Wikipídiya iglwiki https://igl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogb%C3%A1_ogbolo MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.16 first-letter Áméwn igò Egwéyí Úkọ̀lá Énéagwu Úkọ̀lá énéagwu Wikipídiya Úkọ̀lá Wikipídiya Fáílú Úkọ̀lá fáílú MediaWiki Úkọ̀lá MediaWiki Éwn malábó Úkọ̀lá éwn malábó Abune Úkọ̀lá abune Gbúgbe Úkọ̀lá gbúgbe TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 2686 44379 44378 2026-08-25T18:53:53Z Austinea3 116 /* References */ 44379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Tribe of the Ijaw people from Nigeria}}Ì cha amìchì '''Ogbe kì chì''' [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] Amọnẹ ki nwu kẹfu aji ki de ọwọ òkpò akpola [[Warri]] efu [[Delta State]], [[Nigeria]]. Ì kìchì ugbo yẹ ì Ogbe-Ijoh kpaì Diobiri kì ma dẹju gọ kì anẹ e Ogbe ì cha. Ẹwo d’ọwọ nwu mọta; ọna k’ẹwo k’ach’ẹgbẹ n’ajọ chi ki d’ọwọ amẹ n . Efu ewọ yé ì [[Isaba tribe|Isaba]] ma chẹ déju gọ́ kì ì ch'ekubo ma kì mu dì ìchì ojìka ọla ma , ì chẹka gọ kì ma gwefu owo ane ìchì Ogbe.<ref name="alagoa">Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> Ichi Ogbe kpa’gbo gbe oñwụ lị ugbị kụ ma che kwì ojane [[Ekeremor tribe|Ekeremor]] kpaì [[Seimbiri tribe|Seimbiri]] Àbó nyan Olu Ane [[Niger Delta]]. == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} i93og9ld3yesi3afducudjl156ghjum 0 2687 44380 2026-08-25T19:36:16Z Austinea3 116 Created page with "{{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' is an [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] kingdom in Burutu Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. The Obotebe people are known for their dexterity in cultural displays. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] remains a pivotal cultural event that has attracted interest from the all across Nigeria and foreign tourist. The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [h..." 44380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' is an [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] kingdom in Burutu Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. The Obotebe people are known for their dexterity in cultural displays. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] remains a pivotal cultural event that has attracted interest from the all across Nigeria and foreign tourist. The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their neighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} rm2yjnlblsnxyjhw0ep69lzyx2wbvbo 44381 44380 2026-08-25T19:41:11Z Austinea3 116 44381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane is an [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu kingdom in Burutu kì chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Local Government Area of Delta State, Nàìjíríà Nigeria. The Obotebe people are known for their dexterity in cultural displays. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] remains a pivotal cultural event that has attracted interest from the all across Nigeria and foreign tourist. The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 79jr4u8o8r07fu6itb5gdxvlx6yu8se 44382 44381 2026-08-25T19:42:21Z Austinea3 116 44382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu kì chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà . The Obotebe people are known for their dexterity in cultural displays. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] remains a pivotal cultural event that has attracted interest from the all across Nigeria and foreign tourist. The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 4rwl1hx5zzcg92qrhshf8qflkmfn0sk 44383 44382 2026-08-25T19:53:52Z Austinea3 116 44383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu kì chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo The Obotebe people ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbeare known for their dexterity in cultural displays. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] remains a pivotal cultural event that has attracted interest from the all across Nigeria and foreign tourist. The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} buo4oix8so41z0djnyxop5pc3xv80jq 44384 44383 2026-08-25T19:55:20Z Austinea3 116 44384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu kì chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] remains a pivotal cultural event that has attracted interest from the all across Nigeria and foreign tourist. The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} pa5tosbypv5xhn8r0pev4hgdip7oj3p 44385 44384 2026-08-25T20:04:56Z Austinea3 116 44385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí remains a pivotal cultural event that has attracted interest from the all across Nigeria and foreign tourist. The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} lhaksxfq5a7ej9zt8twawk2aanjxwbn 44386 44385 2026-08-25T20:05:31Z Austinea3 116 44386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. The [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . The Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 7vbjt5k7j03q1wfn9l4jo5rg9r6o3nh 44387 44386 2026-08-25T20:09:30Z Austinea3 116 44387 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.yeThe Kingdom is ruled by 'The [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 654lrn9hntbtkv14fumqo2e4k16q0o8 44388 44387 2026-08-25T20:17:08Z Austinea3 116 /* References */ 44388 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.ye [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' É kìa n̄o gọ abì fondly referred to as [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], his title. Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} ggdyz48o52kpn2cjues8p0cx66slag3 44389 44388 2026-08-25T20:21:18Z Austinea3 116 44389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.ye [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' É kìa n̄o gọ abì [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], . Efi ọ́dọ̀ kà, ọ́mọ̀ nwu Obotebe kí nwo ogun kí nwo ọ́gbọ̀ nwu Historically, the Obotebe people have engaged in warfare with their eighbors, the [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} gxnfdaomb1xecgzqtnj1ox67qa04huo 44390 44389 2026-08-25T20:22:44Z Austinea3 116 44390 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà .. àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.ye [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' É kìa n̄o gọ abì [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], . Efi ọ́dọ̀ kà, ọ́mọ̀ nwu Obotebe kí nwo ogun kí nwo ọ́gbọ̀ nwu [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw kpaì ì and the [[Itsekiri]]. The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 7jupha9ywftx2ln87fxdjkxhnabhi4t 44391 44390 2026-08-25T20:29:40Z Austinea3 116 44391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.ye [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' É kìa n̄o gọ abì [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], . Efi ọ́dọ̀ kà, ọ́mọ̀ nwu Obotebe kí nwo ogun kí nwo ọ́gbọ̀ nwu [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw kpaì ì [[Itsekiri]].Unyí ámí Mein kịí á dọ̀ Gbekebo jị́ añwu dọ́gá onú ẹjú ají kị́ á nyọ́ tọ́wọ́ jẹ̀ amẹ́ñwụ Obotebe The Mein village of Gbekebo sits at the mouth of the creek that leads to Obotebe territory. The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} b4p9taty5xegrnmpxmac8aeox7ma7to 44392 44391 2026-08-25T20:31:56Z Austinea3 116 44392 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.ye [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' É kìa n̄o gọ abì [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], . Efi ọ́dọ̀ kà, ọ́mọ̀ nwu Obotebe kí nwo ogun kí nwo ọ́gbọ̀ nwu [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw kpaì ì [[Itsekiri]].Unyí ámí Mein kịí á dọ̀ Gbekebo jị́ añwu dọ́gá onú ẹjú ají kị́ á nyọ́ tọ́wọ́ jẹ̀ amẹ́ñwụ Obotebe . The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], manyu àbo ku ma yaja kpa ma with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 2ochykvcpjxmdxdgbzalcelqx688vzl 44393 44392 2026-08-25T20:34:09Z Austinea3 116 /* References */ 44393 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.ye [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' É kìa n̄o gọ abì [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], . Efi ọ́dọ̀ kà, ọ́mọ̀ nwu Obotebe kí nwo ogun kí nwo ọ́gbọ̀ nwu [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw kpaì ì [[Itsekiri]].Unyí ámí Mein kịí á dọ̀ Gbekebo jị́ añwu dọ́gá onú ẹjú ají kị́ á nyọ́ tọ́wọ́ jẹ̀ amẹ́ñwụ Obotebe .Am’Obotebe ch’efu nma k’am’Urhobo kw’efu, ki ch’aja The Obotebe people have had good relations with the [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], manyu àbo ku ma yaja kpa ma with whom they trade.<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} av0s83nirg98radeh5nbhn3m54qhxne 44394 44393 2026-08-25T20:35:30Z Austinea3 116 /* References */ 44394 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Suraj Singh Dhakad}}'''Obotebe''' chì ojane [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] efu Burutu chì lọcál gomenti ọwọ státì yẹ Delta . Nàìjíríà àbo Obotebe ma cha mu ma efu ujoche kì dẹ l'ìbe uchọlọ má. [https://dailyreportng.com/obotebe-kingdom-awouziowu-festival-preparations-gather-momentum Awouziowu festival] "Í gbé chí ìcholo íchí k’ọ́ chjí pataki k’ọ́ dọ íñyọ̀ñ aḿone gwuluka éfú Nàìjíríà kpaì amola abájúká bọ̀ kwáí úgbẹ́ñwụ̀ ọ̀jọ̀jí . Anẹ lé, ọnu kìa dejute ma chi.ye [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Ebenanaowei],' É kìa n̄o gọ abì [https://dailyreportng.com/nuos-congratulates-king-etopo-on-coronation-anniversary/ Umbi], . Efi ọ́dọ̀ kà, ọ́mọ̀ nwu Obotebe kí nwo ogun kí nwo ọ́gbọ̀ nwu [[Mein tribe|Mein]] Ijaw kpaì ì [[Itsekiri]].Unyí ámí Mein kịí á dọ̀ Gbekebo jị́ añwu dọ́gá onú ẹjú ají kị́ á nyọ́ tọ́wọ́ jẹ̀ amẹ́ñwụ Obotebe .Am’Obotebe ch’efu nma k’am’Urhobo kw’efu, ki ch’aja [[Urhobo people|Urhobo]], manyu àbo ku ma yaja kpa ma .<ref>Alagoa, Ebiegberi Joe (2005). ''A History of the Niger Delta'', Port Harcourt: Onyoma Research Publications. {{ISBN|978-37314-5-9}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} rki5f7p6rd8sjli4e9i0k72fvv9dfwr 0 2688 44395 2026-08-26T10:37:37Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{More citations needed|date=August 2026}} '''Igue''' is a clan of the [[Afenmai|Afemai or Afenmai ethnic group]] who inhabit the hilly areas and valley of the [[Owan East]] Local Government Area of [[Edo State]] of Nigeria.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ukpokolo |first1=Isaac E. |title=Themes, Issues and Problems in African Philosophy |date=31 January 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-40796-8 |page=244 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Themes_Issues_and_Proble..." 44395 wikitext text/x-wiki {{More citations needed|date=August 2026}} '''Igue''' is a clan of the [[Afenmai|Afemai or Afenmai ethnic group]] who inhabit the hilly areas and valley of the [[Owan East]] Local Government Area of [[Edo State]] of Nigeria.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ukpokolo |first1=Isaac E. |title=Themes, Issues and Problems in African Philosophy |date=31 January 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-40796-8 |page=244 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Themes_Issues_and_Problems_in_African_Ph/1PUODgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Igue%22+Edo+Owan&pg=PA244&printsec=frontcover |access-date=9 August 2026 |language=en}}</ref> The Igue Clan are residents in two areas, that is on the hills and in the valley. The area on the hills is known as Igue-Oke, while the area in the valley is called Igue-Sale. Their postal code is 313106 which is also shared with [[Aiyetoro Camp]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} == References == <references /> {{authority control}} [[Category:Edo State]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Nigeria]] {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 0js6s4s02kkorr414yh0fbfp38bx683 44396 44395 2026-08-26T10:48:33Z Obutuson 910 44396 wikitext text/x-wiki {{More citations needed|date=August 2026}} '''Igue''' chi ọlọpu ka ki kwi efu am'ibo [[Afenmai|Afemai abẹki Afenmai]] ku ma dodo yi eju'ọwọ [[Owan East]] Gọmẹti eyi ọwọ anẹ ki di ojanẹ [[Edo State|Edo]] yi Nigeria.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ukpokolo |first1=Isaac E. |title=Themes, Issues and Problems in African Philosophy |date=31 January 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-40796-8 |page=244 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Themes_Issues_and_Problems_in_African_Ph/1PUODgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Igue%22+Edo+Owan&pg=PA244&printsec=frontcover |access-date=9 August 2026 |language=en}}</ref> am'ibo ọlọpu Igue chi ugbo m'eji ma dodo, oka chi oji uwo ekeji chi efu valley. Ọwọ ugbo eyi uwo lẹ chi Igue-Oke o wu ma dọ, eyi ọwọ valley chi Igue-Sale o wu ma dọ. I nọba eyi ugbaluka eju'ọwọ ugbo ku ma dẹ chi 313106 ku ma nwọ kpẹ kpai amibo[[Aiyetoro Camp|Aiyetoro]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} == Ẹtẹ nwu == <references /> {{authority control}} [[Category:Edo State]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Nigeria]] {{Nigeria-ethno-group-stub}} 3eeveho810l9ii8yflaqv6tlzs8kjrr 0 2689 44397 2026-08-26T10:51:28Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "'''Onogbokor Clan''' is a clan whose origin is traced to Okpe-Isoko Kingdom, [[Isoko North|Isoko-North LGA]] of [[Nigeria]]. It is governed by a traditional ruler with the title Odio-Ologbo, who hails from the royal family in Ushie quarters of the town. The first crowned Odio-Ologbo of the clan was His Royal Highness Gideon D. Akporeha (Uloho) I, who is the custodian of all political authority over the quarters and the communities. He was a well-known traditional ruler w..." 44397 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Onogbokor Clan''' is a clan whose origin is traced to Okpe-Isoko Kingdom, [[Isoko North|Isoko-North LGA]] of [[Nigeria]]. It is governed by a traditional ruler with the title Odio-Ologbo, who hails from the royal family in Ushie quarters of the town. The first crowned Odio-Ologbo of the clan was His Royal Highness Gideon D. Akporeha (Uloho) I, who is the custodian of all political authority over the quarters and the communities. He was a well-known traditional ruler who was recognised and gazetted by the government of Delta State in 1996 and presented with a [[staff of office]]. He was a member of Delta state, Ndokwa-East, and Isoko Traditional Councils. His reign witnessed peace after a protracted legal battle for the throne. He reigned from 1996 to 2017. In 2018, a regent, the first son of Uloho I, HRM (Hon.) Gibson O. Akporeha 1, a former [[Vice Chairman]] in [[Ndokwa-East Local Government Area]] of [[Delta State]] from 1999-2003, was crowned the Odio-Ologbo of Onogbokor in accordance with [[the Ruling House]] crowning rites. He reigned from 2018-2020 as a regent and later died the same year his regency ought to have lapsed. Another lineage of the Royal Family in Ushie Quarters presented the current Odio-Ologbo, His Royal Highness, Isaac Onomeyare Ajawobu, Uloho II, who was appointed by the [[Delta State]] Governor [[Ifeanyichukwu Arthur Okowa]] on August 14, 2021, and was presented with a [[staff of office]] on April 13, 2022. The leadership of the Clan is decentralized. Each community has its own leadership structure with balanced gender representation including the youth. The clan's belief system is a combination of traditional worship and [[Christianity|Christian]] practices. Apart from the usual Christian festivals of [[Easter]] and [[Christmas]], Onogbokor Clan boasts of three main festivals celebrated annually: the Ogene festival, Ogrigri festival and the Obere-fishing festival which attracts fishermen from different parts of Delta State and other neighbouring states. The clan has a community primary school called Otuto-ughe primary school, run by the state government, and one privately owned; children from the three communities also access these for their elementary education. The town has a postal agency, but has since been converted to a police post to serve the security needs of the clan and neighbouring towns and communities. There is also a medicine store where residents can purchase over-the-counter drugs and a local maternity/dispensary for pregnant women and primary community health needs. == References == * {{cite book|title=The Isoko People|first=Obaro|last=Ikime|year=1972|publisher=Nigeria, U.P.}} * {{cite book|title=Origin of Delta Igbo People Indisputatble|first=Ralph|last=Uwechue|authorlink=Ralph Uwechue}} [[Category:Society of Nigeria]] [[Category:African clans]] eofw4jilj4ununraj0mv5mocr6f8yab 44398 44397 2026-08-26T11:07:23Z Obutuson 910 44398 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Onogbokor Clan''' chi ọlọpu ki ẹtẹ nwu le gbo kwi ojanẹ Okpe-Isoko, [[Isoko North|Isoko-North LGA]] yi [[Nigeria]]. Ẹnẹ ki chi agboji ma ki la nema le chi ẹnẹ du ki nọfẹ ku ma dọki Odio-Ologbo, ẹnẹ lẹ a chi ẹnẹ ki kwefu akwọra ami onu yi Ushie efu ojanẹ ma. Ẹnẹ ejeodudu ki ni ọfẹ Odio-Ologbo chi ajọfẹ Gideon D. Akporeha (Uloho) I, o wu lẹ chi ẹnẹ ki ni ọda eyi gọmẹti gba ki doji ọwọ ugbo lẹ kpai efewo ma. I chi ajọfẹ ki eju we we mọ nyọnyọ ma'nyu ki gọmẹti eyi Delta State di uña yi efu ọdọ 1996. I chi ẹnẹka efu am'ibo ọda yi Delta state,eju ọwọ Ndokwa-East, kpai am'ibo ku ma chi ajọfẹ eyi ogwuchọkpọ yi Isoko. Adiko ki doji ede ẹbọ'ẹbọ chẹ doji anẹ anubi ki ma juja gwẹ todu ẹnẹ kiya gwu oji ede lẹ. I gwu oji ede akwi ọdọ 1996 gbo nati ọdọ 2017. Efu ọdọ 2018, a regent, the first son of Uloho I, HRM (Hon.) Gibson O. Akporeha 1, a former [[Vice Chairman]] in [[Ndokwa-East Local Government Area]] of [[Delta State]] from 1999-2003, was crowned the Odio-Ologbo of Onogbokor in accordance with [[the Ruling House]] crowning rites. He reigned from 2018-2020 as a regent and later died the same year his regency ought to have lapsed. Another lineage of the Royal Family in Ushie Quarters presented the current Odio-Ologbo, His Royal Highness, Isaac Onomeyare Ajawobu, Uloho II, who was appointed by the [[Delta State]] Governor [[Ifeanyichukwu Arthur Okowa]] on August 14, 2021, and was presented with a [[staff of office]] on April 13, 2022. The leadership of the Clan is decentralized. Each community has its own leadership structure with balanced gender representation including the youth. The clan's belief system is a combination of traditional worship and [[Christianity|Christian]] practices. Apart from the usual Christian festivals of [[Easter]] and [[Christmas]], Onogbokor Clan boasts of three main festivals celebrated annually: the Ogene festival, Ogrigri festival and the Obere-fishing festival which attracts fishermen from different parts of Delta State and other neighbouring states. The clan has a community primary school called Otuto-ughe primary school, run by the state government, and one privately owned; children from the three communities also access these for their elementary education. The town has a postal agency, but has since been converted to a police post to serve the security needs of the clan and neighbouring towns and communities. There is also a medicine store where residents can purchase over-the-counter drugs and a local maternity/dispensary for pregnant women and primary community health needs. == Ẹtẹ nwu == * {{cite book|title=The Isoko People|first=Obaro|last=Ikime|year=1972|publisher=Nigeria, U.P.}} * {{cite book|title=Origin of Delta Igbo People Indisputatble|first=Ralph|last=Uwechue|authorlink=Ralph Uwechue}} [[Category:Society of Nigeria]] [[Category:African clans]] blhzklwxu1kflv2p8l1u8t68u065glg 44399 44398 2026-08-26T11:18:08Z Obutuson 910 44399 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Onogbokor Clan''' chi ọlọpu ki ẹtẹ nwu le gbo kwi ojanẹ Okpe-Isoko, [[Isoko North|Isoko-North LGA]] yi [[Nigeria]]. Ẹnẹ ki chi agboji ma ki la nema le chi ẹnẹ du ki nọfẹ ku ma dọki Odio-Ologbo, ẹnẹ lẹ a chi ẹnẹ ki kwefu akwọra ami onu yi Ushie efu ojanẹ ma. Ẹnẹ ejeodudu ki ni ọfẹ Odio-Ologbo chi ajọfẹ Gideon D. Akporeha (Uloho) I, o wu lẹ chi ẹnẹ ki ni ọda eyi gọmẹti gba ki doji ọwọ ugbo lẹ kpai efewo ma. I chi ajọfẹ ki eju we we mọ nyọnyọ ma'nyu ki gọmẹti eyi Delta State di uña yi efu ọdọ 1996. I chi ẹnẹka efu am'ibo ọda yi Delta state,eju ọwọ Ndokwa-East, kpai am'ibo ku ma chi ajọfẹ eyi ogwuchọkpọ yi Isoko. Adiko ki doji ede ẹbọ'ẹbọ chẹ doji anẹ anubi ki ma juja gwẹ todu ẹnẹ kiya gwu oji ede lẹ. I gwu oji ede akwi ọdọ 1996 gbo nati ọdọ 2017. Efu ọdọ 2018, ọma ọgba Uloho I, HRM (Hon.) Gibson O. Akporeha 1, ki chi [[Vice Chairman|Arọne Chairman]] yi [[Ndokwa-East Local Government Area|Gọmẹti eyi ọwọ anẹ yi Ndokwa-East]] ki di [[Delta State]] akwi efu ọdọ 1999 gbo ati ọdọ 2003, lewa ji ọfẹ Odio-Ologbo eyi Onogbokor li efu ọda ma alu ku ma ji ọfẹ lẹ le. I gwu oji ede akwi ọdọ 2018 gbo ati ọdọ 2020, ọdọ gba gẹdẹ ki ọdọ ọfẹ jọ ọdọ gba gẹdẹ iwa kwu. Akwọra omunẹ ki kwefu ọlọpu ami onu efu Ushie Quarters mi ẹnẹ eyi ki di oji ede abajọi du wa ki chi Odio-Ologbo, oduwu kọ ajọfẹ, Isaac Onomeyare Ajawobu, Uloho II, ẹnẹ ki di uña lẹ nwu chi gobina eyi [[Delta State]] ki odu mwu ki [[Ifeanyichukwu Arthur Okowa]] ọjọ ki ochu ẹjọ nolu mi ẹgwẹlẹ efu ọdọ 2021, and was presented with a [[staff of office]] on April 13, 2022. The leadership of the Clan is decentralized. Each community has its own leadership structure with balanced gender representation including the youth. The clan's belief system is a combination of traditional worship and [[Christianity|Christian]] practices. Apart from the usual Christian festivals of [[Easter]] and [[Christmas]], Onogbokor Clan boasts of three main festivals celebrated annually: the Ogene festival, Ogrigri festival and the Obere-fishing festival which attracts fishermen from different parts of Delta State and other neighbouring states. The clan has a community primary school called Otuto-ughe primary school, run by the state government, and one privately owned; children from the three communities also access these for their elementary education. The town has a postal agency, but has since been converted to a police post to serve the security needs of the clan and neighbouring towns and communities. There is also a medicine store where residents can purchase over-the-counter drugs and a local maternity/dispensary for pregnant women and primary community health needs. == Ẹtẹ nwu == * {{cite book|title=The Isoko People|first=Obaro|last=Ikime|year=1972|publisher=Nigeria, U.P.}} * {{cite book|title=Origin of Delta Igbo People Indisputatble|first=Ralph|last=Uwechue|authorlink=Ralph Uwechue}} [[Category:Society of Nigeria]] [[Category:African clans]] ed850grceyyvm227g47hr6y66eysvss 44400 44399 2026-08-26T11:33:12Z Obutuson 910 44400 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Onogbokor Clan''' chi ọlọpu ki ẹtẹ nwu le gbo kwi ojanẹ Okpe-Isoko, [[Isoko North|Isoko-North LGA]] yi [[Nigeria]]. Ẹnẹ ki chi agboji ma ki la nema le chi ẹnẹ du ki nọfẹ ku ma dọki Odio-Ologbo, ẹnẹ lẹ a chi ẹnẹ ki kwefu akwọra ami onu yi Ushie efu ojanẹ ma. Ẹnẹ ejeodudu ki ni ọfẹ Odio-Ologbo chi ajọfẹ Gideon D. Akporeha (Uloho) I, o wu lẹ chi ẹnẹ ki ni ọda eyi gọmẹti gba ki doji ọwọ ugbo lẹ kpai efewo ma. I chi ajọfẹ ki eju we we mọ nyọnyọ ma'nyu ki gọmẹti eyi Delta State di uña yi efu ọdọ 1996. I chi ẹnẹka efu am'ibo ọda yi Delta state,eju ọwọ Ndokwa-East, kpai am'ibo ku ma chi ajọfẹ eyi ogwuchọkpọ yi Isoko. Adiko ki doji ede ẹbọ'ẹbọ chẹ doji anẹ anubi ki ma juja gwẹ todu ẹnẹ kiya gwu oji ede lẹ. I gwu oji ede akwi ọdọ 1996 gbo nati ọdọ 2017. Efu ọdọ 2018, ọma ọgba Uloho I, HRM (Hon.) Gibson O. Akporeha 1, ki chi [[Vice Chairman|Arọne Chairman]] yi [[Ndokwa-East Local Government Area|Gọmẹti eyi ọwọ anẹ yi Ndokwa-East]] ki di [[Delta State]] akwi efu ọdọ 1999 gbo ati ọdọ 2003, lewa ji ọfẹ Odio-Ologbo eyi Onogbokor li efu ọda ma alu ku ma ji ọfẹ lẹ le. I gwu oji ede akwi ọdọ 2018 gbo ati ọdọ 2020, ọdọ gba gẹdẹ ki ọdọ ọfẹ jọ ọdọ gba gẹdẹ iwa kwu. Akwọra omunẹ ki kwefu ọlọpu ami onu efu Ushie Quarters mi ẹnẹ eyi ki di oji ede abajọi du wa ki chi Odio-Ologbo, oduwu kọ ajọfẹ, Isaac Onomeyare Ajawobu, Uloho II, ẹnẹ ki di uña lẹ nwu chi gobina eyi [[Delta State]] ki odu mwu ki [[Ifeanyichukwu Arthur Okowa]] ọjọ ki ochu ẹjọ nolu mi ẹgwẹlẹ efu ọdọ 2021, ma'nyu ma la mi [[staff of office|ọkpa eyi ọda uña]] du nwu efu ochu ẹlẹ nolu mi ẹgwẹta efu ọdọ 2022. uña ọda eyi agboji defu ọwọ ẹnẹ kate no. Ami efewo gba ki di ojanẹ ma chẹ ni ami agboji ku ma chẹ ni ọna kuma tene ni am'ibo ma le chili chili ki chẹ gwẹgwa ami ibo ẹgọ ojoji ojoji ida gbẹ ki chi ami agbadufu. amibo ọlọpu lẹ chẹ nibe eyi ki chẹ jẹdama kpai udama abẹki ugwẹgwa am'ibo ukibeno ojoji idagbẹ ki chi ogwuchọkpọ kpai [[Christianity|amibo agbo'ola Ọjọ]]. Anubi uche eyi [[Easter]] ma'nyu [[Christmas]], am'ibo Onogbokor abalu uche udama uyọ ojoji mi ẹta ọdọ du: ami uche li chi Ogene, Ogrigri ma'nyu Obere-ku ma kpi ẹja ki ya di ami akp'ẹja ojoji ojoji kwi ugbo du ojanẹ Delta wa ma'nyu ami ojonẹ ki chẹ mẹru ma nugo wa. The clan has a community primary school called Otuto-ughe primary school, run by the state government, and one privately owned; children from the three communities also access these for their elementary education. The town has a postal agency, but has since been converted to a police post to serve the security needs of the clan and neighbouring towns and communities. There is also a medicine store where residents can purchase over-the-counter drugs and a local maternity/dispensary for pregnant women and primary community health needs. == Ẹtẹ nwu == * {{cite book|title=The Isoko People|first=Obaro|last=Ikime|year=1972|publisher=Nigeria, U.P.}} * {{cite book|title=Origin of Delta Igbo People Indisputatble|first=Ralph|last=Uwechue|authorlink=Ralph Uwechue}} [[Category:Society of Nigeria]] [[Category:African clans]] 54vzx7lp8nbv8cb2j2yi9ex9zcg46lu 44401 44400 2026-08-26T11:45:26Z Obutuson 910 /* Ẹtẹ nwu */ 44401 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Onogbokor Clan''' chi ọlọpu ki ẹtẹ nwu le gbo kwi ojanẹ Okpe-Isoko, [[Isoko North|Isoko-North LGA]] yi [[Nigeria]]. Ẹnẹ ki chi agboji ma ki la nema le chi ẹnẹ du ki nọfẹ ku ma dọki Odio-Ologbo, ẹnẹ lẹ a chi ẹnẹ ki kwefu akwọra ami onu yi Ushie efu ojanẹ ma. Ẹnẹ ejeodudu ki ni ọfẹ Odio-Ologbo chi ajọfẹ Gideon D. Akporeha (Uloho) I, o wu lẹ chi ẹnẹ ki ni ọda eyi gọmẹti gba ki doji ọwọ ugbo lẹ kpai efewo ma. I chi ajọfẹ ki eju we we mọ nyọnyọ ma'nyu ki gọmẹti eyi Delta State di uña yi efu ọdọ 1996. I chi ẹnẹka efu am'ibo ọda yi Delta state,eju ọwọ Ndokwa-East, kpai am'ibo ku ma chi ajọfẹ eyi ogwuchọkpọ yi Isoko. Adiko ki doji ede ẹbọ'ẹbọ chẹ doji anẹ anubi ki ma juja gwẹ todu ẹnẹ kiya gwu oji ede lẹ. I gwu oji ede akwi ọdọ 1996 gbo nati ọdọ 2017. Efu ọdọ 2018, ọma ọgba Uloho I, HRM (Hon.) Gibson O. Akporeha 1, ki chi [[Vice Chairman|Arọne Chairman]] yi [[Ndokwa-East Local Government Area|Gọmẹti eyi ọwọ anẹ yi Ndokwa-East]] ki di [[Delta State]] akwi efu ọdọ 1999 gbo ati ọdọ 2003, lewa ji ọfẹ Odio-Ologbo eyi Onogbokor li efu ọda ma alu ku ma ji ọfẹ lẹ le. I gwu oji ede akwi ọdọ 2018 gbo ati ọdọ 2020, ọdọ gba gẹdẹ ki ọdọ ọfẹ jọ ọdọ gba gẹdẹ iwa kwu. Akwọra omunẹ ki kwefu ọlọpu ami onu efu Ushie Quarters mi ẹnẹ eyi ki di oji ede abajọi du wa ki chi Odio-Ologbo, oduwu kọ ajọfẹ, Isaac Onomeyare Ajawobu, Uloho II, ẹnẹ ki di uña lẹ nwu chi gobina eyi [[Delta State]] ki odu mwu ki [[Ifeanyichukwu Arthur Okowa]] ọjọ ki ochu ẹjọ nolu mi ẹgwẹlẹ efu ọdọ 2021, ma'nyu ma la mi [[staff of office|ọkpa eyi ọda uña]] du nwu efu ochu ẹlẹ nolu mi ẹgwẹta efu ọdọ 2022. uña ọda eyi agboji defu ọwọ ẹnẹ kate no. Ami efewo gba ki di ojanẹ ma chẹ ni ami agboji ku ma chẹ ni ọna kuma tene ni am'ibo ma le chili chili ki chẹ gwẹgwa ami ibo ẹgọ ojoji ojoji ida gbẹ ki chi ami agbadufu. amibo ọlọpu lẹ chẹ nibe eyi ki chẹ jẹdama kpai udama abẹki ugwẹgwa am'ibo ukibeno ojoji idagbẹ ki chi ogwuchọkpọ kpai [[Christianity|amibo agbo'ola Ọjọ]]. Anubi uche eyi [[Easter]] ma'nyu [[Christmas]], am'ibo Onogbokor abalu uche udama uyọ ojoji mi ẹta ọdọ du: ami uche li chi Ogene, Ogrigri ma'nyu Obere-ku ma kpi ẹja ki ya di ami akp'ẹja ojoji ojoji kwi ugbo du ojanẹ Delta wa ma'nyu ami ojonẹ ki chẹ mẹru ma nugo wa. Am'ibo ojanẹ lẹ che ni ichikulu eyi ẹdọ m'ẹfa ku ma dọki Otuto-ughe primary school, am'ibo ku ma ni ọda uña ukọchẹ lẹ chi gọmẹti eyi ẹdọ alimeji, ma'nyu ọka ki ma chi gọmẹti nẹ'n; ami imọtọ kwi ami efewo mi ẹta lẹ chẹ ni ọda ku ma neke ti ukọchẹ eyi ọwọ anẹ ki dọmọ lẹ. Efewo lẹ che ni uña eyi ku ma kpuchẹ ọla eyi ẹnwu ku ma kọti ọtakada kwobi ama ma mu du ri da uña ami police ki neke chukọlọ nwu ma yi uña eyi edide ma ojanẹ ma'nyu ami efewo ki chẹ mẹru ma gẹ. Ugbo ku ma nwọ ti ogwu eyi ami ẹnẹfu nwọ di ọmọ ki am'ibo ku ma di ọdọ ọmọ neke wa la kwi ọmọ ma'nyu ugbo ku ma nẹkẹ bi ọma ma'nyu eju edu ti am'ibo ku ma nyi'efu ọma ma'nyu uña eyi ọwọ anẹ ku ma neke du chi ọga kpa d'ọmọ. == Ẹtẹ nwu == * {{cite book|title=The Isoko People|first=Obaro|last=Ikime|year=1972|publisher=Nigeria, U.P.}} * {{cite book|title=Origin of Delta Igbo People Indisputatble|first=Ralph|last=Uwechue|authorlink=Ralph Uwechue}} [[Category:Society of Nigeria]] [[Category:African clans]] 8v7r30a0xpwwixnkd3aun6nwx17rqlk 0 2690 44402 2026-08-26T11:48:40Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Const..." 44402 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Colonial Nigeria''' formed part of the [[British Empire]] from the mid-nineteenth [[century]] until 1 October 1960, when [[Nigeria]] achieved independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] in 1861 and established the [[Oil River Protectorate]] in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Overview == Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed [[Crown Colony]] and [[British protectorate|protectorate]] government on parts of [[West Africa]] which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both [[autocratic]] and [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Origins of British influence == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Slave trade and abolition=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Missionaries === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Commerce === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Exploration === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == First colonial claims == === Lagos Colony === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Oil Rivers Protectorate === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> ==Royal Niger Company== {{Main|Royal Niger Company}} [[File:Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899).svg|thumb|Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888–1899)]] [[File:British stamps used at Akassa.jpg|thumb|British stamps used in 1898 at [[Akassa]] by the Royal Niger Company]] The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the [[Niger River]], as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis-à-vis, local merchants. In the 1870s, therefore, [[George Taubman Goldie]] began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at [[Lokoja]], which was the main trading port of the company,<ref>"Northern Nigeria: The Illo Canceller and Borgu Mail" by Ray Harris in ''[[West Africa Study Circle|Cameo]]'', Vol. 14, No. 3, Whole No. 90, October 2013, pp. 158–160.</ref> from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River<ref name=Hermann2011 /> The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read: <blockquote>We, the undersigned King and Chiefs […] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory […] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government … [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.).<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /></blockquote> The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a Governor. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 10–12.</ref> However, the company did accept that local kings could act as partners in governance and trade. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 12–13. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. […] They needed special personnel: such officials who knew the local conditions and who could communicate between the Company and the indigenous people. […] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents."</ref> The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms.<ref name=Hermann2011>Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 44.3, 2011.</ref> By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. In 1886, Taubman secured a [[royal charter]] and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Under Goldie's direction, the [[Royal Niger Company]] was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces.<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of [[Joseph Chamberlain]] as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 13–15.</ref> Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> == Military conquest == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Political administration under the Crown == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Transition to Crown rule === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Colonial administration === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Amalgamation === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Indirect rule === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name=palmer>[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Developments in colonial policy under Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Influenza Pandemic of 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Economics and finance == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Second World War === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Self-governing regions (1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Independent Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==See also== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=n}} ==References == ===Notes=== {{reflist}} ===Sources=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Further reading== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] 3x76zg2ldqflmijefn5bcijsvjsiwxy 44403 44402 2026-08-26T11:56:13Z Obutuson 910 44403 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Colonial Nigeria''' formed part of the [[British Empire]] from the mid-nineteenth [[century]] until 1 October 1960, when [[Nigeria]] achieved independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] in 1861 and established the [[Oil River Protectorate]] in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Overview == Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed [[Crown Colony]] and [[British protectorate|protectorate]] government on parts of [[West Africa]] which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both [[autocratic]] and [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Missionaries === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Commerce === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Exploration === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == First colonial claims == === Lagos Colony === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Oil Rivers Protectorate === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> ==Royal Niger Company== {{Main|Royal Niger Company}} [[File:Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899).svg|thumb|Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888–1899)]] [[File:British stamps used at Akassa.jpg|thumb|British stamps used in 1898 at [[Akassa]] by the Royal Niger Company]] The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the [[Niger River]], as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis-à-vis, local merchants. In the 1870s, therefore, [[George Taubman Goldie]] began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at [[Lokoja]], which was the main trading port of the company,<ref>"Northern Nigeria: The Illo Canceller and Borgu Mail" by Ray Harris in ''[[West Africa Study Circle|Cameo]]'', Vol. 14, No. 3, Whole No. 90, October 2013, pp. 158–160.</ref> from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River<ref name=Hermann2011 /> The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read: <blockquote>We, the undersigned King and Chiefs […] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory […] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government … [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.).<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /></blockquote> The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a Governor. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 10–12.</ref> However, the company did accept that local kings could act as partners in governance and trade. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 12–13. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. […] They needed special personnel: such officials who knew the local conditions and who could communicate between the Company and the indigenous people. […] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents."</ref> The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms.<ref name=Hermann2011>Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 44.3, 2011.</ref> By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. In 1886, Taubman secured a [[royal charter]] and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Under Goldie's direction, the [[Royal Niger Company]] was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces.<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of [[Joseph Chamberlain]] as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 13–15.</ref> Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> == Military conquest == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Political administration under the Crown == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Transition to Crown rule === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Colonial administration === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Amalgamation === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Indirect rule === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Developments in colonial policy under Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Influenza Pandemic of 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Economics and finance == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Second World War === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Self-governing regions (1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Independent Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==See also== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=n}} ==References == ===Notes=== {{reflist}} ===Sources=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Further reading== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] j8k787kbl9ym9zuvjiz8bji4a8r5s9u 0 2691 44404 2026-08-26T11:58:47Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "The '''Njiko Igbo Movement''' {{Audio|LL-Q33578 (ibo)-Vivian Amalachukwu-Njiko Igbo Movement.wav|Listen|help=no}} is a non-partisan and apolitical initiative spearheaded by Dr. [[Orji Uzor Kalu]] to help secure Nigeria's presidential seat for a citizen of [[Igbo people|Igbo]] origin. The Igbos, who some pundits believe remain widely resented in Nigeria due to their prominent role in the [[Nigerian Civil War]], have only held the presidency for six months since the countr..." 44404 wikitext text/x-wiki The '''Njiko Igbo Movement''' {{Audio|LL-Q33578 (ibo)-Vivian Amalachukwu-Njiko Igbo Movement.wav|Listen|help=no}} is a non-partisan and apolitical initiative spearheaded by Dr. [[Orji Uzor Kalu]] to help secure Nigeria's presidential seat for a citizen of [[Igbo people|Igbo]] origin. The Igbos, who some pundits believe remain widely resented in Nigeria due to their prominent role in the [[Nigerian Civil War]], have only held the presidency for six months since the country's independence. Despite the seeming political pendulum in Nigeria, according to which the presidency is swapped between the members of different regions on an alternating basis, Dr. Kalu has stated that the Igbos remain a political non-entity and third-class citizens who have not been provided the opportunity to hold the country's leading political office.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://theeagleonline.com.ng/news/igbos-are-third-rate-citizens-in-nigeria-kalu/ | work=The Eagle Online | title=Igbos are third rate citizens in Nigeria – Kalu | date=2013-04-21 | accessdate=2013-05-30}}</ref> The Njiko Igbo Movement has garnered immense support among Igbos and the wider Nigerian community domestically and abroad, and today boasts branches and support groups throughout the diaspora.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://sunnewsonline.com/new/columns/igbo-marginalisation-njiko-igbo-to-the-rescue/ |location=Lagos, Nigeria| title=Igbo marginalisation: Njiko Igbo to the rescue | date=2013-05-04 | accessdate=2013-05-30 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508235523/http://sunnewsonline.com/new/columns/igbo-marginalisation-njiko-igbo-to-the-rescue/ | archivedate=2013-05-08 |newspaper=[[The Sun (Nigeria)|The Sun]]}}</ref> Former Nigerian Senator, international lawyer, and human rights activist [[Emmanuel Onwe]] is a founding and executive member of the Njiko Igbo Movement.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://sunnewsonline.com/new/cover/2015-nzeribe-cant-speak-for-igbo-njiko-igbo-chieftain/ |location=Lagos, Nigeria| title=Nzeribe can't speak for Igbo – Njiko Igbo | date=2013-07-29 | accessdate=2013-10-28 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210613/http://sunnewsonline.com/new/cover/2015-nzeribe-cant-speak-for-igbo-njiko-igbo-chieftain/ | archivedate=2013-10-29 |newspaper=[[The Sun (Nigeria)|The Sun]]}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Igbo society]] {{Nigeria-stub}} evk9fu6gr3xnnhybsjmsdthjg64w0zf