{·w}} [[Water supply and sanitation in Colombia|Water supply and sanitation]] {{nowrap end}} |group7 = [[Culture of Colombia|Culture]] |list7 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Architecture of Colombia|Architecture]]{{·w}} [[Art of Colombia|Art]]{{·w}} [[Colombian handicrafts|Handicrafts]]{{·w}} [[Cinema of Colombia|Cinema]]{{·w}} [[Colombian cuisine|Cuisine]]{{·w}} [[Festivals in Colombia|Festivals]]{{·w}} [[Colombian folklore|Folklore]]{{·w}} [[Languages of Colombia|Languages]]{{·w}} [[LGBT in Colombia|LGBT]]{{·w}} [[Literature of Colombia|Literature]]{{·w}} [[Media in Colombia|Media]]{{·w}} [[Medicine in Colombia|Medicine]]{{·w}} [[Music of Colombia|Music]]{{·w}} [[Colombian mythology|Mythology]]{{·w}} [[National symbols of Colombia|National symbols]]{{·w}} [[Public holidays in Colombia|Public holidays]]{{·w}} [[Science and technology in Colombia|Science and technology]]{{·w}} [[Sport in Colombia|Sport]]{{·w}} [[Tourism in Colombia|Tourism]] {{nowrap end}} |group8 = [[Transportation in Colombia|Transportation]] |list8 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Vehicles in Colombia|Vehicles]]{{·w}} [[Highways in Colombia|Highways]]{{·w}} [[List of airports in Colombia|Airports]]{{·w}} [[Rail transport in Colombia|Railroads]] {{nowrap end}} |below = '''[[Portal:Colombia|Portal]]''' }}<noinclude> <br/>{{collapsible option||state=collapsed}} <!--Categories--> [[Categoria:Patronos de navigation]] <!--Interwikis--> </noinclude> 2wo4e34hq97hmzox6vupta4spxvejyh 0 30159 699694 581662 2026-09-07T14:39:42Z Interlingvisto 60932 699694 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/generic}} '''Ido-Saluto!''' es le revista in [[ido]] del idistas german. ''Ido-Saluto!'' es le organo official del [[Germana Ido-Societo]] e es publicate quatro vices in le anno. Le revista es scribite completemente in ido e habe circa 20 paginas. Al presente le redaction del ''Ido-Saluto!'' es apud le gruppo local de ido in [[Berlin]]. == Ligamine externe == * [http://www.idoamiki.berlin.idolinguo.de/index.php/IAB/IdoSalutoPDF ''Ido-Saluto!'' in internet] {{Traduction a completar|io|Ido-Saluto!}} [[Categoria:Revistas in ido]] 57l1ho645qa0kht68fgq09g8p6vmamr 0 36396 699693 593746 2026-09-07T12:47:50Z Tortoise0308 17411 orthographia: cesium; nomine del infobox. 699693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/isotopo}} '''Cesium-116''' es un [[isotopo]] de [[cesium]]. [[Categoria:Isotopos de cesium]] ihyjwtmbumusn0w9hfy4qe3jxac2l3p 102 38839 699717 699543 2026-09-08T08:15:13Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item ?sl { ?item wdt:P171* wd:Q5113 . OPTIONAL {?item wikibase:sitelinks ?sl } . FILTER (?sl >= 40) } ORDER BY DESC(?sl) |section= |sort= |columns=number:#,item,label:Article,P225,?sl,description,P18,P31,P279,P171,P361 |thumb=48 |min_section= |links=red_only |summary=itemnumber }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! # ! item ! Article ! nomine del taxon ! ?sl ! description ! imagine ! instantia de ! subclasse de ! taxon superior immediate ! parte de |- | style='text-align:right'| 1 | [[:d:Q25222|Q25222]] | [[Strigiformes]] | Strigiformes | 186 | | [[File:Northern Spotted Owl.USFWS.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[ave]] | [[Afroaves]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 2 | [[:d:Q29564928|Q29564928]] | [[Cygnus]] | Cygnus | 151 | | [[File:Cygnus olor 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anserinae]]<br/>[[Cygnini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 3 | [[:d:Q9147|Q9147]] | [[Spheniscidae]] | Spheniscidae | 150 | | [[File:00 2304 Eselspinguine in der Antarktis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[ave marin]]<br/>[[flightless bird]]<br/>[[piscivore]] | [[Sphenisciformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 4 | [[:d:Q17592|Q17592]] | [[Struthio camelus]] | Struthio camelus | 149 | | [[File:North African Ostrich - Masai Ostrich (Struthio camelus massaicus) - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Struthio]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 5 | [[:d:Q43365|Q43365]] | [[Corvus]] | Corvus | 146 | | [[File:Corvus brachyrhynchos 30196.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvidae]]<br/>[[Corvinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 6 | [[:d:Q14683|Q14683]] | [[Passer domesticus]] | Passer domesticus | 142 | | [[File:House Sparrow, England - May 09.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passer]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 7 | [[:d:Q39861|Q39861]] | [[Hirundinidae]] | Hirundinidae | 139 | | [[File:House Martin, Delichon urbicum...mud collecting - Flickr - gailhampshire.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 8 | [[:d:Q25439|Q25439]] | [[Picidae]] | Picidae | 135 | | [[File:2014-04-14 Picus viridis, Gosforth Park 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Piciformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 9 | [[:d:Q25307|Q25307]] | [[Pica]] | Pica pica | 135 | | [[File:Eurasian magpie 2024 03 03 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pica]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 10 | [[:d:Q25348|Q25348]] | [[Anas platyrhynchos]] | Anas platyrhynchos | 134 | | [[File:Anas platyrhynchos (mixed pair) (32428014687).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 11 | [[:d:Q25247|Q25247]] | [[Upupa epops]] | Upupa epops | 133 | | [[File:Common Hoopoe Photograph By Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Upupa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 12 | [[:d:Q43794|Q43794]] | [[Meleagris]] | Meleagris | 129 | | [[File:Wild Turkey.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Meleagridinae]]<br/>[[Tetraonini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 13 | [[:d:Q25234|Q25234]] | [[merla]] | Turdus merula | 128 | specie de ave | [[File:20190722 Turdus Merula 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 14 | [[:d:Q25341|Q25341]] | [[Passeriformes]] | Passeriformes | 127 | | [[File:Cuervo grande (Corvus corax), Arcos de la Frontera, Cádiz, España, 2015-12-08, DD 07.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Parapasseres]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 15 | [[:d:Q28922|Q28922]] | [[Passeridae]] | Passeridae | 126 | | [[File:House sparrowIII.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeroidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 16 | [[:d:Q28507|Q28507]] | [[Ciconiidae]] | Ciconiidae | 122 | | [[File:00 4083 Storch (Ciconiidae).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Ciconiiformes]]<br/>[[piscivore]]<br/>[[ave]]<br/>[[wading bird]] | [[Ciconiiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 17 | [[:d:Q27589|Q27589]] | [[Laridae]] | Laridae | 118 | | [[File:Great Black Backed Gull, Fowey, Cornwall - UK, July 25 2012. (7668580890).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lari]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 18 | [[:d:Q18845|Q18845]] | [[Cuculus canorus]] | Cuculus canorus | 118 | | [[File:Cuculus canorus vogelartinfo chris romeiks CHR0791 cropped.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cuculus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 19 | [[:d:Q19413|Q19413]] | [[Pelecanus]] | Pelecanus | 118 | | [[File:Pelecanus conspicillatus -Brisbane Water, Broken Bay, New South Wales, Australia -colony-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[pelicans]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 20 | [[:d:Q42326|Q42326]] | [[Columba livia]] | Columba livia | 117 | | [[File:Columba livia (Rock Dove, wild), Duncansby Head, Caithness, Scotland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 21 | [[:d:Q25388|Q25388]] | [[Oriolus oriolus]] | Oriolus oriolus | 116 | | [[File:Loriot d'Europe by Michel Idre.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oriolus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 22 | [[:d:Q43489|Q43489]] | [[Falco]] | Falco | 115 | | [[File:Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) male (16794543415).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[organisms known by a particular common name]] | [[bird of prey]] | [[Falconinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 23 | [[:d:Q43624|Q43624]] | [[Trochilidae]] | Trochilidae | 114 | | [[File:Golden-tailed sapphire (Chrysuronia oenone oenone) male in flight Sumaco.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apodiformes]]<br/>[[Trochiliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 24 | [[:d:Q25273|Q25273]] | [[Ardea cinerea]] | Ardea cinerea | 113 | | [[File:Ardea cinerea EM1A2714 (27349354381).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 25 | [[:d:Q25354|Q25354]] | [[Garrulus glandarius]] | Garrulus glandarius | 113 | | [[File:Garrulus glandarius - Eurasian Jay 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Garrulus]] | [[jay]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 26 | [[:d:Q29858|Q29858]] | [[Alaudidae]] | Alaudidae | 112 | | [[File:Crested Lark (22026336489).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeri]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 27 | [[:d:Q25485|Q25485]] | [[Parus major]] | Parus major | 112 | | [[File:Great tit (Parus major), Parc de Woluwé, Brussels (13042792905).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Parus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 28 | [[:d:Q25429|Q25429]] | [[Hirundo rustica]] | Hirundo rustica | 111 | | [[File:Barn Swallow (95504589).jpeg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hirundo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 29 | [[:d:Q41181|Q41181]] | [[Aquila chrysaetos]] | Aquila chrysaetos | 110 | | [[File:Maakotka (Aquila chrysaetos) by Jarkko Järvinen.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 30 | [[:d:Q25440|Q25440]] | [[Phalacrocorax carbo]] | Phalacrocorax carbo | 108 | | [[File:2021-05-05 Phalacrocorax carbo carbo, Killingworth Lake, Northumberland 1-2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phalacrocorax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 31 | [[:d:Q130933|Q130933]] | [[Bubo bubo]] | Bubo bubo | 108 | | [[File:Hubro (Bubo bubo).JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Bubo]] | [[Bubo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 32 | [[:d:Q25352|Q25352]] | [[Ciconia ciconia]] | Ciconia ciconia | 108 | | [[File:00 4439 Storchennest mit Küken.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 33 | [[:d:Q30535|Q30535]] | [[Falco peregrinus]] | Falco peregrinus | 108 | | [[File:American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) (10700651733).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 34 | [[:d:Q25380|Q25380]] | [[Accipiter nisus]] | Accipiter nisus | 106 | | [[File:Accipiter nisus Meneer Zjeroen.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipiter]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 35 | [[:d:Q26490|Q26490]] | [[Falco tinnunculus]] | Falco tinnunculus | 106 | | [[File:Common kestrel falco tinnunculus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 36 | [[:d:Q25418|Q25418]] | [[Carduel]] | Carduelis carduelis | 105 | | [[File:Carduelis carduelis (2012).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Carduelis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 37 | [[:d:Q25376|Q25376]] | [[Fulica atra]] | Fulica atra | 104 | | [[File:Eurasian Coot.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fulica]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 38 | [[:d:Q25317|Q25317]] | [[Tyto alba]] | Tyto alba | 104 | | [[File:Tyto alba tylluan wen detail.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyto]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 39 | [[:d:Q137474876|Q137474876]] | [[Eurasian Goshawk]] | Astur gentilis | 104 | | [[File:Northern Goshawk ad M2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Astur]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 40 | [[:d:Q21659|Q21659]] | [[Galliformes]] | Galliformes | 103 | | [[File:Meleagris ocellata1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[ave]]<br/>[[Pangalliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 41 | [[:d:Q25392|Q25392]] | [[Vanellus vanellus]] | Vanellus vanellus | 103 | | [[File:Northern-Lapwing-Vanellus-vanellus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Vanellus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 42 | [[:d:Q25386|Q25386]] | [[Corvus frugilegus]] | Corvus frugilegus | 103 | | [[File:Corvus frugilegus -Dartmoor, Devon, England-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | [[crow]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 43 | [[:d:Q80362|Q80362]] | [[Milvus migrans]] | Milvus migrans | 102 | | [[File:2007-black-kite.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Milvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 44 | [[:d:Q25565|Q25565]] | [[Corvidae]] | Corvidae | 102 | | [[File:Blue jay in PP (30960).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 45 | [[:d:Q25968|Q25968]] | [[Passer montanus]] | Passer montanus | 102 | | [[File:Eurasian Tree Sparrow (3352252620).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passer]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 46 | [[:d:Q41994|Q41994]] | [[Phoenicopterus]] | Phoenicopterus | 101 | | [[File:20170425 131 Camargue Flamingo (33654108203).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicopteridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 47 | [[:d:Q168473|Q168473]] | [[Paridae]] | Paridae | 101 | | [[File:Parus major 4 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sylvioidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 48 | [[:d:Q25393|Q25393]] | [[rossiniolo]] | Luscinia megarhynchos | 101 | specie de ave | [[File:Luscinia megarhynchos - Common nightingale - Nachtegaal.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Luscinia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 49 | [[:d:Q61865|Q61865]] | [[Pavo cristatus]] | Pavo cristatus | 100 | | [[File:Indian Peacock in Tholpetty Wildlife Sanctuary 01.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pavo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 50 | [[:d:Q25405|Q25405]] | [[Corvus cornix]] | Corvus cornix | 100 | | [[File:Corvus cornix (33515567265).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 51 | [[:d:Q25365|Q25365]] | [[Gruidae]] | Gruidae | 99 | | [[File:Demoiselle Cranes at Tal Chappar.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Gruiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 52 | [[:d:Q55805|Q55805]] | [[Diomedeidae]] | Diomedeidae | 99 | | [[File:Short tailed Albatross1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Procellariiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 53 | [[:d:Q25398|Q25398]] | [[Ciconia nigra]] | Ciconia nigra | 99 | | [[File:Ciconia nigra -Kruger National Park-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 54 | [[:d:Q171953|Q171953]] | [[Numididae]] | Numididae | 98 | | [[File:Acryllium vulturinum -Samburu National Reserve, Kenya -several-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[poultry]] | [[Galliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 55 | [[:d:Q129059|Q129059]] | [[Tetrao urogallus]] | Tetrao urogallus | 98 | | [[File:Auerhuhn Schweden P1130026.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tetrao]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 56 | [[:d:Q21651|Q21651]] | [[Anseriformes]] | Anseriformes | 98 | | [[File:Cygnus olor 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anserimorphae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 57 | [[:d:Q26050|Q26050]] | [[Turdidae]] | Turdidae | 98 | | [[File:Turdus viscivorus Brych y coed.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Muscicapoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 58 | [[:d:Q25404|Q25404]] | [[Cyanistes caeruleus]] | Cyanistes caeruleus | 98 | | [[File:Parus caeruleus1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cyanistes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 59 | [[:d:Q25432|Q25432]] | [[faisan commun]] | Phasianus colchicus | 97 | specie de ave | [[File:00 4488 Hühnervogel - Edelfasan.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[poultry]] | [[Phasianus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 60 | [[:d:Q93208|Q93208]] | [[Dromaius novaehollandiae]] | Dromaius novaehollandiae | 97 | | [[File:Dromaius novaehollandiae (29619237017).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[flightless bird]] | [[Dromaius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 61 | [[:d:Q25510|Q25510]] | [[Accipitridae]] | Accipitridae | 97 | | [[File:Spizaetus-ornatus-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[bird of prey]] | [[Accipitriformes]]<br/>[[Accipitroidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 62 | [[:d:Q25438|Q25438]] | [[Haliaeetus albicilla]] | Haliaeetus albicilla | 97 | | [[File:Adult White-tailed Eagle defending prey, Rezerwat Gostynin-Wloclawek, Poland.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliaeetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 63 | [[:d:Q25383|Q25383]] | [[Fringilla coelebs]] | Fringilla coelebs | 97 | | [[File:Fringilla coelebs (5577610542).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fringilla]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 64 | [[:d:Q43642|Q43642]] | [[Apteryx]] | Apteryx | 96 | | [[File:Kiwifugl.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apterygidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 65 | [[:d:Q129958|Q129958]] | [[Athene noctua]] | Athene noctua | 96 | | [[File:Athene noctua, Ambula, Montenegro 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Athene]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 66 | [[:d:Q185237|Q185237]] | [[Sturnidae]] | Sturnidae | 96 | | [[File:Common starling in london.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 67 | [[:d:Q21695|Q21695]] | [[Podicipedidae]] | Podicipedidae | 95 | | [[File:Podiceps cristatus 2 - Lake Dulverton.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Podicipediformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 68 | [[:d:Q25700|Q25700]] | [[Anas crecca]] | Anas crecca | 95 | | [[File:Common Teal Male (8602525826).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 69 | [[:d:Q25961|Q25961]] | [[Alauda arvensis]] | Alauda arvensis | 95 | | [[File:Alouette des champs Zaghouan001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alauda]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 70 | [[:d:Q26375|Q26375]] | [[Phasianidae]] | Phasianidae | 93 | | [[File:Green Pheasant.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phasianoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 71 | [[:d:Q26381|Q26381]] | [[Cuculidae]] | Cuculidae | 93 | | [[File:Greater Roadrunner-JRO.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cuculiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 72 | [[:d:Q26106|Q26106]] | [[Perdix perdix]] | Perdix perdix | 93 | | [[File:Nurmkana (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Perdix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 73 | [[:d:Q209239|Q209239]] | [[Columba]] | Columba | 93 | | [[File:2017-03-05 Columba oenas, Armstrong Park 3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba|Columbidae]]<br/>[[Columbinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 74 | [[:d:Q130730|Q130730]] | [[Ardea alba]] | Ardea alba | 93 | | [[File:Ardea alba - Sydney Olympic Park.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[egret]] | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 75 | [[:d:Q127216|Q127216]] | [[Haliaeetus leucocephalus]] | Haliaeetus leucocephalus | 93 | | [[File:Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Kachemak Bay, Alaska.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliaeetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 76 | [[:d:Q33504|Q33504]] | [[Neophron percnopterus]] | Neophron percnopterus | 93 | | [[File:Egyptian Vulture, Socotra.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Neophron]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 77 | [[:d:Q3917160|Q3917160]] | [[Pavo]] | Pavo | 92 | | [[File:Green Peafowl - Baluran NP - East Java MG 7995 (29726908551).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pavonini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 78 | [[:d:Q25377|Q25377]] | [[Apus apus]] | Apus apus | 92 | | [[File:Common Swift 2025 07 18 02 (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 79 | [[:d:Q26026|Q26026]] | [[Columba palumbus]] | Columba palumbus | 92 | | [[File:Columba palumbus -garden post-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 80 | [[:d:Q106447604|Q106447604]] | [[Ardea ibis]] | Ardea ibis | 92 | | [[File:Héron garde boeufs à Oued Mejerda.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 81 | [[:d:Q179333|Q179333]] | [[Paradisaeidae]] | Paradisaeidae | 92 | | [[File:Lesser Bird of Paradise.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeri]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 82 | [[:d:Q25984|Q25984]] | [[Motacilla flava]] | Motacilla flava | 92 | | [[File:Schafstelze - Auenlandschaft Hohenrode HA 222 Landkreis Schaumburg.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Motacilla]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 83 | [[:d:Q126216|Q126216]] | [[Nycticorax nycticorax]] | Nycticorax nycticorax | 91 | | [[File:Black-crowned night heron in PP (36399).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nycticorax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 84 | [[:d:Q170177|Q170177]] | [[Bubo scandiacus]] | Bubo scandiacus | 91 | | [[File:Bubo scandiacus male Muskegon.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[owl]] | [[Bubo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 85 | [[:d:Q28106966|Q28106966]] | [[Gadwall]] | Mareca strepera | 91 | | [[File:Anas strepera pair.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mareca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 86 | [[:d:Q131709|Q131709]] | [[Egretta garzetta]] | Egretta garzetta | 90 | | [[File:Aigrette garzette au lac sud de Tunis (site RAMSAR).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Egretta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 87 | [[:d:Q54696|Q54696]] | [[Streptopelia decaocto]] | Streptopelia decaocto | 90 | | [[File:Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN2357 (3).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Streptopelia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 88 | [[:d:Q177856|Q177856]] | [[Gyps fulvus]] | Gyps fulvus | 90 | | [[File:Gyps fulvus -Basque Country-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[ave]]<br/>[[scavenger]]<br/>[[necrophage]] | | [[Gyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 89 | [[:d:Q160835|Q160835]] | [[Fringillidae]] | Fringillidae | 90 | | [[File:Fringilla coelebs chaffinch male edit2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 90 | [[:d:Q25612|Q25612]] | [[Cygnus cygnus]] | Cygnus cygnus | 90 | | [[File:Cygnus cygnus 070416 IOL.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cygnus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 91 | [[:d:Q26114|Q26114]] | [[Scolopax rusticola]] | Scolopax rusticola | 89 | | [[File:Waldschnepfe (scolopax rusticola) - Spiekeroog, Nationalpark Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 92 | [[:d:Q199427|Q199427]] | [[Pelecanus onocrotalus]] | Pelecanus onocrotalus | 89 | | [[File:Great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 93 | [[:d:Q160488|Q160488]] | [[Ardea purpurea]] | Ardea purpurea | 89 | | [[File:2010-kabini-purple-heron.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 94 | [[:d:Q170718|Q170718]] | [[Merops apiaster]] | Merops apiaster | 89 | | [[File:Бджолоїдка звичайна або щурка європейська.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Merops]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 95 | [[:d:Q171052|Q171052]] | [[Laniidae]] | Laniidae | 89 | | [[File:Lanius excubitor, Chilham, Kent 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvoidea]] | [[:Template:Laniidae|Laniidae]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 96 | [[:d:Q26198|Q26198]] | [[Corvus corone]] | Corvus corone | 89 | | [[File:Carrion crow 2022 04 05 05 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 97 | [[:d:Q26617|Q26617]] | [[Apodidae]] | Apodidae | 88 | | [[File:Apus apus 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apodiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 98 | [[:d:Q26017|Q26017]] | [[Crex crex]] | Crex crex | 88 | specie de ave | [[File:Corncrake2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Crex]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 99 | [[:d:Q28106837|Q28106837]] | [[Eurasian Wigeon]] | Mareca penelope | 88 | | [[File:1994. Марка России 0170 hi.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mareca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 100 | [[:d:Q25876|Q25876]] | [[Falco subbuteo]] | Falco subbuteo | 88 | | [[File:Eurasian Hobby (14574008925) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hypotriorchis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 101 | [[:d:Q121221|Q121221]] | [[Melopsittacus undulatus]] | Melopsittacus undulatus | 88 | | [[File:Budgerigar-male-strzelecki-qld.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Melopsittacus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 102 | [[:d:Q200989|Q200989]] | [[Muscicapidae]] | Muscicapidae | 88 | | [[File:2019-08-23 Spotted Flycatcher, Town Moor, Newcastle, Northumberland 3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Muscicapoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 103 | [[:d:Q25978|Q25978]] | [[Charadriiformes]] | Charadriiformes | 87 | | [[File:Crestedauklet41.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aequorlitornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 104 | [[:d:Q168514|Q168514]] | [[Streptopelia turtur]] | Streptopelia turtur | 87 | | [[File:2015-05-21 Streptopelia turtur, Sutton Bank, Yorkshire 06.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Streptopelia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 105 | [[:d:Q168748|Q168748]] | [[Sagittarius serpentarius]] | Sagittarius serpentarius | 87 | | [[File:Secretario (Sagittarius serpentarius), parque nacional de Amboseli, Kenia, 2024-05-23, DD 13.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sagittarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 106 | [[:d:Q26773|Q26773]] | [[Bucerotidae]] | Bucerotidae | 87 | | [[File:Great hornbill Photograph by Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucerotiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 107 | [[:d:Q25909|Q25909]] | [[Riparia riparia]] | Riparia riparia | 87 | | [[File:Riparia riparia -Markinch, Fife, Scotland -flying-8-4c.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Riparia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 108 | [[:d:Q18859|Q18859]] | [[Tringa totanus]] | Tringa totanus | 86 | | [[File:Common Redshank Tringa totanus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 109 | [[:d:Q25692|Q25692]] | [[Gallinago gallinago]] | Gallinago gallinago | 86 | | [[File:Bekassine (Blick nach oben).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallinago]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 110 | [[:d:Q179863|Q179863]] | [[Phoenicopterus roseus]] | Phoenicopterus roseus | 86 | | [[File:Flamant rose Thyna009.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicopterus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 111 | [[:d:Q25384|Q25384]] | [[Asio otus]] | Asio otus | 86 | | [[File:Asio otus Downsview Park Toronto2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Asio]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 112 | [[:d:Q25740|Q25740]] | [[Troglodytes troglodytes]] | Troglodytes troglodytes | 86 | | [[File:Eurasian wren (Troglodytes troglodytes).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Troglodytes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 113 | [[:d:Q26012|Q26012]] | [[Strigidae]] | Strigidae | 85 | | [[File:Eastern Screech Owl.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Strigiformes]] | [[Strigiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 114 | [[:d:Q178811|Q178811]] | [[Plegadis falcinellus]] | Plegadis falcinellus | 85 | | [[File:Plegadis falcinellus Syracuse.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Plegadis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 115 | [[:d:Q168677|Q168677]] | [[Aegypius monachus]] | Aegypius monachus | 85 | | [[File:Buitre negro.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aegypius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 116 | [[:d:Q183147|Q183147]] | [[Meropidae]] | Meropidae | 85 | | [[File:Bee eater in Selous Game Reserve.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coraciiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 117 | [[:d:Q26209|Q26209]] | [[Dendrocopos major]] | Dendrocopos major | 85 | | [[File:Dendrocopos major EM1B2679 (35219263071).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocopos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 118 | [[:d:Q25557|Q25557]] | [[Gruiformes]] | Gruiformes | 84 | | [[File:Balearica regulorum 1 Luc Viatour.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Neoaves]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 119 | [[:d:Q19338|Q19338]] | [[Pelecaniformes]] | Pelecaniformes | 84 | | [[File:Pelican 4995.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Aequornithes]]<br/>[[Pelecanes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 120 | [[:d:Q18850|Q18850]] | [[Actitis hypoleucos]] | Actitis hypoleucos | 84 | | [[File:Actitis hypoleucos - Laem Pak Bia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Actitis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 121 | [[:d:Q178821|Q178821]] | [[Himantopus himantopus]] | Himantopus himantopus | 84 | | [[File:Himantopus himantopus - Pak Thale.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Himantopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 122 | [[:d:Q25634|Q25634]] | [[Chroicocephalus ridibundus]] | Chroicocephalus ridibundus | 84 | | [[File:Black-headed Gull - St James's Park, London - Nov 2006.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chroicocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 123 | [[:d:Q25572|Q25572]] | [[Circus cyaneus]] | Circus cyaneus | 84 | | [[File:Circus cyaneus 265961899.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Circus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 124 | [[:d:Q156250|Q156250]] | [[Milvus milvus]] | Milvus milvus | 84 | | [[File:Milvus milvus Jura.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Milvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 125 | [[:d:Q170598|Q170598]] | [[Vultur gryphus]] | Vultur gryphus | 84 | | [[File:204 - Canyon de Colca - Condor des Andes - Juin 2010.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Vultur]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 126 | [[:d:Q183361|Q183361]] | [[Anser]] | Anser | 84 | genere de aves | [[File:Anser anser 2 (Piotr Kuczynski).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anserini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 127 | [[:d:Q131918|Q131918]] | [[Falco columbarius]] | Falco columbarius | 84 | | [[File:Falco columbarius PP.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 128 | [[:d:Q26444|Q26444]] | [[Aythya fuligula]] | Aythya fuligula | 84 | | [[File:Tufted Duck 09 05 2025 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 129 | [[:d:Q26205|Q26205]] | [[Emberiza citrinella]] | Emberiza citrinella | 84 | | [[File:Emberiza citrinella -Midtjylland, Denmark -male-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 130 | [[:d:Q28753|Q28753]] | [[Passer]] | Passer | 84 | | [[File:Male House Sparrow 2 - crop.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[ave]] | [[Passerinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 131 | [[:d:Q26626|Q26626]] | [[Scolopacidae]] | Scolopacidae | 83 | | [[File:Bristle-thighed Curlew.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 132 | [[:d:Q171360|Q171360]] | [[Platalea leucorodia]] | Platalea leucorodia | 83 | | [[File:Eurasian Spoonbill.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[cultural heritage]] | | [[Platalea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 133 | [[:d:Q26742|Q26742]] | [[Aythya ferina]] | Aythya ferina | 83 | | [[File:Aythya ferina Gentofte 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 134 | [[:d:Q131044|Q131044]] | [[Cygnus atratus]] | Cygnus atratus | 83 | | [[File:00 2102 Trauerschwäne (Breisach am Rhein).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cygnus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 135 | [[:d:Q143284|Q143284]] | [[Dryocopus martius]] | Dryocopus martius | 83 | | [[File:2016.08.27.-14-Viernheimer Heide-Viernheim--Schwarzspecht-Weibchen.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dryocopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 136 | [[:d:Q230042|Q230042]] | [[Motacilla]] | Motacilla | 83 | | [[File:20180415 015 Winterswijk Witte kwikstaart (40785272624).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Motacillidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 137 | [[:d:Q155878|Q155878]] | [[Lyrurus tetrix]] | Lyrurus tetrix | 82 | | [[File:Birkhahn.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lyrurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 138 | [[:d:Q184774|Q184774]] | [[Gallus gallus]] | Gallus gallus | 82 | | [[File:Gallus gallus -Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallus (taxon)|Gallus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 139 | [[:d:Q18854|Q18854]] | [[Numenius arquata]] | Numenius arquata | 82 | | [[File:Eurasian Curlew.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Numenius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 140 | [[:d:Q28122714|Q28122714]] | [[Philomachus pugnax]] | Calidris pugnax | 82 | | [[File:Philomachus pugnaxRuffKampfläufer.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 141 | [[:d:Q18700|Q18700]] | [[Balaeniceps rex]] | Balaeniceps rex | 82 | | [[File:Entebbe Shoe Bill Stork.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Balaeniceps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 142 | [[:d:Q25756|Q25756]] | [[Strix aluco]] | Strix aluco | 82 | | [[File:Strix aluco aluco.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 143 | [[:d:Q26431|Q26431]] | [[Circus aeruginosus]] | Circus aeruginosus | 82 | | [[File:Busard des roseaux Circus aeruginosus DSC 3073-p (48841507981).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Circus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 144 | [[:d:Q170251|Q170251]] | [[Circaetus gallicus]] | Circaetus gallicus | 82 | | [[File:Circaetus gallicus - Short-toed snake-eagleı 02-1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Circaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 145 | [[:d:Q25934|Q25934]] | [[Piciformes]] | Piciformes | 82 | | [[File:Red-bellied woodpecker on railing.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Picocoraciae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 146 | [[:d:Q200339|Q200339]] | [[Aix galericulata]] | Aix galericulata | 82 | | [[File:Mandarin ducks by the Weiming Lake of Peking University 09.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 147 | [[:d:Q179359|Q179359]] | [[Aquila nipalensis]] | Aquila nipalensis | 82 | | [[File:Мангистауская область, степной орёл.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 148 | [[:d:Q8154335|Q8154335]] | [[Alcedinidae]] | Alcedinidae | 82 | | [[File:SL Bundala NP asv2020-01 img20.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Alcedines]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 149 | [[:d:Q21744|Q21744]] | [[Falconidae]] | Falconidae | 81 | | [[File:Brown-Falcon,-Vic,-3.1.2008.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falconiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 150 | [[:d:Q25769|Q25769]] | [[Asio flammeus]] | Asio flammeus | 81 | | [[File:Asio flammeus -Fazenda Campo de Ouro, Piraju, Sao Paulo, Brasil-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Asio]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 151 | [[:d:Q26147|Q26147]] | [[Recurvirostra avosetta]] | Recurvirostra avosetta | 80 | | [[File:Avocette élégante Thyna019.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Recurvirostra]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 152 | [[:d:Q21736|Q21736]] | [[Accipitriformes]] | Accipitriformes | 80 | | [[File:Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis Full Body 1880px.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitrimorphae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 153 | [[:d:Q28236|Q28236]] | [[Larus argentatus]] | Larus argentatus | 80 | | [[File:European herring gull vocalizing (00170).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 154 | [[:d:Q484131|Q484131]] | [[Coraciiformes]] | Coraciiformes | 80 | | [[File:European roller.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Picocoraciae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 155 | [[:d:Q25678|Q25678]] | [[Jynx torquilla]] | Jynx torquilla | 80 | | [[File:Jynx torquilla (34536504885).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Jynx]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 156 | [[:d:Q174088|Q174088]] | [[Coccothraustes coccothraustes]] | Coccothraustes coccothraustes | 80 | | [[File:Coccothraustes coccothraustes 1 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coccothraustes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 157 | [[:d:Q21716|Q21716]] | [[Ciconiiformes]] | Ciconiiformes | 79 | | [[File:Saddle-Billed Stork.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | [[ave]] | [[Aequornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 158 | [[:d:Q21755|Q21755]] | [[Otididae]] | Otididae | 79 | | [[File:Ardeotis kori Etosha.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Otidiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 159 | [[:d:Q18851|Q18851]] | [[Charadrius dubius]] | Charadrius dubius | 79 | | [[File:Charadrius dubius (49820761043).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadrius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 160 | [[:d:Q26717|Q26717]] | [[Caprimulgus europaeus]] | Caprimulgus europaeus | 79 | | [[File:Caprimulgus europaeus g.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Caprimulgus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 161 | [[:d:Q188601|Q188601]] | [[Tetrax tetrax]] | Tetrax tetrax | 79 | | [[File:Tetrax tetrax, Castuera, Estremadura, Spain 3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tetrax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 162 | [[:d:Q26982|Q26982]] | [[Galerida cristata]] | Galerida cristata | 79 | | [[File:Galerida cristata - Crested lark 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Galerida]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 163 | [[:d:Q25777|Q25777]] | [[Turdus pilaris]] | Turdus pilaris | 79 | | [[File:Björktrast (Turdus pilaris)-4.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 164 | [[:d:Q26620|Q26620]] | [[Phoenicurus phoenicurus]] | Phoenicurus phoenicurus | 79 | | [[File:Gartenrotschwanz 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 165 | [[:d:Q26578|Q26578]] | [[Luscinia svecica]] | Luscinia svecica | 79 | | [[File:Blåhake - bluethroat (Luscinia svecica)-5 - Flickr - Ragnhild & Neil Crawford.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Luscinia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 166 | [[:d:Q179983|Q179983]] | [[Pteroclidae]] | Pteroclidae | 78 | | [[File:Double-banded Sandgrouse.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pterocliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 167 | [[:d:Q25928|Q25928]] | [[Haematopus ostralegus]] | Haematopus ostralegus | 78 | | [[File:Haematopus ostralegus He.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haematopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 168 | [[:d:Q33140745|Q33140745]] | [[Sterninae]] | Sterninae | 78 | | [[File:3-point tern (Sandwich, Common & Roseate Terns, St Mary's Island, Northumberland).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Laridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 169 | [[:d:Q171655|Q171655]] | [[Otis tarda]] | Otis tarda | 78 | | [[File:Dévaványa, Hungary – Great bustard 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Otis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 170 | [[:d:Q184432|Q184432]] | [[Gavia arctica]] | Gavia arctica | 78 | | [[File:Gavia arctica1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gavia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 171 | [[:d:Q26685|Q26685]] | [[Fratercula arctica]] | Fratercula arctica | 78 | | [[File:Puffin (Fratercula arctica).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fratercula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 172 | [[:d:Q188737|Q188737]] | [[Accipiter]] | Accipiter | 78 | | [[File:Brown Goshawk kur.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitrinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 173 | [[:d:Q170466|Q170466]] | [[Pernis apivorus]] | Pernis apivorus | 78 | | [[File:Herilaseviu..jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pernis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 174 | [[:d:Q26135|Q26135]] | [[Bombycilla garrulus]] | Bombycilla garrulus | 78 | | [[File:Bohemian waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus), Uitkerke, Belgium (16366736689).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bombycilla]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 175 | [[:d:Q166171|Q166171]] | [[Picus viridis]] | Picus viridis | 78 | | [[File:Green woodpecker Franconville 2022 01 21 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Picus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 176 | [[:d:Q156767|Q156767]] | [[Sitta europaea]] | Sitta europaea | 78 | | [[File:Kleiber (Sitta europaea caesia) Val Roseg.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 177 | [[:d:Q184820|Q184820]] | [[Nucifraga caryocatactes]] | Nucifraga caryocatactes | 78 | | [[File:Nucifraga caryocatactes, Kotka, Finland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nucifraga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 178 | [[:d:Q201831|Q201831]] | [[Cinclus cinclus]] | Cinclus cinclus | 78 | | [[File:Cinclus cinclus R(ThKraft).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cinclus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 179 | [[:d:Q26623|Q26623]] | [[Rallidae]] | Rallidae | 77 | | [[File:Dusky moorhen442.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gruiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 180 | [[:d:Q18840|Q18840]] | [[Tringa nebularia]] | Tringa nebularia | 77 | | [[File:Greenshank (Tringa nebularia).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 181 | [[:d:Q18875|Q18875]] | [[Sterna hirundo]] | Sterna hirundo | 77 | | [[File:Common tern 2025 07 08 08.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sterna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 182 | [[:d:Q185183|Q185183]] | [[Podiceps nigricollis]] | Podiceps nigricollis | 77 | | [[File:Eared Grebe, breeding plumage (33774036404).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Podiceps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 183 | [[:d:Q26427|Q26427]] | [[Larus canus]] | Larus canus | 77 | | [[File:Larus canus Common Gull in Norway.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 184 | [[:d:Q26597|Q26597]] | [[Clangula hyemalis]] | Clangula hyemalis | 77 | | [[File:Clangula-hyemalis-011.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Clangula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 185 | [[:d:Q191125|Q191125]] | [[Anser indicus]] | Anser indicus | 77 | | [[File:Bar-headed Goose by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN7530 (23).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anser]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 186 | [[:d:Q515217|Q515217]] | [[Agapornis]] | Agapornis | 77 | | [[File:Fischer's Lovebird (Agapornis fischeri) (24041406070) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittaculini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 187 | [[:d:Q170831|Q170831]] | [[Aegithalos caudatus]] | Aegithalos caudatus | 77 | | [[File:Long-tailed tit (74940).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aegithalos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 188 | [[:d:Q3901247|Q3901247]] | [[Phalacrocoracidae]] | Phalacrocoracidae | 76 | | [[File:Phalacrocorax aristotelis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Suliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 189 | [[:d:Q185099|Q185099]] | [[Rallus aquaticus]] | Rallus aquaticus | 76 | | [[File:Wasserralle Bodensee.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rallus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 190 | [[:d:Q184834|Q184834]] | [[Burhinus oedicnemus]] | Burhinus oedicnemus | 76 | | [[File:Burhinus oedicnemus insularum Lanzarote 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Burhinus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 191 | [[:d:Q25370|Q25370]] | [[Falconiformes]] | Falconiformes | 76 | | [[File:Brown-Falcon,-Vic,-3.1.2008.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | | [[Eufalconimorphae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 192 | [[:d:Q26711|Q26711]] | [[Lymnocryptes minimus]] | Lymnocryptes minimus | 76 | | [[File:Lymnocryptes minimus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lymnocryptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 193 | [[:d:Q28294|Q28294]] | [[Alcidae]] | Alcidae | 76 | | [[File:Parakeetauklets2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pan-Alcidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 194 | [[:d:Q18841|Q18841]] | [[Limosa limosa]] | Limosa limosa | 76 | | [[File:.00 2789 Uferschnepfe (Limosa limosa).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Limosa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 195 | [[:d:Q26691|Q26691]] | [[Gavia stellata]] | Gavia stellata | 76 | | [[File:Gavia stellata -Iceland -swimming-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gavia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 196 | [[:d:Q171563|Q171563]] | [[Otus scops]] | Otus scops | 76 | | [[File:Scops Owl (Otus scops), Kalloni, Lesvos, Greece, 19.04.2015 (16773748434).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Otus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 197 | [[:d:Q177688|Q177688]] | [[Falco rusticolus]] | Falco rusticolus | 76 | | [[File:Falco rusticolus white cropped.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 198 | [[:d:Q179625|Q179625]] | [[Falco vespertinus]] | Falco vespertinus | 76 | | [[File:Rotfußfalke Falco vespertinus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 199 | [[:d:Q179367|Q179367]] | [[Coracias garrulus]] | Coracias garrulus | 76 | | [[File:Coracias garrulus in Shirahmad wildlife refuge of Sabzevar 001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coracias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 200 | [[:d:Q20823352|Q20823352]] | [[Rosy Starling]] | Pastor roseus | 76 | | [[File:Pastor roseus - Rosenstar (Jungvogel).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pastor]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 201 | [[:d:Q26420|Q26420]] | [[Oenanthe oenanthe]] | Oenanthe oenanthe | 76 | | [[File:Northern wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oenanthe]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 202 | [[:d:Q178942|Q178942]] | [[Turdus viscivorus]] | Turdus viscivorus | 76 | | [[File:Mistle Thrush (Turdus viscivorus) (33847459792).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 203 | [[:d:Q26755|Q26755]] | [[Phoenicurus ochruros]] | Phoenicurus ochruros | 76 | | [[File:Black Redstart bird.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 204 | [[:d:Q182761|Q182761]] | [[Tetrastes bonasia]] | Tetrastes bonasia | 75 | | [[File:Haselhuhn-01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tetrastes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 205 | [[:d:Q19171|Q19171]] | [[Rhea]] | Rhea | 75 | | [[File:RheaamericanaHahn.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rheidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 206 | [[:d:Q18858|Q18858]] | [[Numenius phaeopus]] | Numenius phaeopus | 75 | | [[File:Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Numenius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 207 | [[:d:Q28450|Q28450]] | [[Tringa ochropus]] | Tringa ochropus | 75 | | [[File:Green Sandpiper ( Tringa ochropus ) ... Tophill Low , Yorkshire (53182606905).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 208 | [[:d:Q182971|Q182971]] | [[Hieraaetus pennatus]] | Hieraaetus pennatus | 75 | | [[File:Booted eagle, Hieraaetus pennatus, at Kgalagadi Transfrontier Pa (32334023348).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hieraaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 209 | [[:d:Q229408|Q229408]] | [[Falco naumanni]] | Falco naumanni | 75 | | [[File:A Lesser Kestrel on a Weak Perch (49591372658).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 210 | [[:d:Q194024|Q194024]] | [[Porzana porzana]] | Porzana porzana | 74 | | [[File:Porzana porzana 3 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Porzana]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 211 | [[:d:Q188660|Q188660]] | [[Opisthocomus hoazin]] | Opisthocomus hoazin | 74 | | [[File:Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) Rio Napo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Opisthocomus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 212 | [[:d:Q26140|Q26140]] | [[Columba oenas]] | Columba oenas | 74 | | [[File:2019-03-17 Columba oenas, Jesmond Dene 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 213 | [[:d:Q27160|Q27160]] | [[Larus fuscus]] | Larus fuscus | 74 | | [[File:Larus fuscus Finnboda 2012.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 214 | [[:d:Q184751|Q184751]] | [[Pelecanus crispus]] | Pelecanus crispus | 74 | | [[File:Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN6899 (3).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 215 | [[:d:Q30085|Q30085]] | [[Aquila]] | Aquila | 74 | | [[File:Aquila chrysaetos Flickr.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquilinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 216 | [[:d:Q165974|Q165974]] | [[Falco cherrug]] | Falco cherrug | 74 | | [[File:Falco cherrug 1 (Bohuš Číčel).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 217 | [[:d:Q29865|Q29865]] | [[Bucephala clangula]] | Bucephala clangula | 74 | | [[File:Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)- female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucephala]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 218 | [[:d:Q189609|Q189609]] | [[Mergus serrator]] | Mergus serrator | 74 | | [[File:Merganser (53630992394).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mergus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 219 | [[:d:Q26657|Q26657]] | [[Regulus regulus]] | Regulus regulus | 74 | | [[File:Goldcrest (Regulus regulus) (15954267973).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Regulus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 220 | [[:d:Q26552|Q26552]] | [[Loxia curvirostra]] | Loxia curvirostra | 74 | | [[File:Cruza-bico comum, fêmea, Red Crossbill, female (51692602998).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Loxia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 221 | [[:d:Q199758|Q199758]] | [[Cyanocitta cristata]] | Cyanocitta cristata | 74 | | [[File:Blue jay fledgling (53513).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cyanocitta]] | [[jay]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 222 | [[:d:Q188446|Q188446]] | [[Sylvia atricapilla]] | Sylvia atricapilla | 74 | | [[File:Sylvia atricapilla -Lullington Heath, East Sussex, England -male-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sylvia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 223 | [[:d:Q452969|Q452969]] | [[Dinornithiformes]] | Dinornithiformes | 73 | | [[File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|center|48px]] | [[extinct taxon]] | | [[Palaeognathae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 224 | [[:d:Q26844|Q26844]] | [[Meleagris gallopavo]] | Meleagris gallopavo | 73 | | [[File:Wild Turkey (female) - Meleagris gallopavo, Occoquan Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Woodbridge, Virginia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Meleagris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 225 | [[:d:Q58958|Q58958]] | [[Calidris alba]] | Calidris alba | 73 | | [[File:2014-05-25 Sanderling, Paignton Beach, Devon 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 226 | [[:d:Q18864|Q18864]] | [[Limosa lapponica]] | Limosa lapponica | 73 | | [[File:Bar-tailed Godwit.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Limosa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 227 | [[:d:Q26800|Q26800]] | [[Sterna paradisaea]] | Sterna paradisaea | 73 | | [[File:00 3786. Küstenseeschwalbe.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sterna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 228 | [[:d:Q179919|Q179919]] | [[Podiceps grisegena]] | Podiceps grisegena | 73 | | [[File:Podiceps grisegena (33665871935).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Podiceps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 229 | [[:d:Q192058|Q192058]] | [[Podiceps auritus]] | Podiceps auritus | 73 | | [[File:Podiceps auritus (13909575538) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Podiceps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 230 | [[:d:Q191723|Q191723]] | [[Aythya nyroca]] | Aythya nyroca | 73 | | [[File:Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca Male by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN2746 (12).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 231 | [[:d:Q8327|Q8327]] | [[Psittacidae]] | Psittacidae | 73 | | [[File:Scarlet-Macaw-cr.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittacoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 232 | [[:d:Q180991|Q180991]] | [[Mergus merganser]] | Mergus merganser | 73 | | [[File:Female Mergus merganser americanus at Las Gallinas Wildlife Ponds.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mergus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 233 | [[:d:Q116667|Q116667]] | [[Acridotheres tristis]] | Acridotheres tristis | 73 | | [[File:Common Myna in Rabindra Sarobar February 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acridotheres]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 234 | [[:d:Q188854|Q188854]] | [[Pycnonotidae]] | Pycnonotidae | 73 | | [[File:Brown-eared Bulbul 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeri]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 235 | [[:d:Q26698|Q26698]] | [[Prunella modularis]] | Prunella modularis | 73 | | [[File:Dunnock crop2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Prunella]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 236 | [[:d:Q25950|Q25950]] | [[Apodiformes]] | Apodiformes | 72 | | [[File:Rubythroathummer65.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strisores]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 237 | [[:d:Q191683|Q191683]] | [[Grus virgo]] | Anthropoides virgo | 72 | | [[File:Demoiselle Cranes at Tal Chappar.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthropoides]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 238 | [[:d:Q18837|Q18837]] | [[Tringa glareola]] | Tringa glareola | 72 | | [[File:Wood Sandpiper (50206067826), crop.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 239 | [[:d:Q26892|Q26892]] | [[Arenaria interpres]] | Arenaria interpres | 72 | | [[File:Arenaria interpres (habitus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Arenaria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 240 | [[:d:Q27129|Q27129]] | [[Hydroprogne caspia]] | Hydroprogne caspia | 72 | | [[File:Sterna-caspia-010.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hydroprogne]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 241 | [[:d:Q182209|Q182209]] | [[Aptenodytes patagonicus]] | Aptenodytes patagonicus | 72 | | [[File:King Penguins on Saunders Island (5586254113).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Spheniscidae]] | [[Aptenodytes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 242 | [[:d:Q21090684|Q21090684]] | [[Greater Spotted Eagle]] | Clanga clanga | 72 | | [[File:Great spotted Eagle I2 IMG 8358.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Clanga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 243 | [[:d:Q208221|Q208221]] | [[Nectariniidae]] | Nectariniidae | 72 | | [[File:Crimson Sunbird (Aethopyga siparaja) male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 244 | [[:d:Q27074540|Q27074540]] | [[Anser caerulescens]] | Anser caerulescens | 72 | | [[File:Snow Goose (24510697391).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anser]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 245 | [[:d:Q185784|Q185784]] | [[Common Chiffchaff]] | Phylloscopus collybita | 72 | | [[File:Common Chiffchaff 2025 04 04 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 246 | [[:d:Q205943|Q205943]] | [[Motacillidae]] | Motacillidae | 72 | | [[File:Anthus-rubescens-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeroidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 247 | [[:d:Q206540|Q206540]] | [[Motacilla citreola]] | Motacilla citreola | 72 | | [[File:Citrine Wagtail (Motacilla citreola)- Breeding Male of calcarata race at Bharatpur I IMG 5752.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Motacilla]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 248 | [[:d:Q191096|Q191096]] | [[Periparus ater]] | Periparus ater | 72 | | [[File:Coal Tit - Dugalbitta, Uttarakhand, India (15143483976).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Periparus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 249 | [[:d:Q202478|Q202478]] | [[Sylvia borin]] | Sylvia borin | 72 | | [[File:Sylvia borin (Örebro County).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sylvia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 250 | [[:d:Q27244|Q27244]] | [[Caprimulgidae]] | Caprimulgidae | 71 | | [[File:Common Nighthawk.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Caprimulgiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 251 | [[:d:Q21685|Q21685]] | [[Procellariiformes]] | Procellariiformes | 71 | | [[File:Damier du Cap - Cape Petrel.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[ave marin]] | [[Austrodyptornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 252 | [[:d:Q18835|Q18835]] | [[Pluvialis squatarola]] | Pluvialis squatarola | 71 | | [[File:Pluvialis squatarola (summer plumage).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pluvialis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 253 | [[:d:Q12267692|Q12267692]] | [[Little Tern]] | Sternula albifrons | 71 | | [[File:Sternula albifrons - Boat Harbour.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sternula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 254 | [[:d:Q208488|Q208488]] | [[Platalea]] | Platalea | 71 | | [[File:Royal Spoonbill mouth open.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Plateinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 255 | [[:d:Q25587867|Q25587867]] | [[Little Bittern]] | Botaurus minutus | 71 | | [[File:47-090506-little-bittern-at-upper-ford-near-Sigri-.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Botaurus]]<br/>[[Ixobrychus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 256 | [[:d:Q230837|Q230837]] | [[Circus macrourus]] | Circus macrourus | 71 | | [[File:Pallid Harrier Adult Male (46333226825).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Circus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 257 | [[:d:Q185213|Q185213]] | [[Pithecophaga jefferyi]] | Pithecophaga jefferyi | 71 | | [[File:Pamarayeg IIIx2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pithecophaga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 258 | [[:d:Q26635|Q26635]] | [[Aythya marila]] | Aythya marila | 71 | | [[File:2014-04-14 Aythya marila, female, Killingworth Lake, Northumberland 04.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 259 | [[:d:Q208304|Q208304]] | [[Troglodytidae]] | Troglodytidae | 71 | | [[File:Troglodytidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeri]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 260 | [[:d:Q26416|Q26416]] | [[Plectrophenax nivalis]] | Plectrophenax nivalis | 71 | | [[File:Plectrophenax nivalis P3130099.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Plectrophenax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 261 | [[:d:Q514809|Q514809]] | [[Nymphicus hollandicus]] | Nymphicus hollandicus | 71 | | [[File:Cockateil.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nymphicus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 262 | [[:d:Q115661|Q115661]] | [[Turdus]] | Turdus | 71 | | [[File:American Robin Close-Up.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdidae]]<br/>[[Turdinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 263 | [[:d:Q26607|Q26607]] | [[Muscicapa striata]] | Muscicapa striata | 71 | | [[File:SpottedFlycatcheronfence.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Muscicapa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 264 | [[:d:Q201316|Q201316]] | [[Motacilla cinerea]] | Motacilla cinerea | 71 | | [[File:Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea (39682090233).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Motacilla]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 265 | [[:d:Q251842|Q251842]] | [[Numida meleagris]] | Numida meleagris | 70 | | [[File:Guinea fowl at Mole National Park.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Numida]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 266 | [[:d:Q162085|Q162085]] | [[Threskiornithidae]] | Threskiornithidae | 70 | | [[File:African Sacred Ibis in Lake Ziway.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecaniformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 267 | [[:d:Q193833|Q193833]] | [[Threskiornithinae]] | Threskiornithinae | 70 | | [[File:Australian white ibis in tree.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Threskiornithidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 268 | [[:d:Q26650|Q26650]] | [[Calidris alpina]] | Calidris alpina | 70 | | [[File:Calidris alpina alpina, Riga, Latvia 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 269 | [[:d:Q27124|Q27124]] | [[Calidris canutus]] | Calidris canutus | 70 | | [[File:Calidris canutus (summer).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 270 | [[:d:Q26816|Q26816]] | [[Charadrius hiaticula]] | Charadrius hiaticula | 70 | | [[File:Charadrius hiaticula 3 breeding.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadrius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 271 | [[:d:Q184858|Q184858]] | [[Cathartidae]] | Cathartidae | 70 | | [[File:Coragyps-atratus-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 272 | [[:d:Q214293|Q214293]] | [[Bubo]] | Bubo | 70 | | [[File:Spottedeagleowl.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Strigidae]] | [[Strigidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 273 | [[:d:Q26574|Q26574]] | [[Circus pygargus]] | Circus pygargus | 70 | | [[File:Circus pygargus (33541975444).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Circus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 274 | [[:d:Q53745|Q53745]] | [[Harpia harpyja]] | Harpia harpyja | 70 | | [[File:Harpia-harpyja-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Harpia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 275 | [[:d:Q202955|Q202955]] | [[Oriolidae]] | Oriolidae | 70 | | [[File:Black-naped Oriole.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 276 | [[:d:Q188877|Q188877]] | [[Fringilla montifringilla]] | Fringilla montifringilla | 70 | | [[File:Fringilla montifringilla -Poland -male-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fringilla]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 277 | [[:d:Q184518|Q184518]] | [[Dendrocopos minor]] | Dryobates minor | 70 | | [[File:PicoidesMinorBack.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dryobates]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 278 | [[:d:Q237670|Q237670]] | [[Porzana pusilla]] | Zapornia pusilla | 69 | | [[File:Baillon's Crake in Baruipur February 2024 by Tisha Mukherjee 03.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zapornia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 279 | [[:d:Q27112|Q27112]] | [[Tytonidae]] | Tytonidae | 69 | | [[File:Ceylon Bay Owl1 Abhilash Arjunan.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strigiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 280 | [[:d:Q27232|Q27232]] | [[Calidris minuta]] | Calidris minuta | 69 | | [[File:Little Stint (Calidris minuta) (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 281 | [[:d:Q19401|Q19401]] | [[Phalacrocorax]] | Phalacrocorax | 69 | | [[File:Great Cormorant is a beautiful bird, crop.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phalacrocoracidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 282 | [[:d:Q190342|Q190342]] | [[Gavia immer]] | Gavia immer | 69 | | [[File:Gavia immer -Minocqua, Wisconsin, USA -swimming-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gavia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 283 | [[:d:Q187958|Q187958]] | [[Pygoscelis adeliae]] | Pygoscelis adeliae | 69 | | [[File:Adeliepinguin-01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pygoscelis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 284 | [[:d:Q26407|Q26407]] | [[Buteo lagopus]] | Buteo lagopus | 69 | | [[File:Buteo lagopus 29283.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Buteo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 285 | [[:d:Q205477|Q205477]] | [[Ara ararauna]] | Ara ararauna | 69 | | [[File:Ara ararauna (Costa Rica).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 286 | [[:d:Q192524|Q192524]] | [[Serinus canaria]] | Serinus canaria | 69 | | [[File:Serinus canaria -Parque Rural del Nublo, Gran Canaria, Spain -male-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Serinus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 287 | [[:d:Q26969|Q26969]] | [[Lullula arborea]] | Lullula arborea | 69 | | [[File:Lullula arborea (Ján Svetlík).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lullula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 288 | [[:d:Q143313|Q143313]] | [[Anthus trivialis]] | Anthus trivialis | 69 | | [[File:2015-04-21 Anthus trivialis, Abernethy Forest 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 289 | [[:d:Q26641|Q26641]] | [[Turdus torquatus]] | Turdus torquatus | 69 | | [[File:2015-04-20 Turdus torquatus torquatus Cairngorm 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]]<br/>[[Merula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 290 | [[:d:Q178702|Q178702]] | [[Lagopus lagopus]] | Lagopus lagopus | 68 | | [[File:Lagopus lagopus - adult (Denali, 2010).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lagopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 291 | [[:d:Q28103|Q28103]] | [[Tringa erythropus]] | Tringa erythropus | 68 | | [[File:Dunkler Wasserläufer.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 292 | [[:d:Q58921|Q58921]] | [[Calidris temminckii]] | Calidris temminckii | 68 | | [[File:Temminck's Stint in Bakkhali September 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 293 | [[:d:Q18855|Q18855]] | [[Charadrius alexandrinus]] | Charadrius alexandrinus | 68 | | [[File:Charadrius alexandrinus - Kentish Plover 03.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anarhynchus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 294 | [[:d:Q26675|Q26675]] | [[Morus bassanus]] | Morus bassanus | 68 | | [[File:2015-06-22 Morus bassanus on Bass Rock 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Morus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 295 | [[:d:Q208763|Q208763]] | [[Threskiornis aethiopicus]] | Threskiornis aethiopicus | 68 | | [[File:Threskiornis aethiopicus -Mida Creek mud flats, Kenya-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Threskiornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 296 | [[:d:Q174466|Q174466]] | [[Aegolius funereus]] | Aegolius funereus | 68 | | [[File:Aegolius-funereus-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aegolius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 297 | [[:d:Q244350|Q244350]] | [[Netta rufina]] | Netta rufina | 68 | | [[File:Netta rufina - Jona (SG) Stampf 2011-04-24 15-55-58.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Netta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 298 | [[:d:Q26680|Q26680]] | [[Branta leucopsis]] | Branta leucopsis | 68 | | [[File:Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Branta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 299 | [[:d:Q44245|Q44245]] | [[Coraciidae]] | Coraciidae | 68 | | [[File:Coracias garrulus - European roller 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coraciiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 300 | [[:d:Q220328|Q220328]] | [[Psittacus erithacus]] | Psittacus erithacus | 68 | | [[File:Perroquet à Yampopo Beach - Douala.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittacus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 301 | [[:d:Q191386|Q191386]] | [[Pyrrhocorax graculus]] | Pyrrhocorax graculus | 68 | | [[File:Alpine Chough by Jim Higham.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pyrrhocorax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 302 | [[:d:Q152144|Q152144]] | [[Monticola solitarius]] | Monticola solitarius | 68 | | [[File:Monticola solitarius 29-August-2015.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Monticola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 303 | [[:d:Q207831|Q207831]] | [[Lophophanes cristatus]] | Lophophanes cristatus | 68 | | [[File:Lophophanes cristatus - 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lophophanes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 304 | [[:d:Q205930|Q205930]] | [[Lagopus muta]] | Lagopus muta | 67 | | [[File:Lagopus muta2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lagopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 305 | [[:d:Q19172|Q19172]] | [[Tinamidae]] | Tinamidae | 67 | | [[File:Stavenn Eudromia elegans 00.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tinamiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 306 | [[:d:Q28449|Q28449]] | [[Charadriidae]] | Charadriidae | 67 | | [[File:Ringed Plover (8899210257).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 307 | [[:d:Q205323|Q205323]] | [[Stercorariidae]] | Stercorariidae | 67 | | [[File:Stercorarius pomarinusPCCA20070623-3985B.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | [[ave marin]]<br/>[[piscivore]] | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 308 | [[:d:Q26125|Q26125]] | [[Caprimulgiformes]] | Caprimulgiformes | 67 | | [[File:Caprimulgus macrurus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strisores]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 309 | [[:d:Q28355|Q28355]] | [[Tringa stagnatilis]] | Tringa stagnatilis | 67 | | [[File:Tringa stagnatilis 2 - Laem Pak Bia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 310 | [[:d:Q62345|Q62345]] | [[Calidris ferruginea]] | Calidris ferruginea | 67 | | [[File:Calidris ferruginea (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 311 | [[:d:Q21148|Q21148]] | [[Pluvialis apricaria]] | Pluvialis apricaria | 67 | | [[File:.00 3155 Goldregenpfeifer (Pluvialis apricaria).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pluvialis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 312 | [[:d:Q321267|Q321267]] | [[Alpine Swift]] | Tachymarptis melba | 67 | | [[File:Alpine. Swift at kattampally.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tachymarptis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 313 | [[:d:Q26612|Q26612]] | [[Rissa tridactyla]] | Rissa tridactyla | 67 | | [[File:Black-legged-Kittiwake.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rissa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 314 | [[:d:Q191394|Q191394]] | [[Ardeola ralloides]] | Ardeola ralloides | 67 | | [[File:Papa-ratos-PE do Cocó-Levi Adriano Dias(002).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardeola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 315 | [[:d:Q27102|Q27102]] | [[Alca torda]] | Alca torda | 67 | | [[File:Razorbill with a nice catch.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 316 | [[:d:Q189193|Q189193]] | [[Pinguinus impennis]] | Pinguinus impennis | 67 | | [[File:Alca impennisAMF064LB.png|center|48px]] | [[extinct taxon]] | | [[Pinguinus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 317 | [[:d:Q193192|Q193192]] | [[Surnia ulula]] | Surnia ulula | 67 | | [[File:Surnia-ulula-002.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Surnia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 318 | [[:d:Q214264|Q214264]] | [[Anas]] | Anas | 67 | | [[File:Female mallard nest - natures pics edit2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatinae]]<br/>[[Anatini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 319 | [[:d:Q232523|Q232523]] | [[Clanga pomarina]] | Clanga pomarina | 67 | | [[File:Aquila pomarina orlik krzykliwyAM.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Clanga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 320 | [[:d:Q26696|Q26696]] | [[Somateria mollissima]] | Somateria mollissima | 67 | | [[File:Common eider female at Jones Beach (04713).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Somateria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 321 | [[:d:Q26961|Q26961]] | [[Emberiza schoeniclus]] | Emberiza schoeniclus | 67 | | [[File:2014-06-01 Emberiza schoeniclus, Swallow Pond, Northumberland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 322 | [[:d:Q208060|Q208060]] | [[Psittacula krameri]] | Psittacula krameri | 67 | | [[File:African Rose-ringed Parakeet, Tamanrasset, Algeria 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittacula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 323 | [[:d:Q46143|Q46143]] | [[Carpodacus erythrinus]] | Carpodacus erythrinus | 67 | | [[File:Carpodacus erythrinus 20060623.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Carpodacus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 324 | [[:d:Q26671|Q26671]] | [[Lanius collurio]] | Lanius collurio | 67 | | [[File:Lanius collurio - Red-backed shrike 09.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | [[pie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 325 | [[:d:Q187014|Q187014]] | [[Sylviidae]] | Sylviidae | 67 | | [[File:Tallareta vulgar 01 (Sylvia communis).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sylvioidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 326 | [[:d:Q643836|Q643836]] | [[Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax]] | Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax | 67 | | [[File:Alpenkrähe-Pyrrhocorax.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pyrrhocorax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 327 | [[:d:Q241499|Q241499]] | [[Ficedula parva]] | Ficedula parva | 67 | | [[File:Ficedula parva мухоловка мала.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ficedula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 328 | [[:d:Q213827|Q213827]] | [[Musophagidae]] | Musophagidae | 66 | | [[File:Corythaixoides leucogaster -Kambi ya Tembo, Tanzania -female-8 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Musophagiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 329 | [[:d:Q21949185|Q21949185]] | [[Leucogeranus leucogeranus]] | Leucogeranus leucogeranus | 66 | | [[File:Schneekranich Grus leucogeranus 090501 We 147.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leucogeranus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 330 | [[:d:Q241753|Q241753]] | [[Chlidonias leucopterus]] | Chlidonias leucopterus | 66 | | [[File:Chlidonias leucopterus Mai Po.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chlidonias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 331 | [[:d:Q191968|Q191968]] | [[Ectopistes migratorius]] | Ectopistes migratorius | 66 | | [[File:Bird lore (1913) (14562557107).jpg|center|48px]] | [[extinct taxon]] | | [[Ectopistes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 332 | [[:d:Q242851|Q242851]] | [[Cairina moschata]] | Cairina moschata | 66 | | [[File:Muskovy duck (Cairina moschata).JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cairina]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 333 | [[:d:Q191155|Q191155]] | [[Glaucidium passerinum]] | Glaucidium passerinum | 66 | | [[File:Eurasian pygmy owl (Glaucidium passerinum) Białowieza.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Glaucidium]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 334 | [[:d:Q211601|Q211601]] | [[Ploceidae]] | Ploceidae | 66 | | [[File:Baya Weaver (Ploceus philippinus)- Male W IMG 0709.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 335 | [[:d:Q200646|Q200646]] | [[Mergellus albellus]] | Mergellus albellus | 66 | | [[File:Mergellus albellus, Killingworth Lake, Northumberland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mergellus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 336 | [[:d:Q26603|Q26603]] | [[Cygnus columbianus]] | Cygnus columbianus | 66 | | [[File:Cygnus bewickii 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cygnus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 337 | [[:d:Q194240|Q194240]] | [[Passeri]] | Passeri | 66 | | [[File:Eastern yellow robin (Victoria, Australia 2008).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eupasseres]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 338 | [[:d:Q27220|Q27220]] | [[Emberiza calandra]] | Emberiza calandra | 66 | | [[File:Miliaria calandra-Corn Bunting.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 339 | [[:d:Q180835|Q180835]] | [[Acrocephalus arundinaceus]] | Acrocephalus arundinaceus | 66 | | [[File:Drosselrohrsänger Great reed warbler.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 340 | [[:d:Q201106|Q201106]] | [[Picus canus]] | Picus canus | 66 | | [[File:Grey-headed Woodpecker - Italy S4E5692.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Picus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 341 | [[:d:Q27239|Q27239]] | [[Phylloscopus trochilus]] | Phylloscopus trochilus | 66 | | [[File:Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 342 | [[:d:Q184508|Q184508]] | [[Lanius excubitor]] | Lanius excubitor | 66 | | [[File:Great Grey Shrike in Bhigwan August 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 343 | [[:d:Q192817|Q192817]] | [[Panurus biarmicus]] | Panurus biarmicus | 66 | | [[File:Bartmeise(Cropped) by Wolfram Riech.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Panurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 344 | [[:d:Q206130|Q206130]] | [[Luscinia luscinia]] | Luscinia luscinia | 66 | | [[File:Luscinia luscinia vogelartinfo chris romeiks CHR3635.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Luscinia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 345 | [[:d:Q187902|Q187902]] | [[Porphyrio porphyrio]] | Porphyrio porphyrio | 65 | | [[File:Purpurhuhn.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Porphyrio]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 346 | [[:d:Q30944|Q30944]] | [[Streptopelia]] | Streptopelia | 65 | | [[File:Collared Dove, La Gomera, Canary Islands (8525817722).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columbinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 347 | [[:d:Q233616|Q233616]] | [[Chlidonias hybrida]] | Chlidonias hybrida | 65 | | [[File:Chlidonias hybrida 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chlidonias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 348 | [[:d:Q18834|Q18834]] | [[Gelochelidon nilotica]] | Gelochelidon nilotica | 65 | | [[File:Gelochelidon nilotica 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gelochelidon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 349 | [[:d:Q233684|Q233684]] | [[Buteo rufinus]] | Buteo rufinus | 65 | | [[File:Long-legged Buzzard (24521858347).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Buteo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 350 | [[:d:Q192705|Q192705]] | [[Sarcoramphus papa]] | Sarcoramphus papa | 65 | | [[File:Sarcoramphus papa -National Zoo -Washington -USA-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sarcoramphus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 351 | [[:d:Q28486|Q28486]] | [[Emberizidae]] | Emberizidae | 65 | | [[File:2014-06-01 Emberiza schoeniclus, Swallow Pond, Northumberland 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 352 | [[:d:Q234722|Q234722]] | [[Aquila fasciata]] | Aquila fasciata | 65 | | [[File:Bonelli's Eagle.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 353 | [[:d:Q201300|Q201300]] | [[Melanitta fusca]] | Melanitta fusca | 65 | | [[File:Velvet Scoter, Eyebrook Reservoir, Leics.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Melanitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 354 | [[:d:Q274179|Q274179]] | [[Alopochen aegyptiaca]] | Alopochen aegyptiaca | 65 | | [[File:Egyptian goose (05659).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alopochen]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 355 | [[:d:Q334183|Q334183]] | [[Emberiza melanocephala]] | Emberiza melanocephala | 65 | | [[File:28-090504-black-headed-bunting-at-first-layby.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 356 | [[:d:Q184825|Q184825]] | [[Turdus iliacus]] | Turdus iliacus | 65 | | [[File:Redwing Turdus iliacus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 357 | [[:d:Q28114227|Q28114227]] | [[Broad-billed Sandpiper]] | Calidris falcinellus | 64 | | [[File:Broad billed sandpiper by Sreedev Puthur.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 358 | [[:d:Q18856|Q18856]] | [[Xenus cinereus]] | Xenus cinereus | 64 | | [[File:Xenus cinereus (Alnus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Xenus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 359 | [[:d:Q208004|Q208004]] | [[Phoenicopterus ruber]] | Phoenicopterus ruber | 64 | | [[File:Caribbean Flamingo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicopterus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 360 | [[:d:Q191469|Q191469]] | [[Trogonidae]] | Trogonidae | 64 | | [[File:Trogon-viridis-002.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Trogoniformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 361 | [[:d:Q191628|Q191628]] | [[Anser erythropus]] | Anser erythropus | 64 | | [[File:Anser erythropus MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.14.6.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anser]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 362 | [[:d:Q206630|Q206630]] | [[Emberiza hortulana]] | Emberiza hortulana | 64 | | [[File:Ortolan bunting in Sierra de Guara, Aragon, Spain.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 363 | [[:d:Q167230|Q167230]] | [[Tichodroma muraria]] | Tichodroma muraria | 64 | | [[File:Tichodrome échelette Tichodroma muraria aDSC 1009 (50997238804).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tichodroma]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 364 | [[:d:Q26956|Q26956]] | [[Anthus pratensis]] | Anthus pratensis | 64 | | [[File:Meadow-Pipit.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 365 | [[:d:Q27171|Q27171]] | [[Gallinago media]] | Gallinago media | 63 | | [[File:Gallinago media kilnsea.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallinago]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 366 | [[:d:Q26629|Q26629]] | [[Larus marinus]] | Larus marinus | 63 | | [[File:Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 367 | [[:d:Q190083|Q190083]] | [[Strix uralensis]] | Strix uralensis | 63 | | [[File:2012-11-01 Ural Owl, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 368 | [[:d:Q512737|Q512737]] | [[Leptoptilos crumeniferus]] | Leptoptilos crumenifer | 63 | | [[File:Leptoptilos crumeniferus -near Kwara Camp, North-West District, Botswana-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Ciconiidae]] | [[Leptoptilos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 369 | [[:d:Q20977|Q20977]] | [[Upupidae]] | Upupidae | 63 | | [[File:Hoopoe100.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | | [[Bucerotiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 370 | [[:d:Q205938|Q205938]] | [[Certhiidae]] | Certhiidae | 63 | | [[File:Certhia-americana-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 371 | [[:d:Q214137|Q214137]] | [[Indicatoridae]] | Indicatoridae | 63 | | [[File:Wahlberg's Honeyguide (Prodotiscus regulus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Piciformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 372 | [[:d:Q27434|Q27434]] | [[Melanitta nigra]] | Melanitta nigra | 63 | | [[File:Männliche Trauerente (Melanitta nigra) - Spiekeroog, Nationalpark Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Melanitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 373 | [[:d:Q159080|Q159080]] | [[Acrocephalus scirpaceus]] | Acrocephalus scirpaceus | 63 | | [[File:Eurasian Reed Warbler.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 374 | [[:d:Q213216|Q213216]] | [[Eurasian Crag Martin]] | Ptyonoprogne rupestris | 63 | | [[File:Ptyonoprogne rupestris -Europe-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ptyonoprogne]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 375 | [[:d:Q155869|Q155869]] | [[Saxicola rubetra]] | Saxicola rubetra | 63 | | [[File:Saxicola rubetra poklaskwa AM.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Saxicola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 376 | [[:d:Q207838|Q207838]] | [[Poecile palustris]] | Poecile palustris | 63 | | [[File:Sumpfmeise im NSG Hirschacker und Dossenwald 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Poecile]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 377 | [[:d:Q201240|Q201240]] | [[Tetraoninae]] | Tetraoninae | 62 | | [[File:SageGrouse21.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phasianidae]]<br/>[[Galliformes]]<br/>[[Phasianinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 378 | [[:d:Q2576337|Q2576337]] | [[Struthio]] | Struthio | 62 | | [[File:Couple autruche eco-ferme lokoli a sinemantiali.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Struthionidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 379 | [[:d:Q28078|Q28078]] | [[Columbiformes]] | Columbiformes | 62 | | [[File:Witvleugduif.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | [[Columbimorphae]] | [[Columbimorphae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 380 | [[:d:Q206840|Q206840]] | [[Phalaropus lobatus]] | Phalaropus lobatus | 62 | | [[File:Phalaropus lobatus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phalaropus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 381 | [[:d:Q203053|Q203053]] | [[Stercorarius parasiticus]] | Stercorarius parasiticus | 62 | | [[File:2021-07-11 Parasitic jaeger chick.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Stercorarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 382 | [[:d:Q180691|Q180691]] | [[Coliidae]] | Coliidae | 62 | | [[File:Colius striatus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coliiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 383 | [[:d:Q180360|Q180360]] | [[Pelecanus philippensis]] | Pelecanus philippensis | 62 | | [[File:Spot-billed Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) with nesting material W IMG 2806.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 384 | [[:d:Q244813|Q244813]] | [[Spheniscus demersus]] | Spheniscus demersus | 62 | | [[File:Pingüino de El Cabo (Spheniscus demersus), Playa de Boulders, Simon's Town, Sudáfrica, 2018-07-23, DD 11.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Spheniscidae]] | [[Spheniscus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 385 | [[:d:Q194314|Q194314]] | [[Gymnogyps californianus]] | Gymnogyps californianus | 62 | | [[File:California-Condor3-Szmurlo edit.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gymnogyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 386 | [[:d:Q715710|Q715710]] | [[Accipiter badius]] | Accipiter badius | 62 | | [[File:Shikra1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipiter]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 387 | [[:d:Q187852|Q187852]] | [[Branta ruficollis]] | Branta ruficollis | 62 | | [[File:Brantha ruficollis In Taimyr Reserve.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Branta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 388 | [[:d:Q27471|Q27471]] | [[Regulus ignicapillus]] | Regulus ignicapilla | 62 | | [[File:Regulus ignicapilla Frank Vassen.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Regulus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 389 | [[:d:Q193337|Q193337]] | [[Nestor notabilis]] | Nestor notabilis | 62 | | [[File:Kea.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nestor]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 390 | [[:d:Q193593|Q193593]] | [[Certhia familiaris]] | Certhia familiaris | 62 | | [[File:Certhia familiaris 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Certhia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 391 | [[:d:Q27442|Q27442]] | [[Ficedula hypoleuca]] | Ficedula hypoleuca | 62 | | [[File:Ficedula hypoleuca -Wood of Cree Nature Reserve, Scotland -male-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ficedula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 392 | [[:d:Q328982|Q328982]] | [[Luscinia]] | Luscinia | 62 | | [[File:Common Nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) (25936816473).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Saxicolinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 393 | [[:d:Q110257516|Q110257516]] | [[Curruca communis]] | Curruca communis | 62 | | [[File:Dorngrasmücke im Geo-Naturpark Bergstraße-Odenwald.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Curruca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 394 | [[:d:Q19168|Q19168]] | [[Neognathae]] | Neognathae | 61 | | [[File:House sparrow (Passer domesticus) male 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Neornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 395 | [[:d:Q145854|Q145854]] | [[Burhinidae]] | Burhinidae | 61 | | [[File:Burhinus grallarius - AndrewMercer IMG27414.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 396 | [[:d:Q208492|Q208492]] | [[Sulidae]] | Sulidae | 61 | | [[File:Brown booby.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Suliformes]]<br/>[[Pelecaniformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 397 | [[:d:Q1887740|Q1887740]] | [[Larus]] | Larus | 61 | | [[File:00 0946 Möwe im Flug.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Laridae]]<br/>[[Larinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 398 | [[:d:Q202504|Q202504]] | [[Charadrius morinellus]] | Charadrius morinellus | 61 | | [[File:Charadrius morinellus male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadrius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 399 | [[:d:Q311761|Q311761]] | [[Fratercula]] | Fratercula | 61 | | [[File:Puffin002.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alcidae]]<br/>[[Fraterculini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 400 | [[:d:Q27215|Q27215]] | [[Chlidonias niger]] | Chlidonias niger | 61 | | [[File:Chlidonias niger.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chlidonias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 401 | [[:d:Q147403|Q147403]] | [[Haliaeetus]] | Haliaeetus | 61 | | [[File:Adult White-tailed Eagle defending prey, Rezerwat Gostynin-Wloclawek, Poland.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 402 | [[:d:Q235152|Q235152]] | [[Buteo]] | Buteo | 61 | | [[File:Buteo buteo -Netherlands-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitridae]]<br/>[[Buteoninae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 403 | [[:d:Q6471715|Q6471715]] | [[Ciconia]] | Ciconia | 61 | | [[File:White Stork-Mindaugas Urbonas-1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconiini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 404 | [[:d:Q27236|Q27236]] | [[Acrocephalus schoenobaenus]] | Acrocephalus schoenobaenus | 61 | | [[File:Acrocephalus schoenobaenus -Sweden-8 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 405 | [[:d:Q243761|Q243761]] | [[Ara macao]] | Ara macao | 61 | | [[File:Ara macao -Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 406 | [[:d:Q210418|Q210418]] | [[Picoides tridactylus]] | Picoides tridactylus | 61 | | [[File:Three-toed Woodpecker - Finlandia 0005 (3).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Picoides]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 407 | [[:d:Q27226|Q27226]] | [[Anthus campestris]] | Anthus campestris | 61 | | [[File:Anthus campestris-3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 408 | [[:d:Q110257504|Q110257504]] | [[Curruca curruca]] | Curruca curruca | 61 | | [[File:Klappergrasmücke (Curruca curruca) 3, Filey, North Yorkshire.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Curruca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 409 | [[:d:Q1869243|Q1869243]] | [[Coturnix]] | Coturnix | 60 | | [[File:Coturnix coturnix (Lmbuga).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Perdicinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 410 | [[:d:Q270680|Q270680]] | [[Porzana parva]] | Zapornia parva | 60 | | [[File:Porzana parva (50).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zapornia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 411 | [[:d:Q254636|Q254636]] | [[Pavo muticus]] | Pavo muticus | 60 | | [[File:Green Peafowl - Baluran NP - East Java MG 7995 (29726908551).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pavo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 412 | [[:d:Q207767|Q207767]] | [[Procellariidae]] | Procellariidae | 60 | | [[File:Damier du Cap - Cape Petrel.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Procellariiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 413 | [[:d:Q3758978|Q3758978]] | [[Gavia]] | Gavia | 60 | | [[File:PacificLoon24.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Gaviidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 414 | [[:d:Q244319|Q244319]] | [[Microcarbo pygmeus]] | Microcarbo pygmaeus | 60 | | [[File:Microcarbo pygmaeus - Pygmy cormorant.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Microcarbo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 415 | [[:d:Q116686|Q116686]] | [[Spilopelia chinensis]] | Spilopelia chinensis | 60 | | [[File:Spilopelia chinensis Zhengzhou 20210607.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spilopelia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 416 | [[:d:Q276189|Q276189]] | [[Ichthyaetus melanocephalus]] | Ichthyaetus melanocephalus | 60 | | [[File:2013-08-01 Ichthyaetus melanocephalus, Brierdene, Whitley Bay, Northumberland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ichthyaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 417 | [[:d:Q164467|Q164467]] | [[Hydrocoloeus minutus]] | Hydrocoloeus minutus | 60 | | [[File:Bird Yyterin lietteet 4.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hydrocoloeus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 418 | [[:d:Q208714|Q208714]] | [[Pelecanus occidentalis]] | Pelecanus occidentalis | 60 | | [[File:Brown Pelican21K.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 419 | [[:d:Q200724|Q200724]] | [[Strix nebulosa]] | Strix nebulosa | 60 | | [[File:Strix nebulosa CT.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 420 | [[:d:Q203628|Q203628]] | [[Eudyptula minor]] | Eudyptula minor | 60 | | [[File:Eudyptula minor Bruny 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudyptula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 421 | [[:d:Q20740|Q20740]] | [[Bucerotiformes]] | Bucerotiformes | 60 | | [[File:Buceros bicornis -Köln Zoo-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Picocoraciae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 422 | [[:d:Q241399|Q241399]] | [[Oxyura leucocephala]] | Oxyura leucocephala | 60 | | [[File:Oxyura leucocephala, Clot-de-Galvany, Alicante 16.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oxyura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 423 | [[:d:Q27050|Q27050]] | [[Branta bernicla]] | Branta bernicla | 60 | | [[File:Branta bernicla bernicla Norfolk 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Branta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 424 | [[:d:Q20754771|Q20754771]] | [[Redpoll]] | Acanthis flammea | 60 | | [[File:Acanthis flammea, Kotka, Finland 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acanthis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 425 | [[:d:Q207249|Q207249]] | [[Eremophila alpestris]] | Eremophila alpestris | 60 | | [[File:Eremophila alpestris flava, Blyth 3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eremophila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 426 | [[:d:Q207290|Q207290]] | [[Dendrocopos leucotos]] | Dendrocopos leucotos | 60 | | [[File:Dendrocopos leucotos 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocopos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 427 | [[:d:Q460967|Q460967]] | [[Turdus migratorius]] | Turdus migratorius | 60 | | [[File:American robin (71307).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 428 | [[:d:Q213536|Q213536]] | [[Megapodiidae]] | Megapodiidae | 59 | | [[File:Australian Brush turkey2.jpeg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Galliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 429 | [[:d:Q194043|Q194043]] | [[Alectoris chukar]] | Alectoris chukar | 59 | | [[File:Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar) (39660989151).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alectoris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 430 | [[:d:Q335992|Q335992]] | [[Balearica regulorum]] | Balearica regulorum | 59 | | [[File:Balearica regulorum regulorum, South Africa.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Balearica]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 431 | [[:d:Q208335|Q208335]] | [[Phalaropus fulicarius]] | Phalaropus fulicarius | 59 | | [[File:Grey Phalarope.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phalaropus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 432 | [[:d:Q18865|Q18865]] | [[Pluvialis fulva]] | Pluvialis fulva | 59 | | [[File:Pacific Golden Plover - March 4, 2025.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pluvialis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 433 | [[:d:Q207760|Q207760]] | [[Stercorarius skua]] | Stercorarius skua | 59 | | [[File:GreatSkuaInWater.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Stercorarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 434 | [[:d:Q203472|Q203472]] | [[Fregata]] | Fregata | 59 | | [[File:Fregata magnificens Islas Galápagos.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fregatidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 435 | [[:d:Q27547|Q27547]] | [[Thalasseus sandvicensis]] | Thalasseus sandvicensis | 59 | | [[File:2020-07-18 Thalasseus sandvicensis, St Marys Island, Northumberland 05.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[taxon synonyme]] | | [[Thalasseus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 436 | [[:d:Q389505|Q389505]] | [[Larus cachinnans]] | Larus cachinnans | 59 | | [[File:Larus cachinnans 3 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 437 | [[:d:Q213021|Q213021]] | [[Pygoscelis papua]] | Pygoscelis papua | 59 | | [[File:"0 0578 Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis) - Antarctic Peninsula.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pygoscelis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 438 | [[:d:Q21062|Q21062]] | [[Uria aalge]] | Uria aalge | 59 | | [[File:Guillemot (Uria aalge) in flight.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Uria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 439 | [[:d:Q271462|Q271462]] | [[Haliaeetus leucoryphus]] | Haliaeetus leucoryphus | 59 | | [[File:Pallas's Fish Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucoryphus) 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliaeetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 440 | [[:d:Q208710|Q208710]] | [[Locustella naevia]] | Locustella naevia | 59 | | [[File:Grashoppsangare-070512.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Locustella]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 441 | [[:d:Q193807|Q193807]] | [[Anthus]] | Anthus | 59 | | [[File:Wiesenpieper Anthus pratensis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Motacillidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 442 | [[:d:Q241347|Q241347]] | [[Anthus cervinus]] | Anthus cervinus | 59 | | [[File:Anthus cervinus2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 443 | [[:d:Q273067|Q273067]] | [[Remiz pendulinus]] | Remiz pendulinus | 59 | | [[File:Remiz pendulinus (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Remiz]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 444 | [[:d:Q19166|Q19166]] | [[Palaeognathae]] | Palaeognathae | 58 | | [[File:Double-Wattled Cassowary (Casuarius bicarunculatus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[ave]]<br/>[[Neornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 445 | [[:d:Q840849|Q840849]] | [[Struthioniformes]] | Struthioniformes | 58 | | [[File:Avestruz de cuello azul (Struthio camelus australis), cabo de Buena Esparanza, Sudáfrica, 2018-07-23, DD 87.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Palaeognathae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 446 | [[:d:Q213036|Q213036]] | [[Mellisuga helenae]] | Mellisuga helenae | 58 | | | [[taxon]] | | [[Mellisuga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 447 | [[:d:Q47549|Q47549]] | [[Grus]] | Grus | 58 | | [[File:Common crane grus grus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gruidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 448 | [[:d:Q335113|Q335113]] | [[Chrysolophus pictus]] | Chrysolophus pictus | 58 | | [[File:Golden Pheasant, Tangjiahe Nature Reserve.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chrysolophus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 449 | [[:d:Q232906|Q232906]] | [[Grus japonensis]] | Grus japonensis | 58 | | [[File:Grus japonensis 102480624.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Grus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 450 | [[:d:Q215166|Q215166]] | [[Numenius]] | Numenius | 58 | | [[File:2020-01-02 Curlew Numenius arquata, River Tyne at Elswick, Northumberland.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 451 | [[:d:Q183364|Q183364]] | [[Cuculiformes]] | Cuculiformes | 58 | | [[File:Chestnut-breasted Malkoha2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Otidimorphae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 452 | [[:d:Q379761|Q379761]] | [[Balearica pavonina]] | Balearica pavonina | 58 | | [[File:Венценосный журавль I.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Balearica]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 453 | [[:d:Q212767|Q212767]] | [[Stercorarius pomarinus]] | Stercorarius pomarinus | 58 | | [[File:Pomarine Skua ( Stercorarius pomarinus ) Adult summer ... Coatham Sands , Redcar (53247051024).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Stercorarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 454 | [[:d:Q241515|Q241515]] | [[Strix]] | Strix | 58 | | [[File:Tawny Owl (4003694892).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strigidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 455 | [[:d:Q27375|Q27375]] | [[Larus hyperboreus]] | Larus hyperboreus | 58 | | [[File:Glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus) with offspring, Liefdefjord, Svalbard.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 456 | [[:d:Q208328|Q208328]] | [[Gavia adamsii]] | Gavia adamsii | 58 | | [[File:Yellow-billed Loon Chipp South 8-12-13 Ryan Askren.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gavia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 457 | [[:d:Q213366|Q213366]] | [[Coragyps atratus]] | Coragyps atratus | 58 | | [[File:APA Campos do Jordão-Wdiane(045).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coragyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 458 | [[:d:Q27674|Q27674]] | [[Hippolais icterina]] | Hippolais icterina | 58 | | [[File:Hippolais icterina, Riga, Latvia 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hippolais]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 459 | [[:d:Q208703|Q208703]] | [[Calcarius lapponicus]] | Calcarius lapponicus | 58 | | [[File:Calcarius lapponicus (female) 1996-07-25.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calcarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 460 | [[:d:Q271807|Q271807]] | [[Serinus serinus]] | Serinus serinus | 58 | | [[File:Serin cini mars.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Serinus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 461 | [[:d:Q27075477|Q27075477]] | [[Wood Warbler]] | Phylloscopus sibilatrix | 58 | | [[File:Flickr - Rainbirder - Wood Warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 462 | [[:d:Q747686|Q747686]] | [[Oenanthe isabellina]] | Oenanthe isabellina | 58 | | [[File:Isabelline wheatear (Oenanthe isabellina) male, non-breeding.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oenanthe]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 463 | [[:d:Q235057|Q235057]] | [[Monticola saxatilis]] | Monticola saxatilis | 58 | | [[File:Common rock thrush.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Monticola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 464 | [[:d:Q214508|Q214508]] | [[Aepyornithidae]] | Aepyornithidae | 57 | | [[File:Aepyornis maximus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon fossile]] | | [[Aepyornithiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 465 | [[:d:Q192044|Q192044]] | [[Rhea americana]] | Rhea americana | 57 | | [[File:Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) (28234029614).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rhea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 466 | [[:d:Q205320|Q205320]] | [[Turnicidae]] | Turnicidae | 57 | | [[File:Turnix sylvatica.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 467 | [[:d:Q338996|Q338996]] | [[Afropavo congensis]] | Afropavo congensis | 57 | | [[File:Afropavo congensis -Antwerp Zoo -pair-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Afropavo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 468 | [[:d:Q28114126|Q28114126]] | [[Sarus crane]] | Antigone antigone | 57 | | [[File:Sarus crane (Grus antigone).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Antigone]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 469 | [[:d:Q193404|Q193404]] | [[Hydrobatidae]] | Hydrobatidae | 57 | | [[File:European Storm-petrel.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Procellariiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 470 | [[:d:Q212937|Q212937]] | [[Anseranas semipalmata]] | Anseranas semipalmata | 57 | | [[File:Magpie goose.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anseranas]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 471 | [[:d:Q126630|Q126630]] | [[Gyps]] | Gyps | 57 | | [[File:Gyps fulvus - 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitridae]]<br/>[[Aegypiinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 472 | [[:d:Q83020448|Q83020448]] | [[Gulosus aristotelis]] | Gulosus aristotelis | 57 | | [[File:Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gulosus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 473 | [[:d:Q602496|Q602496]] | [[Anastomus oscitans]] | Anastomus oscitans | 57 | | [[File:Anastomus oscitans - Bueng Boraphet.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anastomus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 474 | [[:d:Q26896|Q26896]] | [[Fulmarus glacialis]] | Fulmarus glacialis | 57 | | [[File:Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) on water.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fulmarus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 475 | [[:d:Q27461|Q27461]] | [[Hydrobates pelagicus]] | Hydrobates pelagicus | 57 | | [[File:Hydrobates pelagicus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hydrobates]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 476 | [[:d:Q44327|Q44327]] | [[Ciconia episcopus]] | Ciconia episcopus | 57 | | [[File:White necked stork (Ciconia episcopus) 21-Mar-2007 7-37-51 AM 21-Mar-2007 7-37-52.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 477 | [[:d:Q206668|Q206668]] | [[Spheniscus mendiculus]] | Spheniscus mendiculus | 57 | | [[File:Galapagos penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus) -Isabela2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spheniscus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 478 | [[:d:Q224151|Q224151]] | [[Spheniscus humboldti]] | Spheniscus humboldti | 57 | | [[File:Spheniscus humboldti (54905367722).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spheniscus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 479 | [[:d:Q431212|Q431212]] | [[Spilornis cheela]] | Spilornis cheela | 57 | | [[File:Crested Sperpent Eagle 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spilornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 480 | [[:d:Q27227|Q27227]] | [[Elanus caeruleus]] | Elanus caeruleus | 57 | | [[File:Black-shouldered Kite (Elanus caeruleus) in Kawal WS, AP W IMG 1681.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Elanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 481 | [[:d:Q209419|Q209419]] | [[Anser brachyrhynchus]] | Anser brachyrhynchus | 57 | | [[File:2019-03-25 Anser brachyrhynchus, Killingworth Lake, Northumberland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anser]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 482 | [[:d:Q208940|Q208940]] | [[Bombycilla]] | Bombycilla | 57 | | [[File:Bohemian Wax Wing.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bombycillidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 483 | [[:d:Q214096|Q214096]] | [[Menura]] | Menura | 57 | | [[File:Lantfarku.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Menuridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 484 | [[:d:Q459267|Q459267]] | [[Pharomachrus mocinno]] | Pharomachrus mocinno | 57 | | [[File:Pharomachrus mocinno 189344785.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pharomachrus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 485 | [[:d:Q207107|Q207107]] | [[Cacatua galerita]] | Cacatua galerita | 57 | | [[File:Cacatua galerita Tas 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 486 | [[:d:Q477133|Q477133]] | [[Coracias benghalensis]] | Coracias benghalensis | 57 | | [[File:Indian Roller (Coracias benghalensis)2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coracias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 487 | [[:d:Q232768|Q232768]] | [[Buceros bicornis]] | Buceros bicornis | 57 | | [[File:Great Hornbill Goa.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Buceros]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 488 | [[:d:Q239393|Q239393]] | [[Lanius minor]] | Lanius minor | 57 | | [[File:Lesser Grey Shrike by Daniel Bastaja.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 489 | [[:d:Q208707|Q208707]] | [[Anthus spinoletta]] | Anthus spinoletta | 57 | | [[File:Anthus spinoletta - Water Pipit, Kahramanmaraş 2016-11-18 01-10.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 490 | [[:d:Q266761|Q266761]] | [[Copsychus saularis]] | Copsychus saularis | 57 | | [[File:Oriental Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis)- Male at Kolkata I IMG 3003.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Copsychus]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 491 | [[:d:Q466200|Q466200]] | [[Passer hispaniolensis]] | Passer hispaniolensis | 57 | | [[File:Passer hispaniolensis -Canary Islands, Spain -female-8 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passer]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 492 | [[:d:Q27043839|Q27043839]] | [[King Quail]] | Synoicus chinensis | 56 | | [[File:Synoicus chinensis chinensis, Tanglin, Singapore 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Synoicus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 493 | [[:d:Q216921|Q216921]] | [[Stercorarius longicaudus]] | Stercorarius longicaudus | 56 | | [[File:Long-tailed Skua (js) 26.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Stercorarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 494 | [[:d:Q310853|Q310853]] | [[Ardea]] | Ardea | 56 | | [[File:Goliath Heron, Ardea goliath at Marievale Nature Reserve, Gauten (43682842260).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardeinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 495 | [[:d:Q290871|Q290871]] | [[Chlamydotis undulata]] | Chlamydotis undulata | 56 | | [[File:Houbara035.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chlamydotis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 496 | [[:d:Q476356|Q476356]] | [[Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus]] | Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus | 56 | | [[File:Larus ichthyaetus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ichthyaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 497 | [[:d:Q457267|Q457267]] | [[Sula nebouxii]] | Sula nebouxii | 56 | | [[File:Alcatraz Patiazul.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 498 | [[:d:Q242369|Q242369]] | [[Phoeniconaias minor]] | Phoeniconaias minor | 56 | | [[File:Flamingo in Amboseli National Park.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoeniconaias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 499 | [[:d:Q652151|Q652151]] | [[Scopus umbretta]] | Scopus umbretta | 56 | | [[File:Hamerkop standing in a stream in Zambia.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 500 | [[:d:Q605804|Q605804]] | [[Caloenas nicobarica]] | Caloenas nicobarica | 56 | | [[File:Caloenas nicobarica, Ko Miang, Thailand 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Caloenas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 501 | [[:d:Q206654|Q206654]] | [[Megadyptes antipodes]] | Megadyptes antipodes | 56 | | [[File:Yellow-eyed Penguin MC.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Megadyptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 502 | [[:d:Q207246|Q207246]] | [[Spheniscus magellanicus]] | Spheniscus magellanicus | 56 | | [[File:Magellanic penguin.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spheniscus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 503 | [[:d:Q643101|Q643101]] | [[Gyps himalayensis]] | Gyps himalayensis | 56 | | [[File:Himalayan Vulture (by a road) (2926948182).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 504 | [[:d:Q690813|Q690813]] | [[Somateria]] | Somateria | 56 | | [[File:048 - SPECTACLED EIDER (6-17-2016) barrow, alaska -05 (27890171860).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 505 | [[:d:Q27461190|Q27461190]] | [[Baikal Teal]] | Sibirionetta formosa | 56 | | [[File:Anas.formosa.4.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[recombination]] | | [[Sibirionetta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 506 | [[:d:Q374141|Q374141]] | [[Aquila rapax]] | Aquila rapax | 56 | | [[File:Aquila rapax Simien Mountains, Ethiopia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 507 | [[:d:Q253789|Q253789]] | [[Mergus]] | Mergus | 56 | | [[File:Mergus serrator.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mergini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 508 | [[:d:Q31354|Q31354]] | [[Anser cygnoides]] | Anser cygnoides | 56 | | [[File:Anser cygnoides Qiqihar 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[goose]] | [[Anser]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 509 | [[:d:Q337416|Q337416]] | [[Gracula religiosa]] | Gracula religiosa | 56 | | [[File:Common Hill Myna, Satchari NP, Bangladesh 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gracula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 510 | [[:d:Q27075446|Q27075446]] | [[Eastern Red-rumped Swallow]] | Cecropis daurica | 56 | | [[File:Cecropis daurica, Fufeng County, Baoji, Shaanxi, China 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cecropis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 511 | [[:d:Q46435|Q46435]] | [[Dicrurus macrocercus]] | Dicrurus macrocercus | 56 | | [[File:Black Drongo in Purulia June 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dicrurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 512 | [[:d:Q47501|Q47501]] | [[Ramphastos sulfuratus]] | Ramphastos sulfuratus | 56 | | [[File:Keel billed toucan costa rica (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ramphastos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 513 | [[:d:Q739089|Q739089]] | [[Ara chloropterus]] | Ara chloropterus | 56 | | [[File:189 Red-and-green macaw couple flying in Chapada dos Guimarães National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 514 | [[:d:Q214627|Q214627]] | [[Phylloscopus]] | Phylloscopus | 56 | | [[File:BG Phylloscopus sibilatrix 2002.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 515 | [[:d:Q320043|Q320043]] | [[Ceryle rudis]] | Ceryle rudis | 56 | | [[File:Pied kingfisher (Ceryle rudis leucomelanurus) female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ceryle]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 516 | [[:d:Q10965357|Q10965357]] | [[Twite]] | Linaria flavirostris | 56 | | [[File:Carduelis flavirostris.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Linaria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 517 | [[:d:Q507383|Q507383]] | [[Corvus splendens]] | Corvus splendens | 56 | | [[File:House-Crow444.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 518 | [[:d:Q330318|Q330318]] | [[Phylloscopus inornatus]] | Phylloscopus inornatus | 56 | | [[File:Phylloscopus inornatus 456140817.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 519 | [[:d:Q460229|Q460229]] | [[Phylloscopus trochiloides]] | Phylloscopus trochiloides | 56 | | [[File:Greenish Warbler Sikkim India 11.05.2014.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 520 | [[:d:Q214281|Q214281]] | [[Perisoreus infaustus]] | Perisoreus infaustus | 56 | | [[File:Siberian Jay Kittila 20100312.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Perisoreus]] | [[jay]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 521 | [[:d:Q690826|Q690826]] | [[Ficedula albicollis]] | Ficedula albicollis | 56 | | [[File:Collared flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ficedula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 522 | [[:d:Q732487|Q732487]] | [[Perdix]] | Perdix | 55 | | [[File:Perdix perdix (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Perdicinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 523 | [[:d:Q217484|Q217484]] | [[Anhimidae]] | Anhimidae | 55 | | [[File:Anhima cornuta -near Manu Wildlife Center, Manu National Park, Peru -three-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anseriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 524 | [[:d:Q213785|Q213785]] | [[Steatornis caripensis]] | Steatornis caripensis | 55 | | [[File:Oilbirds.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Steatornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 525 | [[:d:Q752398|Q752398]] | [[Vanellus indicus]] | Vanellus indicus | 55 | | [[File:Red-wattled Lapwing denoised.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Vanellus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 526 | [[:d:Q126643|Q126643]] | [[Pygoscelis antarcticus]] | Pygoscelis antarcticus | 55 | | [[File:A chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarcticus) on Deception Island in Antarctica.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pygoscelis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 527 | [[:d:Q245414|Q245414]] | [[Geronticus eremita]] | Geronticus eremita | 55 | | [[File:Geronticus eremita.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Geronticus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 528 | [[:d:Q17970|Q17970]] | [[Jabiru mycteria]] | Jabiru mycteria | 55 | | [[File:Jabiru Mato Grosso Pantanal Brazil-2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Jabiru]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 529 | [[:d:Q269896|Q269896]] | [[Haliaeetus pelagicus]] | Haliaeetus pelagicus | 55 | | [[File:Haliaeetus pelagicus (Rausu, Japan).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliaeetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 530 | [[:d:Q645755|Q645755]] | [[Haliastur indus]] | Haliastur indus | 55 | | [[File:Brahminy Kite in Sundarbans National Park February 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliastur]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 531 | [[:d:Q114338|Q114338]] | [[Accipiter brevipes]] | Accipiter brevipes | 55 | | [[File:Accipiter brevipes, male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipiter]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 532 | [[:d:Q244432|Q244432]] | [[Cygnus melancoryphus]] | Cygnus melancoryphus | 55 | | [[File:Blackneck swan pair hornopiren chile feb 2010.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cygnus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 533 | [[:d:Q205857|Q205857]] | [[Sittidae]] | Sittidae | 55 | | [[File:Brhlík lesní.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | | [[Passeri]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 534 | [[:d:Q335535|Q335535]] | [[Emberiza aureola]] | Emberiza aureola | 55 | | [[File:Wiki-simaaoji-2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 535 | [[:d:Q210422|Q210422]] | [[Acrocephalus palustris]] | Acrocephalus palustris | 55 | | [[File:Acrocephalus palustris (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 536 | [[:d:Q242599|Q242599]] | [[Acrocephalus paludicola]] | Acrocephalus paludicola | 55 | | [[File:Seggenrohrsaenger hand.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 537 | [[:d:Q339517|Q339517]] | [[Loxia]] | Loxia | 55 | | [[File:Loxia curvirostra -Karwendel mountains, Austria.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Carduelinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 538 | [[:d:Q470853|Q470853]] | [[Melanocorypha calandra]] | Melanocorypha calandra | 55 | | [[File:Bereşe.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Melanocorypha]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 539 | [[:d:Q719380|Q719380]] | [[Parus]] | Parus | 55 | | [[File:Parus major male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Paridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 540 | [[:d:Q104867606|Q104867606]] | [[Curruca nisoria]] | Curruca nisoria | 55 | | [[File:Curruca nisoria 378155893 (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Curruca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 541 | [[:d:Q736313|Q736313]] | [[Petronia petronia]] | Petronia petronia | 55 | | [[File:Petronia petronia -Ariege, Midi-Pyrenee, France-8-4c.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Petronia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 542 | [[:d:Q637533|Q637533]] | [[Fulica]] | Fulica | 54 | | [[File:American coot in Prospect Park (06152).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rallidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 543 | [[:d:Q786045|Q786045]] | [[Gallinago]] | Gallinago | 54 | | [[File:Gallinago gallinago a1.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 544 | [[:d:Q375790|Q375790]] | [[Casuarius casuarius]] | Casuarius casuarius | 54 | | [[File:Double-wattled Cassowary.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Casuario|Casuarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 545 | [[:d:Q330310|Q330310]] | [[Glareola pratincola]] | Glareola pratincola | 54 | | [[File:Collared pratincole (Glareola pratincola).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Glareola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 546 | [[:d:Q18857|Q18857]] | [[Charadrius leschenaultii]] | Charadrius leschenaultii | 54 | | [[File:2024-07-26 Anarhynchus leschenaultii leschenaultii, Newbiggin, Northumberland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadrius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 547 | [[:d:Q128002|Q128002]] | [[Syrrhaptes paradoxus]] | Syrrhaptes paradoxus | 54 | | [[File:Syrrhapte paradoxal (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Syrrhaptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 548 | [[:d:Q391198|Q391198]] | [[Streptopelia senegalensis]] | Spilopelia senegalensis | 54 | | [[File:140 Laughing dove in Twyfelfontein Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spilopelia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 549 | [[:d:Q1219291|Q1219291]] | [[Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis]] | Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis | 54 | | [[File:Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis -Kruger National Park, Limpopo, South Africa-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Ciconiiformes]] | [[Ephippiorhynchus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 550 | [[:d:Q798401|Q798401]] | [[Eudynamys scolopaceus]] | Eudynamys scolopaceus | 54 | | [[File:Asian koel.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Koel]]<br/>[[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 551 | [[:d:Q217497|Q217497]] | [[Haliaeetus vocifer]] | Haliaeetus vocifer | 54 | | [[File:African fish eagle just caught fish.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliaeetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 552 | [[:d:Q331447|Q331447]] | [[Marmaronetta angustirostris]] | Marmaronetta angustirostris | 54 | | [[File:Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris) RWD2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Marmaronetta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 553 | [[:d:Q244284|Q244284]] | [[Dendrocygna javanica]] | Dendrocygna javanica | 54 | | [[File:Dendrocygna javanica (Lesser Whistling Duck - Zwergpfeifgans) Weltvogelpark Walsrode 2012-009.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocygna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 554 | [[:d:Q322159|Q322159]] | [[Aix sponsa]] | Aix sponsa | 54 | | [[File:Wood duck druid ridge cemetery 10.10.20 DSC 5487.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Aix]] | [[Aix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 555 | [[:d:Q331179|Q331179]] | [[Histrionicus histrionicus]] | Histrionicus histrionicus | 54 | | [[File:Histrionicus histrionicus drake Barnegat.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Histrionicus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 556 | [[:d:Q614481|Q614481]] | [[Emberiza]] | Emberiza | 54 | | [[File:Goldammer Emberiza citrinella.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberizidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 557 | [[:d:Q205491|Q205491]] | [[Emberiza cia]] | Emberiza cia | 54 | | [[File:Rock Bunting (Cochem).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 558 | [[:d:Q216855|Q216855]] | [[Emberiza pusilla]] | Emberiza pusilla | 54 | | [[File:Zwergammer.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 559 | [[:d:Q751036|Q751036]] | [[Buceros rhinoceros]] | Buceros rhinoceros | 54 | | [[File:Hornbill 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Buceros]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 560 | [[:d:Q376038|Q376038]] | [[Ramphastos toco]] | Ramphastos toco | 54 | | [[File:006 Toco toucan in Encontro das Águas State Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ramphastos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 561 | [[:d:Q31818|Q31818]] | [[Jynx]] | Jynx | 54 | | [[File:Red-throated Wryneck, Jynx ruficollis at Rietvlei Nature Reserve, Gauteng, South Africa (14897405378).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Jynginae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 562 | [[:d:Q208334|Q208334]] | [[Prunella collaris]] | Prunella collaris | 54 | | [[File:Alpine accentor saganta.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Prunella]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 563 | [[:d:Q463154|Q463154]] | [[Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus]] | Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus | 54 | | [[File:104 Hyacinth macaw with Pink Ipê tree in background in Encontro das Águas State Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anodorhynchus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 564 | [[:d:Q215603|Q215603]] | [[Ptilonorhynchidae]] | Ptilonorhynchidae | 54 | | [[File:Regentbowerbirdmale.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Climacterida]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 565 | [[:d:Q215211|Q215211]] | [[Willow Tit]] | Poecile montanus | 54 | | [[File:Parus atricapillus 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Poecile]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 566 | [[:d:Q499290|Q499290]] | [[Montifringilla nivalis]] | Montifringilla nivalis | 54 | | [[File:Montifringilla nivalis Francer.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Montifringilla]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 567 | [[:d:Q27042|Q27042]] | [[Recurvirostridae]] | Recurvirostridae | 53 | | [[File:Black-necked Stilt.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 568 | [[:d:Q21728|Q21728]] | [[Suliformes]] | Suliformes | 53 | | [[File:Northern Gannet 2006 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[ave marin]] | [[Aequornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 569 | [[:d:Q716869|Q716869]] | [[Coturnix japonica]] | Coturnix japonica | 53 | | [[File:Coturnix japonica, Yehliu, Taiwan 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coturnix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 570 | [[:d:Q261445|Q261445]] | [[Grus nigricollis]] | Grus nigricollis | 53 | | [[File:Black necked crane at Hanle.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Grus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 571 | [[:d:Q30838|Q30838]] | [[Calidris]] | Calidris | 53 | | [[File:Purple Sandpiper winter.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 572 | [[:d:Q27515|Q27515]] | [[Haematopus]] | Haematopus | 53 | | [[File:American oystercatchers at Fort Tilden (60747).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haematopodidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 573 | [[:d:Q213836|Q213836]] | [[Dromas ardeola]] | Dromas ardeola | 53 | | [[File:Crab plover 6.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dromas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 574 | [[:d:Q832329|Q832329]] | [[Otus]] | Otus | 53 | | [[File:Otus bakkamoena.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strigidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 575 | [[:d:Q270722|Q270722]] | [[Butorides striata]] | Butorides striata | 53 | | [[File:Butorides striata Garcita rayada Striated Heron (6549356697).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Butorides]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 576 | [[:d:Q320193|Q320193]] | [[Sula leucogaster]] | Sula leucogaster | 53 | | [[File:Atobá-pardo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 577 | [[:d:Q602084|Q602084]] | [[Sula dactylatra]] | Sula dactylatra | 53 | | [[File:Atobá.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 578 | [[:d:Q279307|Q279307]] | [[Vanellus gregarius]] | Vanellus gregarius | 53 | | [[File:Sociable Lapwing, Korgalzhynskiy, Kazakhstan 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Vanellus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 579 | [[:d:Q467996|Q467996]] | [[Eudocimus ruber]] | Eudocimus ruber | 53 | | [[File:Eudocimus ruber Corocora Scarlet Ibis (6264848783).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudocimus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 580 | [[:d:Q26902|Q26902]] | [[Anastomus lamelligerus]] | Anastomus lamelligerus | 53 | | [[File:African Openbill (Anastomus lamelligerus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anastomus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 581 | [[:d:Q327118|Q327118]] | [[Gyps bengalensis]] | Gyps bengalensis | 53 | | [[File:Gyps bengalensis PLoS.png|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 582 | [[:d:Q245181|Q245181]] | [[Cathartes aura]] | Cathartes aura | 53 | | [[File:Cathartes aura -Mexico-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cathartes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 583 | [[:d:Q243451|Q243451]] | [[Harpagornis moorei]] | Harpagornis moorei | 53 | | [[File:Canterbury Museum, Christchurch - Joy of Museums - Haast's Eagle.jpg|center|48px]] | [[extinct taxon]] | | [[Harpagornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 584 | [[:d:Q839526|Q839526]] | [[Dicruridae]] | Dicruridae | 53 | | [[File:Black Drongo I IMG 7924.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 585 | [[:d:Q33554|Q33554]] | [[Falco biarmicus]] | Falco biarmicus | 53 | | [[File:Lanner falcon, Falco biarmicus, at Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Northern Cape, South Africa (34447024871).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 586 | [[:d:Q207846|Q207846]] | [[Somateria spectabilis]] | Somateria spectabilis | 53 | | [[File:049 - KING EIDER (6-15-2016) barrow, alaska -06 (27577003883).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Somateria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 587 | [[:d:Q742292|Q742292]] | [[domestic duck]] | | 53 | | [[File:Witte kwaker.jpg|center|48px]] | [[animal productive]]<br/>[[duck breed]] | [[duck]] | [[Anas platyrhynchos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 588 | [[:d:Q333842|Q333842]] | [[Sturnus]] | Sturnus | 53 | | [[File:Star Sturnus vulgaris.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sturnidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 589 | [[:d:Q213984|Q213984]] | [[Ara]] | Ara | 53 | | [[File:Ara macao -Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Arinae]]<br/>[[Arini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 590 | [[:d:Q286809|Q286809]] | [[Emberiza rustica]] | Emberiza rustica | 53 | | [[File:Kashiradaka-01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 591 | [[:d:Q321272|Q321272]] | [[Locustella luscinioides]] | Locustella luscinioides | 53 | | [[File:Rohrschwirl Chiemgau.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Locustella]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 592 | [[:d:Q217472|Q217472]] | [[Pittidae]] | Pittidae | 53 | | [[File:Pitta brachyura.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyranni]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 593 | [[:d:Q210791|Q210791]] | [[Cisticola juncidis]] | Cisticola juncidis | 53 | | [[File:Cisticola juncidis, El Qanater el Khayreyya, Qalyubia Governorate, Egypt.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cisticola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 594 | [[:d:Q214571|Q214571]] | [[Pinicola enucleator]] | Pinicola enucleator | 53 | | [[File:Pinicola enucleator, Kotka, Finland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pinicola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 595 | [[:d:Q235052|Q235052]] | [[Lanius senator]] | Lanius senator | 53 | | [[File:Lanius senator01 new.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 596 | [[:d:Q28915|Q28915]] | [[Oenanthe]] | Oenanthe | 53 | | [[File:Oenanthe oenanthe 01 II.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Muscicapidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 597 | [[:d:Q726389|Q726389]] | [[Cardinalis cardinalis]] | Cardinalis cardinalis | 53 | | [[File:Cardinal couple - Feb. 2018 (watermark removed).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cardinalis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 598 | [[:d:Q725342|Q725342]] | [[Cracidae]] | Cracidae | 52 | | [[File:Crax daubentoni -Philadelphia Zoo -female-8a-4c.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Galliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 599 | [[:d:Q162029|Q162029]] | [[Lagopus]] | Lagopus | 52 | | [[File:Lagopus muta2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tetraoninae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 600 | [[:d:Q19370|Q19370]] | [[Anhingidae]] | Anhingidae | 52 | | [[File:African darter preening (38184856351).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Suliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 601 | [[:d:Q736322|Q736322]] | [[Charadrius]] | Charadrius | 52 | | [[File:Charadrius hiaticula Oulu 20120628 01.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 602 | [[:d:Q76411|Q76411]] | [[Numenius tenuirostris]] | Numenius tenuirostris | 52 | | [[File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - ZMA.AVES.1670 - Numenius tenuirostris Vieillot, 1817 - Scolopacidae - skin specimen, right lateral view (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[extincte]] | | [[Numenius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 603 | [[:d:Q2699803|Q2699803]] | [[Larinae]] | Larinae | 52 | | [[File:Larus argentatus, at Oslo Opera House.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[ave marin]]<br/>[[piscivore]] | [[Laridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 604 | [[:d:Q695729|Q695729]] | [[Glareola nordmanni]] | Glareola nordmanni | 52 | | [[File:Black-winged pratincole (Glareola nordmanni) at Mkhombo Dam, Mpumalanga (36861637734).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Glareola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 605 | [[:d:Q18861|Q18861]] | [[Hydrophasianus chirurgus]] | Hydrophasianus chirurgus | 52 | | [[File:Hydrophasianus chirurgus P6273470.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hydrophasianus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 606 | [[:d:Q317220|Q317220]] | [[Phoenicopterus chilensis]] | Phoenicopterus chilensis | 52 | | [[File:Phoenicopterus chilensis -Tavares, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil -flying-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicopterus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 607 | [[:d:Q321293|Q321293]] | [[Sterna dougallii]] | Sterna dougallii | 52 | | [[File:2020-07-18 Sterna dougallii, St Marys Island, Northumberland 19.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sterna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 608 | [[:d:Q498428|Q498428]] | [[Ardeola grayii]] | Ardeola grayii | 52 | | [[File:Indian Pond Heron (Ardeola grayii) @ Chavakkad.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardeola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 609 | [[:d:Q217122|Q217122]] | [[Sula sula]] | Sula sula | 52 | | [[File:Male Galápagos red-footed booby.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 610 | [[:d:Q26063|Q26063]] | [[Pelecanus conspicillatus]] | Pelecanus conspicillatus | 52 | | [[File:00 3804 Water bird pelican.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 611 | [[:d:Q207796|Q207796]] | [[Circus]] | Circus | 52 | | [[File:Circus approximans -New Zealand-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 612 | [[:d:Q373114|Q373114]] | [[Threskiornis melanocephalus]] | Threskiornis melanocephalus | 52 | | [[File:SL Bundala NP asv2020-01 img03.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Threskiornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 613 | [[:d:Q204111|Q204111]] | [[Ixobrychus cinnamomeus]] | Ixobrychus cinnamomeus | 52 | | [[File:Cinnamon bittern or chestnut bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus) Photograph by Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ixobrychus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 614 | [[:d:Q655510|Q655510]] | [[Mycteria ibis]] | Mycteria ibis | 52 | | [[File:Yellow-billed Stork (Mycteria ibis) (6045310265).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[Ciconiidae]] | [[Mycteria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 615 | [[:d:Q391421|Q391421]] | [[Chroicocephalus genei]] | Chroicocephalus genei | 52 | | [[File:Goéland railleur Thyna012.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chroicocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 616 | [[:d:Q26470|Q26470]] | [[Alle alle]] | Alle alle | 52 | | [[File:AlleAlle 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alle]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 617 | [[:d:Q208682|Q208682]] | [[Diomedea exulans]] | Diomedea exulans | 52 | | [[File:070226 wandering albatross off Kaikoura 3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Diomedea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 618 | [[:d:Q45974|Q45974]] | [[Haliaeetus leucogaster]] | Haliaeetus leucogaster | 52 | | [[File:Ceylon Fish Eagle At Yala National Park.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliaeetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 619 | [[:d:Q46316|Q46316]] | [[Tadorna]] | Tadorna | 52 | genere de aves | [[File:2014-04-18 Tadorna tadorna pair, Swallow Pond.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tadorninae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 620 | [[:d:Q666222|Q666222]] | [[Thraupidae]] | Thraupidae | 52 | | [[File:Green-headed Tanager Ubatuba.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]]<br/>[[Emberizoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 621 | [[:d:Q426968|Q426968]] | [[Sarkidiornis melanotos]] | Sarkidiornis melanotos | 52 | | [[File:Knob-billed Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos, female, by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN8938 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sarkidiornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 622 | [[:d:Q788544|Q788544]] | [[Strigopidae]] | Strigopidae | 52 | | [[File:Kaka-Parrots.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strigopoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 623 | [[:d:Q637716|Q637716]] | [[Acrocephalus]] | Acrocephalus | 52 | | [[File:Australianreedwarbler.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 624 | [[:d:Q312779|Q312779]] | [[Acrocephalus dumetorum]] | Acrocephalus dumetorum | 52 | | [[File:Blyth's Reed Warbler in Baruipur December 2024 by Tisha Mukherjee 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 625 | [[:d:Q747787|Q747787]] | [[Locustella fluviatilis]] | Locustella fluviatilis | 52 | | [[File:Flodsangare.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Locustella]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 626 | [[:d:Q271634|Q271634]] | [[Pica]] | Pica | 52 | | [[File:Black-billed Magpie.png|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvidae]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 627 | [[:d:Q211670|Q211670]] | [[Meliphagidae]] | Meliphagidae | 52 | | [[File:Noisy-Miner-2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Meliphagoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 628 | [[:d:Q331190|Q331190]] | [[Loxia leucoptera]] | Loxia leucoptera | 52 | | [[File:Whitewingedcrossbillmale09.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Loxia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 629 | [[:d:Q473939|Q473939]] | [[Aegithalidae]] | Aegithalidae | 52 | | [[File:Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sylvioidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 630 | [[:d:Q24843|Q24843]] | [[Calandrella brachydactyla]] | Calandrella brachydactyla | 52 | | [[File:Alondra.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calandrella]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 631 | [[:d:Q632213|Q632213]] | [[Agapornis roseicollis]] | Agapornis roseicollis | 52 | | [[File:162 Rosy-faced lovebird in flight in Damaraland Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Agapornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 632 | [[:d:Q275591|Q275591]] | [[Dendrocopos medius]] | Dendrocoptes medius | 52 | | [[File:Middle-spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos medius), Parc du Rouge-Cloître, Brussels (49179578882) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocoptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 633 | [[:d:Q769934|Q769934]] | [[Oenanthe deserti]] | Oenanthe deserti | 52 | | [[File:Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN9430 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oenanthe]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 634 | [[:d:Q585636|Q585636]] | [[Limosa]] | Limosa | 51 | | [[File:Black-tailed Godwit Uferschnepfe.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 635 | [[:d:Q304434|Q304434]] | [[Gallus sonneratii]] | Gallus sonneratii | 51 | | [[File:Gallus sonneratii (Bandipur).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallus (taxon)|Gallus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 636 | [[:d:Q285165|Q285165]] | [[Francolinus francolinus]] | Francolinus francolinus | 51 | | [[File:Francolinus francolinus, Azerbaijan.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Francolinus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 637 | [[:d:Q862825|Q862825]] | [[Amaurornis phoenicurus]] | Amaurornis phoenicurus | 51 | | [[File:White breasted Waterhen I4-Bhopal IMG 0515.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Amaurornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 638 | [[:d:Q3901583|Q3901583]] | [[Phoenicopteridae]] | Phoenicopteridae | 51 | | [[File:Greater Flamingoes (Phoenicopterus roseus) W2 IMG 0072.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Phoenicopteriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 639 | [[:d:Q260716|Q260716]] | [[Calidris melanotos]] | Calidris melanotos | 51 | | [[File:Pectoral Sandpiper3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 640 | [[:d:Q648422|Q648422]] | [[Asio]] | Asio | 51 | | [[File:Waldohreule in freier Wildbahn.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strigidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 641 | [[:d:Q431179|Q431179]] | [[Treron]] | Treron | 51 | | [[File:Thick-billed Green Pigeon.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Treroninae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 642 | [[:d:Q704982|Q704982]] | [[Larus michahellis]] | Larus michahellis | 51 | | [[File:Larus michahellis LC0046.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 643 | [[:d:Q212047|Q212047]] | [[Xema sabini]] | Xema sabini | 51 | | [[File:Sabine's gull (53706724037).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Xema]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 644 | [[:d:Q527830|Q527830]] | [[Pelecanus rufescens]] | Pelecanus rufescens | 51 | | [[File:Pelecanus rufescens.001 - Zoo Aquarium de Madrid.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 645 | [[:d:Q704987|Q704987]] | [[Streptopelia orientalis]] | Streptopelia orientalis | 51 | | [[File:2026-08-27 Streptopelia orientalis in Chitose.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Streptopelia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 646 | [[:d:Q600204|Q600204]] | [[Milvus]] | Milvus | 51 | | [[File:Milvus migrans front(ThKraft).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 647 | [[:d:Q644012|Q644012]] | [[Leptoptilos dubius]] | Leptoptilos dubius | 51 | | [[File:Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leptoptilos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 648 | [[:d:Q467068|Q467068]] | [[Athene cunicularia]] | Athene cunicularia | 51 | | [[File:Athene cunicularia -Vale do Ribeira, Juquia, Sao Paulo, Brazil-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Athene]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 649 | [[:d:Q998703|Q998703]] | [[Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus]] | Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus | 51 | | [[File:Black-necked Stork in Kaziranga National Park March 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 04.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ephippiorhynchus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 650 | [[:d:Q118608|Q118608]] | [[Ardea goliath]] | Ardea goliath | 51 | | [[File:Ardea goliath.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 651 | [[:d:Q631805|Q631805]] | [[Mycteria leucocephala]] | Mycteria leucocephala | 51 | | [[File:Mycteria leucocephala - Pak Thale.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mycteria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 652 | [[:d:Q248086|Q248086]] | [[Gyps indicus]] | Gyps indicus | 51 | | [[File:Indian vulture on cliff.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 653 | [[:d:Q501733|Q501733]] | [[Polemaetus bellicosus]] | Polemaetus bellicosus | 51 | | [[File:Martial Eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus) (51854471490).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Polemaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 654 | [[:d:Q247412|Q247412]] | [[Plectropterus gambensis]] | Plectropterus gambensis | 51 | | [[File:Spur-winged Geese (Plectropterus gambensis niger) male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Plectropterus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 655 | [[:d:Q740741|Q740741]] | [[Dendrocygna bicolor]] | Dendrocygna bicolor | 51 | | [[File:Marrecas-caneleiras - Dendrocygna bicolor.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocygna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 656 | [[:d:Q210954|Q210954]] | [[Polysticta stelleri]] | Polysticta stelleri | 51 | | [[File:047 - STELLER'S EIDER (6-16-2016) barrow, alaska -02 (27539228164).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Polysticta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 657 | [[:d:Q31501|Q31501]] | [[Probosciger aterrimus]] | Probosciger aterrimus | 51 | | [[File:Probosciger aterrimus, Cape York 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Probosciger]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 658 | [[:d:Q208716|Q208716]] | [[Regulus]] | Regulus | 51 | | [[File:Goldcrest, male (Regulus regulus) (40047182502).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Regulidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 659 | [[:d:Q1253755|Q1253755]] | [[Eolophus roseicapilla]] | Eolophus roseicapilla | 51 | | [[File:Eolophus roseicapilla AF.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eolophus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 660 | [[:d:Q27757|Q27757]] | [[Carduelis]] | Carduelis | 51 | | [[File:0 Carduelis carduelis, East Chevington.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Carduelinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 661 | [[:d:Q753746|Q753746]] | [[Psittacula eupatria]] | Psittacula eupatria | 51 | | [[File:Alexandrine parakeet (Psittacula eupatria eupatria) male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittacula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 662 | [[:d:Q723059|Q723059]] | [[Dendrocopos]] | Dendrocopos | 51 | | [[File:Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) (13667857655).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Melanerpini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 663 | [[:d:Q790616|Q790616]] | [[Lanius cristatus]] | Lanius cristatus | 51 | | [[File:Brown Shrike I IMG 7367.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 664 | [[:d:Q240088|Q240088]] | [[Phoenicurus]] | Phoenicurus | 51 | | [[File:Black Redstart I2 IMG 0862.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Muscicapidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 665 | [[:d:Q1293045|Q1293045]] | [[Sylvia]] | Sylvia | 51 | | [[File:Sylvia atricapilla - Burgenland 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sylviidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 666 | [[:d:Q503804|Q503804]] | [[Grus canadensis]] | Grus canadensis | 50 | | [[File:Grus canadensis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Grus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 667 | [[:d:Q41972|Q41972]] | [[Tringa]] | Tringa | 50 | | [[File:Wood Sandpiper (Breeding)- Bharatpur I2 IMG 8646.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 668 | [[:d:Q253776|Q253776]] | [[Phalaropus]] | Phalaropus | 50 | | [[File:Phalaropus lobatus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 669 | [[:d:Q642855|Q642855]] | [[Scolopax]] | Scolopax | 50 | | [[File:Woodcock earthworm.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 670 | [[:d:Q62359|Q62359]] | [[Calidris maritima]] | Calidris maritima | 50 | | [[File:Purple Sandpiper ( Calidris maritima ) ... Filey Brig , Yorkshire (53266204391).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 671 | [[:d:Q305255|Q305255]] | [[Charadrius mongolus]] | Charadrius mongolus | 50 | | [[File:Charadrius mongolus - Laem Phak Bia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadrius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 672 | [[:d:Q392570|Q392570]] | [[Egretta gularis]] | Egretta gularis | 50 | | [[File:Western Reef heron (Egretta gularis).JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Egretta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 673 | [[:d:Q423800|Q423800]] | [[Phoenicopterus andinus]] | Phoenicoparrus andinus | 50 | | [[File:Andean Flamingo Salar De Atacama Chile Luca Galuzzi 2006.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicoparrus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 674 | [[:d:Q27725|Q27725]] | [[Anatinae]] | Anatinae | 50 | | [[File:Anas platyrhynchos male female quadrat.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 675 | [[:d:Q888559|Q888559]] | [[Ixobrychus flavicollis]] | Ixobrychus flavicollis | 50 | | [[File:Black Bittern by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN6890 (4).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ixobrychus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 676 | [[:d:Q389664|Q389664]] | [[Platalea ajaja]] | Platalea ajaja | 50 | | [[File:Roseate Spoonbill - Myakka River State Park.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Platalea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 677 | [[:d:Q831376|Q831376]] | [[Glaucidium]] | Glaucidium | 50 | | [[File:Glaucidium capense.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Surniinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 678 | [[:d:Q208405|Q208405]] | [[Puffinus puffinus]] | Puffinus puffinus | 50 | | [[File:Manx Shearwater.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Puffinus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 679 | [[:d:Q214300|Q214300]] | [[Aythya]] | Aythya | 50 | | [[File:Canvasback pair2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 680 | [[:d:Q310868|Q310868]] | [[Bucephala]] | Bucephala | 50 | | [[File:Bucephala clangula Oulu Finland 2021-04-26.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 681 | [[:d:Q628068|Q628068]] | [[Sarcogyps calvus]] | Sarcogyps calvus | 50 | | [[File:Red-headed Vulture, Kanha National Park 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sarcogyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 682 | [[:d:Q212243|Q212243]] | [[Falco eleonorae]] | Falco eleonorae | 50 | | [[File:Eleonorenfalke1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 683 | [[:d:Q581391|Q581391]] | [[Fringilla]] | Fringilla | 50 | | [[File:Fringilla coelebs chaffinch male edit2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fringillidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 684 | [[:d:Q463135|Q463135]] | [[Cacatua alba]] | Cacatua alba | 50 | | [[File:White cockatoo (Cacatua alba).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 685 | [[:d:Q420840|Q420840]] | [[Merops orientalis]] | Merops orientalis | 50 | | [[File:Green Bee-eater (Merops orientalis) @ Madayippara.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Merops]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 686 | [[:d:Q214621|Q214621]] | [[Eurylaimidae]] | Eurylaimidae | 50 | | [[File:Eurylaimus javanicus wild.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyranni]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 687 | [[:d:Q752513|Q752513]] | [[Phylloscopus proregulus]] | Phylloscopus proregulus | 50 | | [[File:Goldhähnchen-Laubsänger, Heligoland, Germany 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 688 | [[:d:Q735158|Q735158]] | [[Halcyon smyrnensis]] | Halcyon smyrnensis | 50 | | [[File:Halcyon smyrnensis - White-throated kingfisher 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Halcyon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 689 | [[:d:Q129219|Q129219]] | [[Tarsiger cyanurus]] | Tarsiger cyanurus | 50 | | [[File:Ruribitakif1.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tarsiger]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 690 | [[:d:Q36197|Q36197]] | [[Lonchura punctulata]] | Lonchura punctulata | 50 | | [[File:Scaly Brested Munia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lonchura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 691 | [[:d:Q1988064|Q1988064]] | [[Struthio molybdophanes]] | Struthio molybdophanes | 49 | | [[File:Somali ostrich.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Struthio]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 692 | [[:d:Q212929|Q212929]] | [[Jacanidae]] | Jacanidae | 49 | | [[File:Irediparra gallinacea1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 693 | [[:d:Q217272|Q217272]] | [[Glareolidae]] | Glareolidae | 49 | | [[File:Small pranticole.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 694 | [[:d:Q742818|Q742818]] | [[Lophophorus impejanus]] | Lophophorus impejanus | 49 | | [[File:Himalayan Monal Adult Female Tungnath Rudraprayag Uttarakhand India 14.06.2013.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lophophorus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 695 | [[:d:Q165923|Q165923]] | [[Apus pallidus]] | Apus pallidus | 49 | | [[File:Apus pallidus -Greece-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 696 | [[:d:Q663507|Q663507]] | [[Athene]] | Athene | 49 | | [[File:Athene noctua, Ambula, Montenegro 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strigidae]]<br/>[[Surniinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 697 | [[:d:Q652976|Q652976]] | [[Aptenodytes]] | Aptenodytes | 49 | genere de aves | [[File:Emperor penguin.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spheniscidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 698 | [[:d:Q174232|Q174232]] | [[Larus glaucoides]] | Larus glaucoides | 49 | | [[File:Adult Larus glaucoides, Swallow Pond 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 699 | [[:d:Q282242|Q282242]] | [[Anhinga melanogaster]] | Anhinga melanogaster | 49 | | [[File:Darter I IMG 8195.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anhinga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 700 | [[:d:Q723064|Q723064]] | [[Pagophila eburnea]] | Pagophila eburnea | 49 | | [[File:Ivory Gull Portrait.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pagophila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 701 | [[:d:Q620938|Q620938]] | [[Anserinae]] | Anserinae | 49 | | [[File:Geese Fruggo01.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 702 | [[:d:Q333796|Q333796]] | [[Ardea herodias]] | Ardea herodias | 49 | | [[File:Great blue heron in GWC (21718).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 703 | [[:d:Q308199|Q308199]] | [[Ciconia abdimii]] | Ciconia abdimii | 49 | | [[File:Ciconia abdimii -London Zoo-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 704 | [[:d:Q55111925|Q55111925]] | [[Gyps rueppelli]] | Gyps rueppelli | 49 | | [[File:Rüppell's Vulture (Gyps rueppelli) (21160089681).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 705 | [[:d:Q256760|Q256760]] | [[Melanitta]] | Melanitta | 49 | | [[File:Melanitta perspicillata.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 706 | [[:d:Q28106778|Q28106778]] | [[Blue-winged Teal]] | Spatula discors | 49 | | [[File:Blue-wingedTeal-16DEC2017(2).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spatula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 707 | [[:d:Q795439|Q795439]] | [[Ictinaetus malayensis]] | Ictinaetus malaiensis | 49 | | [[File:Black Eagle DSC5485 (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ictinaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 708 | [[:d:Q366974|Q366974]] | [[Acrocephalidae]] | Acrocephalidae | 49 | | [[File:Acrocephalus schoenobaenus 1 (Marek Szczepanek)-2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 709 | [[:d:Q371086|Q371086]] | [[Zosteropidae]] | Zosteropidae | 49 | | [[File:Zosterops japonicus 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 710 | [[:d:Q537702|Q537702]] | [[Acanthisittidae]] | Acanthisittidae | 49 | | [[File:XenicusLongipesBuller.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 711 | [[:d:Q647461|Q647461]] | [[Oxyura jamaicensis]] | Oxyura jamaicensis | 49 | | [[File:065 - RUDDY DUCK (11-27-07) fem, oso flaco, sloco, ca oso (1) (8718083235).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oxyura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 712 | [[:d:Q651545|Q651545]] | [[Falco sparverius]] | Falco sparverius | 49 | | [[File:American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) (14547482002).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 713 | [[:d:Q601055|Q601055]] | [[Aythya collaris]] | Aythya collaris | 49 | | [[File:Ring-necked Duck (f) (26058476660).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 714 | [[:d:Q1951359|Q1951359]] | [[Merops persicus]] | Merops persicus | 49 | | [[File:Guepier de Perse Jebil NP.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Merops]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 715 | [[:d:Q626289|Q626289]] | [[Nestor meridionalis]] | Nestor meridionalis | 49 | | [[File:Kaka-Parrots.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nestor]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 716 | [[:d:Q757116|Q757116]] | [[Iduna caligata]] | Iduna caligata | 49 | | [[File:Booted warbler 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Iduna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 717 | [[:d:Q650114|Q650114]] | [[Cettia cetti]] | Cettia cetti | 49 | | [[File:Cettia cetti orientalis, Bismil, Turkey.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cettia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 718 | [[:d:Q311248|Q311248]] | [[Garrulus]] | Garrulus | 49 | | [[File:Sójka na Łąkach Pychowickich w Krakowie, 20210421 1206 6369.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 719 | [[:d:Q503807|Q503807]] | [[Cyanopica cyanus]] | Cyanopica cyanus | 49 | | [[File:ANR00921(cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cyanopica]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 720 | [[:d:Q385723|Q385723]] | [[Oenanthe hispanica]] | Oenanthe hispanica | 49 | | [[File:CollalbaRubia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oenanthe]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 721 | [[:d:Q763538|Q763538]] | [[Oenanthe pleschanka]] | Oenanthe pleschanka | 49 | | [[File:Oenanthe pleschanka.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oenanthe]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 722 | [[:d:Q499283|Q499283]] | [[Cyanistes cyanus]] | Cyanistes cyanus | 49 | | [[File:Azure Tit - Cyanistes cyanus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cyanistes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 723 | [[:d:Q740872|Q740872]] | [[Francolinus]] | Francolinus | 48 | | [[File:Black Francolin.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Perdicinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 724 | [[:d:Q829334|Q829334]] | [[Tetraogallus]] | Tetraogallus | 48 | | [[File:Tetraogallus tibetanus hm.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Perdicinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 725 | [[:d:Q853653|Q853653]] | [[Gallinula]] | Gallinula | 48 | | [[File:Dusky Moorhen, Gallinula tenebrosa in Victoria, Australia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Rallidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 726 | [[:d:Q492684|Q492684]] | [[Alectoris graeca]] | Alectoris graeca | 48 | | [[File:Alectoris graeca (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alectoris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 727 | [[:d:Q756674|Q756674]] | [[Anthropoides paradiseus]] | Anthropoides paradiseus | 48 | | [[File:Blue Cranes (Anthropoides paradiseus) couple (32611106035).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthropoides]]<br/>[[Grus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 728 | [[:d:Q310465|Q310465]] | [[Apus]] | Apus | 48 | | [[File:Apus apus -Barcelona, Spain-8 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apodidae]]<br/>[[Apodini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 729 | [[:d:Q21346306|Q21346306]] | [[Sri Lanka Junglefowl]] | Gallus lafayettii | 48 | | [[File:Flickr - Rainbirder - Ceylon Junglefowl (Gallus lafayetii) Male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallus (taxon)|Gallus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 730 | [[:d:Q659657|Q659657]] | [[Mesitornithidae]] | Mesitornithidae | 48 | | [[File:Subdesert Mesite.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mesitornithiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 731 | [[:d:Q13426919|Q13426919]] | [[Vanellus]] | Vanellus | 48 | | [[File:Northern Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Katingsiel, Tönning, Germany.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Vanellinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 732 | [[:d:Q132201|Q132201]] | [[Actophilornis africanus]] | Actophilornis africanus | 48 | | [[File:African Jacana (Actophilornis africanus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Actophilornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 733 | [[:d:Q219199|Q219199]] | [[Cursorius cursor]] | Cursorius cursor | 48 | | [[File:Cream-coloured Courser, Wadi Degla, Egypt.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cursorius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 734 | [[:d:Q216836|Q216836]] | [[Pluvialis dominica]] | Pluvialis dominica | 48 | | [[File:Pluvialis dominica1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pluvialis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 735 | [[:d:Q31769|Q31769]] | [[Hirundapus caudacutus]] | Hirundapus caudacutus | 48 | | [[File:White-throated Needletail 09a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hirundapus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 736 | [[:d:Q28482|Q28482]] | [[Onychoprion fuscatus]] | Onychoprion fuscatus | 48 | | [[File:Onychoprion fuscatus Ascension Island 7.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Onychoprion]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 737 | [[:d:Q392232|Q392232]] | [[Egretta sacra]] | Egretta sacra | 48 | | [[File:Eastern Reef Egret - dark and light morphs-trim.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Egretta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 738 | [[:d:Q739050|Q739050]] | [[Botaurus]] | Botaurus | 48 | | [[File:Bittern - Botaurus stellaris.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Botaurinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 739 | [[:d:Q558990|Q558990]] | [[Gavia pacifica]] | Gavia pacifica | 48 | | [[File:PacificLoon24.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gavia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 740 | [[:d:Q218312|Q218312]] | [[Agamia agami]] | Agamia agami | 48 | | [[File:Garça-da-mata - PE Encontro das Águas-Erisvaldo Almeida(001).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Agamia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 741 | [[:d:Q669634|Q669634]] | [[Rhynochetos jubatus]] | Rhynochetos jubatus | 48 | | [[File:Kagu 0A2A3921.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rhynochetos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 742 | [[:d:Q735190|Q735190]] | [[Pelecanus erythrorhynchos]] | Pelecanus erythrorhynchos | 48 | | [[File:American White Pelican.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pelecanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 743 | [[:d:Q217494|Q217494]] | [[Eudyptes chrysolophus]] | Eudyptes chrysolophus | 48 | | [[File:Macaroni Penguins (js).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudyptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 744 | [[:d:Q607893|Q607893]] | [[Leptoptilos javanicus]] | Leptoptilos javanicus | 48 | | [[File:Lesser Adjutant Chonburi.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leptoptilos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 745 | [[:d:Q212055|Q212055]] | [[Cepphus grylle]] | Cepphus grylle | 48 | | [[File:Tystie1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cepphus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 746 | [[:d:Q839524|Q839524]] | [[Athene brama]] | Athene brama | 48 | | [[File:Athene brama 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Athene]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 747 | [[:d:Q845946|Q845946]] | [[Pseudibis papillosa]] | Pseudibis papillosa | 48 | | [[File:Red-naped Ibis in Bhigwan August 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pseudibis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 748 | [[:d:Q888536|Q888536]] | [[Ixobrychus sinensis]] | Ixobrychus sinensis | 48 | | [[File:Hong Kong - Yellow Bittern - Ixobrychus sinensis - 2017.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Botaurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 749 | [[:d:Q27074615|Q27074615]] | [[Ardea intermedia]] | Ardea intermedia | 48 | | [[File:Egretta intermedia.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 750 | [[:d:Q81515|Q81515]] | [[Bubo virginianus]] | Bubo virginianus | 48 | | [[File:Bubo virginianus -Canada-6.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bubo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 751 | [[:d:Q839535|Q839535]] | [[Clamator jacobinus]] | Clamator jacobinus | 48 | | [[File:Pied Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus) in AP W IMG 3978.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Clamator]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 752 | [[:d:Q131450|Q131450]] | [[Aix]] | Aix | 48 | | [[File:Woodduck95.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 753 | [[:d:Q210341|Q210341]] | [[Cochlearius cochlearius]] | Cochlearius cochlearius | 48 | | [[File:Cochlearius cochleariaPCCA20071227-8443B.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cochlearius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 754 | [[:d:Q605431|Q605431]] | [[Pernis ptilorhynchus]] | Pernis ptilorhynchus | 48 | | [[File:Oriental honey buzzard Mudumalai Mar21 DSC01405.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pernis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 755 | [[:d:Q28106685|Q28106685]] | [[American wigeon]] | Mareca americana | 48 | | [[File:Anas americana - drake.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mareca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 756 | [[:d:Q742574|Q742574]] | [[Dendrocygna viduata]] | Dendrocygna viduata | 48 | | [[File:Dendrocygna viduata (Vincent Vos).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocygna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 757 | [[:d:Q71118|Q71118]] | [[Cuckoo-roller]] | Leptosomus discolor | 48 | | [[File:Male cuckoo roller.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leptosomus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 758 | [[:d:Q755653|Q755653]] | [[Chen canagica]] | Anser canagicus | 48 | | [[File:An emperor goose in flight (53706721602).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anser]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 759 | [[:d:Q827657|Q827657]] | [[Acrocephalus agricola]] | Acrocephalus agricola | 48 | | [[File:Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN8336 (11).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 760 | [[:d:Q310935|Q310935]] | [[Picus]] | Picus | 48 | | [[File:Grünspecht Picus viridis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Picinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 761 | [[:d:Q125895|Q125895]] | [[Certhia brachydactyla]] | Certhia brachydactyla | 48 | | [[File:Short-toed treecreeper (Certhia brachydactyla brachydactyla).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Certhia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 762 | [[:d:Q74092|Q74092]] | [[Oriolus chinensis]] | Oriolus chinensis | 48 | | [[File:Black-naped Oriole eyeing on Lannea coromandelica fruits W IMG 7449.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oriolus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 763 | [[:d:Q378278|Q378278]] | [[Alauda]] | Alauda | 48 | | [[File:Alauda arvensis 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alaudidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 764 | [[:d:Q824974|Q824974]] | [[Dacelo novaeguineae]] | Dacelo novaeguineae | 48 | | [[File:Dacelo novaeguineae waterworks.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dacelo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 765 | [[:d:Q217478|Q217478]] | [[Tyrannidae]] | Tyrannidae | 48 | | [[File:Tyrannidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyrannida]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 766 | [[:d:Q949603|Q949603]] | [[Corvus albus]] | Corvus albus | 48 | | [[File:Corvus albus -Etosha National Park, Namibia-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | [[crow]]<br/>[[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 767 | [[:d:Q214462|Q214462]] | [[Estrildidae]] | Estrildidae | 48 | | [[File:Paxaro GDFL27.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeroidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 768 | [[:d:Q282256|Q282256]] | [[Dendrocitta vagabunda]] | Dendrocitta vagabunda | 48 | | [[File:Rufous treepie (Dendrocitta vagabunda) 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocitta]] | [[treepie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 769 | [[:d:Q73741|Q73741]] | [[Amandava amandava]] | Amandava amandava | 48 | | [[File:Red Avadavat in Baruipur September 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 06.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Amandava]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 770 | [[:d:Q904790|Q904790]] | [[Anthus richardi]] | Anthus richardi | 48 | | [[File:Anthus richardi - Laem Pak Bia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 771 | [[:d:Q838665|Q838665]] | [[Saxicola rubicola]] | Saxicola rubicola | 48 | | [[File:Saxicola rubicola -Belgium -female-8 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Saxicola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 772 | [[:d:Q27075678|Q27075678]] | [[Siberian Rubythroat]] | Calliope calliope | 48 | | [[File:Luscinia calliope - Pak Chong 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calliope]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 773 | [[:d:Q756174|Q756174]] | [[Tetrao]] | Tetrao | 47 | | [[File:Tetrao urogallus Richard Bartz.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phasianidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 774 | [[:d:Q72968|Q72968]] | [[Odontophoridae]] | Odontophoridae | 47 | | [[File:Callipepla californica2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Galliformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 775 | [[:d:Q737426|Q737426]] | [[Phasianus]] | Phasianus | 47 | | [[File:Pheasant.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phasianinae]]<br/>[[Phasianini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 776 | [[:d:Q788536|Q788536]] | [[Podargidae]] | Podargidae | 47 | | [[File:Tawny frogmouth wholebody444.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Podargiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 777 | [[:d:Q4865776|Q4865776]] | [[Arenaria]] | Arenaria | 47 | | [[File:Arenaria interpres.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Scolopacidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 778 | [[:d:Q596325|Q596325]] | [[Gallus varius]] | Gallus varius | 47 | | [[File:Green Junglefowl - Baluran NP - East Java MG 7948 (29183361863) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallus (taxon)|Gallus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 779 | [[:d:Q725276|Q725276]] | [[Aramus guarauna]] | Aramus guarauna | 47 | | [[File:Aramus guarauna.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aramus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 780 | [[:d:Q76366|Q76366]] | [[Sterna]] | Sterna | 47 | | [[File:Sterna hirundo (adult).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Laridae]]<br/>[[Sternidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 781 | [[:d:Q1651414|Q1651414]] | [[Morus]] | Morus | 47 | | [[File:Morus bassanus 9.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sulidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 782 | [[:d:Q217704|Q217704]] | [[Ibidorhyncha struthersii]] | Ibidorhyncha struthersii | 47 | | [[File:Ibisbill Ibidorhyncha struthersii by Dr Raju Kasambe (4).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ibidorhyncha]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 783 | [[:d:Q571268|Q571268]] | [[Stercorarius maccormicki]] | Stercorarius maccormicki | 47 | | [[File:Skua Terra Nova Bay 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Stercorarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 784 | [[:d:Q476350|Q476350]] | [[Limnodromus scolopaceus]] | Limnodromus scolopaceus | 47 | | [[File:Limnodromus scolopaceus Mike Baird crop.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Limnodromus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 785 | [[:d:Q648494|Q648494]] | [[Fregata minor]] | Fregata minor | 47 | | [[File:Fragata común (Fregata minor), isla Lobos, islas Galápagos, Ecuador, 2015-07-25, DD 55.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fregata]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 786 | [[:d:Q72260|Q72260]] | [[Microcarbo niger]] | Microcarbo niger | 47 | | [[File:Little Cormorant, Balapitiya, Sri Lanka (7568505286).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Microcarbo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 787 | [[:d:Q795565|Q795565]] | [[Chalcophaps indica]] | Chalcophaps indica | 47 | | [[File:Asian Emerald Dove in Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary March 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chalcophaps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 788 | [[:d:Q754885|Q754885]] | [[Larus delawarensis]] | Larus delawarensis | 47 | | [[File:Larus delawarensis -Lake Erie, Ohio, USA -adult non-breeding-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 789 | [[:d:Q423782|Q423782]] | [[Phoenicopterus jamesi]] | Phoenicoparrus jamesi | 47 | | [[File:James Flamingo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoenicoparrus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 790 | [[:d:Q747817|Q747817]] | [[Rhodostethia rosea]] | Rhodostethia rosea | 47 | | [[File:Rhodostethia rosea, Shiretoko, Japan.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rhodostethia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 791 | [[:d:Q827245|Q827245]] | [[Vanellus leucurus]] | Vanellus leucurus | 47 | | [[File:Vanellus leucurus, Ag-Gel National Park.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Vanellus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 792 | [[:d:Q745262|Q745262]] | [[Eudyptes schlegeli]] | Eudyptes schlegeli | 47 | | [[File:RoyalPenguins2.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudyptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 793 | [[:d:Q767112|Q767112]] | [[Centropus sinensis]] | Centropus sinensis | 47 | | [[File:Greater Coucal I IMG 7775.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Centropus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 794 | [[:d:Q216850|Q216850]] | [[Calonectris diomedea]] | Calonectris diomedea | 47 | | [[File:Calonectris diomedea, Cabrera National Park (12076283283).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calonectris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 795 | [[:d:Q743017|Q743017]] | [[Botaurus lentiginosus]] | Botaurus lentiginosus | 47 | | [[File:American bittern in flight (53726569227) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Botaurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 796 | [[:d:Q211986|Q211986]] | [[Oceanodroma leucorhoa]] | Hydrobates leucorhous | 47 | | [[File:Leach's Storm-petrel Saint-Jean-de-Monts 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hydrobates]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 797 | [[:d:Q665363|Q665363]] | [[Clamator glandarius]] | Clamator glandarius | 47 | | [[File:Clamator glandarius (juvenile).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Clamator]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 798 | [[:d:Q734720|Q734720]] | [[Momotidae]] | Momotidae | 47 | | [[File:Blue-crowned Motmot back 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coraciiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 799 | [[:d:Q148583|Q148583]] | [[Emberiza cirlus]] | Emberiza cirlus | 47 | | [[File:Cirl Bunting Chiker Morocco Nov25 A7CR 09378.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 800 | [[:d:Q754657|Q754657]] | [[Lanius]] | Lanius | 47 | | [[File:Lanius excubitor 1 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Laniidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 801 | [[:d:Q756868|Q756868]] | [[Leucopsar rothschildi]] | Leucopsar rothschildi | 47 | | [[File:Bali Myna 0A2A9443.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leucopsar]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 802 | [[:d:Q647533|Q647533]] | [[Cotingidae]] | Cotingidae | 47 | | [[File:Cotingidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyrannida]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 803 | [[:d:Q111674|Q111674]] | [[Corvus macrorhynchos]] | Corvus macrorhynchos | 47 | | [[File:Large-billed Crow in Bhigwan August 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 804 | [[:d:Q720497|Q720497]] | [[Phylloscopus borealis]] | Phylloscopus borealis | 47 | | [[File:Arctic Warbler 4683b.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 805 | [[:d:Q223402|Q223402]] | [[Cardinalidae]] | Cardinalidae | 47 | | [[File:Northern Cardinal Male-27527-2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeroidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 806 | [[:d:Q692828|Q692828]] | [[Remizidae]] | Remizidae | 47 | | [[File:Auriparus flaviceps.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sylvioidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 807 | [[:d:Q752481|Q752481]] | [[Dendrocopos syriacus]] | Dendrocopos syriacus | 47 | | [[File:Dendrocopos syriacus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocopos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 808 | [[:d:Q642685|Q642685]] | [[Anthus petrosus]] | Anthus petrosus | 47 | | [[File:2015-04-22 Anthus petrosus, Portsoy.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 809 | [[:d:Q500278|Q500278]] | [[Padda oryzivora]] | Padda oryzivora | 47 | | [[File:Java Sparrow - Baluran NP - East Java MG 8207 (29696610022).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Padda]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 810 | [[:d:Q607027|Q607027]] | [[Cercotrichas galactotes]] | Cercotrichas galactotes | 47 | | [[File:Agrobate roux au Parc National de l'Ichkeul (Tunisia), crop.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cercotrichas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 811 | [[:d:Q19163|Q19163]] | [[Neornithes]] | Neornithes | 46 | | [[File:Afrikanischer Strauss Portrait.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[ave]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 812 | [[:d:Q1569770|Q1569770]] | [[Struthionidae]] | Struthionidae | 46 | | [[File:Struthio camelus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | | [[Struthioniformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 813 | [[:d:Q19173|Q19173]] | [[Casuariiformes]] | Casuariiformes | 46 | | [[File:Darica Cossowary 00975.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Novaeratitae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 814 | [[:d:Q652266|Q652266]] | [[Argusianus argus]] | Argusianus argus | 46 | | [[File:Argusianus argus -Lok Kawi Wildlife Park, Malaysia -male-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Argusianus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 815 | [[:d:Q286072|Q286072]] | [[Recurvirostra]] | Recurvirostra | 46 | | [[File:Avocet Fledglings Learning to Hunt Insects (19116147220).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Recurvirostridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 816 | [[:d:Q457477|Q457477]] | [[Grus americana]] | Grus americana | 46 | | [[File:Grus americana Sasata.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Grus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 817 | [[:d:Q926178|Q926178]] | [[Grus rubicunda]] | Grus rubicunda | 46 | | [[File:Brolga-1-Healesville,-Vic,-3.1.2008 edit.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Grus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 818 | [[:d:Q212941|Q212941]] | [[Rynchops]] | Rynchops | 46 | | [[File:Black Skimmer by Dan Pancamo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Laridae]]<br/>[[Rynchopidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 819 | [[:d:Q1267654|Q1267654]] | [[Crex egregia]] | Crex egregia | 46 | | [[File:CrakeAfrican2(byMarkTittley).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Crecopsis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 820 | [[:d:Q611324|Q611324]] | [[Apus affinis]] | Apus affinis | 46 | | [[File:Little Swift - Aberdares - Kenya.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 821 | [[:d:Q845969|Q845969]] | [[Calidris subminuta]] | Calidris subminuta | 46 | | [[File:Calidris subminuta - Pak Thale.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 822 | [[:d:Q18836|Q18836]] | [[Turnix sylvaticus]] | Turnix sylvaticus | 46 | | [[File:Kurrichane Buttonquail 2016 01 01 2734.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turnix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 823 | [[:d:Q749326|Q749326]] | [[Phalacrocorax fuscicollis]] | Phalacrocorax fuscicollis | 46 | | [[File:Indian Cormorant (Br.) I IMG 8092.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phalacrocorax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 824 | [[:d:Q498102|Q498102]] | [[Ardeola bacchus]] | Ardeola bacchus | 46 | | [[File:Ardeola bacchus (19169872143).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardeola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 825 | [[:d:Q383182|Q383182]] | [[Pterocles orientalis]] | Pterocles orientalis | 46 | | [[File:Pterocles orientalis 1921.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pterocles]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 826 | [[:d:Q688641|Q688641]] | [[Eudyptes chrysocome]] | Eudyptes chrysocome | 46 | | [[File:Gorfou sauteur - Rockhopper Penguin.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudyptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 827 | [[:d:Q589171|Q589171]] | [[Eudocimus albus]] | Eudocimus albus | 46 | | [[File:Eudocimus albus (4111616588).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudocimus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 828 | [[:d:Q990175|Q990175]] | [[Mycteria americana]] | Mycteria americana | 46 | | [[File:WoodStorkWhole.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mycteria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 829 | [[:d:Q494544|Q494544]] | [[Platalea minor]] | Platalea minor | 46 | | [[File:Platalea minor okinawa.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Platalea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 830 | [[:d:Q375716|Q375716]] | [[Tyto]] | Tyto | 46 | | [[File:Tyto alba tylluan wen detail.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tytoninae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 831 | [[:d:Q281874|Q281874]] | [[Gyps africanus]] | Gyps africanus | 46 | | [[File:2012-white-backed-vulture.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 832 | [[:d:Q607024|Q607024]] | [[Oceanites oceanicus]] | Oceanites oceanicus | 46 | | [[File:Oceanites oceanicus - SE Tasmania.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oceanites]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 833 | [[:d:Q726387|Q726387]] | [[Terathopius ecaudatus]] | Terathopius ecaudatus | 46 | | [[File:Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus) - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Terathopius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 834 | [[:d:Q257006|Q257006]] | [[Cereopsis novaehollandiae]] | Cereopsis novaehollandiae | 46 | | [[File:Cereopsis novaehollandiae 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cereopsis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 835 | [[:d:Q732881|Q732881]] | [[Campephagidae]] | Campephagidae | 46 | | [[File:Blackfacedcuckooshrike.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 836 | [[:d:Q752529|Q752529]] | [[Phoeniculidae]] | Phoeniculidae | 46 | | [[File:There's something in this....jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucerotiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 837 | [[:d:Q499568|Q499568]] | [[Aquila adalberti]] | Aquila adalberti | 46 | | [[File:Aguila imperial iberica.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 838 | [[:d:Q687695|Q687695]] | [[Branta sandvicensis]] | Branta sandvicensis | 46 | | [[File:Branta sandvicensis -Kilauea Point National Wildlife Refuge, Hawaii, USA-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Branta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 839 | [[:d:Q839542|Q839542]] | [[Anas poecilorhyncha]] | Anas poecilorhyncha | 46 | | [[File:Pair Indian Spot-billed Duck Karanji Mysore Dec23 A7C 08342.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 840 | [[:d:Q733375|Q733375]] | [[Cygnus buccinator]] | Cygnus buccinator | 46 | | [[File:NPS Wildlife. Trumpeter Swan on Nest.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cygnus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 841 | [[:d:Q28135|Q28135]] | [[Hirundo]] | Hirundo | 46 | | [[File:Hirundo neoxena risdon.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hirundinidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 842 | [[:d:Q372906|Q372906]] | [[Cacatua sulphurea]] | Cacatua sulphurea | 46 | | [[File:Gelbwangenkakadu 8559.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 843 | [[:d:Q735231|Q735231]] | [[Cacatua moluccensis]] | Cacatua moluccensis | 46 | | [[File:Cacatua moluccensis -Cincinnati Zoo-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 844 | [[:d:Q456513|Q456513]] | [[Amazona]] | Amazona | 46 | | [[File:Amazona amazonica 2c.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Arinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 845 | [[:d:Q367327|Q367327]] | [[Quelea quelea]] | Quelea quelea | 46 | | [[File:Quelea quelea -Limpopo, South Africa-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Quelea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 846 | [[:d:Q480086|Q480086]] | [[Bucorvus abyssinicus]] | Bucorvus abyssinicus | 46 | | [[File:Abyssinian ground-hornbill (Bucorvus abyssinicus) female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucorvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 847 | [[:d:Q1971364|Q1971364]] | [[Pyrrhocorax]] | Pyrrhocorax | 46 | | [[File:Alpine Chough by Jim Higham.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 848 | [[:d:Q476593|Q476593]] | [[Ara glaucogularis]] | Ara glaucogularis | 46 | | [[File:Ara glaucogularis -Chester Zoo -upper body-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 849 | [[:d:Q583551|Q583551]] | [[Alcedo]] | Alcedo | 46 | | [[File:European Kingfisher at Mesologgi, by Antonis Tsaknakis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alcedinidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 850 | [[:d:Q223574|Q223574]] | [[Ocyceros birostris]] | Ocyceros birostris | 46 | | [[File:Indian Grey Hornbill I IMG 4048.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ocyceros]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 851 | [[:d:Q739200|Q739200]] | [[Parulidae]] | Parulidae | 46 | | [[File:Parulidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeroidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 852 | [[:d:Q509455|Q509455]] | [[Pycnonotus cafer]] | Pycnonotus cafer | 46 | | [[File:Red-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) in Tirunelveli, India.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pycnonotus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 853 | [[:d:Q749701|Q749701]] | [[Sitta neumayer]] | Sitta neumayer | 46 | | [[File:Sitta neumayer 0.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 854 | [[:d:Q906092|Q906092]] | [[Saxicola]] | Saxicola | 46 | | [[File:European Stonechat.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Muscicapidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 855 | [[:d:Q752146|Q752146]] | [[Chloebia gouldiae]] | Chloebia gouldiae | 46 | | [[File:Chloebia gouldiae, Elsey, Northern Territory, Australia 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chloebia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 856 | [[:d:Q31836|Q31836]] | [[Hemiprocnidae]] | Hemiprocnidae | 45 | | [[File:Crestedtreeswift.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | | [[Apodiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 857 | [[:d:Q733120|Q733120]] | [[Pterocnemia pennata]] | Rhea pennata | 45 | | [[File:Pterocnemia pennata qtl1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rhea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 858 | [[:d:Q667778|Q667778]] | [[Apteryx australis]] | Apteryx australis | 45 | | [[File:Tokoeka.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apteryx]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 859 | [[:d:Q385750|Q385750]] | [[Chrysolophus amherstiae]] | Chrysolophus amherstiae | 45 | | [[File:Chrysolophus amherstiae, Garzê Tibetan AP, Sichuan 9S3A2641.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chrysolophus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 860 | [[:d:Q848706|Q848706]] | [[domesticated turkey]] | Meleagris gallopavo domesticus | 45 | | [[File:Male north american turkey supersaturated.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[poultry]]<br/>[[animal productive]] | [[Meleagris gallopavo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 861 | [[:d:Q2814783|Q2814783]] | [[Gaviiformes]] | Gaviiformes | 45 | | [[File:Common Loon.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aequornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 862 | [[:d:Q551092|Q551092]] | [[Raphinae]] | Raphidae | 45 | | [[File:Dodo-Skeleton Natural History Museum London England.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columbiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 863 | [[:d:Q839539|Q839539]] | [[Ithaginis cruentus]] | Ithaginis cruentus | 45 | | [[File:Blood Pheasant.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ithaginis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 864 | [[:d:Q494424|Q494424]] | [[Gallicrex cinerea]] | Gallicrex cinerea | 45 | | [[File:Watercock (Gallicrex cinerea).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallicrex]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 865 | [[:d:Q45696|Q45696]] | [[Phalaropus tricolor]] | Phalaropus tricolor | 45 | | [[File:Phalaropus tricolor Ork 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phalaropus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 866 | [[:d:Q18876|Q18876]] | [[Calidris tenuirostris]] | Calidris tenuirostris | 45 | | [[File:Calidris tenuirostris - Laem Phak Bia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 867 | [[:d:Q28000|Q28000]] | [[Tringa flavipes]] | Tringa flavipes | 45 | | [[File:Lesser Yellowlegs.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 868 | [[:d:Q27452709|Q27452709]] | [[Buff-breasted Sandpiper]] | Calidris subruficollis | 45 | | [[File:Grasläufer (Calidris subruficollis) am Strand im Willapa National Wildlife Refuge.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 869 | [[:d:Q198823|Q198823]] | [[Caprimulgus]] | Caprimulgus | 45 | | [[File:Caprimulgus aegyptius.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Caprimulginae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 870 | [[:d:Q752485|Q752485]] | [[Anarhynchus asiaticus]] | Anarhynchus asiaticus | 45 | | [[File:Caspian Plover in Koonthalulam Tamilnadu, India, by Dr. Tejinder Singh Rawal.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anarhynchus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 871 | [[:d:Q31617|Q31617]] | [[Rostratula benghalensis]] | Rostratula benghalensis | 45 | | [[File:Greater Painted-snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) male, Kruger NP (53247730001).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rostratula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 872 | [[:d:Q753755|Q753755]] | [[Metopidius indicus]] | Metopidius indicus | 45 | | [[File:Bronze-winged jacana (Metopidius indicus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Metopidius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 873 | [[:d:Q756640|Q756640]] | [[Phaethon rubricauda]] | Phaethon rubricauda | 45 | | [[File:Red-tail.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phaethon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 874 | [[:d:Q591480|Q591480]] | [[Eudyptes]] | Eudyptes | 45 | | [[File:MacaroniPenguinJM.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spheniscidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 875 | [[:d:Q609432|Q609432]] | [[Pygoscelis]] | Pygoscelis | 45 | | [[File:Manchot 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spheniscidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 876 | [[:d:Q647512|Q647512]] | [[Fregata magnificens]] | Fregata magnificens | 45 | | [[File:Fregata magnificens -Galapagos, Ecuador -male-8 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fregata]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 877 | [[:d:Q18866|Q18866]] | [[Thalasseus bergii]] | Thalasseus bergii | 45 | | [[File:Crested Tern Tasmania.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Thalasseus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 878 | [[:d:Q28490|Q28490]] | [[Onychoprion anaethetus]] | Onychoprion anaethetus | 45 | | [[File:Bridled Tern ( Sterna anaethetus ) ... Great Barrier Reef , Australia (53374667291).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Onychoprion]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 879 | [[:d:Q59785|Q59785]] | [[Egretta thula]] | Egretta thula | 45 | | [[File:Aigrette neigeuse.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Egretta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 880 | [[:d:Q579213|Q579213]] | [[Goura victoria]] | Goura victoria | 45 | | [[File:Bristol.zoo.victoria.crowned.pigeon.arp.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Goura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 881 | [[:d:Q844860|Q844860]] | [[Ducula aenea]] | Ducula aenea | 45 | | [[File:DuculaAenea.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ducula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 882 | [[:d:Q864359|Q864359]] | [[Ardeotis nigriceps]] | Ardeotis nigriceps | 45 | | [[File:Ardeotis nigriceps, Desert National Park, Rajasthan, India 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardeotis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 883 | [[:d:Q782094|Q782094]] | [[Morus serrator]] | Morus serrator | 45 | | [[File:Gannet standing in Black Reef colony.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Morus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 884 | [[:d:Q525717|Q525717]] | [[Anous stolidus]] | Anous stolidus | 45 | | [[File:Anous stolidus by Gregg Yan 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anous]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 885 | [[:d:Q469940|Q469940]] | [[Anhinga anhinga]] | Anhinga anhinga | 45 | | [[File:Anhinga anhinga -Costa Rica-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anhinga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 886 | [[:d:Q839854|Q839854]] | [[Papasula abbotti]] | Papasula abbotti | 45 | | [[File:Abbott's Booby.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Papasula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 887 | [[:d:Q602598|Q602598]] | [[Black-browed Albatross]] | Thalassarche melanophris | 45 | | [[File:Black-browed albatross.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Thalassarche]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 888 | [[:d:Q622637|Q622637]] | [[Eudyptes pachyrhynchus]] | Eudyptes pachyrhynchus | 45 | | [[File:Eudyptes pachyrhynchus 4342035.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudyptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 889 | [[:d:Q750027|Q750027]] | [[Zenaida macroura]] | Zenaida macroura | 45 | | [[File:Mourning dove perched (61179).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zenaida]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 890 | [[:d:Q728682|Q728682]] | [[Uria lomvia]] | Uria lomvia | 45 | | [[File:A Brünnich's guillemot (Uria lomvia) with prey.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Uria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 891 | [[:d:Q1094736|Q1094736]] | [[Yellow-footed Green Pigeon]] | Treron phoenicopterus | 45 | | [[File:Yellow-footed Green Pigeons (Treron phoenicoptera)- chlorigaster race at Sultanpur I Picture 014.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Treron]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 892 | [[:d:Q27074603|Q27074603]] | [[Ardenna grisea]] | Ardenna grisea | 45 | | [[File:Sooty Shearwater.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardenna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 893 | [[:d:Q998495|Q998495]] | [[Ciconia boyciana]] | Ciconia boyciana | 45 | | [[File:Bocian czarnodzioby Ciconia boyciana RB3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 894 | [[:d:Q828255|Q828255]] | [[Ketupa zeylonensis]] | Ketupa zeylonensis | 45 | | [[File:Brown fishing owl.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ketupa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 895 | [[:d:Q457471|Q457471]] | [[Buteo jamaicensis]] | Buteo jamaicensis | 45 | | [[File:Red-tailed hawk (44371).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[hawk]] | [[Buteo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 896 | [[:d:Q241349|Q241349]] | [[Lophodytes cucullatus]] | Lophodytes cucullatus | 45 | | [[File:Hooded merganser female in CP (40676).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lophodytes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 897 | [[:d:Q382321|Q382321]] | [[Stictonetta naevosa]] | Stictonetta naevosa | 45 | | [[File:Freckled-Duck-male.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Stictonetta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 898 | [[:d:Q529857|Q529857]] | [[Thalassornis leuconotus]] | Thalassornis leuconotus | 45 | | [[File:White-backed Duck (Thalassornis leuconotus) 1 (46494351142).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Thalassornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 899 | [[:d:Q25495361|Q25495361]] | [[White-winged Duck]] | Asarcornis scutulata | 45 | | [[File:White-winged wood duck.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Asarcornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 900 | [[:d:Q408457|Q408457]] | [[Timaliidae]] | Timaliidae | 45 | | [[File:Macronus gularis chersonesophilus - Kaeng Krachan.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 901 | [[:d:Q420841|Q420841]] | [[Maluridae]] | Maluridae | 45 | | [[File:Superb blue Wren1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 902 | [[:d:Q501063|Q501063]] | [[Pycnonotus jocosus]] | Pycnonotus jocosus | 45 | | [[File:Pycnonotus jocosus jocosus, Nanning, Guangxi, China.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pycnonotus]]<br/>[[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 903 | [[:d:Q748159|Q748159]] | [[Icteridae]] | Icteridae | 45 | | [[File:Bullock's Oriole.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 904 | [[:d:Q481742|Q481742]] | [[Falco amurensis]] | Falco amurensis | 45 | | [[File:Amur Falcon (F).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 905 | [[:d:Q576762|Q576762]] | [[Bucephala albeola]] | Bucephala albeola | 45 | | [[File:Bucephala-albeola-007.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucephala]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 906 | [[:d:Q833243|Q833243]] | [[Aythya affinis]] | Aythya affinis | 45 | | [[File:Aythya affinis.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 907 | [[:d:Q839532|Q839532]] | [[Nettapus coromandelianus]] | Nettapus coromandelianus | 45 | | [[File:Cotton Pygmy-goose.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nettapus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 908 | [[:d:Q144218|Q144218]] | [[Coscoroba coscoroba]] | Coscoroba coscoroba | 45 | | [[File:Coscoroba coscoroba -Pineyro, Buenos Aires, Argentina-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coscoroba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 909 | [[:d:Q244320|Q244320]] | [[Anser rossii]] | Anser rossii | 45 | | [[File:Chen rossii1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anser]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 910 | [[:d:Q755540|Q755540]] | [[Dicaeidae]] | Dicaeidae | 45 | | [[File:Dicaeum trigonostigma 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeri]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 911 | [[:d:Q924326|Q924326]] | [[Aceros nipalensis]] | Aceros nipalensis | 45 | | [[File:Rufous necked Hornbill female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aceros]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 912 | [[:d:Q221423|Q221423]] | [[Emberiza leucocephalos]] | Emberiza leucocephalos | 45 | | [[File:Emberiza leucocephalos; Baikonur-town 001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 913 | [[:d:Q385273|Q385273]] | [[Acrocephalus melanopogon]] | Acrocephalus melanopogon | 45 | | [[File:Acrocephalus melanopogon ad03 CB.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 914 | [[:d:Q827170|Q827170]] | [[Serinus]] | Serinus | 45 | | [[File:Serin cini mars.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Carduelinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 915 | [[:d:Q843173|Q843173]] | [[Pyrrhula]] | Pyrrhula | 45 | | [[File:Pyrrhula pyrrhula bl1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Carduelinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 916 | [[:d:Q461021|Q461021]] | [[Formicariidae]] | Formicariidae | 45 | | [[File:Chamaeza nobilis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyranni]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 917 | [[:d:Q568512|Q568512]] | [[Terpsiphone paradisi]] | Terpsiphone paradisi | 45 | | [[File:Asian Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) (45839175624).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Terpsiphone]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 918 | [[:d:Q373031|Q373031]] | [[Ramphastos dicolorus]] | Ramphastos dicolorus | 45 | | [[File:Tucano de bico verde (Ramphastos dicolorus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ramphastos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 919 | [[:d:Q838924|Q838924]] | [[Ara militaris]] | Ara militaris | 45 | | [[File:Ara militaris -London Zoo-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 920 | [[:d:Q748861|Q748861]] | [[Callocephalon fimbriatum]] | Callocephalon fimbriatum | 45 | | [[File:Callocephalon fimbriatum (pair) -NSW -Australia-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Callocephalon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 921 | [[:d:Q645055|Q645055]] | [[Loxia pytyopsittacus]] | Loxia pytyopsittacus | 45 | | [[File:Furukorsnebb. Hann.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Loxia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 922 | [[:d:Q267735|Q267735]] | [[Corvus brachyrhynchos]] | Corvus brachyrhynchos | 45 | | [[File:Corvus-brachyrhynchos-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 923 | [[:d:Q368505|Q368505]] | [[Phylloscopus fuscatus]] | Phylloscopus fuscatus | 45 | | [[File:Dusky Warbler in Baruipur October 2024 by Tisha Mukherjee 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 924 | [[:d:Q809446|Q809446]] | [[Phylloscopus schwarzi]] | Phylloscopus schwarzi | 45 | | [[File:Radde's Warbler (Phylloscopus schwarzi).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 925 | [[:d:Q752678|Q752678]] | [[Lanius isabellinus]] | Lanius isabellinus | 45 | | [[File:Basai Wetland Gurgaon DSC9380 Isabelline shrike.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 926 | [[:d:Q795567|Q795567]] | [[Lanius schach]] | Lanius schach | 45 | | [[File:Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN8981 (92).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 927 | [[:d:Q192575|Q192575]] | [[Cinclus]] | Cinclus | 45 | | [[File:Cinclus mexicanus FWS.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[water bird]] | [[Cinclidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 928 | [[:d:Q726873|Q726873]] | [[Anthus hodgsoni]] | Anthus hodgsoni | 45 | | [[File:Anthus hodgsoni (singing s2).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 929 | [[:d:Q845408|Q845408]] | [[Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi]] | Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi | 44 | | [[File:Tetras du caucase jogo 0g.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lyrurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 930 | [[:d:Q526626|Q526626]] | [[Alectoris]] | Alectoris | 44 | | [[File:Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar) (39660989151).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Perdicinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 931 | [[:d:Q94601|Q94601]] | [[Meleagris ocellata]] | Meleagris ocellata | 44 | | [[File:Meleagris ocellata -Guatemala-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Meleagris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 932 | [[:d:Q494983|Q494983]] | [[Grus monacha]] | Grus monacha | 44 | | [[File:Grus monacha Phila Zoo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Grus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 933 | [[:d:Q2359014|Q2359014]] | [[Pluvialis]] | Pluvialis | 44 | | [[File:Pluvialis dominica1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 934 | [[:d:Q843182|Q843182]] | [[Casuarius unappendiculatus]] | Casuarius unappendiculatus | 44 | | [[File:Casuarius unappendiculatus -Northern Cassowary -head to toe.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Casuario|Casuarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 935 | [[:d:Q7512165|Q7512165]] | [[Phoenicopteriformes]] | Phoenicopteriformes | 44 | | [[File:Flamingo.greater.flaps.750pix.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mirandornithes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 936 | [[:d:Q425900|Q425900]] | [[Phasianus versicolor]] | Phasianus versicolor | 44 | | [[File:Phasianus versicolor female.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phasianus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 937 | [[:d:Q312272|Q312272]] | [[Egretta]] | Egretta | 44 | | [[File:Western Reef heron (Egretta gularis).JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hairon|Ardeidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 938 | [[:d:Q612817|Q612817]] | [[Sula]] | Sula | 44 | | [[File:Atobá-pardo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sulidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 939 | [[:d:Q18860|Q18860]] | [[Calidris ruficollis]] | Calidris ruficollis | 44 | | [[File:Calidris ruficollis - Marion Bay.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 940 | [[:d:Q599749|Q599749]] | [[Calidris fuscicollis]] | Calidris fuscicollis | 44 | | [[File:Calidris fuscicollis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 941 | [[:d:Q753760|Q753760]] | [[Calidris acuminata]] | Calidris acuminata | 44 | | [[File:Calidris acuminata - Hexham Swamp.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 942 | [[:d:Q389691|Q389691]] | [[Actitis macularius]] | Actitis macularius | 44 | | [[File:Actitis-macularia-005.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Actitis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 943 | [[:d:Q18839|Q18839]] | [[Thalasseus bengalensis]] | Thalasseus bengalensis | 44 | | [[File:Lesser crested terns (Thalasseus bengalensis) by Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Thalasseus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 944 | [[:d:Q754662|Q754662]] | [[Columba rupestris]] | Columba rupestris | 44 | | [[File:Hill Pigeon, near Dras, Jammu and Kashmir, India.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 945 | [[:d:Q841221|Q841221]] | [[Columba leuconota]] | Columba leuconota | 44 | | [[File:Snow Pigeon (Columba leuconota) (19589090133).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 946 | [[:d:Q528764|Q528764]] | [[Leucophaeus atricilla]] | Leucophaeus atricilla | 44 | | [[File:Laughing Gull adult summer, Daytona Beach, Florida.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leucophaeus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 947 | [[:d:Q753741|Q753741]] | [[Pterocles alchata]] | Pterocles alchata | 44 | | [[File:Pterocles alchata (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pterocles]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 948 | [[:d:Q387379|Q387379]] | [[Anhinga rufa]] | Anhinga rufa | 44 | | [[File:African darter (Anhinga rufa) drying wings.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anhinga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 949 | [[:d:Q577346|Q577346]] | [[Leptoptilos]] | Leptoptilos | 44 | | [[File:Leptoptilos crumeniferus -Brevard Zoo, Florida, USA-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leptoptilini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 950 | [[:d:Q145593|Q145593]] | [[Streptopelia tranquebarica]] | Streptopelia tranquebarica | 44 | | [[File:Red Collared Dove, Tamil Nadu IMG 4960.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Streptopelia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 951 | [[:d:Q753758|Q753758]] | [[Eudyptes robustus]] | Eudyptes robustus | 44 | | [[File:SnaresPenguin (Mattern) large.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudyptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 952 | [[:d:Q220578|Q220578]] | [[Ardea melanocephala]] | Ardea melanocephala | 44 | | [[File:2009-black-headed-heron.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 953 | [[:d:Q757350|Q757350]] | [[Ardea sumatrana]] | Ardea sumatrana | 44 | | [[File:Ardea sumatrana 195843670.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 954 | [[:d:Q1145127|Q1145127]] | [[Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae]] | Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae | 44 | | [[File:Kereru profile.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hemiphaga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 955 | [[:d:Q764171|Q764171]] | [[Gorsachius melanolophus]] | Gorsachius melanolophus | 44 | | [[File:55594021 Yongfu Bridge, Taipei City +ID 2411215+002 0005.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gorsachius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 956 | [[:d:Q748236|Q748236]] | [[Diomedea epomophora]] | Diomedea epomophora | 44 | | [[File:Diomedea epomophora - SE Tasmania.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Diomedea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 957 | [[:d:Q844655|Q844655]] | [[Netta]] | Netta | 44 | | [[File:Netta peposaca, Costanera Sur 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anatinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 958 | [[:d:Q1006681|Q1006681]] | [[Dendrocygna]] | Dendrocygna | 44 | | [[File:Whistling duck flight02 - natures pics-edit1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocygninae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 959 | [[:d:Q597144|Q597144]] | [[Rhodonessa caryophyllacea]] | Rhodonessa caryophyllacea | 44 | | [[File:Rhodonessa caryophyllacea.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rhodonessa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 960 | [[:d:Q838162|Q838162]] | [[Torgos tracheliotos]] | Torgos tracheliotos | 44 | | [[File:Lappet-faced Vulture (Torgos tracheliotos), Kgalagadi, South Africa (6526355327).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Torgos]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 961 | [[:d:Q752465|Q752465]] | [[Aquila audax]] | Aquila audax | 44 | | [[File:Aquila audax - Captain's Flat.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 962 | [[:d:Q244189|Q244189]] | [[Branta hutchinsii]] | Branta hutchinsii | 44 | | [[File:AleutianCanadaGoose2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Branta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 963 | [[:d:Q845292|Q845292]] | [[Anas rubripes]] | Anas rubripes | 44 | | [[File:028 - AMERICAN BLACK DUCK (2-19-11) Quidi Vidi Lake, St John's, Newfoundland (8710694225).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 964 | [[:d:Q740680|Q740680]] | [[Aythya baeri]] | Aythya baeri | 44 | | [[File:Aythya baeri female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 965 | [[:d:Q269203|Q269203]] | [[Merops]] | Merops | 44 | | [[File:Merops apiaster 04.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Meropidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 966 | [[:d:Q2090536|Q2090536]] | [[Oriolus]] | Oriolus | 44 | | [[File:Black-naped Oriole.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oriolidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 967 | [[:d:Q212942|Q212942]] | [[Galbulidae]] | Galbulidae | 44 | | [[File:Galbula ruficauda - front.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Galbuloidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 968 | [[:d:Q644135|Q644135]] | [[Cacatua leadbeateri]] | Cacatua leadbeateri | 44 | | [[File:Cacatua leadbeateri -SW Queensland-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 969 | [[:d:Q757360|Q757360]] | [[Cacatua haematuropygia]] | Cacatua haematuropygia | 44 | | [[File:Red Vented Cockatoo.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 970 | [[:d:Q31884|Q31884]] | [[Merops philippinus]] | Merops philippinus | 44 | | [[File:Blue-tailed Bee-eater in Sundarbans National Park July 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 03.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Merops]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 971 | [[:d:Q756777|Q756777]] | [[Philepittidae]] | Philepittidae | 44 | | [[File:Philepitta castanea 1868.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyranni]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 972 | [[:d:Q653246|Q653246]] | [[Oriolus xanthornus]] | Oriolus xanthornus | 44 | | [[File:Black-hooded Oriole in Purbasthali June 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oriolus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 973 | [[:d:Q1951909|Q1951909]] | [[Nucifraga]] | Nucifraga | 44 | | [[File:Clark's Nutcracker - Nucifraga columbiana.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 974 | [[:d:Q16819|Q16819]] | [[Colaptes auratus]] | Colaptes auratus | 44 | | [[File:Northern Flicker.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Colaptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 975 | [[:d:Q559883|Q559883]] | [[Bucanetes githagineus]] | Bucanetes githagineus | 44 | | [[File:Bucanetes githagineus amantum 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucanetes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 976 | [[:d:Q27075856|Q27075856]] | [[Arctic Redpoll]] | Acanthis hornemanni | 44 | | [[File:Acanthis hornemanni hornemanni, Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acanthis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 977 | [[:d:Q379200|Q379200]] | [[Pipridae]] | Pipridae | 44 | | [[File:Pipridae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tyrannida]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 978 | [[:d:Q753221|Q753221]] | [[Mimidae]] | Mimidae | 44 | | [[File:Curve-billed Thrasher.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Muscicapoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 979 | [[:d:Q655145|Q655145]] | [[Pitta brachyura]] | Pitta brachyura | 44 | | [[File:Pitta brachyura.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 980 | [[:d:Q603875|Q603875]] | [[Agapornis fischeri]] | Agapornis fischeri | 44 | | [[File:046 Fischer's lovebird in the Serengeti National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Agapornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 981 | [[:d:Q27075635|Q27075635]] | [[Copsychus malabaricus]] | Copsychus malabaricus | 44 | | [[File:Copsychus malabaricus - Khao Yai.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Copsychus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 982 | [[:d:Q266107|Q266107]] | [[Dendronanthus indicus]] | Dendronanthus indicus | 44 | | [[File:Forest Wagtail 4024.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendronanthus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 983 | [[:d:Q574939|Q574939]] | [[Lonchura striata]] | Lonchura striata | 44 | | [[File:White-rumped Munia (Lonchura striata) (5780780488).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lonchura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 984 | [[:d:Q2330918|Q2330918]] | [[Neoaves]] | Neoaves | 43 | | [[File:Common Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus).JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[clado]] | | [[Neognathae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 985 | [[:d:Q564265|Q564265]] | [[Calypte anna]] | Calypte anna | 43 | | [[File:Anna's Hummingbird - 0L8A9194.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calypte]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 986 | [[:d:Q730091|Q730091]] | [[Apteryx haastii]] | Apteryx haastii | 43 | | [[File:Apteryx haastii.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apteryx]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 987 | [[:d:Q220705|Q220705]] | [[Rallus]] | Rallus | 43 | | [[File:Rallus aquaticus 4 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rallidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 988 | [[:d:Q316342|Q316342]] | [[Himantopus]] | Himantopus | 43 | | [[File:Black winged Stilt I MG 9747.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Recurvirostridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 989 | [[:d:Q756714|Q756714]] | [[Gallirallus australis]] | Gallirallus australis | 43 | | [[File:Gallirallus australis 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gallirallus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 990 | [[:d:Q793068|Q793068]] | [[Casuarius bennetti]] | Casuarius bennetti | 43 | | [[File:Dwarf Cassowary Lae.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Casuario|Casuarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 991 | [[:d:Q833453|Q833453]] | [[Lerwa lerwa]] | Lerwa lerwa | 43 | | [[File:Lerwa lerwa.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lerwa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 992 | [[:d:Q470016|Q470016]] | [[Fulica americana]] | Fulica americana | 43 | | [[File:American coot in Prospect Park (06152).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fulica]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 993 | [[:d:Q1207101|Q1207101]] | [[Cariamiformes]] | Cariamiformes | 43 | | [[File:Andalgalornis jconway.png|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Australavis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 994 | [[:d:Q27452479|Q27452479]] | [[Antigone vipio]] | Antigone vipio | 43 | | [[File:Grus Vipio (Aqua Zoo).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Antigone]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 995 | [[:d:Q31866|Q31866]] | [[Apus pacificus]] | Apus pacificus | 43 | | [[File:ApusPacificus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 996 | [[:d:Q28065684|Q28065684]] | [[Spoon-billed Sandpiper]] | Calidris pygmaea | 43 | | [[File:Eurynorhynchus pygmeus 2 - Pak Thale.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 997 | [[:d:Q856201|Q856201]] | [[Jacana jacana]] | Jacana jacana | 43 | | [[File:Acana jacana -near Yarina Lodge, Napo Province, Ecuador -adult-8 cropped.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Jacana]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 998 | [[:d:Q755737|Q755737]] | [[Charadrius vociferus]] | Charadrius vociferus | 43 | | [[File:Juvenile killdeer.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadrius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 999 | [[:d:Q528117|Q528117]] | [[Phaethon lepturus]] | Phaethon lepturus | 43 | | [[File:Phaethon lepturus, Seychelles.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phaethon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1000 | [[:d:Q686600|Q686600]] | [[Phaethon aethereus]] | Phaethon aethereus | 43 | | [[File:20180811-Red-billed tropicbird at Plaza Sur (0374).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phaethon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1001 | [[:d:Q310862|Q310862]] | [[Aegolius]] | Aegolius | 43 | | [[File:Aegolius-funereus-001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strigidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1002 | [[:d:Q28514|Q28514]] | [[Sterna aurantia]] | Sterna aurantia | 43 | | [[File:River tern (Sterna aurantia).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sterna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1003 | [[:d:Q870775|Q870775]] | [[Fregata ariel]] | Fregata ariel | 43 | | [[File:Lesser frigatebird lei.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fregata]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1004 | [[:d:Q392139|Q392139]] | [[Egretta tricolor]] | Egretta tricolor | 43 | | [[File:Adult Tricolored Heron.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Egretta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1005 | [[:d:Q731308|Q731308]] | [[Mycteria cinerea]] | Mycteria cinerea | 43 | | [[File:Milky Stork (Mycteria cinerea).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mycteria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1006 | [[:d:Q512348|Q512348]] | [[Platalea alba]] | Platalea alba | 43 | | [[File:Platalea alba eating JdP.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Platalea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1007 | [[:d:Q722981|Q722981]] | [[Platalea regia]] | Platalea regia | 43 | | [[File:Royal Spoonbill mouth open.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Platalea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1008 | [[:d:Q735296|Q735296]] | [[Phoebastria irrorata]] | Phoebastria irrorata | 43 | | [[File:Waved Albatross in flight, Española Island 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoebastria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1009 | [[:d:Q853412|Q853412]] | [[Phoebastria albatrus]] | Phoebastria albatrus | 43 | | [[File:Short tailed Albatross1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoebastria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1010 | [[:d:Q493173|Q493173]] | [[Nipponia nippon]] | Nipponia nippon | 43 | | [[File:Nipponia nippon, two, Yang Xian, Shaanxi, China.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nipponia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1011 | [[:d:Q524740|Q524740]] | [[Daption capense]] | Daption capense | 43 | | [[File:Daption capense -west of Falkland Islands-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Daption]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1012 | [[:d:Q926291|Q926291]] | [[Micrathene whitneyi]] | Micrathene whitneyi | 43 | | [[File:Elf Ow Cropped very small.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Micrathene]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1013 | [[:d:Q177386|Q177386]] | [[Necrosyrtes monachus]] | Necrosyrtes monachus | 43 | | [[File:Hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Necrosyrtes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1014 | [[:d:Q732523|Q732523]] | [[Gypohierax angolensis]] | Gypohierax angolensis | 43 | | [[File:Gypohierax angolensis -Jurong Bird Park-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gypohierax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1015 | [[:d:Q280663|Q280663]] | [[Lophotriorchis kienerii]] | Lophotriorchis kienerii | 43 | | [[File:Elang-Perut-Karat-by-alimadura.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lophotriorchis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1016 | [[:d:Q658658|Q658658]] | [[Cyanochen cyanopterus]] | Cyanochen cyanoptera | 43 | | [[File:Blue-winged goose (Cyanochen cyanoptera).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cyanochen]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1017 | [[:d:Q550595|Q550595]] | [[Cisticolidae]] | Cisticolidae | 43 | | [[File:Cisticola exilis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1018 | [[:d:Q755119|Q755119]] | [[Caracara plancus]] | Caracara plancus | 43 | | [[File:Schopfkarakara.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Caracara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1019 | [[:d:Q917586|Q917586]] | [[Dendrocygna eytoni]] | Dendrocygna eytoni | 43 | | [[File:Dendrocygna eytoni - Macquarie University.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocygna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1020 | [[:d:Q757271|Q757271]] | [[Anas superciliosa]] | Anas superciliosa | 43 | | [[File:Pacific Black Duck (Anas superciliosa), Warriewood, Sydney (50425801576).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anas]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1021 | [[:d:Q420499|Q420499]] | [[Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos]] | Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos | 43 | | [[File:Whio potrait MTL.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hymenolaimus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1022 | [[:d:Q7256090|Q7256090]] | [[Psittaculidae]] | Psittaculidae | 43 | | [[File:Psittacula krameri -Karnataka, India-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittacoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1023 | [[:d:Q136358|Q136358]] | [[Acridotheres]] | Acridotheres | 43 | | [[File:Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sturnidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1024 | [[:d:Q1063141|Q1063141]] | [[Bucorvus]] | Bucorvus | 43 | | [[File:Abyssinian Ground Hornbill (Bucorvus abyssinicus) male - Flickr - berniedup.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucorvidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1025 | [[:d:Q621861|Q621861]] | [[Bucconidae]] | Bucconidae | 43 | | [[File:Rapazinho-carijó (Bucco tamatia Gmelin, 1788).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Galbuli]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1026 | [[:d:Q1070285|Q1070285]] | [[Ploceus cucullatus]] | Ploceus cucullatus | 43 | | [[File:Village weaver (Ploceus cucullatus cucullatus) female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ploceus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1027 | [[:d:Q26537|Q26537]] | [[Aegithina tiphia]] | Aegithina tiphia | 43 | | [[File:Bharat ravat.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aegithina]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1028 | [[:d:Q838951|Q838951]] | [[Ara rubrogenys]] | Ara rubrogenys | 43 | | [[File:Ara rubrogenys -Tulsa Zoo, Oklahoma, USA-8a-3c.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1029 | [[:d:Q1140949|Q1140949]] | [[Gymnorhina tibicen]] | Gymnorhina tibicen | 43 | | [[File:Cracticus tibicen hypoleuca male domain.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gymnorhina]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 1030 | [[:d:Q736052|Q736052]] | [[Megaceryle alcyon]] | Megaceryle alcyon | 43 | | [[File:Belted Kingfisher.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Megaceryle]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1031 | [[:d:Q828544|Q828544]] | [[Eclectus roratus]] | Eclectus roratus | 43 | | [[File:Eclectus Parrot male.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eclectus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1032 | [[:d:Q743214|Q743214]] | [[Cyanopsitta spixii]] | Cyanopsitta spixii | 43 | | [[File:AraSpixiSmit.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cyanopsitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1033 | [[:d:Q753748|Q753748]] | [[Agapornis personatus]] | Agapornis personatus | 43 | | [[File:Agapornis personatus -Serengeti, Tanzania-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Agapornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1034 | [[:d:Q31898|Q31898]] | [[Todiramphus chloris]] | Todiramphus chloris | 43 | | [[File:Todiramphus chloris 2 - Laem Phak Bia.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Todiramphus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1035 | [[:d:Q220985|Q220985]] | [[Turdus ruficollis]] | Turdus ruficollis | 43 | | [[File:Red-throated thrush in Nepal (1) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1036 | [[:d:Q73427|Q73427]] | [[Blue Whistling Thrush]] | Myophonus caeruleus | 43 | | [[File:Myophonus caeruleus - Ang Khang edit1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Myophonus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1037 | [[:d:Q19055|Q19055]] | [[Lagopus leucura]] | Lagopus leucura | 42 | | [[File:Mount Rainier White-Tailed Ptarmigan (53058740798).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lagopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1038 | [[:d:Q853058|Q853058]] | [[Galloanserae]] | Galloanserae | 42 | | [[File:Galloanserae.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Neognathae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1039 | [[:d:Q282973|Q282973]] | [[Patagona gigas]] | Patagona gigas | 42 | | [[File:Patagona Gigas.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Patagona]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1040 | [[:d:Q836291|Q836291]] | [[Macrocephalon maleo]] | Macrocephalon maleo | 42 | | [[File:Maleo bird.PNG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Macrocephalon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1041 | [[:d:Q789358|Q789358]] | [[Balearica]] | Balearica | 42 | | [[File:Balearica regulorum 1 Luc Viatour.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gruidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1042 | [[:d:Q244197|Q244197]] | [[Apteryx owenii]] | Apteryx owenii | 42 | | [[File:Apteryx owenii 0.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Apteryx]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1043 | [[:d:Q1137291|Q1137291]] | [[Porphyrio]] | Porphyrio | 42 | | [[File:Australasian swamphen. (48041463068).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rallidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1044 | [[:d:Q754863|Q754863]] | [[Alectoris rufa]] | Alectoris rufa | 42 | | [[File:AlectorisRufa.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alectoris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1045 | [[:d:Q546835|Q546835]] | [[Lophura nycthemera]] | Lophura nycthemera | 42 | | [[File:Lophura nycthemera, Exiandong reserve, Fujian 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lophura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1046 | [[:d:Q746658|Q746658]] | [[Cuculus]] | Cuculus | 42 | | [[File:Cuculus canorus2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cuculidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1047 | [[:d:Q1237815|Q1237815]] | [[Podiceps]] | Podiceps | 42 | | [[File:Horned Grebe.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Podicipedidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1048 | [[:d:Q570379|Q570379]] | [[Tringa melanoleuca]] | Tringa melanoleuca | 42 | | [[File:Greater Yellowlegs2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tringa]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1049 | [[:d:Q788649|Q788649]] | [[Calidris bairdii]] | Calidris bairdii | 42 | | [[File:Baird's sandpiper (Calidris bairdii) 03.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1050 | [[:d:Q116708|Q116708]] | [[Glareola maldivarum]] | Glareola maldivarum | 42 | | [[File:Glareola maldivarum - Beung Borapet.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Glareola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1051 | [[:d:Q18987|Q18987]] | [[Stercorarius antarcticus]] | Stercorarius antarcticus | 42 | | [[File:BrownSkua4.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Stercorarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1052 | [[:d:Q754030|Q754030]] | [[Cariamidae]] | Cariamidae | 42 | | [[File:Cariama cristata.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cariamiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1053 | [[:d:Q28505|Q28505]] | [[Sterna sumatrana]] | Sterna sumatrana | 42 | | [[File:Black-naped Tern LEI.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sterna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1054 | [[:d:Q579718|Q579718]] | [[Podilymbus podiceps]] | Podilymbus podiceps | 42 | | [[File:Pied-billed Grebe (53638106406) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Podilymbus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1055 | [[:d:Q855618|Q855618]] | [[Columba guinea]] | Columba guinea | 42 | | [[File:Columba guinea 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1056 | [[:d:Q1074450|Q1074450]] | [[Columba elphinstonii]] | Columba elphinstonii | 42 | | [[File:Columba elphinstonii.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1057 | [[:d:Q392175|Q392175]] | [[Egretta ardesiaca]] | Egretta ardesiaca | 42 | | [[File:Black heron, Egretta ardesiaca, at Marievale Nature Reserve, Gauteng, South Africa (29946902700).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Egretta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1058 | [[:d:Q756795|Q756795]] | [[Leucophaeus pipixcan]] | Leucophaeus pipixcan | 42 | | [[File:Franklin's Gull Brisbane98.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Leucophaeus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1059 | [[:d:Q498183|Q498183]] | [[Ardeola speciosa]] | Ardeola speciosa | 42 | | [[File:Ardeola speciosa.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardeola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1060 | [[:d:Q601107|Q601107]] | [[Eurypyga helias]] | Eurypyga helias | 42 | | [[File:075 Sunbittern in Encontro das Águas State Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eurypyga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1061 | [[:d:Q519583|Q519583]] | [[Ichthyaetus audouinii]] | Ichthyaetus audouinii | 42 | | [[File:Ichthyaetus audouinii 20091001.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ichthyaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1062 | [[:d:Q662429|Q662429]] | [[Otidiphaps nobilis]] | Otidiphaps nobilis | 42 | | [[File:Green-naped Pheasant Pigeon Otidiphaps nobilis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Otidiphaps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1063 | [[:d:Q867544|Q867544]] | [[Circaetus]] | Circaetus | 42 | | [[File:Circaetus pectoralis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1064 | [[:d:Q276185|Q276185]] | [[Macronectes giganteus]] | Macronectes giganteus | 42 | | [[File:Giant petrel with chicks.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Macronectes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1065 | [[:d:Q838959|Q838959]] | [[Eudyptes sclateri]] | Eudyptes sclateri | 42 | | [[File:Bul02BirdP046.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eudyptes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1066 | [[:d:Q667540|Q667540]] | [[Threskiornis moluccus]] | Threskiornis molucca | 42 | | [[File:'Bin chicken' (Threskiornis molucca) in Belmore Park, Sydney.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Threskiornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1067 | [[:d:Q852874|Q852874]] | [[Ardea insignis]] | Ardea insignis | 42 | | [[File:White-Bellied Heron DSCN1518 06, crop.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1068 | [[:d:Q26064|Q26064]] | [[Chroicocephalus brunnicephalus]] | Chroicocephalus brunnicephalus | 42 | | [[File:Brown-headed Gull. in breeding plumage.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chroicocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1069 | [[:d:Q151851|Q151851]] | [[Oena capensis]] | Oena capensis | 42 | | [[File:Namaqua dove, Oena capensis, at Mapungubwe National Park, Limpopo, South Africa (18085767542).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Oena]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1070 | [[:d:Q755006|Q755006]] | [[Trigonoceps occipitalis]] | Trigonoceps occipitalis | 42 | | [[File:Day 12 White-headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis) (53439819016).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Trigonoceps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1071 | [[:d:Q28106764|Q28106764]] | [[Cinnamon Teal]] | Spatula cyanoptera | 42 | | [[File:Cinnamon teal (53706590927).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spatula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1072 | [[:d:Q28106789|Q28106789]] | [[Falcated Duck]] | Mareca falcata | 42 | | [[File:Anas falcata male.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mareca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1073 | [[:d:Q427512|Q427512]] | [[Thamnophilidae]] | Thamnophilidae | 42 | | [[File:Thamnophilidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1074 | [[:d:Q587527|Q587527]] | [[Vangidae]] | Vangidae | 42 | | [[File:Artamie.a.tete.blanche1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1075 | [[:d:Q752461|Q752461]] | [[Dendrocygna autumnalis]] | Dendrocygna autumnalis | 42 | | [[File:Black-bellied Whistling Duck, Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocygna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1076 | [[:d:Q839859|Q839859]] | [[Furnariidae]] | Furnariidae | 42 | | [[File:Furnariidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1077 | [[:d:Q1797393|Q1797393]] | [[Purple Sunbird]] | Cinnyris asiaticus | 42 | | [[File:Purple Sunbird Male, Bangalore, India.jpeg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cinnyris]]<br/>[[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1078 | [[:d:Q369767|Q369767]] | [[Bucephala islandica]] | Bucephala islandica | 42 | | [[File:Barrow's Goldeneye Drake Seedskadee NWR (16656643482).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucephala]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1079 | [[:d:Q644442|Q644442]] | [[Buphagus]] | Buphagus | 42 | | [[File:Red billed oxpecker close.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Buphagidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1080 | [[:d:Q638242|Q638242]] | [[Calyptorhynchus banksii]] | Calyptorhynchus banksii | 42 | | [[File:Calyptorhynchus banksii (pair)-8-2cp.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calyptorhynchus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1081 | [[:d:Q694756|Q694756]] | [[Cinnyricinclus leucogaster]] | Cinnyricinclus leucogaster | 42 | | [[File:Violet-backed starling (Cinnyricinclus leucogaster verreauxi) female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cinnyricinclus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1082 | [[:d:Q547159|Q547159]] | [[Emberiza bruniceps]] | Emberiza bruniceps | 42 | | [[File:Emberiza bruniceps -Tanbaly, Kazakhstan-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1083 | [[:d:Q648313|Q648313]] | [[Emberiza buchanani]] | Emberiza buchanani | 42 | | [[File:Grey-necked Bunting (Emberiza buchanani) (31793472228).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1084 | [[:d:Q843168|Q843168]] | [[Carpodacus]] | Carpodacus | 42 | | [[File:Carpodacus roseus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Carduelinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1085 | [[:d:Q246498|Q246498]] | [[Berenicornis comatus]] | Berenicornis comatus | 42 | | [[File:Bucerotidae - Berenicornis comatus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Berenicornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1086 | [[:d:Q795556|Q795556]] | [[Orthotomus sutorius]] | Orthotomus sutorius | 42 | | [[File:2005-tailor-bird.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Orthotomus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1087 | [[:d:Q685074|Q685074]] | [[Bucorvus leadbeateri]] | Bucorvus leadbeateri | 42 | | [[File:Bucorvus leadbeateri (Mfuwe).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bucorvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1088 | [[:d:Q852709|Q852709]] | [[Ara severus]] | Ara severus | 42 | | [[File:Ara severus - Guacamaya cariseca - Chestnut-Fronted Macaw (7503884654).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1089 | [[:d:Q163049|Q163049]] | [[Prunella montanella]] | Prunella montanella | 42 | | [[File:Prunella modularis montanella.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Prunella]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1090 | [[:d:Q682379|Q682379]] | [[Psittacula alexandri]] | Psittacula alexandri | 42 | | [[File:Betet biasa (Psittacula alexandri).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittacula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1091 | [[:d:Q319545|Q319545]] | [[Trichoglossus haematodus]] | Trichoglossus haematodus | 42 | | [[File:Coconut Lorikeets Trichoglossus haematodus, Variata National Park, Port Moresby, PNG (48743693166).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Trichoglossus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1092 | [[:d:Q835926|Q835926]] | [[Poicephalus senegalus]] | Poicephalus senegalus | 42 | | [[File:Mohrenkopfpapagei1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Poicephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1093 | [[:d:Q724987|Q724987]] | [[Myiopsitta monachus]] | Myiopsitta monachus | 42 | | [[File:Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) Buenos Aires.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Myiopsitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1094 | [[:d:Q756063|Q756063]] | [[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]] | Campephilus principalis | 42 | | [[File:Ivory-billed Woodpecker by Jerry A. Payne.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[Lazarus taxon]] | | [[Campephilus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1095 | [[:d:Q930712|Q930712]] | [[Dryocopus pileatus]] | Dryocopus pileatus | 42 | | [[File:Pileated Woodpecker (9597212081).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dryocopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1096 | [[:d:Q247472|Q247472]] | [[Corvus hawaiiensis]] | Corvus hawaiiensis | 42 | | [[File:Corvus hawaiiensis FWS.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1097 | [[:d:Q608313|Q608313]] | [[Phylloscopus humei]] | Phylloscopus humei | 42 | | [[File:Hume's Warbler I2 IMG 3401.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phylloscopus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1098 | [[:d:Q325356|Q325356]] | [[Paradisaea apoda]] | Paradisaea apoda | 42 | | [[File:Paradisaea apoda -Bali Bird Park-5.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Paradisaea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1099 | [[:d:Q731085|Q731085]] | [[Lanius nubicus]] | Lanius nubicus | 42 | | [[File:Lanius nubicus (unmirrored).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lanius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1100 | [[:d:Q201461|Q201461]] | [[Corvus dauuricus]] | Corvus dauuricus | 42 | | [[File:Dwlhany.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coloeus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1101 | [[:d:Q133565|Q133565]] | [[Cyanistes]] | Cyanistes | 42 | | [[File:Blue Tit aka.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Paridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1102 | [[:d:Q1591663|Q1591663]] | [[Turdus obscurus]] | Turdus obscurus | 42 | | [[File:Eyebrowed Thrush.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1103 | [[:d:Q574281|Q574281]] | [[Poecile lugubris]] | Poecile lugubris | 42 | | [[File:Poecile lugubris, Bulgaria 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Poecile]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1104 | [[:d:Q331065|Q331065]] | [[Taeniopygia guttata]] | Taeniopygia guttata | 42 | | [[File:2014-08-19 Zebra Finch, Sumba, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]]<br/>[[organismo modelo]] | | [[Taeniopygia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1105 | [[:d:Q695723|Q695723]] | [[Zoothera dauma]] | Zoothera dauma | 42 | | [[File:Scaly Thrush at Godwari, Kathmandu.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zoothera]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1106 | [[:d:Q110257507|Q110257507]] | [[Curruca melanocephala]] | Curruca melanocephala | 42 | | [[File:Sardinian Warbler.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Curruca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1107 | [[:d:Q110257508|Q110257508]] | [[Curruca cantillans]] | Curruca cantillans | 42 | | [[File:Κοκκινοτσιροβάκος.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Curruca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1108 | [[:d:Q728995|Q728995]] | [[Lyrurus]] | Lyrurus | 41 | | [[File:Black Grouse Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phasianidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1109 | [[:d:Q390270|Q390270]] | [[Acryllium vulturinum]] | Acryllium vulturinum | 41 | | [[File:Acryllium vulturinum -Tsavo East National Park, Kenya-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acryllium]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1110 | [[:d:Q661898|Q661898]] | [[Heliornithidae]] | Heliornithidae | 41 | | [[File:Masked Finfoot.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gruiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1111 | [[:d:Q748145|Q748145]] | [[Thinocoridae]] | Thinocoridae | 41 | | [[File:Thinocorus rumicivorus 3.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Charadriiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1112 | [[:d:Q202423|Q202423]] | [[Alectoris barbara]] | Alectoris barbara | 41 | | [[File:Alectoris barbara Tenerife.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alectoris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1113 | [[:d:Q748957|Q748957]] | [[Polyplectron bicalcaratum]] | Polyplectron bicalcaratum | 41 | | [[File:Grey Peacock-pheasant - Kang-Kra Khan, Thailand H8O5535 (15362061647).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Polyplectron]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1114 | [[:d:Q776739|Q776739]] | [[Ardeola]] | Ardeola | 41 | | [[File:Pond-Heron-Ardeola-grayii.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hairon|Ardeidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1115 | [[:d:Q835119|Q835119]] | [[Pluvianus aegyptius]] | Pluvianus aegyptius | 41 | | [[File:Flickr - Rainbirder - Egyptian Plover (Pluvianus aegyptius).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pluvianus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1116 | [[:d:Q902912|Q902912]] | [[Spheniscus]] | Spheniscus | 41 | | [[File:African.penguin.bristol.750pix (Pingstone).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spheniscidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1117 | [[:d:Q498228|Q498228]] | [[Butorides virescens]] | Butorides virescens | 41 | | [[File:Butorides virescens2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Butorides]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1118 | [[:d:Q248740|Q248740]] | [[Gygis alba]] | Gygis alba | 41 | | [[File:Gygis alba Ascension Island 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gygis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1119 | [[:d:Q686287|Q686287]] | [[Ardeotis kori]] | Ardeotis kori | 41 | | [[File:Avutarda kori (Ardeotis kori), zona de conservación de Ngorongoro, Tanzania, 2024-05-27, DD 38.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardeotis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1120 | [[:d:Q1262382|Q1262382]] | [[Chlamydotis macqueenii]] | Chlamydotis macqueenii | 41 | | [[File:MacQueens Bustard in Greater Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, India.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chlamydotis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1121 | [[:d:Q679154|Q679154]] | [[Aechmophorus occidentalis]] | Aechmophorus occidentalis | 41 | | [[File:Western Grebe swimming.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aechmophorus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1122 | [[:d:Q218549|Q218549]] | [[Syrigma sibilatrix]] | Syrigma sibilatrix | 41 | | [[File:Syrigma sibilatrix -Punta del Este, Uruguay-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Syrigma]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1123 | [[:d:Q657775|Q657775]] | [[Centropus]] | Centropus | 41 | | [[File:Greater Coucal Hong Kong.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Centropodinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1124 | [[:d:Q940115|Q940115]] | [[Accipitrinae]] | Accipitrinae | 41 | | [[File:Northern Goshawk ad M2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Accipitridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1125 | [[:d:Q616393|Q616393]] | [[Strix leptogrammica]] | Strix leptogrammica | 41 | | [[File:Brown Wood Owl (14157347364).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1126 | [[:d:Q1137288|Q1137288]] | [[Bubo blakistoni]] | Bubo blakistoni | 41 | | [[File:Blakiston`s fish owl1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bubo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1127 | [[:d:Q1262700|Q1262700]] | [[Thalassarche cauta]] | Thalassarche cauta | 41 | | [[File:070226 Shy mollymawk off Kaikoura 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Thalassarche]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1128 | [[:d:Q911449|Q911449]] | [[Ardea cocoi]] | Ardea cocoi | 41 | | [[File:Ardea cocoi -Apure State, Venezuela-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1129 | [[:d:Q782038|Q782038]] | [[Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae]] | Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae | 41 | | [[File:Larus novaehollandiae - Austin's Ferry.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chroicocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1130 | [[:d:Q600319|Q600319]] | [[Phoebastria nigripes]] | Phoebastria nigripes | 41 | | [[File:Black footed albatross1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoebastria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1131 | [[:d:Q934841|Q934841]] | [[Phoebastria immutabilis]] | Phoebastria immutabilis | 41 | | [[File:Laysan Albatross RWD2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoebastria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1132 | [[:d:Q634804|Q634804]] | [[Geococcyx californianus]] | Geococcyx californianus | 41 | | [[File:2025-02-02 01 Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) - AZ USA.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Geococcyx]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1133 | [[:d:Q792890|Q792890]] | [[Treron bicinctus]] | Treron bicinctus | 41 | | [[File:Treron bicincta -Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka -pair-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Treron]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1134 | [[:d:Q844776|Q844776]] | [[Phoebetria palpebrata]] | Phoebetria palpebrata | 41 | | [[File:Light sooty albatross flying.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phoebetria]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1135 | [[:d:Q166442|Q166442]] | [[Pagodroma nivea]] | Pagodroma nivea | 41 | | [[File:Pétrel des neiges - Snow Petrel.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pagodroma]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1136 | [[:d:Q338601|Q338601]] | [[Ciconia maguari]] | Ciconia maguari | 41 | | [[File:Ciconia maguari 3.jpeg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1137 | [[:d:Q535436|Q535436]] | [[Ciconia stormi]] | Ciconia stormi | 41 | | [[File:Stavenn Ciconia stormii 00.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ciconia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1138 | [[:d:Q826525|Q826525]] | [[Gyps coprotheres]] | Gyps coprotheres | 41 | | [[File:Gyps coprotheres -St Augustine Alligator Farm, St. Augustine, Florida-8a-3c.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Gyps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1139 | [[:d:Q900773|Q900773]] | [[Circus melanoleucos]] | Circus melanoleucos | 41 | | [[File:Circus melanoleucos from iNaturalist photo 104706101 (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Circus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1140 | [[:d:Q605350|Q605350]] | [[Aviceda leuphotes]] | Aviceda leuphotes | 41 | | [[File:Black Baza.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aviceda]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1141 | [[:d:Q1262185|Q1262185]] | [[Nisaetus nipalensis]] | Nisaetus nipalensis | 41 | | [[File:Hawkeagle.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nisaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1142 | [[:d:Q742698|Q742698]] | [[Parabuteo unicinctus]] | Parabuteo unicinctus | 41 | | [[File:Harris's Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) 3 of 4 in set.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Parabuteo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1143 | [[:d:Q390189|Q390189]] | [[Rhinocryptidae]] | Rhinocryptidae | 41 | | [[File:Rhinocryptidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1144 | [[:d:Q378192|Q378192]] | [[Dendrocygna arborea]] | Dendrocygna arborea | 41 | | [[File:West Indian Whistling Duck, Bayahibe, Dominican Republic 2017-12-10.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dendrocygna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1145 | [[:d:Q855761|Q855761]] | [[Promeropidae]] | Promeropidae | 41 | | [[File:Cape Sugarbird (Promerops cafer).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon monotypic]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1146 | [[:d:Q2527969|Q2527969]] | [[Lybiidae]] | Lybiidae | 41 | | [[File:Beardedbarbet.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Piciformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1147 | [[:d:Q738666|Q738666]] | [[Falco chicquera]] | Falco chicquera | 41 | | [[File:Red-Necked Falcon.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1148 | [[:d:Q914045|Q914045]] | [[Merganetta armata]] | Merganetta armata | 41 | | [[File:Merganetta armata - Rio Urumamba, Peru -pair-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Merganetta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1149 | [[:d:Q742468|Q742468]] | [[Melanitta perspicillata]] | Melanitta perspicillata | 41 | | [[File:Melanitta perspicillata female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Melanitta]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1150 | [[:d:Q129036|Q129036]] | [[Chloephaga picta]] | Chloephaga picta | 41 | | [[File:Chloephaga picta.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chloephaga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1151 | [[:d:Q226900|Q226900]] | [[Zosterops]] | Zosterops | 41 | | [[File:Japanese white-eye at Tennōji Park in Osaka, January 2016 II.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zosteropidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1152 | [[:d:Q832245|Q832245]] | [[Hippolais]] | Hippolais | 41 | | [[File:Hippolais icterina1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Acrocephalidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1153 | [[:d:Q795545|Q795545]] | [[Zosterops palpebrosus]] | Zosterops palpebrosus | 41 | | [[File:Oriental White Eyes.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zosterops]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1154 | [[:d:Q629176|Q629176]] | [[Cacatua ophthalmica]] | Cacatua ophthalmica | 41 | | [[File:Cacatua ophthalmica -Vogelpark Walsrode-6b-3c.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1155 | [[:d:Q748939|Q748939]] | [[Cacatua sanguinea]] | Cacatua sanguinea | 41 | | [[File:Little corella (Cacatua sanguinea gymnopis) Blanchetown.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1156 | [[:d:Q753743|Q753743]] | [[Cacatua ducorpsii]] | Cacatua ducorpsii | 41 | | [[File:Salomonenkakadus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cacatua]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1157 | [[:d:Q768526|Q768526]] | [[Tyranni]] | Tyranni | 41 | | [[File:Scissortailedfly700.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eupasseres]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1158 | [[:d:Q28108429|Q28108429]] | [[Zanda latirostris]] | Zanda latirostris | 41 | | [[File:Carnaby's Black Cockatoo 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zanda]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1159 | [[:d:Q44023|Q44023]] | [[Coracias caudatus]] | Coracias caudatus | 41 | | [[File:005 Lilac-breasted roller in flight in Etosha National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coracias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1160 | [[:d:Q833979|Q833979]] | [[Merops ornatus]] | Merops ornatus | 41 | | [[File:Merops ornatus - Centenary Lakes.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Merops]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1161 | [[:d:Q635333|Q635333]] | [[Anodorhynchus]] | Anodorhynchus | 41 | | [[File:Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus-1cp.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Arinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1162 | [[:d:Q836833|Q836833]] | [[Sturnus unicolor]] | Sturnus unicolor | 41 | | [[File:Sturnus unicolor by John Gould.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sturnus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1163 | [[:d:Q752539|Q752539]] | [[Hippolais polyglotta]] | Hippolais polyglotta | 41 | | [[File:Hippolais polyglotta MHNT ZOO 2010 11 201 Ouarsenis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hippolais]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1164 | [[:d:Q14753772|Q14753772]] | [[Eastern Olivaceous Warbler]] | Iduna pallida | 41 | | [[File:Ak mukallit - Iduna pallida - Eastern Olivaceous Warbler, Adana, Turkey 04.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Iduna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1165 | [[:d:Q1319774|Q1319774]] | [[Ploceus philippinus]] | Ploceus philippinus | 41 | | [[File:Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN0233 (17).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ploceus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1166 | [[:d:Q846974|Q846974]] | [[Ara ambiguus]] | Ara ambiguus | 41 | | [[File:Ara ambigua.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1167 | [[:d:Q226043|Q226043]] | [[Rhinoplax vigil]] | Rhinoplax vigil | 41 | | [[File:Buceros-vigil-bvk.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rhinoplax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1168 | [[:d:Q178434|Q178434]] | [[Dinopium benghalense]] | Dinopium benghalense | 41 | | [[File:Black-rumped Flameback in Rabindra Sarobar January 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Dinopium]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1169 | [[:d:Q727891|Q727891]] | [[Hypocolius ampelinus]] | Hypocolius ampelinus | 41 | | [[File:Hypocolius ampelinus pair-cropped.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Hypocolius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1170 | [[:d:Q32048|Q32048]] | [[Alcedo meninting]] | Alcedo meninting | 41 | | [[File:Blue-eared Kingfisher (Alcedo meninting) (8071061758).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alcedo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1171 | [[:d:Q225039|Q225039]] | [[Aratinga solstitialis]] | Aratinga solstitialis | 41 | | [[File:Aratinga solstitialis -captive-two-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aratinga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1172 | [[:d:Q629204|Q629204]] | [[Conuropsis carolinensis]] | Conuropsis carolinensis | 41 | | [[File:Karolinasittich 01.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon fossile]] | | [[Conuropsis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1173 | [[:d:Q181561|Q181561]] | [[Corvus crassirostris]] | Corvus crassirostris | 41 | | [[File:Krkavec tlustozobý.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | [[raven]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 1174 | [[:d:Q795542|Q795542]] | [[Paradisaea rubra]] | Paradisaea rubra | 41 | | [[File:Paradisaea rubra-20090516.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Paradisaea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1175 | [[:d:Q1052008|Q1052008]] | [[Ceyx erithaca]] | Ceyx erithaca | 41 | | [[File:Three-toed kingfisher.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ceyx]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1176 | [[:d:Q1144421|Q1144421]] | [[Pica nuttalli]] | Pica nuttallii | 41 | | [[File:Pica nuttalli 08036.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Pica]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 1177 | [[:d:Q27075424|Q27075424]] | [[Alaudala rufescens]] | Alaudala rufescens | 41 | | [[File:Lesser Short-toed Lark Alaudala rufescens polatzeki, Fuerteventura.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alaudala]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1178 | [[:d:Q1049056|Q1049056]] | [[Halcyon pileata]] | Halcyon pileata | 41 | | [[File:Halcyon pileata - Phra Non.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Halcyon]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1179 | [[:d:Q282943|Q282943]] | [[Psarisomus dalhousiae]] | Psarisomus dalhousiae | 41 | | [[File:Psarisomus dalhousiae - Ian Dugdale - 546696102 (cropped).jpeg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psarisomus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1180 | [[:d:Q525871|Q525871]] | [[Alauda gulgula]] | Alauda gulgula | 41 | | [[File:Oriental Lark (49172375968).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alauda]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1181 | [[:d:Q1142785|Q1142785]] | [[Nucifraga columbiana]] | Nucifraga columbiana | 41 | | [[File:Clarks Nutcraker Crater Lake Nick Myatt 08 (4458470688).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nucifraga]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1182 | [[:d:Q728092|Q728092]] | [[Agapornis nigrigenis]] | Agapornis nigrigenis | 41 | | [[File:Agapornis nigrigenis -London Zoo-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Agapornis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1183 | [[:d:Q490393|Q490393]] | [[Rupicola peruviana]] | Rupicola peruvianus | 41 | | [[File:P1010107mod.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rupicola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1184 | [[:d:Q80780|Q80780]] | [[Turdus atrogularis]] | Turdus atrogularis | 41 | | [[File:A dark-throated Thrush female - Dhanachuli, Uttarakhand India.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1185 | [[:d:Q557745|Q557745]] | [[Irania gutturalis]] | Irania gutturalis | 41 | | [[File:Berkute (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Irania]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1186 | [[:d:Q110257494|Q110257494]] | [[Curruca nana]] | Curruca nana | 41 | | [[File:Curruca nana - Kudaibergen Amirekul - 562372019.jpeg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Curruca]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1187 | [[:d:Q829683|Q829683]] | [[Mimus polyglottos]] | Mimus polyglottos | 41 | | [[File:Mockingbird in Bay Ridge (85082).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mimus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1188 | [[:d:Q901708|Q901708]] | [[Passer luteus]] | Passer luteus | 41 | | [[File:Passer luteus 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passer]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1189 | [[:d:Q569957|Q569957]] | [[Lophophorus]] | Lophophorus | 40 | | [[File:Lophophorus impejanus (Jardin Acclimatation).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Phasianinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1190 | [[:d:Q632066|Q632066]] | [[Alectura lathami]] | Alectura lathami | 40 | | [[File:Australian Brushturkey 2 - Newington.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Alectura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1191 | [[:d:Q835525|Q835525]] | [[Porzana]] | Porzana | 40 | | [[File:Porzana porzana 3 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rallidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1192 | [[:d:Q147907|Q147907]] | [[Eurypygiformes]] | Eurypygiformes | 40 | | [[File:Eurypyga heliasPCCA20051227-2000B.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eurypygimorphae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1193 | [[:d:Q385891|Q385891]] | [[Catreus wallichii]] | Catreus wallichii | 40 | | [[File:Cheer Pheasant.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Catreus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1194 | [[:d:Q516662|Q516662]] | [[Rynchops niger]] | Rynchops niger | 40 | | [[File:Black Skimmer Close Flying.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Rynchops]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1195 | [[:d:Q839820|Q839820]] | [[Calidris himantopus]] | Calidris himantopus | 40 | | [[File:Stilt Sandpiper (29065008787).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Calidris]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1196 | [[:d:Q1262057|Q1262057]] | [[Turnix suscitator]] | Turnix suscitator | 40 | | [[File:Barred Buttonquail in Bhigwan August 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 02.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turnix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1197 | [[:d:Q575699|Q575699]] | [[Tachybaptus rufolavatus]] | Tachybaptus rufolavatus | 40 | | [[File:Tachybaptus rufolavatus - Zürich Zoo.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon fossile]] | | [[Tachybaptus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1198 | [[:d:Q932119|Q932119]] | [[Columba eversmanni]] | Columba eversmanni | 40 | | [[File:Yellow-eyed Pigeon.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Columba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1199 | [[:d:Q1452250|Q1452250]] | [[Geococcyx]] | Geococcyx | 40 | | [[File:Geococcyx californianus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Neomorphinae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1200 | [[:d:Q953999|Q953999]] | [[Larus californicus]] | Larus californicus | 40 | | [[File:Adult California Gull at Stinson Beach-4211.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1201 | [[:d:Q1127687|Q1127687]] | [[Larus dominicanus]] | Larus dominicanus | 40 | | [[File:Larus dominicanus -Kenton-on-Sea, Eastern Cape, South Africa-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1202 | [[:d:Q495144|Q495144]] | [[Cuculus poliocephalus]] | Cuculus poliocephalus | 40 | | [[File:Cuculus poliocephalus.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Cuculus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1203 | [[:d:Q732753|Q732753]] | [[Anhima cornuta]] | Anhima cornuta | 40 | | [[File:Anhima cornuta (Vincent Vos).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anhima]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1204 | [[:d:Q839862|Q839862]] | [[Larosterna inca]] | Larosterna inca | 40 | | [[File:Larosterna inca -Lima, Peru -adult-8 (1).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Larosterna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1205 | [[:d:Q1047787|Q1047787]] | [[Vanellus cinereus]] | Vanellus cinereus | 40 | | [[File:Vanellus cinereus.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Vanellus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1206 | [[:d:Q809610|Q809610]] | [[Houbaropsis bengalensis]] | Houbaropsis bengalensis | 40 | | [[File:BengalFlorican.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Houbaropsis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1207 | [[:d:Q528572|Q528572]] | [[Pezophaps solitaria]] | Pezophaps solitaria | 40 | | [[File:Leguat1891solitaire.jpg|center|48px]] | [[extinct taxon]] | | [[Pezophaps]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1208 | [[:d:Q117254648|Q117254648]] | [[Nannopterum auritum]] | Nannopterum auritum | 40 | | [[File:Cormorant (49606669982).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nannopterum]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1209 | [[:d:Q931759|Q931759]] | [[Giant Ibis]] | Thaumatibis gigantea | 40 | | [[File:ThaumantibisGiganteaGronvold.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Thaumatibis]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1210 | [[:d:Q204179|Q204179]] | [[domesticated pigeon]] | Columba livia f. domestica | 40 | | [[File:Feral pigeon (Columba livia domestica), 2017-05-27.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | [[domesticated bird]] | [[Columba livia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1211 | [[:d:Q301777|Q301777]] | [[Bostrychia hagedash]] | Bostrychia hagedash | 40 | | [[File:Hadeda Ibis Portrait.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bostrychia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1212 | [[:d:Q630457|Q630457]] | [[Strix varia]] | Strix varia | 40 | | [[File:Strix-varia-005.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Strix]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1213 | [[:d:Q817172|Q817172]] | [[Indian Eagle-Owl]] | Bubo bengalensis | 40 | | [[File:Rock eagle owl DSC 7104.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bubo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1214 | [[:d:Q932473|Q932473]] | [[Bubo coromandus]] | Bubo coromandus | 40 | | [[File:Dusky Eagle Owl 2019.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Bubo]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1215 | [[:d:Q786350|Q786350]] | [[Thalassarche chrysostoma]] | Thalassarche chrysostoma | 40 | | [[File:Greyhead.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Thalassarche]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1216 | [[:d:Q372383|Q372383]] | [[Nycticorax caledonicus]] | Nycticorax caledonicus | 40 | | [[File:Nankeen (Rufous) Night Heron (23333548021).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nycticorax]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1217 | [[:d:Q728881|Q728881]] | [[Anastomus]] | Anastomus | 40 | | [[File:Asian Openbill (Anastomus oscitans) in Kolkata I IMG 0495.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Mycteriini]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1218 | [[:d:Q888547|Q888547]] | [[Ixobrychus eurhythmus]] | Ixobrychus eurhythmus | 40 | | [[File:Schrenk's Bittern fem - Kang Kra Chan - Thailand S4E4834 (14235609026).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Botaurus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1219 | [[:d:Q373554|Q373554]] | [[Ardea humbloti]] | Ardea humbloti | 40 | | [[File:Ardea humbloti.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1220 | [[:d:Q629525|Q629525]] | [[Chroicocephalus philadelphia]] | Chroicocephalus philadelphia | 40 | | [[File:Bonaparte's Gull Biloxi RWD2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Chroicocephalus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1221 | [[:d:Q838607|Q838607]] | [[Fratercula cirrhata]] | Fratercula cirrhata | 40 | | [[File:Tufted Puffin Alaska (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Fratercula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1222 | [[:d:Q512566|Q512566]] | [[Treron calvus]] | Treron calvus | 40 | | [[File:African Green Pigeon (Treron calvus) (11423539903) (cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Treron]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1223 | [[:d:Q27074605|Q27074605]] | [[Short-tailed Shearwater]] | Ardenna tenuirostris | 40 | | [[File:Puffinus tenuirostris 2.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardenna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1224 | [[:d:Q27074609|Q27074609]] | [[Ardenna gravis]] | Ardenna gravis | 40 | | [[File:131 - GREAT SHEARWATER (9-15-2918) MAS pelagic trip, out of bar harbor, me -37 (42977042330).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Ardenna]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1225 | [[:d:Q883092|Q883092]] | [[Halobaena caerulea]] | Halobaena caerulea | 40 | | [[File:Halobaena caerulea in flight - SE Tasmania.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Halobaena]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1226 | [[:d:Q288485|Q288485]] | [[Geopelia striata]] | Geopelia striata | 40 | | [[File:Geopelia striata 1 crop - Chinese Garden.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Geopelia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1227 | [[:d:Q27074633|Q27074633]] | [[Grey-headed Fish Eagle]] | Haliaeetus ichthyaetus | 40 | | [[File:Grey-headed Fish Eagle (5484754969).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Haliaeetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1228 | [[:d:Q594328|Q594328]] | [[Elanus axillaris]] | Elanus axillaris | 40 | | [[File:Elanus axillaris -Royal Botanic Gardens, Cranbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Elanus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1229 | [[:d:Q116670|Q116670]] | [[Nisaetus cirrhatus]] | Nisaetus cirrhatus | 40 | | [[File:Changeable Hawk eagle - Crested Hawk-Eagle - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nisaetus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1230 | [[:d:Q681374|Q681374]] | [[Monarchidae]] | Monarchidae | 40 | | [[File:Asian Paradise Flycatcher- Male at Himachal I2 IMG 2939.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1231 | [[:d:Q748220|Q748220]] | [[Vireonidae]] | Vireonidae | 40 | | [[File:Vireonidae diversity.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1232 | [[:d:Q809613|Q809613]] | [[Capitonidae]] | Capitonidae | 40 | | [[File:Eubucco bourcierii.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Piciformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1233 | [[:d:Q835712|Q835712]] | [[Callaeatidae]] | Callaeidae | 40 | | [[File:Huia Buller.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Passeriformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1234 | [[:d:Q935463|Q935463]] | [[Megalaimidae]] | Megalaimidae | 40 | | [[File:Megalarima lineate.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Piciformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1235 | [[:d:Q747827|Q747827]] | [[Aquila verreauxii]] | Aquila verreauxii | 40 | | [[File:Flickr - Rainbirder - Verreaux's Eagle pair.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aquila]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1236 | [[:d:Q748290|Q748290]] | [[Falco pelegrinoides]] | Falco pelegrinoides | 40 | | [[File:Wüstenfalke.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Falco]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1237 | [[:d:Q378533|Q378533]] | [[Aythya valisineria]] | Aythya valisineria | 40 | | [[File:Aythya valisineria at Las Gallinas Wildlife Ponds.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1238 | [[:d:Q692192|Q692192]] | [[Aythya americana]] | Aythya americana | 40 | | [[File:Aythya americana f Ontario.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Aythya]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1239 | [[:d:Q539783|Q539783]] | [[Brachypteraciidae]] | Brachypteraciidae | 40 | | [[File:Rollier Terrestre à courte queue.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coraciiformes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1240 | [[:d:Q508474|Q508474]] | [[Nestor]] | Nestor | 40 | | [[File:Nestor meridionalis.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Nestoridae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1241 | [[:d:Q929726|Q929726]] | [[Ramphastos]] | Ramphastos | 40 | | [[File:Ramphastos toco -Kobe Kachoen -Japan-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tucano|Ramphastidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1242 | [[:d:Q757013|Q757013]] | [[Menura novaehollandiae]] | Menura novaehollandiae | 40 | | [[File:Superb lyrbird in scrub.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Menura]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1243 | [[:d:Q28107872|Q28107872]] | [[Zanda funerea]] | Zanda funerea | 40 | | [[File:Calyptorhynchus funereus (male) -Wamboin-8.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Zanda]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1244 | [[:d:Q961342|Q961342]] | [[Coracias abyssinicus]] | Coracias abyssinicus | 40 | | [[File:Coracias abyssinica - Carlos Vermeersch Santana.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Coracias]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1245 | [[:d:Q837753|Q837753]] | [[Emberiza caesia]] | Emberiza caesia | 40 | | [[File:Emberiza caesia Naumann.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Emberiza]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1246 | [[:d:Q754511|Q754511]] | [[Tockus leucomelas]] | Tockus leucomelas | 40 | | [[File:Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill, Tockus leucomelas at Mapungubwe National Park, Limpopo, South Africa (18305273221).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Tockus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1247 | [[:d:Q852731|Q852731]] | [[Furnarius rufus]] | Furnarius rufus | 40 | | [[File:Flickr - Dario Sanches - JOÃO-DE-BARRO (Furnarius rufus) (3).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Furnarius]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1248 | [[:d:Q775300|Q775300]] | [[Guaruba guarouba]] | Guaruba guarouba | 40 | | [[File:Guaruba guarouba -Gramado Zoo, Brazil-8a.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Guaruba]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1249 | [[:d:Q44109|Q44109]] | [[Eurystomus orientalis]] | Eurystomus orientalis | 40 | | [[File:Dollarbird Samcem Dec02.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Eurystomus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1250 | [[:d:Q1076571|Q1076571]] | [[Brahminy Starling]] | Sturnia pagodarum | 40 | | [[File:Brahminy starling (Sturnia pagodarum) female.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sturnia]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1251 | [[:d:Q646994|Q646994]] | [[Ara tricolor]] | Ara tricolor | 40 | | [[File:A. tricolor.jpg|center|48px]] | [[extinct taxon]] | | [[Ara]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1252 | [[:d:Q27075861|Q27075861]] | [[American Goldfinch]] | Spinus tristis | 40 | | [[File:Carduelis-tristis-002.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Spinus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1253 | [[:d:Q858577|Q858577]] | [[Sitta]] | Sitta | 40 | | [[File:Sitta europaea wildlife 2 1.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Sittidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1254 | [[:d:Q913813|Q913813]] | [[Psittacula cyanocephala]] | Psittacula cyanocephala | 40 | | [[File:A Female Plum Headed Parakeet (50263113627).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Psittacula]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1255 | [[:d:Q838955|Q838955]] | [[Anodorhynchus leari]] | Anodorhynchus leari | 40 | | [[File:Anodorhynchus leari (3 cropped).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Anodorhynchus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1256 | [[:d:Q833811|Q833811]] | [[Malaconotidae]] | Malaconotidae | 40 | | [[File:Black-headed Gonolek Laniarius erythrogaster National Aviary 1200px.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Malaconotoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1257 | [[:d:Q334206|Q334206]] | [[Corvus moneduloides]] | Corvus moneduloides | 40 | | [[File:CorvusMoneduloidesKeulemans.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Corvus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1258 | [[:d:Q578174|Q578174]] | [[Melanerpes erythrocephalus]] | Melanerpes erythrocephalus | 40 | | [[File:Melanerpes erythrocephalus -tree trunk-USA.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Melanerpes]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1259 | [[:d:Q749577|Q749577]] | [[Paradisaea raggiana]] | Paradisaea raggiana | 40 | | [[File:Raggiana Bird-of-Paradise wild 5.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Paradisaea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1260 | [[:d:Q94533|Q94533]] | [[Urocissa caerulea]] | Urocissa caerulea | 40 | | [[File:Taiwan blue magpie (Urocissa caerulea) Xindian.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Urocissa]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 1261 | [[:d:Q766306|Q766306]] | [[Urocissa erythroryncha]] | Urocissa erythroryncha | 40 | | [[File:Urocissa erythrorhyncha.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Urocissa]] | [[magpie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 1262 | [[:d:Q829925|Q829925]] | [[Petroicidae]] | Petroicidae | 40 | | [[File:Eastern yellow robin (Victoria, Australia 2008).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Petroicoidea]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1263 | [[:d:Q852860|Q852860]] | [[Lonchura]] | Lonchura | 40 | | [[File:Black-and-white Mannikin (Lonchura bicolor).jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Estrildidae]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1264 | [[:d:Q125142|Q125142]] | [[Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae]] | Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae | 40 | | [[File:Tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) Tiritiri Matangi.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Prosthemadera]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1265 | [[:d:Q843175|Q843175]] | [[Turdus naumanni]] | Turdus naumanni | 40 | | [[File:Turdus naumanni naumanni.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Turdus]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1266 | [[:d:Q1589281|Q1589281]] | [[Saxicola maurus]] | Saxicola maurus | 40 | | [[File:Siberian Stonechat (Saxicola maura)- Male at Bharatpur I IMG 5768.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Saxicola]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1267 | [[:d:Q574447|Q574447]] | [[Poecile cinctus]] | Poecile cinctus | 40 | | [[File:Siberian Tit Parus Cinctus 2006 03 07.JPG|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Poecile]] | |- | style='text-align:right'| 1268 | [[:d:Q478632|Q478632]] | [[Lonchura malacca]] | Lonchura malacca | 40 | | [[File:Black-headed Munia I IMG 7747.jpg|center|48px]] | [[taxon]] | | [[Lonchura]] | |} ---- &sum; 1268 items. {{Wikidata list end}} 46yiwo8qd1hpzgc70psg964trmy6iz1 0 39412 699712 633464 2026-09-08T06:02:51Z Tortoise0308 17411 ligar pais de nascentiaa e decesso; esseva ([[WP:MS]]); ligar nationalitate; Ligamies externe: ligamine al sito Nobel; commonscat. 699712 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo/persona}} '''Toni Morrison''' (Lorain, [[Ohio]], [[Statos Unite de America|SUA]] le {{data|18|2|1931}}&nbsp;– [[New York (citate)|Nove York]], [[New York (stato)|Nove York]], SUA le {{data|5|8|2019}}) esseva un [[scriptor]] [[Statos Unite de America|statounitese]] e un premiato del [[Premio Nobel pro Litteratura]] ([[1993]]). == Ligamines externe == {{commonscat|Toni Morrison}} * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1993/morrison/facts/ Toni Morrison] al sito official del Premio Nobel. {{DEFAULTSORT:Morrison, Toni}} [[Categoria:Gente african-statounitese]] [[Categoria:Laureatos del Premio Nobel pro Litteratura]] nd1goileksj3a932fschbqsozkbyfh2 102 39418 699716 678716 2026-09-08T07:17:10Z Tortoise0308 17411 actualisar 2025. 699716 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !Anno !Persona o Organization !Notitias |- | rowspan=2 |1901 |[[Jean Henri Dunant]] (Switza) |[[Cruce Rubie]] e [[Convention de Geneva]]. |- | [[Frédéric Passy]] (Francia) |Arbitration inter nationes |- | 1902 | [[Élie Ducommun]] (Switza) e [[Charles Albert Gobat]] | |- |1903 |[[Randal Cremer|Sir William Randal Cremer]] (Regno Unite) | |- | 1904 |Instituto de justitia international (Gent, Belgica) | |- | 1905 | [[Bertha Sophie Felicitas Baronin von Suttner]] (Austria-Hungaria) | |- | 1906 |[[Theodore Roosevelt]] (USA) |Initiator del pace post le [[Guerra Russo-Japanese]]. |- | rowspan=2 | 1907 | [[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]] (Italia) | |- | [[Louis Renault]] (France) |Professor de justitia international |- | rowspan=2 | 1908 | [[Klas Pontus Arnoldson]] (Svedia) |Association svedese pro Pace e Arbitration |- | [[Fredrik Bajer]] (Danmark) | |- | rowspan=2 | 1909 | [[Auguste Marie Francois Beernaert]] (Belgica) | |- | [[Paul-Henri-Benjamin d'Estournelles de Constant]] (Francia) | |- | 1910 |Bureau International Permanente del Pace | |- | rowspan=2 | 1911 | [[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] (Nederlandia) | |- | [[Alfred Hermann Fried]] (Austria-Hungaria) |Fundator del organisation ”Rende le Armas” [Die Waffen Nieder]. |- | 1912 | [[Elihu Root]] (SUA) | |- | 1913 | [[Henri la Fontaine]] (Belgica) | |- | 1914 | Inhibite a causa del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1915 | Inhibite a causa del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1916 | Inhibite a causa del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1917 |[[Cruce Rubie]], Geneva. | |- | 1918 | Inhibite a causa del [[Prime Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1919 |[[Woodrow Wilson]] (SUA) | Pro le fundation del [[Societate del Nationes]] |- | 1920 |[[Leon Victor Auguste Bourgeois|Léon Victor Auguste Bourgeois]] (Francia) |Presidente del consilio del [[Societate del Nationes]]. |- | rowspan=2 | 1921 |[[Hjalmar Branting]] (Sweden) |Prime ministro de Svedia, delegato svedese del [[Societate del Nationes]] |- | [[Christian Lous Lange]] (Norvega) | |- | 1922 |[[Fridtjof Nansen]] (Norvega) |Delegato norvegian del [[Societate del Nationes]] , fundator del Passaporto Nansen pro refigiatos |- | 1923 | Inhibite | |- | 1924 | Inhibite | |- | rowspan=2 | 1925 |Sir [[Austen Chamberlain]] (Regno Unite) | |- | [[Charles Gates Dawes]] (SUA) | |- | rowspan=2 | 1926 |[[Aristide Briand]] (Francia) | |- | [[Gustav Stresemann]] (Germania) | |- | rowspan=2 | 1927 |[[Ferdinand Buisson]] (Francia) |Fundator e presidente del [[Societate pro Derectos Human]] |- | [[Ludwig Quidde]] (Germania) | |- | 1928 |Inhibite | |- | 1929 |[[Frank B. Kellogg]] (USA) |Pacto Kellogg-Briand |- | 1930 |Archiepiscopo svedese [[Nathan Söderblom|Lars Olof Nathan (Jonathan) Söderblom]] |Dirigente del movimento ecumenic. |- | rowspan=2 | 1931 |[[Jane Addams]] (SUA) | |- | [[Nicholas Murray Butler]] (SUA) | |- | 1932 |Inhibite | |- | 1933 |[[Norman Angell|Sir Norman Angell (Ralph Lane)]] (Regno Unite) | |- | 1934 |[[Arthur Henderson]] (Regno Unite) |Conferentia de disarmamento |- | 1935 |[[Carl von Ossietzky]] (Germania) |Pacifista |- | 1936 |[[Carlos Saavedra Lamas]] (Argentina) |Arbitrator inter [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]] |- | 1937 |[[Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood|The Viscount Cecil of Chelwood]] |founder and president of the [[International Peace Campaign]]. |- | 1938 |Nansen officio international pro refugiatos | |- | 1939 | Inhibite a causa del [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1940 | Inhibite a causa del [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1941 | Inhibite a causa del [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1942 | Inhibite a causa del [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1943 | Inhibite a causa del [[Secunde Guerra Mundial]] | |- | 1944 |Comité international del Cruce Rubie (dispensate retroactivemente in 1945) | |- | 1945 |[[Cordell Hull]] (SUA) |Pro participation in le fundation del [[Nationes Unite]] (NU) |- | rowspan=2 | 1946 | [[Emily Greene Balch]] (SUA) | |- | [[John Mott]] (USA) |Presidente del Alliantia mundial de YMCA (Young Mens Christian Associations) (Association de Juvene Homines Christian) |- | 1947 |The [[Friends Service Council]] (UK) and The [[American Friends Service Committee]] (USA) |Del parte del Quakers. |- | 1948 | Non dispensate | Probabilemente intendite pro [[Mahatma Gandhi]] quei esseva assassinate. |- | 1949 | [[John Boyd Orr]] (Regno Unite) |Director General de FAO[[Food and Agricultural Organization]] ,presidente de [[National Peace Council]], presidente de [[World Union of Peace Organizations]]. |- | 1950 | [[Ralph Bunche]] (SUA) |Pro mediation in [[Palestina]] (1948). |- | 1951 | [[Leon Jouhaux]] (Francia) | |- | 1952 |[[Albert Schweitzer]] (Germania) |Fundator del [[Hospital Lambarene]] in [[Gabon]]. |- | 1953 |Ministro del externe [[George Catlett Marshall]] |Pro le [[Plano Marshall]] |- | 1954 | Le officio del Commissionario Supreme pro Refugiatos del Nationes Unite | |- | 1955 | Inhibite | |- | 1956 | Inhibite | |- | 1957 | [[Lester Bowles Pearson]] (Canada) |Pro participation in le solution del [[Crise de Suez]] |- | 1958 | [[Georges Pire]] (Belgica) |Pro su labor pro refugiatos |- | 1959 | [[Philip Noel-Baker]] (Regno Unite) |Pro su labor continue pro pade e cooperation |- | 1960 |[[Albert Lutuli]] (Africa del Sud) |Presidente del Congresso National African (African National Congress) (ANC) |- | 1961 |[[Dag Hammarskjöld]] (Svedia) |Secretario General del [[Nationes Unite]] (NU) (dispensate posthumemente). |- | 1962 |[[Linus Pauling]] (SUA) |Pro su lucta contra experimentos con [[arma nuclear|armas nuclear]]. |- | rowspan=2 | 1963 |Comité International del [[Cruce Rubie]], Geneva | |- | Alliantia del Societates del Cruce Rubie, Geneva | |- | 1964 |[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] (SUA) | Pro su campania pro derectos humanitari. [https://www.nobelpeaceprize.org/laureates/1964] |- | 1965 |[[UNICEF|United Nation's Children's Fund (UNICEF)]] | |- | 1966 | Inhibite | |- | 1967 |Inhibite | |- | 1968 |[[René Cassin]] (Francia) |Presidente del [[Tribunal Europee de Derectos Human]] |- | 1969 |[[International Labour Organization]] (I.L.O.), Geneva. | |- | 1970 | [[Norman Borlaug]] (SUA) |Pro su recercas al Centro International de Meliorisation de Mais e Tritico (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center). |- | 1971 |Cancellero del Confederation [[Willy Brandt]] (Germania del West) |Pro su nove attitude verso Germania del Est. |- | 1972 |Inhibite | |- | 1973 |Ministro del externe [[Henry A. Kissinger]] (SUA) e previe ministro del externe [[Lê Ðức Thọ]] (Vietnam) |Pro le accordo del pace in [[Vietnam]] |- | rowspan=2 | 1974 | [[Seán MacBride]] (Irlanda) | |- | [[Eisaku Sato]] (佐藤榮作) (Japan) |prime ministro. |- | 1975 |[[Andrei Sakharov|Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov]] (USSR) |Pro su lucta pro derectos human |- | 1976 |[[Betty Williams]] (Irlanda del Nord) e [[Mairead Corrigan]] |fundatores del Movimento Pacific del [[Irlanda del Nord]] postea appellate Communitate de Pace del Populo |- | 1977 |[[Amnesty International]], London |pro lor lucta contra tortura |- | 1978 |Presidente [[Anwar Sadat|Mohamed Anwar Al-Sadat]] (Egypto) e Prime Ministro [[Menachem Begin]] (Israel) |pro lor negotios de pace inter [[Egypto]] e [[Israel]] . |- | 1979 |[[Mother Teresa]] (India) |Pro su cruciada contra povressa |- | 1980 | [[Adolfo Pérez Esquivel]] (Argentina) |derectos human |- | 1981 |Le Officio del Commissionario Supreme pro Refugiatos del [[Nationes Unite]] | |- | 1982 |[[Alva Myrdal]] (Svedia) e [[Alfonso García Robles]] (Mexico) |delegatos del Assamblea General pro Disarmamento del [[Nationes Unite]] |- | 1983 |[[Lech Wałęsa]] (Polonia) |fundator del organisation [[Solidaritate]] |- | 1984 |Episcopo [[Desmond Tutu]] (Africa del Sud) |Pro su labor contra [[apartheid]] |- | 1985 |[[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]], Boston | Pro information del risicos con guerras nuclear |- | 1986 |[[Elie Wiesel]] (SUA) |Lista de supervivite personas de [[Holocaust survivors|survivor]] |- | 1987 |[[Óscar Arias Sánchez]] (Costa Rica) | |- | 1988 |[[Nationes Unite]] [[United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces|Peace-Keeping Forces]]. | |- | 1989 |[[Tenzin Gyatso]], [[Dalai Lama]] (Tibet). |Pro su resistentia contra usage de [[violentia]] in le lucta pro libertate pro su populo. |- | 1990 | [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Mikhail Sergeyevitch Gorbatchev]] (Михаи́л Серге́евич Горбачёв) (USSR) |" |- | 1991 |[[Aung San Suu Kyi]] ([[Myanmar]]) |Pro su lucta paficic pro democratia e derectos human. |- | 1992 |[[Rigoberta Menchú]] ([[Guatemala]]) |Pro su labor pro le derectos human del populos indian. |- | 1993 |Le Presidente de [[ANC]], [[Nelson Mandela]] ([[Africa del Sud]]) e le presidente [[Frederik Willem de Klerk]] ([[Africa del Sud]]) |Pro lor labor finir le regime [[apartheid]] in un maniera pacific |- | 1994 | Le presidente del PLO, [[Yasser Arafat]] (ياسر عرفات) (Palestina), le Ministro del exterior [[Shimon Peres]] (שמעון פרס) ([[Israel]]) e le Prime Ministro [[Yitzhak Rabin]] (יצחק רבין) (Israel) |Pro lor effortios crear pace in le Oriente Medie |- | 1995 | [[Joseph Rotblat]] (Polonia) e le “Conferentia Pugwash de Scientia e Affaires Mundial” (Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs) |Pro lor labor diminuer le significantia del armas nuclear |- | 1996 |[[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo]] (Timor del Est) e [[José Ramos Horta]] (Timor del Est) |Pro lor labor solver le conflicto in Timor del Est |- | 1997 |ICBL, Campania pro inhiber minas terrestre e [[Jody Williams]] (SUA) | |- | 1998 |[[John Hume]] e [[David Trimble]] ([[Irlanda del Nord]], [[Regno Unite]]) |"Awarded for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland" |- | 1999 |[[Medicos sin frontieras]] (Medecins sans frontiers, Francia). | |- | 2000 |Presidente [[Kim Dae Jung]] (김대중) ([[Corea del Sud]]) |Pro su labor pro reconciliation con Corea del Nord |- | 2001 |[[Nationes Unite]]e le Secretario General del NU, [[Kofi Annan]], ([[Ghana]]) | |- | 2002 |[[Jimmy Carter]] (USA) previe presidente del [[Statos Unite de America]] |"Pro effortios trovar solutiones pacific de conflictos international |- | 2003 |[[Shirin Ebadi]] (شيرين عبادي), ([[Iran]]) |Derectos human, specialmente derectos de feminas e infantes |- |2004 |[[Wangari Maathai]] ([[Kenya]]) | |- |2005 | [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) e [[Mohamed ElBaradei]] (محمد البرادعي) ([[Egypto]]) | |- |2006 |[[Muhammad Yunus]] (মুহাম্মদ ইউনুস), ([[Bangladesh]]) e [[Grameen Bank]] (গ্রামীণ ব্যাংক), ([[Bangladesh]]) | |- |2007 |[[Al Gore]] (Statos Unite de America), e [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC]]. (Nationes Unite) | |- |2008 |[[Martti Ahtisaari]] ([[Finlandia]]) | |- |2009 |[[Barack Obama]] (Statos Unite de America) | |- |2010 |[[Liu Xiaobo]]. (China)[http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2010/] (in anglese) | |- | rowspan=3 | 2011 |[[Ellen Johnson Sirleaf]], Liberia | |- |[[Leymah Gbowee]], Liberia, | |- |[[Tawakkul Karman]], Yemen <p>[http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2011/] (in anglese) | |- |2012 |[[Union Europee]], (European Union) | |- |2013 |[[Organisation pro le Prohibition de Armas Chimic]], (International) | |- | rowspan=2 | 2014 | [[Kailash Satyarthi]] ([[India]]) | |- |[[Malala Yousafzai]] ([[Pakistan]]) | |- |2015 |[[Quartetto pro le Dialogo National Tunisian]] ([[Tunisia]]) | |- |2016 |[[Juan Manuel Santos]] ([[Colombia]]) | |- |2017 |[[Campania International pro Abolir Armas Nuclear]] (International) | |- | rowspan=2 | 2018 | [[Denis Mukwege]] ([[Republica Democratic del Congo]]) | |- |[[Nadia Murad]] ([[Irak]]) | |- |2019 |[[Abiy Ahmed]] ([[Ethiopia]]) | |- |2020 |[[Programma Alimentari Mundial]] ([[Nationes Unite]]) | |- | rowspan=2 | 2021 | [[Maria Ressa]] ([[Philippinas]]) | |- |[[Dmitri Andreyevich Muratov]] ([[Russia]]) | |- |2022 |[[Ales Bialiatski]] ([[Bielorussia]]), [[Memorial]] ([[Russia]]), [[Centro pro Libertates Civil]] ([[Ukraina]]) |[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2022/summary/] |- |2023 |[[Narges Mohammadi]] ([[Iran]]) |[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2023/summary/] |- |2024 |[[Nihon Hidankyo]] ([[Japon]]) |[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2024/nihon-hidankyo/facts/] |- |2025 |[[Maria Corina Machado]] ([[Venezuela]]) |[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2025/machado/facts/] |} [[Categoria:Premio Nobel del Pace]] [[Categoria:Laureatos del Premio Nobel del Pace|~Appendice]] [[Categoria:Wikipedia:Appendice]] nsajmvdiq1mmaz0754g59g1kutl6rno 102 39521 699711 698550 2026-09-08T02:34:41Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q15089 } |wdq= |columns=item,label,P300,P41,P94,P242,P131,P36,description |thumb=48 |sort=label |links=red |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! ISO 3166-2 ! imagine del bandiera ! imagine del scuto ! position geographic ! situate in le entitate territorial administrative ! capital ! description |- | [[:d:Q16144|Q16144]] | [[Provincia de Brescia|Brescia]] | IT-BS<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Brescia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Brescia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Brescia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Brescia]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16189|Q16189]] | [[Provincia de L'Aquila|L'Aquila]] | IT-AQ<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of L'Aquila.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia dell'Aquila-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:L'Aquila in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Abruzzo]] | [[L'Aquila]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16188|Q16188]] | [[Provincia de La Spezia|La Spezia]] | IT-SP<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia della Spezia-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia della Spezia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:La Spezia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Liguria]] | [[La Spezia]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16242|Q16242]] | [[Provincia de Pescara|Pescara]] | IT-PE<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Pescara.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Pescara-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Pescara in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Abruzzo]] | [[Pescara]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q153427|Q153427]] | [[Province of Pola]] | | | [[File:Provincia di Pola-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | | | | |- | [[:d:Q106997093|Q106997093]] | [[province of Sulcis Iglesiente]] | | | [[File:Provincia del Sulcis Iglesiente-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Sulcis Iglesiente in Italy (2021).svg|center|48px]] | [[Sardinia]] | [[Carbonia]]<br/>[[Iglesias (Italia)]] | |- | [[:d:Q16114|Q16114]] | [[Provincia de Ancona|provincia Ancona]] | IT-AN<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Ancona-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Ancona-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Ancona in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Marcas|Marche]] | [[Ancona]] | |- | [[:d:Q16117|Q16117]] | [[Provincia de Ascoli Piceno|provincia Ascoli Piceno]] | IT-AP<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Ascoli Piceno-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Ascoli Piceno in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Marcas|Marche]] | [[Ascoli Piceno]] | |- | [[:d:Q16120|Q16120]] | [[Provincia de Avellino|provincia Avellino]] | IT-AV<ref 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Campobasso]] | IT-CB<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Campobasso.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Campobasso-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Campobasso in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Molise]] | [[Campobasso]] | |- | [[:d:Q16153|Q16153]] | [[Provincia de Caserta|provincia Caserta]] | IT-CE<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Caserta.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Caserta-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Caserta in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Campania]] | [[Caserta]] | |- | [[:d:Q16159|Q16159]] | [[Provincia de Catanzaro|provincia Catanzaro]] | IT-CZ<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Catanzaro.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Province of Catanzaro.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Catanzaro in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Calabria]] | [[Catanzaro]] | |- | [[:d:Q16161|Q16161]] | [[Provincia de Como|provincia Como]] | IT-CO<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Como-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Como-Stemma 2.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Como in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Como]] | |- | [[:d:Q16163|Q16163]] | [[Provincia de Cremona|provincia Cremona]] | IT-CR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Cremona.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Cremona-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Cremona in Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Cremona]] | |- | [[:d:Q16165|Q16165]] | [[Provincia de Crotone|provincia Crotone]] | IT-KR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Crotone.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Crotone-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Crotone in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Calabria]] | [[Crotone]] | |- | [[:d:Q15091|Q15091]] | [[Provincia de Cuneo|provincia Cuneo]] | IT-CN<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Cuneo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Cuneo-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Cuneo in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Pedemonte]] | [[Cuneo]] | |- | [[:d:Q15097|Q15097]] | [[Provincia de Alessandria]] | IT-AL<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Alessandria.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Alessandria-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Alessandria in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Pedemonte]] | [[Alessandria]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16115|Q16115]] | [[Provincia de Arezzo]] | IT-AR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Arezzo-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Arezzo-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Arezzo in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Arezzo]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q15099|Q15099]] | [[provincia de Asti]] | IT-AT<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Asti.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Asti-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Asti in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Pedemonte]] | [[Asti]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16126|Q16126]] | [[provincia de Belluno]] | IT-BL<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Belluno.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Belluno-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Belluno in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Veneto]] | [[Belluno]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16137|Q16137]] | [[provincia de Bergamo]] | IT-BG<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Bergamo-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Bergamo in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Bergamo]] | |- | [[:d:Q15124|Q15124]] | [[Provincia de Bolzano]] | IT-BZ<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of South Tyrol.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Suedtirol CoA.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Bolzano in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Trentino-Alto Adige]] | [[Bolzano]] | provincia autonome trilingue de Italia septentrional |- | [[:d:Q16160|Q16160]] | [[Provincia de Chieti]] | IT-CH<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Chieti (Variant).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Chieti-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Chieti in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Abruzzo]] | [[Chieti]] | |- | [[:d:Q16162|Q16162]] | [[Provincia de Cosenza]] | IT-CS<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Cosenza-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Cosenza-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Cosenza in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Calabria]] | [[Cosenza]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16196|Q16196]] | [[Provincia de Latina]] | IT-LT<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of The Province of Latina-2.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Latina-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Latina in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Latio]] | [[Latina]] | provincia italian |- | [[:d:Q16204|Q16204]] | [[provincia de Mantua]] | IT-MN<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Mantua.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Mantova-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Mantova in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Mantua]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16223|Q16223]] | [[Provincia de Ogliastra]] | IT-OG<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Ogliastra.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia dell'Ogliastra-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Ogliastra in Italy (2021).svg|center|48px]] | [[Sardinia]] | [[Lanusei]]<br/>[[Tortolì]] | |- | [[:d:Q16226|Q16226]] | [[Provincia de Padua]] | IT-PD<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Padua.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Padova-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Padova in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Veneto]] | [[Padua]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16241|Q16241]] | [[Provincia de Pesaro e Urbino]] | IT-PU<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Pesaro-Urbino.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Pesaro e Urbino-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Pesaro-Urbino in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Marcas|Marche]] | [[Pesaro]]<br/>[[Urbino]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16299|Q16299]] | [[Provincia de Varese]] | IT-VA<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Varese.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Varese-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Varese in Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Varese]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16315|Q16315]] | [[Provincia de Vibo Valentia]] | IT-VV<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Vibo Valentia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Vibo Valentia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Vibo Valentia in Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Calabria]] | [[Vibo Valentia]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16316|Q16316]] | [[provincia de Vicenza]] | IT-VI<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Vicenza-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Vicenza in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Veneto]] | [[Vicenza]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q106996869|Q106996869]] | [[Province of Gallura North-East Sardinia]] | | | [[File:Provincia della Gallura Nord-Est Sardegna-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Nord-Est Sardegna in Italy (2021).svg|center|48px]] | [[Sardinia]] | [[Olbia]]<br/>[[Tempio Pausania]] | |- | [[:d:Q3924541|Q3924541]] | [[Province of Cattaro]] | | | | | [[Governorate of Dalmatia]] | | |- | [[:d:Q16167|Q16167]] | [[Provincia de Fermo|provincia Fermo]] | IT-FM<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Fermo-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Fermo-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Fermo in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Marcas|Marche]] | [[Fermo]] | |- | [[:d:Q16168|Q16168]] | [[Provincia de Ferrara|provincia Ferrara]] | IT-FE<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Ferrara.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Ferrara-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Ferrara in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Ferrara]] | |- | [[:d:Q15129|Q15129]] | [[Provincia de Foggia|provincia Foggia]] | IT-FG<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Foggia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Foggia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Apulia]] | [[Foggia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16180|Q16180]] | [[Provincia de Forlì-Cesena|provincia Forlì-Cesena]] | IT-FC<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Forlì-Cesena-Gonfalone.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Forlì-Cesena-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Forlì-Cesena in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Forlì]]<br/>[[Cesena]]<ref name="ref_6ca4af2063faa34bbba578e1ceab7937c38cf9c64136a4ce93ad60a28abe6ded">https://www.provincia.fc.it/it/news/da-oggi-martedi-30-gennaio-la-citta-di-cesena-e-ufficialmente-co-capoluogo-della-provincia-forli-cesena</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q16181|Q16181]] | [[Provincia de Frosinone|provincia Frosinone]] | IT-FR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Frosinone.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Frosinone-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Frosinone in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Latio]] | [[Frosinone]] | |- | [[:d:Q16185|Q16185]] | [[Provincia de Grosseto|provincia Grosseto]] | IT-GR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Grosseto.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Grosseto-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Grosseto in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Grosseto]] | |- | [[:d:Q16186|Q16186]] | [[Provincia de Imperia|provincia Imperia]] | IT-IM<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Imperia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Province of Imperia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Imperia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Liguria]] | [[Imperia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16187|Q16187]] | [[Provincia de Isernia|provincia Isernia]] | IT-IS<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Isernia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Isernia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Isernia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Molise]] | [[Isernia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16197|Q16197]] | [[Provincia de Lecce|provincia Lecce]] | IT-LE<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Lecce.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Province of Lecce.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Lecce in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Apulia]] | [[Lecce]] | |- | [[:d:Q16199|Q16199]] | [[Provincia de Lecco|provincia Lecco]] | IT-LC<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Lecco-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Lecco in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Lecco]] | |- | [[:d:Q16200|Q16200]] | [[Provincia de Livorno|provincia Livorno]] | IT-LI<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Livorno.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Province of Livorno.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Livorno in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Livorno]] | |- | [[:d:Q16201|Q16201]] | [[Provincia de Lodi|provincia Lodi]] | IT-LO<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Lodi.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Lodi-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Lodi in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Lodi]] | |- | [[:d:Q16202|Q16202]] | [[Provincia de Lucca|provincia Lucca]] | IT-LU<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Lucca-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Lucca-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Lucca in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Lucca]] | |- | [[:d:Q16203|Q16203]] | [[Provincia de Macerata|provincia Macerata]] | IT-MC<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Macerata-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Macerata-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Macerata in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Marcas|Marche]] | [[Macerata]] | |- | [[:d:Q16205|Q16205]] | [[Provincia de Massa-Carrara|provincia Massa e Carrara]] | IT-MS<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Massa-Carrara.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Massa-Carrara-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Massa-Carrara in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Massa (Italia)|Massa]] | |- | [[:d:Q16206|Q16206]] | [[Provincia de Matera|provincia Matera]] | IT-MT<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Matera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Matera-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Matera in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Basilicata]] | [[Matera]] | |- | [[:d:Q16207|Q16207]] | [[provincia Medio Campidano]] | IT-VS<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | | [[File:Medio Campidano in Italy (2021).svg|center|48px]] | [[Sardinia]] | [[Sanluri]]<br/>[[Villacidro]] | |- | [[:d:Q16209|Q16209]] | [[Provincia de Modena|provincia Modena]] | IT-MO<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Modena.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Modena-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Modena in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Modena]] | |- | [[:d:Q16210|Q16210]] | [[Provincia de Monza e Brianza|provincia Monza e della Brianza]] | IT-MB | [[File:Provincia di Monza e della Brianza-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Monza e della Brianza-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Monza e Brianza in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Monza]] | |- | [[:d:Q15123|Q15123]] | [[provincia Napoli]] | No/unknown value | [[File:Flag of the province of Naples (Variant).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Napoli-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Map Province of Napoli.svg|center|48px]] | [[Campania]] | [[Neapole]] | |- | [[:d:Q16216|Q16216]] | [[Provincia de Novara|provincia Novara]] | IT-NO<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Novara-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Novara-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Novara in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Pedemonte]] | [[Novara]] | |- | [[:d:Q16220|Q16220]] | [[Provincia de Nuoro|provincia Nuoro]] | IT-NU<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Nuoro.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Nuoro-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Nuoro in Italy (2021).svg|center|48px]] | [[Sardinia]] | [[Nuoro]] | |- | [[:d:Q16225|Q16225]] | [[Provincia de Oristano|provincia Oristano]] | IT-OR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Oristano.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Oristano-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Map of province of Oristano (region Sardinia, Italy) as of 2016.svg|center|48px]] | [[Sardinia]] | [[Oristano]] | |- | [[:d:Q16228|Q16228]] | [[Provincia de Parma|provincia Parma]] | IT-PR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Parma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Parma-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Parma in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Parma]] | |- | [[:d:Q16231|Q16231]] | [[Provincia de Pavia|provincia Pavia]] | IT-PV<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Pavia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Pavia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Pavia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16240|Q16240]] | [[Provincia de Perugia|provincia Perugia]] | IT-PG<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Perugia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Perugia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Perugia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Umbria]] | [[Perugia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16243|Q16243]] | [[Provincia de Piacenza|provincia Piacenza]] | IT-PC<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Piacenza (Variant).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Piacenza-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Piacenza in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Piacenza]] | |- | [[:d:Q16244|Q16244]] | [[Provincia de Pisa|provincia Pisa]] | IT-PI | [[File:Flag of the province of Pisa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Pisa-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Pisa in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Pisa]] | |- | [[:d:Q16245|Q16245]] | [[Provincia de Pistoia|provincia Pistoia]] | IT-PT<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Pistoia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Pistoia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Pistoia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16249|Q16249]] | [[Provincia de Potenza|provincia Potenza]] | IT-PZ<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Potenza.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Potenza-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Potenza in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Basilicata]] | [[Potenza (Italia)|Potenza]] | |- | [[:d:Q16250|Q16250]] | [[Provincia de Prato|provincia Prato]] | IT-PO<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Prato.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Prato-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Prato in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Prato (Italia)|Prato]] | |- | [[:d:Q16252|Q16252]] | [[Provincia de Ravenna|provincia Ravenna]] | IT-RA<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Ravenna.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Ravenna-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Ravenna in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Ravenna]] | |- | [[:d:Q16254|Q16254]] | [[Provincia de Reggio Emilia|provincia Reggio nell'Emilia]] | IT-RE<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Reggio Emilia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Reggio Emilia-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Reggio Emilia in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Reggio Emilia]] | |- | [[:d:Q16267|Q16267]] | [[Provincia de Rieti|provincia Rieti]] | IT-RI<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Rieti.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Rieti-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Rieti in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Latio]] | [[Rieti]] | |- | [[:d:Q16268|Q16268]] | [[Provincia de Rimini|provincia Rimini]] | IT-RN<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Rimini.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Rimini-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Rimini in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Emilia-Romagna]] | [[Rimini]] | |- | [[:d:Q16270|Q16270]] | [[Provincia de Rovigo|provincia Rovigo]] | IT-RO<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Rovigo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Rovigo-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Rovigo in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Veneto]] | [[Rovigo]] | |- | [[:d:Q16271|Q16271]] | [[Provincia de Salerno|provincia Salerno]] | IT-SA<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Salerno.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Salerno-Stemma-2.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Salerno in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Campania]] | [[Salerno]] | |- | [[:d:Q16274|Q16274]] | [[Provincia de Savona|provincia Savona]] | IT-SV<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Savona-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Savona-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Savona in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Liguria]] | [[Savona]] | provincia de Italia |- | [[:d:Q16275|Q16275]] | [[Provincia de Siena|provincia Siena]] | IT-SI<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Siena-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Siena in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Toscana]] | [[Siena]] | |- | [[:d:Q16282|Q16282]] | [[Provincia de Sondrio|provincia Sondrio]] | IT-SO<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Sondrio.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Sondrio-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Sondrio in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Lombardia]] | [[Sondrio]] | |- | [[:d:Q16283|Q16283]] | [[Provincia de Taranto|provincia Taranto]] | IT-TA<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Taranto.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Taranto-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Taranto in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Apulia]] | [[Taranto]] | |- | [[:d:Q16284|Q16284]] | [[Provincia de Teramo|provincia Teramo]] | IT-TE<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Teramo-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Teramo in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Abruzzo]] | [[Teramo]] | |- | [[:d:Q16286|Q16286]] | [[Provincia de Terni|provincia Terni]] | IT-TR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the province of Terni.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Terni-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Terni in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Umbria]] | [[Terni]] | |- | [[:d:Q16292|Q16292]] | [[Provincia de Treviso|provincia Treviso]] | IT-TV<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Treviso (2015 design).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Treviso-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Treviso in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Veneto]] | [[Treviso]] | |- | [[:d:Q16312|Q16312]] | [[Provincia del Verbano-Cusio-Ossola|provincia Verbano-Cusio-Ossola]] | IT-VB<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia del Verbano-Cusio-Ossola-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia del Verbano-Cusio-Ossola-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Verbano-Cusio-Ossola in Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Pedemonte]] | [[Verbania]] | |- | [[:d:Q15096|Q15096]] | [[Provincia de Vercelli|provincia Vercelli]] | IT-VC<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | | [[File:Provincia di Vercelli-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Vercelli in Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Pedemonte]] | [[Vercelli]] | |- | [[:d:Q16314|Q16314]] | [[Provincia de Verona|provincia Verona]] | IT-VR<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Verona.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Verona-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Verona in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Veneto]] | [[Verona]] | |- | [[:d:Q16318|Q16318]] | [[Provincia de Viterbo|provincia Viterbo]] | IT-VT<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Provincia di Viterbo-Bandiera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia di Viterbo-Stemma.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Viterbo in Italy.svg|center|48px]] | [[Latio]] | [[Viterbo]] | |- | [[:d:Q16289|Q16289]] | [[Trentino]] | IT-TN<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[File:Flag of the Province of Trento.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Trentino CoA.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Trentino in Italy (2018).svg|center|48px]] | [[Trentino-Alto Adige]] | [[Trento]] | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 2s8g7esb9j8ubxtbbht8zp5ydps1zbx 102 39526 699705 699531 2026-09-07T20:23:32Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q162620 } |wdq= |columns=item,P41,P94,label,P242,P300,P36,description |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! imagine del bandiera ! imagine del scuto ! label ! position geographic ! ISO 3166-2 ! capital ! description |- | [[:d:Q7194|Q7194]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Gerona.png|center|48px]] | [[File:Escut de la provincia de Girona.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Girona|Provincia Girona]] | [[File:Girona in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-GI | [[Girona]] | |- | [[:d:Q13904|Q13904]] | [[File:Bandera antiga de la província de Lleida.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escut de la provincia de Lleida.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Lleida|Provincia Lleida]] | [[File:Lleida in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-L | [[Lleida]] | |- | [[:d:Q54888|Q54888]] | [[File:Flag Cuenca Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Cuenca.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Cuenca (Espania)|Provincia Cuenca]] | [[File:Cuenca in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-CU | [[Cuenca]] | |- | [[:d:Q54889|Q54889]] | [[File:Bandera provincia Albacete.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo provincia de Albacete.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Albacete]] | [[File:Albacete in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-AB | ''[[:d:Q15095|Albacete]]'' | provincia de Espania |- | [[:d:Q54925|Q54925]] | [[File:Bandera de la Provincia de Guadalajara.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Guadalajara.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Guadalajara|Provincia Guadalajara]] | [[File:Guadalajara in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-GU | ''[[:d:Q11953|Guadalajara]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q54929|Q54929]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Toledo.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Toledo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia Toledo]] | [[File:Toledo in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-TO | [[Toledo (Espania)|Toledo]] | |- | [[:d:Q54932|Q54932]] | [[File:Flag Ciudad Real Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Ciudad Real.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Ciudad Real|Provincia Ciudad Real]] | [[File:Ciudad Real in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-CR | ''[[:d:Q56241563|Ciudad Real City]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q54936|Q54936]] | | [[File:Escut de la Província d'Alacant.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Alicante]] | [[File:Alicante in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-A | ''[[:d:Q11959|Alicante]]'' | provincia espaniol |- | [[:d:Q54939|Q54939]] | | [[File:Escut de la Província de València.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Valencia]] | [[File:Valencia in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-V | [[Valencia]]<ref name="ref_a45355bb205812a9e1d19fd322959228c388a8a3229f9165257f5e4efcb8cc3c">''[[:d:Q43475197|БСЭ1 / Валенсия, город и область в Испании]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q54942|Q54942]] | | [[File:Escut de la Província de Castelló.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Castellon|Castellon]] | [[File:Castellon in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-CS | [[Castellon de la Plana]] | provincia |- | [[:d:Q54955|Q54955]] | [[File:Flag of Teruel (province).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Teruel.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Teruel]] | [[File:Teruel in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-TE | ''[[:d:Q55868696|Teruel City]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q55180|Q55180]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Zaragoza.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Zaragoza.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Zaragoza]] | [[File:Zaragoza in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-Z | ''[[:d:Q31926034|Zaragoza]]'' | provincia in Aragon, Espania |- | [[:d:Q55182|Q55182]] | [[File:Flag of Huesca (province).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo d'a provincia de Uesca.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Huesca|Provincia Huesca]] | [[File:Huesca in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-HU | ''[[:d:Q31916975|Huesca]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q55269|Q55269]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Palencia1.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Palencia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia Palencia]] | [[File:Palencia in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-P | ''[[:d:Q8378|Palencia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q55271|Q55271]] | [[File:Flag Burgos Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Burgos.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Burgos]] | [[File:Burgos in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-BU | [[Burgos]] | |- | [[:d:Q55276|Q55276]] | [[File:Flag Soria province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Soria2.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Soria]] | [[File:Soria in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-SO | [[Soria]] | provincia de Espania |- | [[:d:Q55283|Q55283]] | [[File:Flag Segovia province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Segovia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Segovia]] | [[File:Segovia in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-SG | ''[[:d:Q15684|Segovia]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q55288|Q55288]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Ávila.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Ávila.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Avila]] | [[File:Avila in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-AV | [[Ávila]] | |- | [[:d:Q71080|Q71080]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Salamanca.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Salamanca.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia Salamanca|Provincia de Salamanca]] | [[File:Salamanca in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-SA | ''[[:d:Q15695|Salamanca]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q71097|Q71097]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Valladolid.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Va-dip.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia Valladolid|Provincia de Valladolid]] | [[File:Valladolid in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-VA | [[Valladolid]] | |- | [[:d:Q71113|Q71113]] | | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Zamora.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia Zamora|Provincia de Zamora]] | [[File:Zamora in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-ZA | [[Zamora (municipalitate de Espania)|Zamora]] | |- | [[:d:Q71140|Q71140]] | [[File:Bandera de León.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de León.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de León]] | [[File:Leon in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-LE | ''[[:d:Q15699|León]]'' | provincia de Espania |- | [[:d:Q81801|Q81801]] | [[File:Flag of Álava.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Álava.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q81801|Álava]]'' | [[File:Alava in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-VI | [[Vitoria]] | |- | [[:d:Q81802|Q81802]] | [[File:Flag Almería Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Almería.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Almeria|Provincia Almeria]] | [[File:Almeria in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-AL | [[Almería]] | |- | [[:d:Q81803|Q81803]] | [[File:Provincia de Badajoz - Bandera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia de Badajoz - Escudo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Badajoz|Provincia Badajoz]] | [[File:Badajoz in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-BA | ''[[:d:Q15679|Badajoz]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q81949|Q81949]] | [[File:Flag of Barcelona (province).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Barcelona.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Barcelona|Provincia Barcelona]] | [[File:Barcelona in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-B | [[Barcelona]] | |- | [[:d:Q81972|Q81972]] | [[File:Provincia de Córdoba - Bandera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia de Córdoba - Escudo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Cordova (Espania)|Provincia de Cordova]] | [[File:Cordoba in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-CO | [[Cordova (Espania)|Cordova]] | |- | [[:d:Q81977|Q81977]] | [[File:Flag of the province of Cáceres.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Diputación de Cáceres.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Cáceres|Provincia Caceres]] | [[File:Caceres in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-CC | ''[[:d:Q15678|Cáceres]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q81978|Q81978]] | [[File:Flag Cádiz Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Cádiz.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Cadiz|Provincia Cadiz]] | [[File:Cadiz in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-CA | ''[[:d:Q15682|Cádiz]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q82119|Q82119]] | | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de A Coruña.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q82119|A Coruña Province]]'' | [[File:A Coruna in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-C | [[La Coruña]] | |- | [[:d:Q82142|Q82142]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Granada (España).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of Granada Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Granada|Provincia Granada]] | [[File:Granada in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-GR | [[Granada]] | |- | [[:d:Q93366|Q93366]] | [[File:Bandera de Vizcaya.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de Bizkaia 2007.svg|center|48px]] | [[Biscaya]] | [[File:Localización de la provincia de Vizcaya.svg|center|48px]] | ES-BI | [[Bilbao]] | |- | [[:d:Q95006|Q95006]] | | | ''[[:d:Q95006|Province of Asturias]]'' | | | ''[[:d:Q21414421|Oviedo City]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q95007|Q95007]] | | [[File:Coat of Arms of the Former Province of Santander (Spain).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q95007|Province of Santander]]'' | [[File:Santander Castilla la Vieja.png|center|48px]] | | [[Santander]] | |- | [[:d:Q95010|Q95010]] | [[File:Flag of Guipúzcoa.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de Guipuzcoa.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q95010|Gipuzkoa]]'' | [[File:Localización de la provincia de Guipúzcoa.svg|center|48px]] | ES-SS | [[Donostia]] | |- | [[:d:Q95015|Q95015]] | [[File:Bandera de la Provincia De Huelva.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo Provincia de Huelva.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Huelva]] | [[File:Huelva in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-H | [[Huelva]] | |- | [[:d:Q95025|Q95025]] | [[File:Bandera de la provincia de Jaén.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Jaén.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Jaén (Espania)|Provincia de Jaén]] | [[File:Jaen in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-J | [[Jaén]] | provincia de Espania |- | [[:d:Q95027|Q95027]] | [[File:Flag of Lugo province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Lugo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Lugo|Provincia Lugo]] | [[File:Lugo in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-LU | [[Lugo (Espania)|Lugo]] | |- | [[:d:Q95028|Q95028]] | [[File:Flag Málaga Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Málaga.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Málaga]] | [[File:Malaga in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-MA | [[Málaga]] | provincia de Espania, in Andalusia |- | [[:d:Q95038|Q95038]] | [[File:Provincia de Ourense - Bandera.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Provincia de Ourense - Escudo.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q95038|Ourense]]'' | [[File:Ourense in Spain.svg|center|48px]] | ES-OR | [[Ourense]] | |- | [[:d:Q95080|Q95080]] | | [[File:Provincia de Las Palmas - Escudo.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Las Palmas|Las Palmas]] | [[File:Las Palmas in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-GC | [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] | |- | [[:d:Q95086|Q95086]] | [[File:Flag Pontevedra Province.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Pontevedra.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q95086|Pontevedra Province]]'' | [[File:Pontevedra in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-PO | ''[[:d:Q24014203|Pontevedra city]]''<ref name="ref_4e1acee0a24ea81fdebe945e80a410148e51239123451ab5dc4c52034d67eba8">https://ssweb.seap.minhap.es/REL/frontend/inicio/municipios/12/13427</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q95088|Q95088]] | [[File:Flag of Diputacion de Sevilla Spain.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la provincia de Sevilla.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q95088|Seville Province]]'' | [[File:Seville in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-SE | [[Sevilla]] | |- | [[:d:Q98392|Q98392]] | [[File:Bandera actual de la provincia de Tarragona (alternate).svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Tarragona.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Tarragona|Provincia Tarragona]] | [[File:Tarragona in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-T | [[Tarragona]]<ref name="ref_e422c553556a46afb93f0926ac4de555333f51e52baf1aaefbf64f11ab842ac3">''[[:d:Q8342938|Catàleg d’autoritats de noms i títols de Catalunya]]''</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q99976|Q99976]] | | [[File:Provincia de Santa Cruz de Tenerife - Escudo.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q99976|Santa Cruz de Tenerife Province]]'' | [[File:Santa Cruz de Tenerife in Spain (plus Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-TF | ''[[:d:Q24014650|Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q274126|Q274126]] | | [[File:Escudo de la Habana.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q274126|Vereda Nueva, La Habana]]'' | [[File:La Habana Province Location.png|center|48px]] | CU-02<ref name="ref_a79facb7c77a4d17adb234b1eb74d3b9373e6d448dc9064422a0639025f813d0">''[[:d:Q14005|MusicBrainz]]''</ref> | [[Havana]] | |- | [[:d:Q921283|Q921283]] | [[File:Bandera de México (1823-1835, 1846-1857).png|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q921283|Santa Fe de Nuevo México]]'' | | | [[Santa Fe (New Mexico)|Santa Fe]] | |- | [[:d:Q6088768|Q6088768]] | | | ''[[:d:Q6088768|1778 Province of Cantabria]]'' | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6088771|Q6088771]] | | | ''[[:d:Q6088771|Province of Cartagena]]'' | | | ''[[:d:Q31914790|Cartagena city]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q9063368|Q9063368]] | [[File:Bandera de la antigua provincia de Logroño.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Coat of Arms of La Rioja (Spain).svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q9063368|Province of Logroño]]'' | [[File:Logroño Province in Old Castile.svg|center|48px]] | | ''[[:d:Q31917806|Logroño]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16622625|Q16622625]] | | | ''[[:d:Q16622625|Gulf of Guinea Province]]'' | [[File:Eq Guinea ES.PNG|center|48px]] | | | |- | [[:d:Q24004403|Q24004403]] | | | ''[[:d:Q24004403|Provincia de Asturias]]'' | [[File:Asturias in Spain (including Canarias).svg|center|48px]] | ES-O<ref name="ref_816b9b256232fdee1c94a5a2495ebff925eb9a4e48543a7d08c1cb181e2d5605">https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:ES</ref> | ''[[:d:Q21414421|Oviedo City]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q24004404|Q24004404]] | | | ''[[:d:Q24004404|Province of Navarre]]'' | | ES-NA | | |- | [[:d:Q24004405|Q24004405]] | [[File:Bandera de la Provincia de Madrid hasta 1983.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Provincia de Madrid hasta 1983.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q24004405|Madrid Province]]'' | [[File:Circunscripción electoral de Madrid.svg|center|48px]] | ES-M | [[Madrid]] | |- | [[:d:Q24271891|Q24271891]] | [[File:Bandera de la Diputación Provincial de Murcia.svg|center|48px]] | [[File:Escudo de la Diputación Provincial de Murcia.svg|center|48px]] | [[Provincia de Murcia|Provincia Murcia]] | | ES-MU | | |- | [[:d:Q28709836|Q28709836]] | | | ''[[:d:Q28709836|Provincia de Chinchilla]]'' | | | [[Chinchilla de Monte-Aragón]] | |- | [[:d:Q31844097|Q31844097]] | | | ''[[:d:Q31844097|Province of La Rioja]]'' | | | | |- | [[:d:Q31920747|Q31920747]] | | | ''[[:d:Q31920747|Cantabria Province]]'' | | ES-S | ''[[:d:Q23992498|Santander City]]'' | |} {{Wikidata list end}} hzdo87gcik4af8ujyha9hts9gjpz3nc 102 39671 699706 698678 2026-09-07T21:12:33Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699706 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item ?itemLabel WHERE {?item wdt:P279* wd:Q202064} |columns=item,label,P279,P898,P2859,P51,P18,description |thumb=48 |sort=label |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! subclasse de ! IPA transcription ! X-SAMPA code ! audio ! imagine ! description |- | [[:d:Q1399615|Q1399615]] | ''[[:d:Q1399615|voiced alveolar lateral flap]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɺ | l\ | | | |- | [[:d:Q25521186|Q25521186]] | ''[[:d:Q25521186|A]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q17582|Q17582]] | ''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | [[File:Consonne afriquée.png|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q146863|Q146863]] | ''[[:d:Q146863|allophone]]'' | [[phonema]]<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref><br/>[[phono]]<br/>''[[:d:Q9371015|linguistic variable]]'' | | | | [[File:Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q196190|Q196190]] | ''[[:d:Q196190|alveolar click consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]] | ǃ | !\ | [[File:Postalveolar click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1658329|Q1658329]] | ''[[:d:Q1658329|alveolar ejective]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | tʼ | | [[File:Alveolar ejective plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17080484|Q17080484]] | ''[[:d:Q17080484|alveolar ejective affricate]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tsʼ<br/>t͡sʼ | | [[File:Alveolar ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2421021|Q2421021]] | ''[[:d:Q2421021|alveolar ejective fricative]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | sʼ | s_> | [[File:Alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122810382|Q122810382]] | ''[[:d:Q122810382|alveolar ejective trill]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4737949|Q4737949]] | ''[[:d:Q4737949|alveolar fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1806900|Q1806900]] | ''[[:d:Q1806900|alveolar lateral click consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]'' | ǁ | |\|\ | [[File:Alveolar lateral click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4737948|Q4737948]] | ''[[:d:Q4737948|alveolar lateral ejective affricate]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | tɬʼ<br/>t͡ɬʼ<br/>ƛ’ | | [[File:Alveolar lateral ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4737947|Q4737947]] | ''[[:d:Q4737947|alveolar lateral ejective fricative]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɬʼ | | [[File:Alveolar lateral ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4737950|Q4737950]] | ''[[:d:Q4737950|alveolar lateral nasal click]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante nasal alveolar]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4737952|Q4737952]] | ''[[:d:Q4737952|alveolar nasal click]]'' | [[consonante nasal alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]] | ǃ̃<br/>ʗ̃<br/>ᵑǃ<br/>ᵑʗ | | [[File:Intervocalic nasal alveolar clicks.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4737960|Q4737960]] | ''[[:d:Q4737960|alveolar stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q448789|Q448789]] | ''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | [[File:Alveolo-palatal ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | [[File:Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative articulation.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q122209731|Q122209731]] | ''[[:d:Q122209731|alveolo-palatal ejective affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2994696|Q2994696]] | ''[[:d:Q2994696|alveolo-palatal ejective fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | ɕʼ | | [[File:Alveolo-palatal ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q116953045|Q116953045]] | ''[[:d:Q116953045|antepenult]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q28153713|Q28153713]] | ''[[:d:Q28153713|anterior consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q618621|Q618621]] | ''[[:d:Q618621|apical consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q51606|Q51606]] | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q109346538|Q109346538]] | ''[[:d:Q109346538|aproximante lateral retrofleja sorda]]'' | ''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q87500371|Q87500371]] | ''[[:d:Q87500371|Arabic vowel sign small v above]]'' | ''[[:d:Q775724|Arabic diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Highway gothic font Arabic vowel sign small v above.png|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q737464|Q737464]] | ''[[:d:Q737464|aspirata]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q763608|Q763608]] | ''[[:d:Q763608|aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q320433|Q320433]] | ''[[:d:Q320433|aspiration]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24074479|Q24074479]] | ''[[:d:Q24074479|aɪ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]'' | aɪ | aI | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206660|Q24206660]] | ''[[:d:Q24206660|aʊ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_073d6acfb67071f10e0ec1ec2e1a1e9c8cf9b1516c8f56652317fce614588c8b">http://colasula.com/?p=530</ref> | aʊ | aU | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206623|Q24206623]] | ''[[:d:Q24206623|back closing diphthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_88d0c60216570914e1610e649d6db288063d76a34e51411db43067f2c54183c6">http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/anae/glossary/phonetics/closingdiph.html</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121455331|Q121455331]] | ''[[:d:Q121455331|back rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121455330|Q121455330]] | ''[[:d:Q121455330|back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q853589|Q853589]] | ''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25345847|Q25345847]] | ''[[:d:Q25345847|back-released velar click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | ʞ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4851809|Q4851809]] | ''[[:d:Q4851809|ballistic syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2917875|Q2917875]] | ''[[:d:Q2917875|bidental consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q101263580|Q101263580]] | ''[[:d:Q101263580|bidental percussive]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2917875|bidental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q30835592|percussive consonant]]'' | ʭ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2746092|Q2746092]] | ''[[:d:Q2746092|bilabial approximant]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q860286|Q860286]] | ''[[:d:Q860286|bilabial click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]] | ʘ | O\ | [[File:Clic bilabial sourd.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2579777|Q2579777]] | ''[[:d:Q2579777|bilabial ejective]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | pʼ | p_> | [[File:Bilabial ejective plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30632410|Q30632410]] | ''[[:d:Q30632410|bilabial ejective fricative]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4907485|Q4907485]] | ''[[:d:Q4907485|bilabial fricative]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4907486|Q4907486]] | ''[[:d:Q4907486|bilabial nasal click]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | [[File:Bilabial nasal click.ogg|center|48px]] | [[File:Nasal bilabial click.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q30835686|Q30835686]] | ''[[:d:Q30835686|bilabial percussive]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30835592|percussive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4907487|Q4907487]] | ''[[:d:Q4907487|bilabial plosive]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q19773200|Q19773200]] | ''[[:d:Q19773200|bilabial trill]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1003273|Q1003273]] | ''[[:d:Q1003273|Bukkal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q908751|liquid consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q893304|Q893304]] | ''[[:d:Q893304|cardinal vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]''<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206627|Q24206627]] | ''[[:d:Q24206627|centering diphthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q102532|diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_a6c038deafea6ff45ad441eaf9c7e203c6504c5030e1b2e7a36b5fe340edb9c9">http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/anae/glossary/phonetics/centdiph.html</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1851269|Q1851269]] | ''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q190885|Q190885]] | ''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5089103|Q5089103]] | ''[[:d:Q5089103|checked and free vowels]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q137588098|Q137588098]] | ''[[:d:Q137588098|checked vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5089103|checked and free vowels]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4157051|Q4157051]] | ''[[:d:Q4157051|Chinese syllable structure]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q6671777|structure]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q427013|Q427013]] | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2994704|non-pulmonic consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7888719|Q7888719]] | ''[[:d:Q7888719|close back compressed vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]'' | ɯ̫ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q29653|Q29653]] | ''[[:d:Q29653|close back rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118611885|high rounded back vowel]]'' | u | u | [[File:Close back rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q874985|Q874985]] | ''[[:d:Q874985|close back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɯ | M | [[File:Close back unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q874976|Q874976]] | ''[[:d:Q874976|close central rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ʉ | } | [[File:Close central rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q598968|Q598968]] | ''[[:d:Q598968|close central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɨ | 1 | [[File:Close central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q740728|Q740728]] | ''[[:d:Q740728|close front rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | y | y | [[File:Close front rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q320021|Q320021]] | ''[[:d:Q320021|close front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | i | i | [[File:Close front unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q815839|Q815839]] | ''[[:d:Q815839|close vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118611785|high vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q862579|Q862579]] | ''[[:d:Q862579|close-mid back rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1759170|close-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118611885|high rounded back vowel]]'' | o | o | [[File:Close-mid back rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q909114|Q909114]] | ''[[:d:Q909114|close-mid back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1759170|close-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɤ | 7 | [[File:Close-mid back unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q908327|Q908327]] | ''[[:d:Q908327|close-mid central rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1759170|close-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ɵ | 8 | [[File:Close-mid central rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1070044|Q1070044]] | ''[[:d:Q1070044|close-mid central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1759170|close-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɘ | @\ | [[File:Close-mid central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q118519|Q118519]] | ''[[:d:Q118519|close-mid front rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1759170|close-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ø | 2 | [[File:Close-mid front rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q734206|Q734206]] | ''[[:d:Q734206|close-mid front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1759170|close-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | e | e | [[File:Close-mid front unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1759170|Q1759170]] | ''[[:d:Q1759170|close-mid vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118611785|high vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25495380|Q25495380]] | ''[[:d:Q25495380|closed syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | [[File:Syllable Tree-sr-Cyrl.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q24206615|Q24206615]] | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q102532|diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_88d0c60216570914e1610e649d6db288063d76a34e51411db43067f2c54183c6">http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/anae/glossary/phonetics/closingdiph.html</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2374953|Q2374953]] | ''[[:d:Q2374953|co-articulated consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q38035|Q38035]] | [[consonante]] | [[phono]] | | | | [[File:PlaceOfArticulation.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q49749|Q49749]] | [[consonante alveolar]] | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | ◌͇<ref name="ref_b859970f7012303b469a3dd76b17f2ed32b3ff3d483703e74f481bc4b1e4f863">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/extIPA_2016.pdf</ref> | | | [[File:Alveolar.svg|center|48px]] | consonante |- | [[:d:Q146878|Q146878]] | [[consonante bilabial]] | [[consonante]] | | | | [[File:Bilabial.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q827454|Q827454]] | ''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2994704|non-pulmonic consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q652116|Q652116]] | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q121084667|flaps, trills, and retroflex lateral]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q234538|Q234538]] | [[consonante glottal]] | [[consonante]] | | | | | consonante |- | [[:d:Q208751|Q208751]] | [[consonante labiodental]] | [[consonante]] | | | | [[File:Labiodentaal.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q51593|Q51593]] | [[consonante nasal]] | [[consonante]]<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q13399293|Q13399293]] | [[consonante nasal alveolar]] | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]] | | | | | consonante |- | [[:d:Q13399237|Q13399237]] | [[consonante nasal bilabial]] | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]] | | | | | consonante |- | [[:d:Q201817|Q201817]] | [[consonante nasal bilabial sonante]] | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante nasal bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31627|sonorant]]'' | m | m | [[File:Bilabial nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | consonante |- | [[:d:Q7939642|Q7939642]] | [[consonante nasal bilabial surde]] | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | m̥ | m_0 | [[File:Voiceless Bilabial Nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | consonante |- | [[:d:Q24330315|Q24330315]] | [[consonante nasal retroflexe]] | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]] | | | | | consonante |- | [[:d:Q7939653|Q7939653]] | [[consonante nasal retroflexe surde]] | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | ɳ̊<br/>ɳ̥ | n`_0 | | | consonante |- | [[:d:Q231978|Q231978]] | [[consonante palatal]] | ''[[:d:Q1057396|dorsal consonant]]'' | | | | [[File:Palataal.svg|center|48px]] | consonante |- | [[:d:Q7239267|Q7239267]] | ''[[:d:Q7239267|consonante preoclusiva]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q267753|Q267753]] | [[consonante retroflexe]] | [[consonante]] | | | | [[File:Retroflex.svg|center|48px]] | consonante |- | [[:d:Q19773206|Q19773206]] | [[consonante sonante]] | [[consonante]] | | | | | consonante producite con vibration del chordas vocal |- | [[:d:Q19773264|Q19773264]] | [[consonante surde]] | [[consonante]] | | | | | consonante producite sin vibration del chordas vocal |- | [[:d:Q19408|Q19408]] | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1057396|dorsal consonant]]'' | | | | [[File:Velar.svg|center|48px]] | consonante |- | [[:d:Q127515822|Q127515822]] | ''[[:d:Q127515822|consonne battue linguo-labiale voisée]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q135423654|Q135423654]] | ''[[:d:Q135423654|consonne occlusive injective post-alvéolaire voisée]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3554750|Q3554750]] | ''[[:d:Q3554750|contextual variation]]'' | [[phonema]]<br/>[[phono]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1130761|variation]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2472788|Q2472788]] | ''[[:d:Q2472788|continuant]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q866449|Q866449]] | ''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347201|Q25347201]] | ''[[:d:Q25347201|coronal–velar consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q122056343|Q122056343]] | ''[[:d:Q122056343|creaky-voiced bilabial nasal]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25345851|Q25345851]] | ''[[:d:Q25345851|creaky-voiced glottal approximant]]'' | [[consonante glottal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17084827|creaky voice]]'' | ʔ̞<br/>ʔ̰ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2925746|Q2925746]] | ''[[:d:Q2925746|custos]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q956506|Q956506]] | ''[[:d:Q956506|dental click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]'' | ǀ | |\ | [[File:Clic dental sourd.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q120443|Q120443]] | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | | | | [[File:Dental.png|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2994712|Q2994712]] | ''[[:d:Q2994712|dental ejective]]'' | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q30632412|Q30632412]] | ''[[:d:Q30632412|dental ejective affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | t̪͡θʼ | | [[File:Dental ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5259415|Q5259415]] | ''[[:d:Q5259415|dental ejective fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | θʼ | | [[File:Dental ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1377956|Q1377956]] | ''[[:d:Q1377956|dental fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1401472|Q1401472]] | ''[[:d:Q1401472|dental nasal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | n̪ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q16256521|Q16256521]] | ''[[:d:Q16256521|dental nasal click]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5259437|Q5259437]] | ''[[:d:Q5259437|dental stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5259474|Q5259474]] | ''[[:d:Q5259474|denti-alveolar consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5259575|Q5259575]] | ''[[:d:Q5259575|dentolabial consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5260927|Q5260927]] | ''[[:d:Q5260927|depressor consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q102532|Q102532]] | ''[[:d:Q102532|diphthong]]'' | [[phono]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5403187|adjacent]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206687|Q24206687]] | ''[[:d:Q24206687|diphthongs in the English language]]'' | ''[[:d:Q102532|diphthong]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3711906|Q3711906]] | ''[[:d:Q3711906|dittongo mobile]]'' | ''[[:d:Q102532|diphthong]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1057396|Q1057396]] | ''[[:d:Q1057396|dorsal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3655585|Q3655585]] | ''[[:d:Q3655585|doubly articulated consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2374953|co-articulated consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q17177472|Q17177472]] | ''[[:d:Q17177472|E caduc]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5332766|Q5332766]] | ''[[:d:Q5332766|echo vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1299085|Q1299085]] | ''[[:d:Q1299085|egressive sound]]'' | [[phono]] | ↑◌ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1814973|Q1814973]] | ''[[:d:Q1814973|eindlettergreep]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5350115|Q5350115]] | ''[[:d:Q5350115|ejective-contour click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1837296|Q1837296]] | ''[[:d:Q1837296|emfatische medeklinker]]'' | ''[[:d:Q920360|emphatic consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q920360|Q920360]] | ''[[:d:Q920360|emphatic consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1148563|obstruent]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q106542541|Q106542541]] | ''[[:d:Q106542541|epiglottal approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q907875|Q907875]] | ''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347193|Q25347193]] | ''[[:d:Q25347193|epiglottal ejective]]'' | ''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʡʼ | >\_> | [[File:Epiglottal ejective.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10486223|Q10486223]] | ''[[:d:Q10486223|epiglottal fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3849613|Q3849613]] | ''[[:d:Q3849613|epiglotto-pharyngeal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25706451|Q25706451]] | ''[[:d:Q25706451|esasa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206666|Q24206666]] | ''[[:d:Q24206666|eə]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206627|centering diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_073d6acfb67071f10e0ec1ec2e1a1e9c8cf9b1516c8f56652317fce614588c8b">http://colasula.com/?p=530</ref> | eə | e@ | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206643|Q24206643]] | ''[[:d:Q24206643|eɪ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_073d6acfb67071f10e0ec1ec2e1a1e9c8cf9b1516c8f56652317fce614588c8b">http://colasula.com/?p=530</ref> | eɪ | eI | | | |- | [[:d:Q2361304|Q2361304]] | ''[[:d:Q2361304|final]]'' | ''[[:d:Q4157051|Chinese syllable structure]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121301347|Q121301347]] | ''[[:d:Q121301347|Finnic back vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121301348|Q121301348]] | ''[[:d:Q121301348|Finnic front vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121301359|Q121301359]] | ''[[:d:Q121301359|Finnic neutral vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121084667|Q121084667]] | ''[[:d:Q121084667|flaps, trills, and retroflex lateral]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q12714684|Q12714684]] | ''[[:d:Q12714684|flikk]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3554780|Q3554780]] | ''[[:d:Q3554780|free variation]]'' | [[phonema]]<br/>[[phono]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1130761|variation]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q137588101|Q137588101]] | ''[[:d:Q137588101|free vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5089103|checked and free vowels]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q31427|Q31427]] | ''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206619|Q24206619]] | ''[[:d:Q24206619|front closing diphthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_88d0c60216570914e1610e649d6db288063d76a34e51411db43067f2c54183c6">http://www.atlas.mouton-content.com/secure/generalmodules/anae/glossary/phonetics/closingdiph.html</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5505896|Q5505896]] | ''[[:d:Q5505896|front rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121455329|Q121455329]] | ''[[:d:Q121455329|front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5505949|Q5505949]] | ''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25492607|Q25492607]] | ''[[:d:Q25492607|furtive patach]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3997697|ַ]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5571991|Q5571991]] | ''[[:d:Q5571991|glottal fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante glottal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q178034|Q178034]] | ''[[:d:Q178034|glottal stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | ʔ | ? | [[File:Glottal stop.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q4026169|Q4026169]] | ''[[:d:Q4026169|glottalic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5571993|Q5571993]] | ''[[:d:Q5571993|glottalized click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1534578|Q1534578]] | ''[[:d:Q1534578|guttural]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25706450|Q25706450]] | ''[[:d:Q25706450|hbasa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<ref name="ref_b309a8f5b4707cc5cfa466f2061b6f2afd965952af22190daab2714becb4ed31">''[[:d:Q56655797|Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q124327712|Q124327712]] | ''[[:d:Q124327712|high front vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118611785|high vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q118611885|Q118611885]] | ''[[:d:Q118611885|high rounded back vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118611785|high vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q118611785|Q118611785]] | ''[[:d:Q118611785|high vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q5891600|Q5891600]] | ''[[:d:Q5891600|homorganic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1162426|Q1162426]] | ''[[:d:Q1162426|Hungarian vowels]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q849417|Q849417]] | ''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2994704|non-pulmonic consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47012331|Q47012331]] | ''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1663284|Q1663284]] | ''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1404061|Q1404061]] | ''[[:d:Q1404061|inherent vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121301466|Q121301466]] | ''[[:d:Q121301466|initial consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1756731|initial]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121301470|Q121301470]] | ''[[:d:Q121301470|initial vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1756731|initial]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1665967|Q1665967]] | ''[[:d:Q1665967|interdental consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6057441|Q6057441]] | ''[[:d:Q6057441|intervocalic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11268869|Q11268869]] | ''[[:d:Q11268869|Japanese long vowels]]'' | ''[[:d:Q121704609|long vowel]]''<ref name="ref_5de5083a811a03d34c825aabc37dccfa939419b52aaac4069754b69129f99c0a">https://www.coelang.tufs.ac.jp/mt/ja/pmod/practical/02-02-01.php</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q10884035|Q10884035]] | ''[[:d:Q10884035|jiemu]]'' | ''[[:d:Q757410|semivowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q65328038|Q65328038]] | ''[[:d:Q65328038|Korean fortis consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6467041|Q6467041]] | ''[[:d:Q6467041|labial approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1127209|labial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1127209|Q1127209]] | ''[[:d:Q1127209|labial consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1147016|Q1147016]] | ''[[:d:Q1147016|labialization]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2374953|co-articulated consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7443805|secondary articulation]]'' | ʷ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q19773274|Q19773274]] | ''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6467053|Q6467053]] | ''[[:d:Q6467053|labialized voiced labiodental fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6467054|Q6467054]] | ''[[:d:Q6467054|labialized voiceless palato-alveolar affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7126842|palato-alveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6467055|Q6467055]] | ''[[:d:Q6467055|labialized voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6467059|Q6467059]] | ''[[:d:Q6467059|labialized voiceless uvular affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q19774933|Q19774933]] | ''[[:d:Q19774933|labialized voiceless velar fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]'' | xʷ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q122766555|Q122766555]] | ''[[:d:Q122766555|labial–alveolar ejective stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2884232|Q2884232]] | ''[[:d:Q2884232|labial–coronal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q123532216|Q123532216]] | ''[[:d:Q123532216|labial–uvular consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2994706|Q2994706]] | ''[[:d:Q2994706|labial–velar consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q20820080|Q20820080]] | ''[[:d:Q20820080|labial–velar plosive]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2994706|labial–velar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3687471|Q3687471]] | ''[[:d:Q3687471|labio-velar consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q137393329|Q137393329]] | ''[[:d:Q137393329|Labioalveolar consonant]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105038173|Q105038173]] | ''[[:d:Q105038173|labiodental ejective affricate]]'' | [[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | p̪fʼ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6467104|Q6467104]] | ''[[:d:Q6467104|labiodental ejective fricative]]'' | [[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | fʼ | | [[File:Labiodental ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q10552419|Q10552419]] | ''[[:d:Q10552419|labiodental fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante labiodental]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q312111|Q312111]] | ''[[:d:Q312111|labiovelar consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q765443|Q765443]] | ''[[:d:Q765443|laminal consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q130582409|Q130582409]] | ''[[:d:Q130582409|Laminal retroflex fricative]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q765443|laminal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4254538|Q4254538]] | ''[[:d:Q4254538|laryngeal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47010355|Q47010355]] | ''[[:d:Q47010355|lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q223714|Q223714]] | ''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q106666076|Q106666076]] | ''[[:d:Q106666076|lateral flapp]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q18451517|Q18451517]] | ''[[:d:Q18451517|lateral fricative consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q30942768|Q30942768]] | ''[[:d:Q30942768|light syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q94771423|Q94771423]] | ''[[:d:Q94771423|linguolabial click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1197283|Q1197283]] | ''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q122785968|Q122785968]] | ''[[:d:Q122785968|linguolabial lateral flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6554097|Q6554097]] | ''[[:d:Q6554097|linguolabial nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | n̼ | m_d | [[File:Linguolabial nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q133821833|Q133821833]] | ''[[:d:Q133821833|Linguolabial trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q908751|Q908751]] | ''[[:d:Q908751|liquid consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121704609|Q121704609]] | ''[[:d:Q121704609|long vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q118612491|Q118612491]] | ''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118612479|low vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q118612479|Q118612479]] | ''[[:d:Q118612479|low vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q12716620|Q12716620]] | ''[[:d:Q12716620|Lydsystem]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1348769|Q1348769]] | ''[[:d:Q1348769|Media]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4116866|Q4116866]] | ''[[:d:Q4116866|mid back rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1650645|mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | o̞<br/>ɔ̝ | | [[File:Mid back rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3399386|Q3399386]] | ''[[:d:Q3399386|mid back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1650645|mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɤ̞<br/>ʌ̝ | | [[File:ɤ̞ IPA sound.opus|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3523872|Q3523872]] | ''[[:d:Q3523872|mid front rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1650645|mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ø̞<br/>œ̝ | 2_o<br/>9_r | [[File:Mid front rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3519604|Q3519604]] | ''[[:d:Q3519604|mid front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1650645|mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | e̞<br/>ɛ̝ | e_o | [[File:Mid front unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1650645|Q1650645]] | ''[[:d:Q1650645|mid vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105548817|Q105548817]] | ''[[:d:Q105548817|mid-central rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1650645|mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ə̹<br/>ɞ̝<br/>ɵ̞ | | [[File:Mid central rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1154123|Q1154123]] | ''[[:d:Q1154123|mid-central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q209316|schwa]]'' | ə | @ | [[File:Mid-central vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q6869204|Q6869204]] | ''[[:d:Q6869204|minor syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q932126|Q932126]] | ''[[:d:Q932126|monophthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1445594|Q1445594]] | ''[[:d:Q1445594|moon letter]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1670737|Q1670737]] | ''[[:d:Q1670737|morph]]'' | ''[[:d:Q602418|segment]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1288899|Q1288899]] | ''[[:d:Q1288899|Muta]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6966566|Q6966566]] | ''[[:d:Q6966566|nasal click]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4327628|Q4327628]] | ''[[:d:Q4327628|nasal infix]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q201322|infix]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6966573|Q6966573]] | ''[[:d:Q6966573|nasal labialized velar approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q97179730|Q97179730]] | ''[[:d:Q97179730|nasal open back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1321760|nasal vowel]]'' | ɑ̃ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6966576|Q6966576]] | ''[[:d:Q6966576|nasal palatal approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]] | j̃ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q8017813|Q8017813]] | ''[[:d:Q8017813|nasal sonant in Japanese]]'' | [[consonante nasal]] | | | [[File:Ja-Nagasaki.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1321760|Q1321760]] | ''[[:d:Q1321760|nasal vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2078916|Q2078916]] | ''[[:d:Q2078916|near-back vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2046206|Q2046206]] | ''[[:d:Q2046206|near-close central rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ɷ<br/>ʉ̞<br/>ʊ̈ | U\<br/>}_o | [[File:Close central rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q770632|Q770632]] | ''[[:d:Q770632|near-close central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɘ̝<br/>ɨ̞<br/>ɪ̈ | I\ | [[File:Near-close central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1137807|Q1137807]] | ''[[:d:Q1137807|near-close near-back rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2078916|near-back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118611885|high rounded back vowel]]'' | ʊ | U | [[File:Near-close near-back rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3563444|Q3563444]] | ''[[:d:Q3563444|near-close near-back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2078916|near-back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɯ̞̈<br/>ɯ̽<br/>ʊ̜<br/>ω | | [[File:Near-close near-back unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q965123|Q965123]] | ''[[:d:Q965123|near-close near-front rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2280186|near-front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ʏ | Y | [[File:Near-close near-front rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1070049|Q1070049]] | ''[[:d:Q1070049|near-close near-front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2280186|near-front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɪ | I | [[File:Near-close near-front unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1813464|Q1813464]] | ''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118611785|high vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2280186|Q2280186]] | ''[[:d:Q2280186|near-front vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q39052333|Q39052333]] | ''[[:d:Q39052333|near-open central rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779759|near-open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ɐ̹<br/>ɞ̞<ref name="ref_9487bd69050428b718effc2c1c59617c1ed7c3ad25e6f9bbfdbfe11738409c06">''[[:d:Q41778688|Template:IPA vowels]]''</ref> | | [[File:Open-mid central rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q503323|Q503323]] | ''[[:d:Q503323|near-open central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779759|near-open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | ɐ | 6 | [[File:Near-open central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | [[File:Near-open central unrounded vowel.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q33127828|Q33127828]] | ''[[:d:Q33127828|near-open central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779759|near-open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ɜ̞ | | [[File:Near-open central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q740768|Q740768]] | ''[[:d:Q740768|near-open front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779759|near-open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | æ | { | [[File:Near-open front unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1779759|Q1779759]] | ''[[:d:Q1779759|near-open vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118612479|low vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2994704|Q2994704]] | ''[[:d:Q2994704|non-pulmonic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3563443|Q3563443]] | ''[[:d:Q3563443|non-syllabic vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2004648|Q2004648]] | ''[[:d:Q2004648|null allomorph]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1124301|allomorph]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1789027|null morpheme]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1789027|Q1789027]] | ''[[:d:Q1789027|null morpheme]]'' | [[morphema]]<br/>''[[:d:Q3274237|zero]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q118979094|Q118979094]] | ''[[:d:Q118979094|null phoneme]]'' | ''[[:d:Q3274237|zero]]''<br/>[[phonema]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4327973|Q4327973]] | ''[[:d:Q4327973|null suffix]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1789027|null morpheme]]''<br/>[[suffixo]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1148563|Q1148563]] | ''[[:d:Q1148563|obstruent]]'' | [[consonante]]<ref name="ref_af63a297933060f4a021d1ba53eff8258f089a003ae460a208b7d54b26c77958">http://gramatika.hr/pravilo/podjela-glasova/1/</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1971057|Q1971057]] | ''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q740714|Q740714]] | ''[[:d:Q740714|open back rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ɒ | Q | [[File:PR-open back rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q431471|Q431471]] | ''[[:d:Q431471|open back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | ɑ | A | [[File:Open back unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q20643536|Q20643536]] | ''[[:d:Q20643536|open central rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ɒ̈ | | [[File:Open central rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2493584|Q2493584]] | ''[[:d:Q2493584|open central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | ä | a<br/>a_" | [[File:Open central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q909416|Q909416]] | ''[[:d:Q909416|open front rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ɶ | & | [[File:Open front rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q845073|Q845073]] | ''[[:d:Q845073|open front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | a | a | [[File:A - Vowel sound.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q5997175|Q5997175]] | ''[[:d:Q5997175|open syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q840326|Q840326]] | ''[[:d:Q840326|open vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118612479|low vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q379085|Q379085]] | ''[[:d:Q379085|open-mid back rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779767|open-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ɔ | O | [[File:PR-open-mid back rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q874968|Q874968]] | ''[[:d:Q874968|open-mid back unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779767|open-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q853589|back vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | ʌ | V | [[File:PR-open-mid back unrounded vowel2.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1137346|Q1137346]] | ''[[:d:Q1137346|open-mid central rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1779767|open-mid vowel]]'' | ɞ | 3\ | [[File:Open-mid central rounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1057346|Q1057346]] | ''[[:d:Q1057346|open-mid central unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779767|open-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | ɜ | 3 | [[File:Open-mid central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q80731|Q80731]] | ''[[:d:Q80731|open-mid front rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779767|open-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | œ | 9 | [[File:Open-mid front rounded vowel (2).ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q29462|Q29462]] | ''[[:d:Q29462|open-mid front unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1779767|open-mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5505949|front vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q118612491|low unrounded vowel]]'' | ɛ | E | [[File:Open-mid front unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1779767|Q1779767]] | ''[[:d:Q1779767|open-mid vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q118612479|low vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q12714585|Q12714585]] | ''[[:d:Q12714585|opening diphthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q102532|diphthong]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2479203|Q2479203]] | ''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24283507|Q24283507]] | ''[[:d:Q24283507|oʊ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]'' | oʊ | oU | | | |- | [[:d:Q1711702|Q1711702]] | ''[[:d:Q1711702|palatal click consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]] | ǂ | =\ | [[File:Palatoalveolar click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994714|Q2994714]] | ''[[:d:Q2994714|palatal ejective]]'' | [[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | | | [[File:Palatal ejective.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30632414|Q30632414]] | ''[[:d:Q30632414|palatal ejective affricate]]'' | [[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q30632411|Q30632411]] | ''[[:d:Q30632411|palatal ejective fricative]]'' | [[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7126767|Q7126767]] | ''[[:d:Q7126767|palatal fricative]]'' | [[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24250647|Q24250647]] | ''[[:d:Q24250647|palatal lateral consonant]]'' | [[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7126768|Q7126768]] | ''[[:d:Q7126768|palatal lateral ejective affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q24250647|palatal lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]] | cʎ̝̊ʼ<br/>c͡ʎ̝̥ʼ | | [[File:Palatal lateral ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7126773|Q7126773]] | ''[[:d:Q7126773|palatal nasal click]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1711702|palatal click consonant]]'' | ŋǂ<br/>ŋ͡ǂ<br/>ǂ̃ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7126775|Q7126775]] | ''[[:d:Q7126775|palatal stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24248517|Q24248517]] | ''[[:d:Q24248517|palatal-velar consonant]]'' | [[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q124150931|Q124150931]] | ''[[:d:Q124150931|palatalized lateral]]'' | ''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]'' | /lʲ/ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q124150943|Q124150943]] | ''[[:d:Q124150943|palatalized velar stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7918823|velar stop]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7126842|Q7126842]] | ''[[:d:Q7126842|palato-alveolar consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7126841|Q7126841]] | ''[[:d:Q7126841|palato-alveolar ejective affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7126842|palato-alveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tʃʼ<br/>t͡ʃʼ | | [[File:Palato-alveolar ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7126843|Q7126843]] | ''[[:d:Q7126843|palato-alveolar ejective fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q7126842|palato-alveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | ʃʼ | | [[File:Palato-alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25640939|Q25640939]] | ''[[:d:Q25640939|paragogische sjwa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1154123|mid-central unrounded vowel]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7165347|Q7165347]] | ''[[:d:Q7165347|penult]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q30835592|Q30835592]] | ''[[:d:Q30835592|percussive consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2994704|non-pulmonic consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7168700|Q7168700]] | ''[[:d:Q7168700|peripheral consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q252321|Q252321]] | ''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2088647|Q2088647]] | ''[[:d:Q2088647|Phonetikum]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q202064|Q202064]] | [[phono]] | ''[[:d:Q11953984|linguistic unit]]''<ref name="ref_da19a3307b669bd2bee8bc9549deddf2104649c58f41bccd40d85de516fba65c">https://books.google.com/books?id=9tnzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA328</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q151885|concepto]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q51597|Q51597]] | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<ref name="ref_987e00d285b5b1c920505ede89ce3153c332c600eea77ac8346a2a4fbbdcc683">''[[:d:Q23306977|The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | | | | [[File:Linguolabial stop.png|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q49748|Q49748]] | ''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | | | | [[File:Postalveolar consonant.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q56315958|Q56315958]] | ''[[:d:Q56315958|postalveolar ejective fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24640000|Q24640000]] | ''[[:d:Q24640000|postvocalic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q122226941|Q122226941]] | ''[[:d:Q122226941|prenasalized voiced linguolabial plosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25706446|Q25706446]] | ''[[:d:Q25706446|pthaha]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<ref name="ref_b309a8f5b4707cc5cfa466f2061b6f2afd965952af22190daab2714becb4ed31">''[[:d:Q56655797|Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7259553|Q7259553]] | ''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7259552|Q7259552]] | ''[[:d:Q7259552|pulmonic-contour click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q12047602|Q12047602]] | ''[[:d:Q12047602|pulmonická hláska]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q843029|Q843029]] | ''[[:d:Q843029|R-colored vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | [[File:En-us-er.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1509593|Q1509593]] | ''[[:d:Q1509593|radical consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347187|Q25347187]] | ''[[:d:Q25347187|raised vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25706448|Q25706448]] | ''[[:d:Q25706448|rbasa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<ref name="ref_b309a8f5b4707cc5cfa466f2061b6f2afd965952af22190daab2714becb4ed31">''[[:d:Q56655797|Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347183|Q25347183]] | ''[[:d:Q25347183|retracted vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7317016|Q7317016]] | ''[[:d:Q7317016|retroflex click consonant]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | 𝼊 | | | | |- | [[:d:Q16258239|Q16258239]] | ''[[:d:Q16258239|retroflex ejective]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | | | [[File:Retroflex ejective.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7317019|Q7317019]] | ''[[:d:Q7317019|retroflex ejective affricate]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tʂʼ<br/>ʈʂʼ<br/>ʈ͡ʂʼ | | [[File:Retroflex ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994698|Q2994698]] | ''[[:d:Q2994698|retroflex ejective fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | ʂʼ | | [[File:Retroflex ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7317022|Q7317022]] | ''[[:d:Q7317022|retroflex nasal click]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]] | ŋ͡‼<br/>ŋ‼<br/>‼̃ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7317023|Q7317023]] | ''[[:d:Q7317023|retroflex stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1076155|Q1076155]] | ''[[:d:Q1076155|rhotic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11037904|Q11037904]] | ''[[:d:Q11037904|round-sharp distinction]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q20643518|Q20643518]] | ''[[:d:Q20643518|rounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7041477|Q7041477]] | ''[[:d:Q7041477|rr]]'' | ''[[:d:Q463522|voiced alveolar trill]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q209316|Q209316]] | ''[[:d:Q209316|schwa]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1650645|mid vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]'' | ə | @ | [[File:Mid-central vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q602418|Q602418]] | ''[[:d:Q602418|segment]]'' | [[phono]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11953984|linguistic unit]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q757410|Q757410]] | ''[[:d:Q757410|semivowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4139513|glide]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121704367|Q121704367]] | ''[[:d:Q121704367|short vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q51600|Q51600]] | ''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q13097120|Q13097120]] | ''[[:d:Q13097120|Silabik]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2285687|Q2285687]] | ''[[:d:Q2285687|Silbengelenk]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11637484|Q11637484]] | ''[[:d:Q11637484|soft vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11893994|Q11893994]] | ''[[:d:Q11893994|soinnillinen velaariklusiili]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q13216955|Q13216955]] | ''[[:d:Q13216955|Son GN]]'' | [[consonante nasal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q13216953|Q13216953]] | ''[[:d:Q13216953|Son UN]]'' | [[consonante nasal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q31627|Q31627]] | ''[[:d:Q31627|sonorant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7581564|Q7581564]] | ''[[:d:Q7581564|spurious diphthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q51839191|Q51839191]] | ''[[:d:Q51839191|stressed syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q84512869|Q84512869]] | ''[[:d:Q84512869|stricture]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q17027400|Q17027400]] | ''[[:d:Q17027400|strident vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2441826|Q2441826]] | ''[[:d:Q2441826|subapical consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q866449|coronal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q101264559|Q101264559]] | ''[[:d:Q101264559|sublingual percussive]]'' | ''[[:d:Q30835592|percussive consonant]]'' | ¡ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q14835068|Q14835068]] | ''[[:d:Q14835068|sun letter]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3506876|Q3506876]] | ''[[:d:Q3506876|syllabe castillane]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3506879|Q3506879]] | ''[[:d:Q3506879|Syllabe en mandarin]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2916331|Q2916331]] | ''[[:d:Q2916331|syllabic consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | ◌̍<br/>◌̩ | = | | | |- | [[:d:Q8188|Q8188]] | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q6671777|structure]]''<br/>[[phono]]<br/>''[[:d:Q11953984|linguistic unit]]''<ref name="ref_45c918447353ad8937598cb53b2c3607d0e920dbf79ca329a56d7c01bc961c2c">https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/syllable</ref><ref name="ref_d7a244496786fdb71f48ea396c083f8b0765027dc78d6ec0f591b472a435431f">https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/syllable</ref><ref name="ref_8f09073f8281f7d7eee15691e957edc56c3f76c3c1740a61d27dac0871eee708">https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/syllable</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q133191783|Q133191783]] | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133074803|Syriac diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q21087499|Q21087499]] | ''[[:d:Q21087499|Síl·laba tònica]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q12355742|Q12355742]] | ''[[:d:Q12355742|Taktsilabo]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7700925|Q7700925]] | ''[[:d:Q7700925|tenuis alveolar click]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | kǃ<br/>k͡ǃ<br/>ᵏʗ | | [[File:Postalveolar click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q17121898|Q17121898]] | ''[[:d:Q17121898|tenuis alveolar lateral click]]'' | [[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | [[File:Alveolar lateral click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7700927|Q7700927]] | ''[[:d:Q7700927|tenuis bilabial click]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]'' | kʘ<br/>k͡ʘ | | [[File:Clic bilabial sourd.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105551172|Q105551172]] | ''[[:d:Q105551172|tenuis bilabial uvular click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | q͡ʘ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q838797|Q838797]] | ''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q65089582|Q65089582]] | ''[[:d:Q65089582|tenuis dental click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]'' | kǀ<br/>kʇ<br/>k͡ǀ<br/>k͡ʇ | | [[File:Dental click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105551305|Q105551305]] | ''[[:d:Q105551305|tenuis dental uvular click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | qǀ<br/>qʇ<br/>q͡ǀ<br/>q͡ʇ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7700929|Q7700929]] | ''[[:d:Q7700929|tenuis palatal click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ǂ | =\ | [[File:Palatoalveolar click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105551470|Q105551470]] | ''[[:d:Q105551470|tenuis palatal uvular click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | qǂ<br/>q͡ǂ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105551400|Q105551400]] | ''[[:d:Q105551400|tenuis palatal velar click]]'' | ''[[:d:Q838797|tenuis consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | kǂ<br/>k͡ǂ | | [[File:Palatoalveolar click.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7700931|Q7700931]] | ''[[:d:Q7700931|tenuis retroflex click]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]'' | | | [[File:Retrflx click.wav|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q31900002|Q31900002]] | ''[[:d:Q31900002|the tenth vowel of the Swedish language]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3322476|Q3322476]] | ''[[:d:Q3322476|thematic vowel]]'' | [[morphema]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2864950|Q2864950]] | ''[[:d:Q2864950|themavocaal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q51611|Q51611]] | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q121084667|flaps, trills, and retroflex lateral]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7842010|Q7842010]] | ''[[:d:Q7842010|trilled affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q912128|Q912128]] | ''[[:d:Q912128|triphthong]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q518603|Q518603]] | ''[[:d:Q518603|voiceless palato-alveolar affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tʃ<br/>t̠ʃ<br/>t͜ʃ<br/>t͡ʃ<br/>ʧ | tS<br/>t_rS<br/>t_r_jS | [[File:Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | [[File:Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate (vector, no tiebar).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3704485|Q3704485]] | ''[[:d:Q3704485|ultima]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1144902|Q1144902]] | ''[[:d:Q1144902|unreleased stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | ◌̚ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11663698|Q11663698]] | ''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11950650|Q11950650]] | ''[[:d:Q11950650|unstressed syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q9626521|Q9626521]] | ''[[:d:Q9626521|uvular approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q623772|Q623772]] | ''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]'' | [[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1057396|dorsal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1875788|Q1875788]] | ''[[:d:Q1875788|uvular ejective]]'' | ''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | | | [[File:Uvular ejective plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7903733|Q7903733]] | ''[[:d:Q7903733|uvular ejective affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | q͡χʼ<br/>qχʼ | | [[File:Uvular ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994699|Q2994699]] | ''[[:d:Q2994699|uvular ejective fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | χʼ | | [[File:Uvular ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122782919|Q122782919]] | ''[[:d:Q122782919|uvular lateral ejective affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7903739|Q7903739]] | ''[[:d:Q7903739|uvular stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q3849620|Q3849620]] | ''[[:d:Q3849620|uvular–epiglottal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2663077|Q2663077]] | ''[[:d:Q2663077|velar ejective]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]'' | kʼ | | [[File:Velar ejective plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7918817|Q7918817]] | ''[[:d:Q7918817|velar ejective affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | kxʼ | | [[File:Velar ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7918818|Q7918818]] | ''[[:d:Q7918818|velar ejective fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | xʼ | | [[File:Velar ejective fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q24254526|Q24254526]] | ''[[:d:Q24254526|velar lateral consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7918820|Q7918820]] | ''[[:d:Q7918820|velar lateral ejective affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q827454|consonante ejective]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | kʟ̝̊ʼ<br/>k͡ʟ̝̊ʼ | | [[File:Velar lateral ejective affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7918823|Q7918823]] | ''[[:d:Q7918823|velar stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1399624|Q1399624]] | ''[[:d:Q1399624|velarized alveolar lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | lˠ<br/>lˤ<br/>ɫ | 5<br/>l_?\<br/>l_G | [[File:Velarized alveolar lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25053245|Q25053245]] | ''[[:d:Q25053245|velopharyngeal consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | ʩ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7924627|Q7924627]] | ''[[:d:Q7924627|vibrant consonant]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q120531440|Q120531440]] | ''[[:d:Q120531440|Vibrante simple lateral palatal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q20968728|Q20968728]] | ''[[:d:Q20968728|Vietnamese vowels]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q36244|Q36244]] | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | [[phono]] | | | | [[File:The International Phonetic Alphabet (2015 version) (cropped) (only vowels).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q11954925|Q11954925]] | ''[[:d:Q11954925|vocal tònica]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121789691|Q121789691]] | ''[[:d:Q121789691|vocalic release]]'' | ''[[:d:Q209316|schwa]]'' | ᵊ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1068527|Q1068527]] | ''[[:d:Q1068527|voiced alveolar affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | d͡z<br/>ʣ | dz | [[File:Voiced alveolar sibilant affricate.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q909128|Q909128]] | ''[[:d:Q909128|voiced alveolar approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ð̠˕<br/>ɹ | r\ | [[File:Alveolar approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939616|Q7939616]] | ''[[:d:Q7939616|voiced alveolar click]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | ǃ̬<br/>ᶢǃ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q874996|Q874996]] | ''[[:d:Q874996|voiced alveolar flap]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q335591|voiced alveolar stop]]''<ref name="ref_4f9c18d8cef454b4d526940288b2c32ff7d2e8d4efdbaa2922333856f04130a5">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Kiel_2015.pdf</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɾ<br/>ɾ͇ | 4 | [[File:Alveolar tap.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q506687|Q506687]] | ''[[:d:Q506687|voiced alveolar fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]'' | z | z | [[File:Voiced alveolar sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122860784|Q122860784]] | ''[[:d:Q122860784|voiced alveolar fricative trill]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1808098|Q1808098]] | ''[[:d:Q1808098|voiced alveolar implosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | ɗ | d_< | [[File:Voiced alveolar implosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2846215|Q2846215]] | ''[[:d:Q2846215|voiced alveolar lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | dɮ<br/>d͡ɮ<br/>λ | dK\ | [[File:Voiced alveolar lateral affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q815439|Q815439]] | ''[[:d:Q815439|voiced alveolar lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31627|sonorant]]'' | l | l | [[File:Alveolar lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939620|Q7939620]] | ''[[:d:Q7939620|voiced alveolar lateral click]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]'' | ǁ̬<br/>ᶢǁ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1057318|Q1057318]] | ''[[:d:Q1057318|voiced alveolar lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɮ | K\ | [[File:Voiced alveolar lateral fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122802694|Q122802694]] | ''[[:d:Q122802694|voiced alveolar lateral–median fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q271611|Q271611]] | ''[[:d:Q271611|voiced alveolar nasal]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31627|sonorant]]'' | n | n | [[File:Alveolar nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105546325|Q105546325]] | ''[[:d:Q105546325|voiced alveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | dð̠<br/>dð͇<br/>dɹ̝ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105541446|Q105541446]] | ''[[:d:Q105541446|voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | d̞<br/>ð̠<br/>ð͇<br/>ɹ̝ | | [[File:Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q121010451|Q121010451]] | ''[[:d:Q121010451|voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q335591|Q335591]] | ''[[:d:Q335591|voiced alveolar stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | d<br/>d̪<br/>d͇ | d | [[File:Voiced alveolar plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105541411|Q105541411]] | ''[[:d:Q105541411|voiced alveolar tapped fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɹ̝̆<br/>ɾ̞ | | [[File:Voiced alveolar tapped fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q463522|Q463522]] | ''[[:d:Q463522|voiced alveolar trill]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q113159186|voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills]]'' | r | r | [[File:Alveolar trill.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1364930|Q1364930]] | ''[[:d:Q1364930|voiced alveolo-palatal affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | d͜ʑ<br/>d͡ʑ<br/>ɟʑ<br/>ɟ͜ʑ<br/>ɟ͡ʑ<br/>ʥ | J\_z\<br/>d_z\ | [[File:Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q135423955|Q135423955]] | ''[[:d:Q135423955|voiced alveolo-palatal consonant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q4737966|Q4737966]] | ''[[:d:Q4737966|voiced alveolo-palatal lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | l̠ʲ<br/>ȴ<br/>ʎ̟ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q684085|Q684085]] | ''[[:d:Q684085|voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q38592|Devanagari]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʑ | z\ | [[File:Voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122374659|Q122374659]] | ''[[:d:Q122374659|voiced bidental fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2917875|bidental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25345848|Q25345848]] | ''[[:d:Q25345848|voiced bilabial affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | b͡β<br/>bβ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105541870|Q105541870]] | ''[[:d:Q105541870|voiced bilabial approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʋ̟<br/>β̞ | | [[File:Bilabial approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939621|Q7939621]] | ''[[:d:Q7939621|voiced bilabial click]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]'' | ɡʘ<br/>ɡ͡ʘ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2575108|Q2575108]] | ''[[:d:Q2575108|voiced bilabial flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ⱱ̟ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q181711|Q181711]] | ''[[:d:Q181711|voiced bilabial fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | β | B | [[File:Voiced bilabial fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2300147|Q2300147]] | ''[[:d:Q2300147|voiced bilabial implosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | ɓ | b_< | [[File:Voiced bilabial implosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q242797|Q242797]] | ''[[:d:Q242797|voiced bilabial plosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | b<ref name="ref_a8e0de4fa9082f7572c1c8f367a3d6974f6e1266fed16ea35eba52c9fa5ddeed">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-pulmonic-consonants</ref> | b | [[File:Voiced bilabial plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1068514|Q1068514]] | ''[[:d:Q1068514|voiced bilabial trill]]'' | [[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʙ | B\ | [[File:Bilabial trill.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q112748276|Q112748276]] | ''[[:d:Q112748276|Voiced dental affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105541991|Q105541991]] | ''[[:d:Q105541991|voiced dental approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ð̞<br/>ɹ̪ | | [[File:Voiced dental approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47068151|Q47068151]] | ''[[:d:Q47068151|voiced dental flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | ɾ̪ | 4_d | | | |- | [[:d:Q654641|Q654641]] | ''[[:d:Q654641|voiced dental fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ð | D | [[File:Voiced dental fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994732|Q2994732]] | ''[[:d:Q2994732|voiced dental lateral approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | l̪ | | [[File:Voiced dental lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124255806|Q124255806]] | ''[[:d:Q124255806|voiced dental lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47012553|Q47012553]] | ''[[:d:Q47012553|voiced dental nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | n̪ | n_d | | | |- | [[:d:Q15091943|Q15091943]] | ''[[:d:Q15091943|voiced dental non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | dð<br/>d̟ð<br/>d̟͡ð<br/>d̪ð<br/>d̪͡ð<br/>d͜ð<br/>d͡ð | | [[File:Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q85982206|Q85982206]] | ''[[:d:Q85982206|Voiced dental sibilant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q122355501|Q122355501]] | ''[[:d:Q122355501|voiced dental sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1400471|Q1400471]] | ''[[:d:Q1400471|voiced dental stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | d̪ | d_d | [[File:Voiced dental stop.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47014590|Q47014590]] | ''[[:d:Q47014590|voiced dental trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | r̪ | r_d | | | |- | [[:d:Q113159186|Q113159186]] | ''[[:d:Q113159186|voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25109796|Q25109796]] | ''[[:d:Q25109796|voiced epiglottal affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʡʢ<br/>ʡ͡ʢ | | [[File:Voiced epiglottal affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2342591|Q2342591]] | ''[[:d:Q2342591|voiced epiglottal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʡ̆<br/>ʢ̆ | | [[File:Epiglottal flap.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1145500|Q1145500]] | ''[[:d:Q1145500|voiced epiglottal fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | ʢ | <\ | [[File:Voiced epiglottal trill 2.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47036110|Q47036110]] | ''[[:d:Q47036110|voiced epiglottal nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47012319|Q47012319]] | ''[[:d:Q47012319|voiced epiglottal stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | ʡ̬ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2994731|Q2994731]] | ''[[:d:Q2994731|voiced epiglottal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | ᴙ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q123198442|Q123198442]] | ''[[:d:Q123198442|voiced final consonant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47087994|Q47087994]] | ''[[:d:Q47087994|voiced glottal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q862576|Q862576]] | ''[[:d:Q862576|voiced glottal fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5571991|glottal fricative]]'' | ɦ | h\ | [[File:Voiced glottal fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47013259|Q47013259]] | ''[[:d:Q47013259|voiced glottal nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47012447|Q47012447]] | ''[[:d:Q47012447|voiced glottal stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | ʔ̬ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47037481|Q47037481]] | ''[[:d:Q47037481|voiced glottal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]''<ref name="ref_4f9c18d8cef454b4d526940288b2c32ff7d2e8d4efdbaa2922333856f04130a5">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Kiel_2015.pdf</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2470874|Q2470874]] | ''[[:d:Q2470874|voiced labial-velar nasal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2994706|labial–velar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | ŋm<br/>ŋ͡m | Nm | [[File:Labial-velar nasal stop.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2973461|Q2973461]] | ''[[:d:Q2973461|voiced labialized palatal approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19773274|labialized consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1378433|labio-palatal consonant]]'' | ɥ | H | [[File:LL-Q150 (fra)-WikiLucas00-IPA ɥ.wav|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122928253|Q122928253]] | ''[[:d:Q122928253|voiced labial–alveolar nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q122766651|Q122766651]] | ''[[:d:Q122766651|voiced labial–alveolar plosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q124250079|Q124250079]] | ''[[:d:Q124250079|voiced labial–velar implosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2994706|labial–velar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | | | [[File:Voiced-labial-velar-implosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2693518|Q2693518]] | ''[[:d:Q2693518|voiced labial–velar plosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q20820080|labial–velar plosive]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | ɡb<br/>ɡ͡b | gb | [[File:Voiced labial-velar plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q565654|Q565654]] | ''[[:d:Q565654|voiced labio-velar approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3687471|labio-velar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | w | w | [[File:Voiced labio-velar approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939623|Q7939623]] | ''[[:d:Q7939623|voiced labiodental affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | b̪v<br/>b̪͡v | | [[File:Voiced labiodental affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1054266|Q1054266]] | ''[[:d:Q1054266|voiced labiodental approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʋ | P | [[File:Labiodental approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1973022|Q1973022]] | ''[[:d:Q1973022|voiced labiodental flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ⱱ | | [[File:Labiodental flap.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q654787|Q654787]] | ''[[:d:Q654787|voiced labiodental fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | v | v | [[File:Voiced labio-dental fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q835956|Q835956]] | ''[[:d:Q835956|voiced labiodental nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | m̪<br/>m͆<br/>ɱ | F | [[File:Fricativa alveolar sorda.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q519565|Q519565]] | ''[[:d:Q519565|voiced labiodental stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | b̪<br/>b͆ | b_d | | | |- | [[:d:Q30632409|Q30632409]] | ''[[:d:Q30632409|voiced labiodental trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | ʙ̪ | B\_d | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939624|Q7939624]] | ''[[:d:Q7939624|voiced linguolabial fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ð̼<br/>β̺ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q61055881|Q61055881]] | ''[[:d:Q61055881|voiced linguolabial stop]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | b̺<br/>d̼<br/>ɾ̼ | | [[File:Voiced linguolabial stop.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30917337|Q30917337]] | ''[[:d:Q30917337|voiced linguolabial tap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | ɾ̼ | | [[File:Vibrante simple linguolabial.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q140092911|Q140092911]] | ''[[:d:Q140092911|Voiced linguolabial tap]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɾ̼ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121939634|Q121939634]] | ''[[:d:Q121939634|voiced linguolabial trill]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939627|Q7939627]] | ''[[:d:Q7939627|voiced palatal affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɟʝ<br/>ɟ͜ʝ<br/>ɟ͡ʝ | J\_j\ | [[File:Voiced palatal affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q835992|Q835992]] | ''[[:d:Q835992|voiced palatal approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q757410|semivowel]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | j | j | [[File:Palatal approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939626|Q7939626]] | ''[[:d:Q7939626|voiced palatal click]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q427013|click consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11587682|Q11587682]] | ''[[:d:Q11587682|voiced palatal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | ɟ̆<br/>ɾ̻̠ʲ | J\_X | | | |- | [[:d:Q578601|Q578601]] | ''[[:d:Q578601|voiced palatal fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʝ | j\ | [[File:Voiced palatal fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994718|Q2994718]] | ''[[:d:Q2994718|voiced palatal implosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | ʄ | J\_< | [[File:Voiced palatal implosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104744728|Q104744728]] | ''[[:d:Q104744728|voiced palatal lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɟʎ̝ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q855287|Q855287]] | ''[[:d:Q855287|voiced palatal lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʎ | L | [[File:Palatal lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994689|Q2994689]] | ''[[:d:Q2994689|voiced palatal lateral flap]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q24250647|palatal lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]'' | ʎ̮ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25346925|Q25346925]] | ''[[:d:Q25346925|voiced palatal lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʎ̝ | L_r | | | |- | [[:d:Q124250545|Q124250545]] | ''[[:d:Q124250545|voiced palatal lateral nasal]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante nasal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q463495|Q463495]] | ''[[:d:Q463495|voiced palatal nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɲ | J | [[File:Palatal nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q239206|Q239206]] | ''[[:d:Q239206|voiced palatal plosive]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɟ | J\ | [[File:Voiced palatal plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123716564|Q123716564]] | ''[[:d:Q123716564|voiced palatal tap and flap]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47034784|Q47034784]] | ''[[:d:Q47034784|voiced palatal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]''<ref name="ref_1cbf00810355d20487bc102ccd974a88faf34dace9e3d6b973ae4fbdfdd31c13">''[[:d:Q47035107|Phonetic Notation]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q778145|Q778145]] | ''[[:d:Q778145|voiced palato-alveolar affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7126842|palato-alveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | dʒ<br/>d̠ʒ<br/>d͡ʒ<br/>ʤ | dZ<br/>d_rZ<br/>d_r_jZ | [[File:Voiced palato-alveolar affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | [[File:Voiced palato-alveolar affricate (vector, no tiebar).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q138749535|Q138749535]] | ''[[:d:Q138749535|Voiced palato-alveolar lateral fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q25346925|voiced palatal lateral fricative]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q654660|Q654660]] | ''[[:d:Q654660|voiced palato‐alveolar sibilant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7126842|palato-alveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʒ | Z | [[File:Voiced palato-alveolar sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105542167|Q105542167]] | ''[[:d:Q105542167|voiced pharyngeal approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɑ̯<br/>ʕ̞ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47087969|Q47087969]] | ''[[:d:Q47087969|voiced pharyngeal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q49751|Q49751]] | ''[[:d:Q49751|voiced pharyngeal fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʕ | ?\ | [[File:Voiced pharyngeal fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47013137|Q47013137]] | ''[[:d:Q47013137|voiced pharyngeal nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q552082|nasopharynx]]'' | /h̛/<ref name="ref_abf1f66224e221bd448ac99b2962e3478f30e2133baf809f59eb5720f021b6ad">https://www.reddit.com/r/somnilinguistics/comments/1jaomrs/i_daydreamed_that_this_was_the_ipa_symbol_for_the/</ref><br/>/n̛/<ref name="ref_197804af51d3f8f5be9d53ff0026f711205c60bbda322a8491aa83f98ba9ca4c">https://scp-wiki.wikidot.com/scp-3735</ref><br/>/ɴ̠/<ref name="ref_817fff22020ba2907e3232420e99a174929060183aabda4354386b9347271e91">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XK9za6Tw4s0</ref> | | [[File:Voiced-pharyngeal-nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47035980|Q47035980]] | ''[[:d:Q47035980|voiced pharyngeal stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47036533|Q47036533]] | ''[[:d:Q47036533|voiced pharyngeal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105542483|Q105542483]] | ''[[:d:Q105542483|voiced postalveolar approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɹ̠ | | [[File:Postalveolar approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47068390|Q47068390]] | ''[[:d:Q47068390|voiced postalveolar flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | ɾ̠ | 4_- | | | |- | [[:d:Q23058458|Q23058458]] | ''[[:d:Q23058458|voiced postalveolar fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105543425|Q105543425]] | ''[[:d:Q105543425|voiced postalveolar lateral approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | l̠ | | [[File:Voiced postalveolar lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47012722|Q47012722]] | ''[[:d:Q47012722|voiced postalveolar nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | n̠ | n_- | | | |- | [[:d:Q113659842|Q113659842]] | ''[[:d:Q113659842|voiced postalveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121090501|Q121090501]] | ''[[:d:Q121090501|voiced postalveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105541596|Q105541596]] | ''[[:d:Q105541596|voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | dɹ̝˗<br/>d̠ɹ̠˔<br/>ɹ̝˗<br/>ɹ̠˔ | r\_-_r | [[File:Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q109346518|Q109346518]] | ''[[:d:Q109346518|Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47011388|Q47011388]] | ''[[:d:Q47011388|voiced postalveolar stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | d̠ | d_- | | | |- | [[:d:Q47024723|Q47024723]] | ''[[:d:Q47024723|voiced postalveolar trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | r̠ | r_- | | | |- | [[:d:Q2208252|Q2208252]] | ''[[:d:Q2208252|voiced retroflex affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | dʐ<br/>ɖʐ<br/>ɖ͡ʐ | dz` | [[File:Voiced retroflex affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q534118|Q534118]] | ''[[:d:Q534118|voiced retroflex approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɻ | r\` | [[File:Retroflex approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939628|Q7939628]] | ''[[:d:Q7939628|voiced retroflex click]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1663284|ingressive sound]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1364532|Q1364532]] | ''[[:d:Q1364532|voiced retroflex flap]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɽ | r` | [[File:Retroflex flap.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994708|Q2994708]] | ''[[:d:Q2994708|voiced retroflex implosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | ᶑ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105425002|Q105425002]] | ''[[:d:Q105425002|voiced retroflex lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɖɭ˔<br/>ɖ͜ɭ˔<br/>ɖ𝼅 | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1077686|Q1077686]] | ''[[:d:Q1077686|voiced retroflex lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q121084667|flaps, trills, and retroflex lateral]]'' | ɭ | l` | [[File:Retroflex lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994690|Q2994690]] | ''[[:d:Q2994690|voiced retroflex lateral flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɭ̆<br/>ɺ˞<br/>𝼈 | | | | |- | [[:d:Q30593414|Q30593414]] | ''[[:d:Q30593414|voiced retroflex lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɭ˔<br/>𝼅 | l`_r | | | |- | [[:d:Q845888|Q845888]] | ''[[:d:Q845888|voiced retroflex nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɳ | n` | [[File:Retroflex nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q61022737|Q61022737]] | ''[[:d:Q61022737|voiced retroflex non-sibilant]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | ɻ̝ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q122841826|Q122841826]] | ''[[:d:Q122841826|voiced retroflex non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105542199|Q105542199]] | ''[[:d:Q105542199|voiced retroflex non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɻ˔<br/>ɻ̝ | r\`_r | | | |- | [[:d:Q840328|Q840328]] | ''[[:d:Q840328|voiced retroflex plosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɖ | d` | [[File:Voiced retroflex stop.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q253048|Q253048]] | ''[[:d:Q253048|voiced retroflex sibilant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʐ | z` | [[File:Voiced retroflex sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q685771|Q685771]] | ''[[:d:Q685771|voiced retroflex trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɽ͡r | r`r | [[File:Voiced retroflex trill.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104845593|Q104845593]] | ''[[:d:Q104845593|voiced upper-pharyngeal plosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939629|Q7939629]] | ''[[:d:Q7939629|voiced uvular affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɢʁ<br/>ɢ͜ʁ<br/>ɢ͡ʁ | | [[File:Voiced uvular affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105542079|Q105542079]] | ''[[:d:Q105542079|voiced uvular approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʁ̞ | R_o | [[File:Voiced uvular approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2551661|Q2551661]] | ''[[:d:Q2551661|voiced uvular flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɢ̆ | G\_X | | | |- | [[:d:Q1054276|Q1054276]] | ''[[:d:Q1054276|voiced uvular fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʁ | R | [[File:Voiced uvular fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2744685|Q2744685]] | ''[[:d:Q2744685|voiced uvular implosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]'' | ʛ | G\_< | [[File:Voiced uvular implosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25347168|Q25347168]] | ''[[:d:Q25347168|voiced uvular lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q47010355|lateral approximant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]] | ʟ̠ | L\_- | [[File:Uvular lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q110102570|Q110102570]] | ''[[:d:Q110102570|voiced uvular lateral approximant]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q124217647|Q124217647]] | ''[[:d:Q124217647|voiced uvular lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q637196|Q637196]] | ''[[:d:Q637196|voiced uvular nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɴ | N\ | [[File:Uvular nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q290979|Q290979]] | ''[[:d:Q290979|voiced uvular plosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɢ<ref name="ref_a8e0de4fa9082f7572c1c8f367a3d6974f6e1266fed16ea35eba52c9fa5ddeed">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-pulmonic-consonants</ref> | G\ | [[File:Voiced uvular stop.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113659844|Q113659844]] | ''[[:d:Q113659844|voiced uvular tap or flap]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q864677|Q864677]] | ''[[:d:Q864677|voiced uvular trill]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʀ | R\ | [[File:Uvular trill.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25347155|Q25347155]] | ''[[:d:Q25347155|voiced velar affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɡɣ<br/>ɡ͜ɣ<br/>ɡ͡ɣ | gG<br/>g_G | [[File:Voiced velar affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1054261|Q1054261]] | ''[[:d:Q1054261|voiced velar approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɰ | M\ | [[File:Voiced velar approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47086807|Q47086807]] | ''[[:d:Q47086807|voiced velar flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | ğ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q654670|Q654670]] | ''[[:d:Q654670|voiced velar fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɣ | G | [[File:Voiced velar fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q514115|Q514115]] | ''[[:d:Q514115|voiced velar implosive]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | ɠ | g_< | [[File:Voiced velar implosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939632|Q7939632]] | ''[[:d:Q7939632|voiced velar lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɡʟ̝ | | [[File:Voiced velar lateral affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q761254|Q761254]] | ''[[:d:Q761254|voiced velar lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q24254526|velar lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʟ | L\ | [[File:Velar lateral approximant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939633|Q7939633]] | ''[[:d:Q7939633|voiced velar lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʟ̝ | | [[File:Voiced velar lateral fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q124217649|Q124217649]] | ''[[:d:Q124217649|voiced velar lateral stop]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7918821|Q7918821]] | ''[[:d:Q7918821|voiced velar lateral tap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʟ̆ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q463515|Q463515]] | ''[[:d:Q463515|voiced velar nasal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ŋ | N | [[File:Velar nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q507127|Q507127]] | ''[[:d:Q507127|voiced velar stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɡ | g | [[File:Voiced velar plosive 02.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105425005|Q105425005]] | ''[[:d:Q105425005|voiced velar tap]]'' | [[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47035233|Q47035233]] | ''[[:d:Q47035233|voiced velar trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante sonante]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]''<ref name="ref_81e2c0b82813def7be80afcba66eaf55f3caef06ad6f96374ad034d0ef287ced">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Doulos_2015.pdf</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347184|Q25347184]] | ''[[:d:Q25347184|voiceless alveolar and postalveolar approximants]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347158|Q25347158]] | ''[[:d:Q25347158|voiceless alveolar flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɾ͇̊ | 4_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q334723|Q334723]] | ''[[:d:Q334723|voiceless alveolar fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | s | s | [[File:Voiceless alveolar sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939636|Q7939636]] | ''[[:d:Q7939636|voiceless alveolar implosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tʼ↓<br/>ƭ<br/>ɗ̥ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2412027|Q2412027]] | ''[[:d:Q2412027|voiceless alveolar lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | tɬ<br/>t͡ɬ<br/>ƛ | tK) | [[File:Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104733692|Q104733692]] | ''[[:d:Q104733692|voiceless alveolar lateral flap]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɺ̥ | l\ | | | |- | [[:d:Q1365390|Q1365390]] | ''[[:d:Q1365390|voiceless alveolar lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɬ | K | [[File:Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122802701|Q122802701]] | ''[[:d:Q122802701|voiceless alveolar lateral–median fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q722183|Q722183]] | ''[[:d:Q722183|voiceless alveolar nasal]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | n̊<br/>n̥ | n_0 | [[File:Voiceless Alveolar Nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q105546376|Q105546376]] | ''[[:d:Q105546376|voiceless alveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tɹ̝̊<br/>tθ̠<br/>tθ͇ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q120999208|Q120999208]] | ''[[:d:Q120999208|voiceless alveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939637|Q7939637]] | ''[[:d:Q7939637|voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | t̞<br/>ɹ̝̊<br/>θ̠<br/>θ͇ | | [[File:Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939638|Q7939638]] | ''[[:d:Q7939638|voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante surde]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105541374|Q105541374]] | ''[[:d:Q105541374|voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | s̠ | | [[File:Voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q862614|Q862614]] | ''[[:d:Q862614|voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | t͡s<br/>ʦ | ts | [[File:Voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q335644|Q335644]] | ''[[:d:Q335644|voiceless alveolar stop]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | t<br/>t̪<br/>t͇ | t | [[File:Voiceless alveolar plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q2994715|Q2994715]] | ''[[:d:Q2994715|voiceless alveolar trill]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | r̥ | r_0 | [[File:Voiceless alveolar trill.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q684081|Q684081]] | ''[[:d:Q684081|voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | cɕ<br/>c͜ɕ<br/>c͡ɕ<br/>tɕ<br/>t͜ɕ<br/>t͡ɕ | t_s\ | [[File:Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q605116|Q605116]] | ''[[:d:Q605116|voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q448789|alveolo-palatal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q765443|laminal consonant]]'' | ɕ | s\ | [[File:Voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939641|Q7939641]] | ''[[:d:Q7939641|voiceless bidental fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2917875|bidental consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25345850|Q25345850]] | ''[[:d:Q25345850|voiceless bilabial affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | pɸ<br/>p͡ɸ | | [[File:Voiceless bilabial affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47037691|Q47037691]] | ''[[:d:Q47037691|voiceless bilabial flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ⱱ̟̊ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q477249|Q477249]] | ''[[:d:Q477249|voiceless bilabial fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɸ | p\ | [[File:Voiceless bilabial fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939640|Q7939640]] | ''[[:d:Q7939640|voiceless bilabial implosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | pʼ↓<br/>ɓ̥ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q237623|Q237623]] | ''[[:d:Q237623|voiceless bilabial plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]'' | p | p | [[File:Voiceless bilabial plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19773202|Q19773202]] | ''[[:d:Q19773202|voiceless bilabial trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19773200|bilabial trill]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʙ̥ | B\_0 | [[File:Voiceless bilabial trill with aspiration.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q96414083|Q96414083]] | ''[[:d:Q96414083|voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47068152|Q47068152]] | ''[[:d:Q47068152|voiceless dental flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | ɾ̪̊ | 4_d_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q47012625|Q47012625]] | ''[[:d:Q47012625|voiceless dental nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | n̪̊ | n_d_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q16258771|Q16258771]] | ''[[:d:Q16258771|voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | t̟͡θ<br/>t̟θ<br/>t̪͡θ<br/>t̪θ<br/>t͜θ<br/>t͡θ<br/>tθ | | [[File:Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939643|Q7939643]] | ''[[:d:Q7939643|voiceless dental sibilant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1400459|Q1400459]] | ''[[:d:Q1400459|voiceless dental stop]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5259437|dental stop]]'' | t̪ | t_d | [[File:Voiceless dental stop.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47014705|Q47014705]] | ''[[:d:Q47014705|voiceless dental trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | r̪̊ | r_d_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q47085528|Q47085528]] | ''[[:d:Q47085528|voiceless dental, alveolar and postalveolar flaps]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q335591|voiced alveolar stop]]''<ref name="ref_4f9c18d8cef454b4d526940288b2c32ff7d2e8d4efdbaa2922333856f04130a5">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Kiel_2015.pdf</ref><br/>[[consonante surde]] | ɾ̥ | 4_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q41792096|Q41792096]] | ''[[:d:Q41792096|voiceless dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | l̥ | l_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q105541320|Q105541320]] | ''[[:d:Q105541320|voiceless dentalized alveolar sibilant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]'' | s̪ | s_d | | | |- | [[:d:Q136386191|Q136386191]] | ''[[:d:Q136386191|Voiceless dentolabial fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5259575|dentolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q107304070|Q107304070]] | ''[[:d:Q107304070|voiceless epiglottal affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]'' | | | [[File:Voiceless epiglottal affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47087985|Q47087985]] | ''[[:d:Q47087985|voiceless epiglottal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | ʡ̥̆ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1137793|Q1137793]] | ''[[:d:Q1137793|voiceless epiglottal fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʜ | H\ | [[File:Voiceless epiglottal trill.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47036101|Q47036101]] | ''[[:d:Q47036101|voiceless epiglottal nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1137718|Q1137718]] | ''[[:d:Q1137718|voiceless epiglottal stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʡ | >\ | [[File:Epiglottal stop.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47037430|Q47037430]] | ''[[:d:Q47037430|voiceless epiglottal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q907875|epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | ʜ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q123170485|Q123170485]] | ''[[:d:Q123170485|voiceless final consonant]]'' | [[consonante surde]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347191|Q25347191]] | ''[[:d:Q25347191|voiceless glottal affricate]]'' | ''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʔh<br/>ʔ͜h<br/>ʔ͡h | ?_h | [[File:Voiceless glottal affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47087993|Q47087993]] | ''[[:d:Q47087993|voiceless glottal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q373478|Q373478]] | ''[[:d:Q373478|voiceless glottal fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q5571991|glottal fricative]]'' | h | h | [[File:Voiceless glottal fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47013175|Q47013175]] | ''[[:d:Q47013175|voiceless glottal nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47037480|Q47037480]] | ''[[:d:Q47037480|voiceless glottal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]''<ref name="ref_4f9c18d8cef454b4d526940288b2c32ff7d2e8d4efdbaa2922333856f04130a5">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Kiel_2015.pdf</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25345855|Q25345855]] | ''[[:d:Q25345855|voiceless labial-palatal approximant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1378433|labio-palatal consonant]]'' | ɥ̊ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q123427905|Q123427905]] | ''[[:d:Q123427905|voiceless labial-uvular plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]'' | q͡p | q_p | | | |- | [[:d:Q122766594|Q122766594]] | ''[[:d:Q122766594|voiceless labial–alveolar plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q124313867|Q124313867]] | ''[[:d:Q124313867|voiceless labial–velar implosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q2994706|labial–velar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1976675|Q1976675]] | ''[[:d:Q1976675|voiceless labial–velar plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q20820080|labial–velar plosive]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | kp<br/>k͡p | | [[File:Voiceless labial-velar plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1246010|Q1246010]] | ''[[:d:Q1246010|voiceless labio-velar approximant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2994706|labial–velar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | ʍ | W | [[File:Voiceless labio-velar fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q1399722|Q1399722]] | ''[[:d:Q1399722|voiceless labiodental affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | p̪f<br/>p̪͡f | | [[File:Voiceless labiodental affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q30916758|Q30916758]] | ''[[:d:Q30916758|voiceless labiodental approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | f̞<br/>ʋ̥ | P_0<br/>f_o | | | |- | [[:d:Q47068019|Q47068019]] | ''[[:d:Q47068019|voiceless labiodental flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ⱱ̥ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q654705|Q654705]] | ''[[:d:Q654705|voiceless labiodental fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | f | f | [[File:Voiceless labio-dental fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47012499|Q47012499]] | ''[[:d:Q47012499|voiceless labiodental nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>[[consonante surde]] | ɱ̊ | F_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q1200677|Q1200677]] | ''[[:d:Q1200677|voiceless labiodental stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | p̪<br/>p͆ | p_d | [[File:Voiceless labiodental plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47014051|Q47014051]] | ''[[:d:Q47014051|voiceless labiodental trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante labiodental]]<br/>[[consonante surde]] | ʙ̪̊ | B\_d_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939644|Q7939644]] | ''[[:d:Q7939644|voiceless linguolabial fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɸ̺<br/>θ̼ | | [[File:Voiceless linguolabial fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q139457879|Q139457879]] | ''[[:d:Q139457879|Voiceless linguolabial nasal]]'' | ''[[:d:Q6554097|linguolabial nasal]]'' | | | [[File:Voiceless linguolabial nasal.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939645|Q7939645]] | ''[[:d:Q7939645|voiceless linguolabial stop]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q1197283|linguolabial consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | p̺<br/>t̼ | | [[File:Voiceless linguolabial stop.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939646|Q7939646]] | ''[[:d:Q7939646|voiceless nasal glottal approximant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>[[consonante glottal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | h̃ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q6453716|Q6453716]] | ''[[:d:Q6453716|voiceless palatal affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | cç<br/>c͜ç<br/>c͡ç | c_C | [[File:Voiceless palatal affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q722147|Q722147]] | ''[[:d:Q722147|voiceless palatal approximant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | j̊ | j_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q47086683|Q47086683]] | ''[[:d:Q47086683|voiceless palatal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>[[consonante surde]] | c̆ | c_X | | | |- | [[:d:Q506701|Q506701]] | ''[[:d:Q506701|voiceless palatal fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ç | C | [[File:Voiceless palatal fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939648|Q7939648]] | ''[[:d:Q7939648|voiceless palatal implosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | cʼ↓<br/>ʄ̊ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939649|Q7939649]] | ''[[:d:Q7939649|voiceless palatal lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | cʎ̥˔<br/>c͜ʎ̥˔<br/>c͜𝼆<br/>c𝼆 | | [[File:Voiceless palatal lateral affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q19692369|Q19692369]] | ''[[:d:Q19692369|voiceless palatal lateral approximant]]'' | [[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʎ̥ | L_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q2994691|Q2994691]] | ''[[:d:Q2994691|voiceless palatal lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʎ̥˔<br/>𝼆 | | [[File:Voiceless palatal lateral fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939650|Q7939650]] | ''[[:d:Q7939650|voiceless palatal nasal]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɲ̊<br/>ɲ̥ | J_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q19501023|Q19501023]] | ''[[:d:Q19501023|voiceless palatal plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | c | c | [[File:Voiceless palatal plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47035132|Q47035132]] | ''[[:d:Q47035132|voiceless palatal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante palatal]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]''<ref name="ref_1cbf00810355d20487bc102ccd974a88faf34dace9e3d6b973ae4fbdfdd31c13">''[[:d:Q47035107|Phonetic Notation]]''</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1464518|Q1464518]] | ''[[:d:Q1464518|voiceless palatal-velar fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q24248517|palatal-velar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɧ | x\ | [[File:Voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q334695|Q334695]] | ''[[:d:Q334695|voiceless palato‐alveolar fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7126842|palato-alveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʃ | S | [[File:Voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47087968|Q47087968]] | ''[[:d:Q47087968|voiceless pharyngeal flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q920026|Q920026]] | ''[[:d:Q920026|voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ħ | X\ | [[File:Voiceless pharyngeal fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47013120|Q47013120]] | ''[[:d:Q47013120|voiceless pharyngeal nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47035721|Q47035721]] | ''[[:d:Q47035721|voiceless pharyngeal stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47036531|Q47036531]] | ''[[:d:Q47036531|voiceless pharyngeal trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q252321|pharyngeal consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47068391|Q47068391]] | ''[[:d:Q47068391|voiceless postalveolar flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | ɾ̠̊ | 4_-_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q47012746|Q47012746]] | ''[[:d:Q47012746|voiceless postalveolar nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | n̠̊ | n_-_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q105544091|Q105544091]] | ''[[:d:Q105544091|voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tɹ̝̊˗<br/>t̠ɹ̠̊˔ | | [[File:Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113659846|Q113659846]] | ''[[:d:Q113659846|voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121090281|Q121090281]] | ''[[:d:Q121090281|voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105541504|Q105541504]] | ''[[:d:Q105541504|voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɹ̝̊˗<br/>ɹ̠̊˔ | r\_-_0_r | [[File:Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q113659848|Q113659848]] | ''[[:d:Q113659848|voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q120997575|Q120997575]] | ''[[:d:Q120997575|voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47011377|Q47011377]] | ''[[:d:Q47011377|voiceless postalveolar stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | t̠ | t_- | | | |- | [[:d:Q47025084|Q47025084]] | ''[[:d:Q47025084|voiceless postalveolar trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q49748|postalveolar consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | r̠̊ | r_-_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q23058457|Q23058457]] | ''[[:d:Q23058457|voiceless postveolar fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2474780|Q2474780]] | ''[[:d:Q2474780|voiceless retroflex affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | tʂ<br/>ʈʂ<br/>ʈ͡ʂ | ts` | [[File:Voiceless retroflex affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25347177|Q25347177]] | ''[[:d:Q25347177|voiceless retroflex approximant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɻ̊ | r\`_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347176|Q25347176]] | ''[[:d:Q25347176|voiceless retroflex flap]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɽ̊ | r`_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q25345852|Q25345852]] | ''[[:d:Q25345852|voiceless retroflex implosive]]'' | [[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | ʈʼ↓<br/>ᶑ̥ | | [[File:Voiceless-retroflex-implosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25347186|Q25347186]] | ''[[:d:Q25347186|voiceless retroflex lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʈɭ̊˔<br/>ʈ͜ɭ̊˔<br/>ʈꞎ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25347173|Q25347173]] | ''[[:d:Q25347173|voiceless retroflex lateral approximant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | ɭ̊ | l`_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q104771641|Q104771641]] | ''[[:d:Q104771641|voiceless retroflex lateral flap]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɭ̥̆<br/>ɺ̢̊<br/>ɺ̣̊ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2501294|Q2501294]] | ''[[:d:Q2501294|voiceless retroflex lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ꞎ | l`_r_0 | [[File:Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q122846294|Q122846294]] | ''[[:d:Q122846294|voiceless retroflex non-sibilant affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121097043|Q121097043]] | ''[[:d:Q121097043|voiceless retroflex non-sibilant fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q841088|Q841088]] | ''[[:d:Q841088|voiceless retroflex sibilant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51600|sibilant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʂ | s` | [[File:Voiceless retroflex sibilant.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q604208|Q604208]] | ''[[:d:Q604208|voiceless retroflex stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʈ | t` | [[File:Voiceless retroflex stop.oga|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25347175|Q25347175]] | ''[[:d:Q25347175|voiceless retroflex trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante retroflexe]]<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ɽ͡r̥ | r`r_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q122190679|Q122190679]] | ''[[:d:Q122190679|voiceless trilled alveolar affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>[[consonante alveolar]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q104845592|Q104845592]] | ''[[:d:Q104845592|voiceless upper-pharyngeal plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q1657054|Q1657054]] | ''[[:d:Q1657054|voiceless uvular affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | q͜χ<br/>q͡χ<br/>qχ | qX<br/>q_X | [[File:Voiceless uvular affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q123120908|Q123120908]] | ''[[:d:Q123120908|voiceless uvular approximant]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47087265|Q47087265]] | ''[[:d:Q47087265|voiceless uvular flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]] | q̆ | q_X | | | |- | [[:d:Q849796|Q849796]] | ''[[:d:Q849796|voiceless uvular fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | χ | X | [[File:Voiceless uvular fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q21013937|Q21013937]] | ''[[:d:Q21013937|voiceless uvular implosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q47013090|Q47013090]] | ''[[:d:Q47013090|voiceless uvular nasal]]'' | [[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ɴ̥ | N\_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q849422|Q849422]] | ''[[:d:Q849422|voiceless uvular stop]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | q | q | [[File:Voiceless uvular plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q18395680|Q18395680]] | ''[[:d:Q18395680|voiceless uvular trill]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q623772|uvular consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ʀ̥ | R\_0 | [[File:Voiceless uvular trill.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q104871560|Q104871560]] | ''[[:d:Q104871560|voiceless uvular–epiglottal plosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3849620|uvular–epiglottal consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | qʡ<br/>q͡ʡ | q>\ | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939655|Q7939655]] | ''[[:d:Q7939655|voiceless velar affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | kx<br/>k͜x<br/>k͡x | k_x<br/>kx | [[File:Voiceless velar affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25347180|Q25347180]] | ''[[:d:Q25347180|voiceless velar approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | x̞<br/>ɣ̊˕<br/>ɣ̞̊<br/>ɰ̊ | M\_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q47086806|Q47086806]] | ''[[:d:Q47086806|voiceless velar flap]]'' | ''[[:d:Q652116|consonante flap]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]'' | k̆ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q271603|Q271603]] | ''[[:d:Q271603|voiceless velar fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | x | x | [[File:Voiceless velar fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25345849|Q25345849]] | ''[[:d:Q25345849|voiceless velar implosive]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q849417|implosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]'' | kʼ↓<br/>ɠ̊ | | | | |- | [[:d:Q7939656|Q7939656]] | ''[[:d:Q7939656|voiceless velar lateral affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | kʟ̝̊<br/>k͡ʟ̝̊ | | [[File:Voiceless velar lateral affricate.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25346409|Q25346409]] | ''[[:d:Q25346409|voiceless velar lateral approximant]]'' | ''[[:d:Q25347180|voiceless velar approximant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q47010355|lateral approximant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51606|approximant consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʟ̥ | L\_0 | | | |- | [[:d:Q2323430|Q2323430]] | ''[[:d:Q2323430|voiceless velar lateral fricative]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q223714|lateral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]'' | ʟ̝̊<br/>𝼄 | | [[File:Voiceless velar lateral fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q7939657|Q7939657]] | ''[[:d:Q7939657|voiceless velar nasal]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante nasal]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | ŋ̊ | N_0 | [[File:Nasal velar sorda (online-audio-converter.com).ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q463543|Q463543]] | ''[[:d:Q463543|voiceless velar stop]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q51597|plosive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1971057|occlusive consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | k | k | [[File:Voiceless velar plosive.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q47035250|Q47035250]] | ''[[:d:Q47035250|voiceless velar trill]]'' | ''[[:d:Q51611|trill consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q47012331|impossible consonant]]''<ref name="ref_81e2c0b82813def7be80afcba66eaf55f3caef06ad6f96374ad034d0ef287ced">https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Doulos_2015.pdf</ref> | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q105952247|Q105952247]] | ''[[:d:Q105952247|voiceless velar-bilabial affricate]]'' | [[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q19408|consonante velar]]''<br/>[[consonante bilabial]]<br/>''[[:d:Q17582|affricate consonant]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q56324123|Q56324123]] | ''[[:d:Q56324123|vowel phoneme]]'' | [[phonema]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q30942761|Q30942761]] | ''[[:d:Q30942761|weak syllable]]'' | ''[[:d:Q8188|syllable]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121301277|Q121301277]] | ''[[:d:Q121301277|yang vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q121301287|Q121301287]] | ''[[:d:Q121301287|yin vowel]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q285784|Q285784]] | ''[[:d:Q285784|yus]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19793988|Cyrillic-script letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q41806741|Glagolitic letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q9398093|vowel letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1321760|nasal vowel]]'' | | | | [[File:Jusy.PNG|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3274237|Q3274237]] | ''[[:d:Q3274237|zero]]'' | ''[[:d:Q16999388|null]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q602418|segment]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q17104788|Q17104788]] | ''[[:d:Q17104788|zero copula]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1789027|null morpheme]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q207509|copula]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q133223525|Q133223525]] | ''[[:d:Q133223525|zlama]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q25706447|Q25706447]] | ''[[:d:Q25706447|zqapha]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q30892755|Q30892755]] | ''[[:d:Q30892755|zvýšená alveolární vibranta]]'' | ''[[:d:Q463522|voiced alveolar trill]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11291809|Q11291809]] | ''[[:d:Q11291809|České samohlásky]]'' | ''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q11291861|Q11291861]] | ''[[:d:Q11291861|České souhlásky]]'' | [[consonante]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206608|Q24206608]] | ''[[:d:Q24206608|ɑɪ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_f62042dca5cbac3e80044b2a18ab016af22bfbc6a126ae15cab1c36e7c962a45">http://www.languagebits.com/phonetics-english/english-diphthongs/</ref> | ɑɪ | AI | | | |- | [[:d:Q24283493|Q24283493]] | ''[[:d:Q24283493|ɑʊ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_f62042dca5cbac3e80044b2a18ab016af22bfbc6a126ae15cab1c36e7c962a45">http://www.languagebits.com/phonetics-english/english-diphthongs/</ref> | ɑʊ | AU | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206652|Q24206652]] | ''[[:d:Q24206652|ɔɪ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_073d6acfb67071f10e0ec1ec2e1a1e9c8cf9b1516c8f56652317fce614588c8b">http://colasula.com/?p=530</ref> | ɔɪ | OI | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206654|Q24206654]] | ''[[:d:Q24206654|əʊ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_073d6acfb67071f10e0ec1ec2e1a1e9c8cf9b1516c8f56652317fce614588c8b">http://colasula.com/?p=530</ref> | əʊ | @U | | | |- | [[:d:Q87497895|Q87497895]] | ''[[:d:Q87497895|ɚ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19776628|Latin-script letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q9398093|vowel letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q843029|R-colored vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q41885931|IPA symbol]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q87497900|Q87497900]] | ''[[:d:Q87497900|ɝ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19776628|Latin-script letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q9398093|vowel letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q843029|R-colored vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q41885931|IPA symbol]]'' | | | | [[File:IPA Unicode 0x025D.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q24206668|Q24206668]] | ''[[:d:Q24206668|ɪə]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206627|centering diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_073d6acfb67071f10e0ec1ec2e1a1e9c8cf9b1516c8f56652317fce614588c8b">http://colasula.com/?p=530</ref> | ɪə | I@ | | | |- | [[:d:Q24206671|Q24206671]] | ''[[:d:Q24206671|ʊə]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206627|centering diphthong]]''<ref name="ref_073d6acfb67071f10e0ec1ec2e1a1e9c8cf9b1516c8f56652317fce614588c8b">http://colasula.com/?p=530</ref> | ʊə | U@ | | | |- | [[:d:Q24306647|Q24306647]] | ''[[:d:Q24306647|ʌɪ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q24206615|closing diphthong]]'' | ʌɪ | VI | | | |- | [[:d:Q332019|Q332019]] | ''[[:d:Q332019|voiceless dental fricative]]'' | ''[[:d:Q120443|dental consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q31427|fricative consonant]]''<br/>[[consonante surde]]<br/>''[[:d:Q7259553|pulmonic consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q2479203|oral consonant]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1851269|central consonant]]'' | θ | T | [[File:Voiceless dental fricative.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q25520889|Q25520889]] | ''[[:d:Q25520889|тетрафтонг]]'' | [[phono]]<br/>''[[:d:Q5403187|adjacent]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q134105|Q134105]] | ''[[:d:Q134105|І/і]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19793988|Cyrillic-script letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q9398093|vowel letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1321760|nasal vowel]]'' | | | | [[File:Cyrillic letter byelorussian-ukrainian I.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2642543|Q2642543]] | ''[[:d:Q2642543|Ѧ/ѧ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19793988|Cyrillic-script letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q9398093|vowel letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q285784|yus]]'' | | | | [[File:Cyrillic Letter Little Yus (capital) KurKlim.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2421317|Q2421317]] | ''[[:d:Q2421317|Ѫ/ѫ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q19793988|Cyrillic-script letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q9398093|vowel letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q285784|yus]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q2192794|Q2192794]] | ''[[:d:Q2192794|ֵ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Nikud tseirei.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3997681|Q3997681]] | ''[[:d:Q3997681|ֶ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Nikud segol.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q3997697|Q3997697]] | ''[[:d:Q3997697|ַ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Nikud patakh.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q2920744|Q2920744]] | ''[[:d:Q2920744|ָ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Nikud kamats.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500023|Q87500023]] | ''[[:d:Q87500023|ֹ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Nikud kholam modified.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500025|Q87500025]] | ''[[:d:Q87500025|ֺ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Nikud kholam.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500855|Q87500855]] | ''[[:d:Q87500855|ܲ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25706446|pthaha]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Pthaha dotted (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500857|Q87500857]] | ''[[:d:Q87500857|ܳ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25706447|zqapha]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Zqapha above (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500859|Q87500859]] | ''[[:d:Q87500859|ܴ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25706447|zqapha]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Zqapha below (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500861|Q87500861]] | ''[[:d:Q87500861|ܵ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Zqapha dotted (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500866|Q87500866]] | ''[[:d:Q87500866|ܷ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Rbasa below (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25706445|Q25706445]] | ''[[:d:Q25706445|ܸ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q133223525|zlama]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac dotted Zlama horizontal (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25706416|Q25706416]] | ''[[:d:Q25706416|ܹ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q133223525|zlama]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac dotted Zlama angular (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500872|Q87500872]] | ''[[:d:Q87500872|ܺ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Hbasa above (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500874|Q87500874]] | ''[[:d:Q87500874|ܻ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Hbasa below (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500876|Q87500876]] | ''[[:d:Q87500876|ܼ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25706450|hbasa]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25706451|esasa]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Hbasa-Rbasa dotted (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500879|Q87500879]] | ''[[:d:Q87500879|ܽ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25706451|esasa]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Esasa above (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87500881|Q87500881]] | ''[[:d:Q87500881|ܾ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q25706451|esasa]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Esasa below (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q25706449|Q25706449]] | ''[[:d:Q25706449|ܿ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q133191783|Syriac vowel point]]'' | | | | [[File:Syriac Rwaha (Estrangelo form).svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501115|Q87501115]] | ''[[:d:Q87501115|ަ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | ə | | | [[File:Uni07A6 NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501116|Q87501116]] | ''[[:d:Q87501116|ާ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | əː | | | [[File:Uni07A7 NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501119|Q87501119]] | ''[[:d:Q87501119|ި]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | i | | | [[File:Highway gothic font Thaana ibifili.png|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501122|Q87501122]] | ''[[:d:Q87501122|ީ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | iː | | | [[File:Highway gothic font Thaana eebeefili.png|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501124|Q87501124]] | ''[[:d:Q87501124|ު]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Uni07AA NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501126|Q87501126]] | ''[[:d:Q87501126|ޫ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:Uni07AB NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501128|Q87501128]] | ''[[:d:Q87501128|ެ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | e | | | [[File:Uni07AC NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501130|Q87501130]] | ''[[:d:Q87501130|ޭ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | eː | | | [[File:Uni07AD NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501134|Q87501134]] | ''[[:d:Q87501134|ޮ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | ɔ | | | [[File:Uni07AE NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501137|Q87501137]] | ''[[:d:Q87501137|ޯ]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | ɔː | | | [[File:Uni07AF NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87501139|Q87501139]] | ''[[:d:Q87501139|ް]]'' | [[signo diacritic]]<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | ­ | | | [[File:Uni07B0 NotoSansThaana-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q141093166|Q141093166]] | ''[[:d:Q141093166|ᵻ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q11663698|unrounded vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1813464|near-close vowel]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q190885|central vowel]]'' | ɨ̞<br/>ɪ̈<br/>ᵻ | | [[File:Near-close central unrounded vowel.ogg|center|48px]] | | |- | [[:d:Q3594904|Q3594904]] | ''[[:d:Q3594904|Ⱙ/ⱙ]]'' | ''[[:d:Q41806741|Glagolitic letter]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q285784|yus]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q106546920|Q106546920]] | ''[[:d:Q106546920|無声歯鼻音]]'' | [[consonante surde]] | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q10497169|Q10497169]] | ''[[:d:Q10497169|舒声韵]]'' | ''[[:d:Q2361304|final]]'' | | | | | |- | [[:d:Q87551687|Q87551687]] | ''[[:d:Q87551687|𑆳]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:AA NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551690|Q87551690]] | ''[[:d:Q87551690|𑆴]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:I NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551692|Q87551692]] | ''[[:d:Q87551692|𑆵]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:II NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551695|Q87551695]] | ''[[:d:Q87551695|𑆶]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:U NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551697|Q87551697]] | ''[[:d:Q87551697|𑆷]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:UU NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551700|Q87551700]] | ''[[:d:Q87551700|𑆸]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:VocR NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551702|Q87551702]] | ''[[:d:Q87551702|𑆹]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:VocRR NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551704|Q87551704]] | ''[[:d:Q87551704|𑆺]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:VocL NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551706|Q87551706]] | ''[[:d:Q87551706|𑆻]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:VocLL NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551708|Q87551708]] | ''[[:d:Q87551708|𑆼]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:E NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551709|Q87551709]] | ''[[:d:Q87551709|𑆽]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:AI NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551711|Q87551711]] | ''[[:d:Q87551711|𑆾]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:O NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |- | [[:d:Q87551713|Q87551713]] | ''[[:d:Q87551713|𑆿]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135006497|Sharada diacritic]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q36244|vocal]]'' | | | | [[File:AU NotoSansSharada-Regular.svg|center|48px]] | |} {{Wikidata list end}} oaxkme63lakkihyqvw16j46fa4v5pct 102 39889 699715 696731 2026-09-08T06:51:49Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] 699715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P31 ?gd . ?gd wdt:P279 wd:Q13179187 } |wdq= |columns=item,label,P279,P31,P18,P461,P2211 |sort= |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! item ! label ! subclasse de ! instantia de ! imagine ! opposito de ! position angle |- | [[:d:Q659|Q659]] | [[nord]] | | ''[[:d:Q23718|direction cardinal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:Compass Rose North.svg|center|48px]] | [[sud]] | 0 grado |- | [[:d:Q667|Q667]] | [[sud]] | | ''[[:d:Q23718|direction cardinal]]''<ref name="ref_1e07519064a049245c23ea609ce262a8a8b6646afea0b9b0dea6912244bc8ca2">''[[:d:Q87326567|МСЭ2/Юг, точка горизонта]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue S.svg|center|48px]] | [[nord]]<ref name="ref_1e07519064a049245c23ea609ce262a8a8b6646afea0b9b0dea6912244bc8ca2">''[[:d:Q87326567|МСЭ2/Юг, точка горизонта]]''</ref> | 180 grado |- | [[:d:Q679|Q679]] | [[west]] | | ''[[:d:Q23718|direction cardinal]]''<ref name="ref_c2f040c7257244cf7481b86b98828ec0621ee94e849aef1a3834636d68505b12">''[[:d:Q43440745|БСЭ1 / Вест]]''</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]''<ref name="ref_c2f040c7257244cf7481b86b98828ec0621ee94e849aef1a3834636d68505b12">''[[:d:Q43440745|БСЭ1 / Вест]]''</ref> | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue W.svg|center|48px]] | [[est]] | 270 grado |- | [[:d:Q684|Q684]] | [[est]] | | ''[[:d:Q23718|direction cardinal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue E.svg|center|48px]] | [[west]] | 90 grado |- | [[:d:Q12898531|Q12898531]] | ''[[:d:Q12898531|Ès]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q23718|direction cardinal]]'' | | | |- | [[:d:Q2381698|Q2381698]] | ''[[:d:Q2381698|sud-west]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q10351538|direction intercardinal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue SW.svg|center|48px]] | [[Nord-est (direction geographic)|nord-est]] | 225 grado |- | [[:d:Q5491373|Q5491373]] | ''[[:d:Q5491373|nord-west]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q10351538|direction intercardinal]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue NW.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q6452640|sud-est]]'' | 315 grado |- | [[:d:Q6452640|Q6452640]] | ''[[:d:Q6452640|sud-est]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q10351538|direction intercardinal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue SE.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q5491373|nord-west]]'' | 135 grado |- | [[:d:Q6497686|Q6497686]] | [[Nord-est (direction geographic)|nord-est]] | | ''[[:d:Q10351538|direction intercardinal]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue NE.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q2381698|sud-west]]'' | 45 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968321|Q20968321]] | ''[[:d:Q20968321|nordet]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q10351538|direction intercardinal]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968325|suroît]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20968332|noroît]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q6452640|sud-est]]'' | 45 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968325|Q20968325]] | ''[[:d:Q20968325|suroît]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q10351538|direction intercardinal]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968321|nordet]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20968332|noroît]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q6452640|sud-est]]'' | 225 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968332|Q20968332]] | ''[[:d:Q20968332|noroît]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q10351538|direction intercardinal]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q6452640|sud-est]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20968325|suroît]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q20968321|nordet]]'' | 315 grado |- | [[:d:Q130736743|Q130736743]] | ''[[:d:Q130736743|increasing way]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2151613|relative direction]]''<ref name="ref_02fe3b8a91a861d4f22a670f147a46311ec2e8c660a17a0dfa261f6ce1422a94">https://www.infraestruturasdeportugal.pt/pt-pt/terminologia?letter=V</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q10710290|direction of traffic]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q130736744|decreasing way]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q130736744|Q130736744]] | ''[[:d:Q130736744|decreasing way]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q2151613|relative direction]]''<ref name="ref_02fe3b8a91a861d4f22a670f147a46311ec2e8c660a17a0dfa261f6ce1422a94">https://www.infraestruturasdeportugal.pt/pt-pt/terminologia?letter=V</ref><br/>''[[:d:Q10710290|direction of traffic]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q130736743|increasing way]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q12256607|Q12256607]] | ''[[:d:Q12256607|east-southeast]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue ESE.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q12263384|west-northwest]]'' | 112.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q12256608|Q12256608]] | ''[[:d:Q12256608|east-northeast]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue ENE.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q12263382|west-southwest]]'' | 67.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q12258965|Q12258965]] | ''[[:d:Q12258965|south-southeast]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q12259667|north-northwest]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12256608|east-northeast]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12263382|west-southwest]]'' | 157.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q12258966|Q12258966]] | ''[[:d:Q12258966|south-southwest]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 trans SSW.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q12259666|north-northeast]]'' | 202.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q12259666|Q12259666]] | ''[[:d:Q12259666|north-northeast]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue NNE.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q12258966|south-southwest]]'' | 22.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q12259667|Q12259667]] | ''[[:d:Q12259667|north-northwest]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q12258965|south-southeast]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12263382|west-southwest]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q12256608|east-northeast]]'' | 337.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q12263382|Q12263382]] | ''[[:d:Q12263382|west-southwest]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 blue WSW.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q12256608|east-northeast]]'' | 247.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q12263384|Q12263384]] | ''[[:d:Q12263384|west-northwest]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | [[File:CompassRose (mul) 16 trans WNW.svg|center|48px]] | ''[[:d:Q12256607|east-southeast]]'' | 292.5 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968393|Q20968393]] | ''[[:d:Q20968393|north by east]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968401|south by west]]'' | 11.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968394|Q20968394]] | ''[[:d:Q20968394|northeast by north]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968402|southwest by south]]'' | 33.75 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968395|Q20968395]] | ''[[:d:Q20968395|northeast by east]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968403|southwest by west]]'' | 56.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968396|Q20968396]] | ''[[:d:Q20968396|east by north]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968404|west by south]]'' | 78.75 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968397|Q20968397]] | ''[[:d:Q20968397|east by south]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968405|west by north]]'' | 101.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968398|Q20968398]] | ''[[:d:Q20968398|southeast by east]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968406|northwest by west]]'' | 123.75 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968399|Q20968399]] | ''[[:d:Q20968399|southeast by south]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968407|northwest by north]]'' | 146.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968400|Q20968400]] | ''[[:d:Q20968400|south by east]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968408|north by west]]'' | 168.75 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968401|Q20968401]] | ''[[:d:Q20968401|south by west]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968393|north by east]]'' | 191.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968402|Q20968402]] | ''[[:d:Q20968402|southwest by south]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968394|northeast by north]]'' | 213.75 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968403|Q20968403]] | ''[[:d:Q20968403|southwest by west]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968395|northeast by east]]'' | 236.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968404|Q20968404]] | ''[[:d:Q20968404|west by south]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968396|east by north]]'' | 258.75 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968405|Q20968405]] | ''[[:d:Q20968405|west by north]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968397|east by south]]'' | 281.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968406|Q20968406]] | ''[[:d:Q20968406|northwest by west]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968398|southeast by east]]'' | 303.75 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968407|Q20968407]] | ''[[:d:Q20968407|northwest by north]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968399|southeast by south]]'' | 326.25 grado |- | [[:d:Q20968408|Q20968408]] | ''[[:d:Q20968408|north by west]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q11114344|points of the compass]]'' | | ''[[:d:Q20968400|south by east]]'' | 348.75 grado |} {{Wikidata list end}} c6icbayfcvbemot84roosj94t3a0unz 0 61242 699707 2026-09-08T02:15:59Z Jondel 198 Pagina create con “Le intestino tenue se compone de tres regiones distincta: le duodenum, le jejunum e le ileum. In le duodeno, le magis corta, comenza le preparation pro le absorption a traves de unas paucas protuberantias digitiformes appelate vellosidades intestinales.[3] le jejunum es specializate in le absorption, a traves de su revestiment por enterocitos, de parvas particulas de nutrientes que essete previamente digerite per les enzymes del duodenum. Le function principal del il...” 699707 wikitext text/x-wiki Le intestino tenue se compone de tres regiones distincta: le duodenum, le jejunum e le ileum. In le duodeno, le magis corta, comenza le preparation pro le absorption a traves de unas paucas protuberantias digitiformes appelate vellosidades intestinales.[3] le jejunum es specializate in le absorption, a traves de su revestiment por enterocitos, de parvas particulas de nutrientes que essete previamente digerite per les enzymes del duodenum. Le function principal del ileum es absorber le vitamina B12, les sale biliares e les productos del digestion que non esseva absorbites per le jejunum. 042gy8eaut08xeq7dyu1k1z0dcasycf 699708 699707 2026-09-08T02:22:33Z Jondel 198 699708 wikitext text/x-wiki [[[[File:Blausen 0817 SmallIntestine Anatomy.png|miniaturadeimagen|Intestino delgado]]|thumb|Intestino tenue]]Le intestino tenue se compone de tres regiones distincta: le duodenum, le jejunum e le ileum.<ref>{{Citation |last=Fish |first=Elizabeth M. |title=Physiology, Small Bowel |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532263/ |access-date=2025-10-25 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=30335296 |last2=Shumway |first2=Karlie R. |last3=Burns |first3=Bracken}}</ref> In le duodeno, le magis corta, comenza le preparation pro le absorption a traves de unas paucas protuberantias digitiformes appelate vellosidades intestinales.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-24 |title=Human body {{!}} Organs, Systems, Structure, Diagram, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/human-body |access-date=2025-10-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> le jejunum es specializate in le absorption, a traves de su revestiment por enterocitos, de parvas particulas de nutrientes que essete previamente digerite per les enzymes del duodenum. Le function principal del ileum es absorber le vitamina B12, les sale biliares e les productos del digestion que non esseva absorbites per le jejunum. {{Referentias}} *[https://www.britannica.com/science/small-intestine Britannica.Small_Intestine.Y2026] [[Categoria:Systema digestive]] dkvw9ugw3nqnibqosk7cc5yy1hvhle4 699709 699708 2026-09-08T02:23:06Z Jondel 198 699709 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Blausen 0817 SmallIntestine Anatomy.png|miniaturadeimagen|Intestino delgado]]|thumb|Intestino tenue]]Le intestino tenue se compone de tres regiones distincta: le duodenum, le jejunum e le ileum.<ref>{{Citation |last=Fish |first=Elizabeth M. |title=Physiology, Small Bowel |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532263/ |access-date=2025-10-25 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=30335296 |last2=Shumway |first2=Karlie R. |last3=Burns |first3=Bracken}}</ref> In le duodeno, le magis corta, comenza le preparation pro le absorption a traves de unas paucas protuberantias digitiformes appelate vellosidades intestinales.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-24 |title=Human body {{!}} Organs, Systems, Structure, Diagram, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/human-body |access-date=2025-10-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> le jejunum es specializate in le absorption, a traves de su revestiment por enterocitos, de parvas particulas de nutrientes que essete previamente digerite per les enzymes del duodenum. Le function principal del ileum es absorber le vitamina B12, les sale biliares e les productos del digestion que non esseva absorbites per le jejunum. {{Referentias}} *[https://www.britannica.com/science/small-intestine Britannica.Small_Intestine.Y2026] [[Categoria:Systema digestive]] 4x75yq1j4s2e1iq5w6vfpapk2z9szfs 699710 699709 2026-09-08T02:24:12Z Jondel 198 699710 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Blausen 0817 SmallIntestine Anatomy.png|thumb|Intestino tenue]] Le intestino tenue se compone de tres regiones distincta: le duodenum, le jejunum e le ileum.<ref>{{Citation |last=Fish |first=Elizabeth M. |title=Physiology, Small Bowel |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532263/ |access-date=2025-10-25 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=30335296 |last2=Shumway |first2=Karlie R. |last3=Burns |first3=Bracken}}</ref> In le duodeno, le magis corta, comenza le preparation pro le absorption a traves de unas paucas protuberantias digitiformes appelate vellosidades intestinales.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-24 |title=Human body {{!}} Organs, Systems, Structure, Diagram, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/human-body |access-date=2025-10-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> le jejunum es specializate in le absorption, a traves de su revestiment por enterocitos, de parvas particulas de nutrientes que essete previamente digerite per les enzymes del duodenum. Le function principal del ileum es absorber le vitamina B12, les sale biliares e les productos del digestion que non esseva absorbites per le jejunum. {{Referentias}} *[https://www.britannica.com/science/small-intestine Britannica.Small_Intestine.Y2026] [[Categoria:Systema digestive]] tmng6poioydz1eh343hyfotq1piq377